Escape velocity – the minimum speed an object

EARTH SCIENCE needs to escape a planet's pull of gravity

- fields of study concerned with the solid Surface pressure – the atmospheric pressure at a
Earth, its waters, and the air that envelops it location on the surface of the planet; it is
- include the GEOLOGIC, HYDROLOGIC, proportional to the mass of air above the location
and ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES with the
broad aim of understanding Earth’s present Temperature – earth’s temperature would be 18°C
features and past evolution and using this without greenhouse gases
knowledge to benefit humankind
Length of day – a function of rotational speed
ORIGIN OF THE EARTH & Water – in liquid form is one of the most important
SOLAR SYSTEM (Topic 1) prerequisites for life

Nebular Hypothesis Theory Thermophiles - bacteria that can tolerate extreme

temperatures (41 to 122°C)
The sun and other celestial bodies orbiting around
it where formed from a nebula - a spinning cloud of Internal heat – drives plate tectonics; the ability of
gases. These clouds are gravitationally unstable, a planet to maintain internal heat is related to size
and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser
Solar Energy – this is the radiant energy emitted
clumps, which then rotate, collapse and forms the
by the sun
stars.
EARTH
Accretion Theory
The planet we live on, one of eight planets in our
This says that a protosun passing through a cloud
solar system and the only known place in the
on interstellar materials pulled this material along
universe to support life. It has been called “Blue
causing it to swirl around the protosun. As the
Planet” due to abundant water on its surface.
protosun evolved into a sun, the material it accreted
gradually formed the planets and other revolving It is the third planet from the sun at a distance of
bodies. about 93 million miles (150 million km). It has only
one moon and no rings.
Tidal Theory
Fifth largest planet in the solar system, it is the only
When the sun is about to form (protosun), a large
world in our solar system with liquid water on the
body passing around it may have drawn some
surface
gaseous materials drawn from it. The mass of
gaseous materials drawn did not completely Earth is a rocky planet with a solid and dynamic
escape gravitational pull of the protosun. It surface of mountains, canyons, plains and more.
continued to spin around it, eventually becoming Most of our planet is covered in water.
denser and gradually formed into planetesimals.
These planetesimals give rise to the planets and
their satellites.

Nebula – A large cloud of gas that is formed

because of the uneven distribution of gases
throughout the universe.

Solar System – It consists of the sun being at the

center, minor and major planets and other celestial
bodies like satellites, comets, asteroids and
meteoroids.
EARTH’S CHARACTERISTICS TO SUPPORT SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH
LIFE
Atmosphere
Distance of the Earth from the Sun
A thin gaseous layer that envelopes the
- Perfect reason for the life because it lithosphere. It is composed of 78% Nitrogen (N),
receives the perfect amount of heat and 21% Oxygen (O2), 1% carbon dioxide, carbon
light to allow life monoxide, ozone, and trace amount of other gases.
- Regulates temperature of water bodies, One of the most important processes by which the
weather patterns and provides energy to the heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is
growth of plants through atmospheric circulation. There is also a
constant exchange of heat and moisture between
Importance of Light on the Earth the atmosphere and the hydrosphere through the
hydrologic cycle.
- Useful source of energy
- Energy is used to convert elements, by Geosphere
living things, into a useable form
- Plant uses the energy to drive The geosphere includes the rocks of the crust and
photosynthesis mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid
metallic inner core. It is the physical Earth where
Importance of Ozone Layer the soil, rocks, magma, and mountains are found.
- Protecting life on Earth from its potentially Plate Tectonics is an important process shaping the
surface of the Earth. The primary driving
harmful effects of shorter wavelength and
highly hazardous ultraviolet radiation (UVR) mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, such as that
from the sun in mantle convection.

Water Biosphere

- It contains oxygen needed for life and It consists of all the living organisms on Earth. It
allows life-providing molecules to move covers all ecosystems – from the soil to the
rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from
around easily.
the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
Force of attraction
Hydrosphere
- Earth’s gravitational pull
- It keeps our planet orbiting the Sun and the It refers to all the water held on Earth. About 71%
Earth firmly hold everything from of the Earth is covered with liquid water
topography to all forms of life (hydrosphere) and 97.5% of it is in the form of
ocean water. Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh:
FACTORS THAT MAKE A PLANET HABITABLE two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining
one-third is present in streams, lakes, and
a. Temperature – range of 15°C to 115°C groundwater.
b. Atmosphere – sufficient size about 100
miles thick to keep the surface warm,
protection from radiation and meteorites
c. Energy – right amount of solar and
chemical energy for the chemical reactions
of different cells
d. Nutrients – having water cycles and
volcanic activities can help transport and
replenish chemicals required by living
organisms
MINERALS & ROCKS (Topic 2) III. METAMORPHIC ROCKS – meta means
“change” and morph means “form”. It forms when
Rocks – is a naturally substance consisting of an igneous or sedimentary rock is exposed to high
aggregate minerals clumped together with other pressure, high temperature or both, deep below the
Earth materials through natural processes surface of the earth. This process produces
changes in the mineralogy and texture of the rock.
Geological Classification of rocks according to
Characteristics of: Subclass of Metamorphic Rocks:

1. Mineral and chemical composition; a. Foliated rocks – are rocks that undergo
2. Permeability foliation, this is where it forms by pressure
3. The texture of the constituent particles and squeezes the flat or elongate minerals
4. Particle size within a rock so they become aligned
b. Non-foliated rock – rocks do not have a
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS platy or sheet-like structure even if they
undergo high pressure or temperature
I. IGNEOUS ROCKS – derived from the Latin word
ignis meaning “fire”. It forms by crystallization from
molten or partially material called magma

Magma - molten rock material beneath the surface

Lava - molten rock material extruded to the surface

of the earth through a central vent (volcano) or as
fissure eruption.

Subclass of Igneous Rocks:

ROCK CYCLE
a. Volcanic/extrusive rocks - from lava which
- Constant recycling of minerals
has spilled from a volcano
- Illustrates how geologic processes occurring
b. Plutonic/intrusive rocks - from magma
both underneath and on the Earth’s surface
that cools and crystallizes beneath the
can change a rock from one type to another
earth’s surface

II. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – from the root word

sediments which mean “remaining particles”. It
forms from materials that have accumulated on the
earth’s surface. The material is made up of the
products of weathering and erosion, as well as
organic materials

Subclass of Sedimentary Rocks:

a. Clastic rocks - are composed of fragments,

or clasts, of pre-existing minerals and rock
b. Biological rocks - form when living
organisms die, pile up, and are then
compressed and cemented together
c. Chemical rocks - forms when mineral
constituents in solution become
supersaturated and inorganically precipitate
MINERALS 6. FRACTURE - some may not have
cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces
- Make up the rocks beneath your feet, the 7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - comparison or ratio
soil that supports plants and the deep rocks of the weight of the mineral to the weight of
of Earth’s mantle. an equal amount of water.
8. OTHERS - unique properties of minerals
CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS:
that actually help in their identification.
1. Naturally Occurring - a product of Earth’s
natural processes
2. Inorganic - it must be product of Earth’s
physical processes. MINING (Topic 3)
3. Homogeneous Solid - minerals should
have definite volume and rigid shape Mineral Exploration
4. Definite Chemical Composition -
The steps enumerated below are used or
represented by a chemical formula
considered based on how they are needed during
5. Orderly Crystalline Structure - atoms of
exploration. These steps are written within the
minerals are arranged in an orderly and
context of a general exploration project where
repeating pattern
some activities may vary depending on the type of
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS commodity being explored.

1. LUSTER - it is the property of minerals that 1. Project Design - This is the initial stage in
indicated how much the surface of the a formulating a project. This involves review
mineral reflects light of all available data (geologic reports,
2. HARDNESS - measure of the resistance of mining history, maps, etc.), government
a mineral to scratching requirements in acquiring the project, review
of social, environmental, political, and
economic acceptability of the project, and
budget and organization proposals.
2. Field Exploration - This stage involves
physical activities in the selected project
area.
This can be subdivided into three
phases:
a. Regional Reconnaissance: The main
objective is to identify targets or interesting
mineralized zones covering a relatively
large area (regional). In general, the
activities involve regional surface
3. COLOR AND STREAK - most minerals investigation and interpretation.
have distinctive color that can be used for b. Detailed Exploration: This involves more
identification. Streak is the color of the detailed surface and subsurface activities
mineral in powdered form. with the objective of finding and delineating
4. CRYSTAL FORM - the form reflects the targets or mineralized zones.
supposedly internal structure of the crystal. c. Prospect Evaluation: The main objective is
A mineral that do not have a crystal to assess market profitability by (1)
structure is described as Amorphous. extensive resource, geotechnical and
5. CLEAVAGE - property of some minerals to engineering drilling (2) metallurgical testing
break along parallel repetitive planes of and (3) environmental and societal cost
weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces. assessment.
 3. Pre-production Feasibility Study - The chemical properties may either sink to the
feasibility study determines and validates bottom or may stick to the bubbles and rise
the accuracy of all data and information to the tophus separating the minerals and
collected from the different stages. The metals from the waste.
purpose is for independent assessors to 4. Cyanide heap leaching: This method used
satisfy interested investors to raise funds for low-grade gold ore where the crushed
and bring the project into production. rock is placed on a “leach pile” where
cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on
Mining Methods top of the pile. As the leach solution
1. Surface Mining - Utilized to extract ore percolates down through the rocks, the gold
minerals that are close to Earth’s surface is dissolved into the solution. The solution is
processed further to extract the gold.
Types of Surface Mining: Environmental Impacts
a. Open-pit Mining
b. Quarrying Improper mining can cause flooding, erosion,
c. Placer Mining subsidence, water and air pollution, damage to
d. Strip Mining wildlife and habitat.

2. Underground Mining - Utilized to extract WATER (Topic 4)

ore minerals from the ore body is that is
deep under the Earth’s surface. Water - a simple compound, made of two atoms of
Hydrogen and one atom of oxygen bonded together
The Milling Process
More than any other substance on the Earth, water
The separation of the ore and mining waste to is important to life and has remarkable properties.
extract the pure mineral. Recovering the minerals Without water, life could probably not even exist on
from the ore and waste materials can involve one Earth.
or more processes where in the separation is
usually done in a mill. When looking at Earth from space, the abundance
of water on Earth becomes obvious.
Crushing and screening are the first stages of
controlled size reduction followed by grinding where On land, water is also common: it swirls and
the rocks are pulverized. meanders through streams, falls from the sky,
freezes into snowflakes, and even makes up most
Milling or Recovery Methods: of you and me. In this section, we’ll look at the
distribution of water on Earth, and also examine
1. Heavy media separation: The crushed
some of its unique properties.
rocks are submerged in liquid where the
heavier/denser minerals sink thus are DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ON EARTH
separated from the lighter minerals. This is
commonly used to separate chalcopyrite Water is the most abundant substance on the
from quartz before the refining processes of Earth’s surface. About 71% of the Earth’s surface
extracting copper. is covered with water, most of which is found in the
2. Magnetic separation: If the metal or oceans. In fact, 97.5% of Earth's water, nearly all of
mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is it, is in the Earth’s oceans.
separated from the waste materials using a
This means that just 2.5% of Earth's water is fresh
powerful magnet.
water, water with low concentrations of salts. Most
3. Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into
freshwater is found as ice in the vast glaciers of
an agitated and frothy slurry where some
Greenland and the immense ice sheets of
minerals and metals based on physical and
Antarctica. That leaves just 0.4% of Earth’s water
that is fresh water that humans can easily use. green water feeds and passes through, such as
Most liquid freshwater is found under the Earth’s farms, forests, and wetlands.
surface as groundwater, while the rest is found in
lakes, rivers, and streams, and water vapor in the SOIL (Topic 5)
sky.
Soil - Referred to as earth or dirt

THREE MAIN LAYERS OF SOIL

a. TOP SOIL - top layer of the soil, dark in

color and full of manures; Plants grow in this
layer
b. SUB-SOIL - light colored layer, a thick layer
and full of sand and gravels
c. BED ROCK - made of solid rocks

Where and in what forms is water available on

Earth?

The world’s water exists naturally in different forms

and locations: in the air, on the surface, below the
ground and in the oceans.

Just 2.5% of the Earth’s water is fresh water, and

most is frozen in glaciers and ice sheets. About
96% of all liquid freshwater can be found
underground. The remaining small fraction is on the
surface or in the air.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE
Knowing how water cycles through the environment QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF SOIL
can help in determining how much water is
available in different parts of the world. The Earth’s 1. AGRICULTURAL DEPLETION
water cycle is the global mechanism by which water - Farming can degrade the topsoil and lead to
moves from the air to the Earth (precipitation) and an increase in erosion.
eventually back to the atmosphere (evaporation). 2. OVERGRAZING ANIMALS
- Grazing animals are animals that live on
The principal natural components of this cycle are large areas of grassland. They wander over
precipitation, infiltration into the soil, runoff on the the area and eat grasses and shrubs. They
surface, groundwater discharge to surface waters can remove large amounts of the plant
and the oceans, and evapotranspiration from water cover for an area. If too many animals graze
bodies, the soil, and plants. the same land area, once the tips of
grasses and shrubs have been eaten, they
“Blue water”— the water in rivers, lakes, and will use their hooves to pull plants out by
aquifers— can be distinguished from “green water” their roots.
— which feeds plants and crops, and which is 3. DEFORESTATION
subsequently released into the air. This distinction - Deforestation is another practice that can
may help managers focus on those areas which greatly increase the rate of erosion in a
region. One of the most important barriers
 to erosion is plant life, as long-lived trees WASTE (Topic 6)
and other species put down roots that
literally help hold the soil together. Waste - Unwanted or unused materials
4. MINING OPERATIONS
- Mining techniques involve shifting large SOME OF THE POSSIBLE HAZARDS
amounts of earth, such as strip mining or ASSOCIATED WITH IMPROPER WASTE
mountaintop removal. These operations DISPOSAL:
leave large amounts of loose soil exposed
a. Pollution of bodies of waters, such as rivers,
to the elements, and they often require large
lakes, the marine environment, and ground
amounts of water, which can exacerbate the
water
erosion process. Even once the mining
b. Loss of habitat from pollution of
operation is completed and the company
environment
replaces the earth, it lacks the established
c. Clogging of waterways /drainage system
vegetation that helped it maintain its
(canals, rivers, and streams) which can
coherency before removal, and until plants
cause flooding
can re-establish themselves, erosion will
d. Unsanitary conditions leading to the spread
continue to be a problem.
of disease and pests that carry disease
5. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION
e. Burning of waste can release toxic gases
- Urban and suburban development can also
(formaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, sulfur
exacerbate erosion, especially if the
dioxide, dioxins, and furans)
developers ignore the natural state of the
f. Unsightly and destroys the natural beauty of
land. Construction of a building often begins
the environment
by clearing the area of any plants or other
natural defences against soil erosion. In Republic Act No. 9003 is an act providing for an
addition, some landscapers replace natural ecological solid waste management program,
ground cover with plant species unsuited to creating the necessary institutional mechanism and
the climate, and these plants may not be as incentives, declaring certain acts prohibited and
effective at preventing erosion. providing penalties, appropriating funds therefore,
6. RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES and for other purposes.
- Humans also cause erosion through
recreational activities, like hiking and riding PROHIBITED ACTS INCLUDE:
off-road vehicles. An even greater amount
1. Littering, throwing, dumping of waste
of erosion occurs when people drive off-
matters in public places
road vehicles over an area. The area
2. Undertaking activities in violation of
eventually develops bare spots where no
sanitation operation
plants can grow. Erosion becomes a serious
3. Open burning of solid waste
problem in these areas.
4. Causing non-segregated waste
5. Squatting in open dumps and landfills
6. Open dumping, burying of biodegradable
materials in flood-prone areas
7. Unauthorized removal of recyclable material
8. Mixing of source-separated recyclable
material with other solid waste
9. Establishment or operation of open-dumps
10. Manufacturing, distributing, using, and
importing consumer products that are non-
environmental -friendly materials
11. Importing toxic wastes misrepresented as
‘recyclable’ or ‘with recyclable content’
 12. Transporting and dumping in bulk in areas 4. BIOLOGICAL WASTE
other than facility centers - Waste generated by hospitals and other
13. Site preparation, construction, expansion or health care institutions
operation of waste management facilities - This type of hazardous waste includes
without an Environmental Compliance infectious waste and chemical waste
Certificate and not conforming with the land dangerous to people and the environment
use plan of LGUs
14. Construction of establishment within 200
meters from dump sites or sanitary landfills
15. Operation of waste disposal facility on any ENERGY RESOURCES (Topic
aquifer, groundwater reservoir or watershed
area
7) – See Handouts
Other Sources of Wastes and their
Environmental Impact

1. INDUSTRIAL WASTE
- Released from manufacturing plants such
as chemical plants, cement production,
textile industries, metallurgical plants,
textile, food processing, power plants, etc.
2. AGRICULTURAL WASTE
- Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides can
cause land and water pollution.
- Rice paddies release methane to the
atmosphere.
- Excess excrement from poultry and other
livestock can cause eutrophication of bodies
of water.
3. MINING WASTE
- Waste generated from the exploitation of
mineral resources

Overburden material - ground (soil and rock) that is

removed to extract the mineral deposit.

Release of overburden material to the environment

as a result of improper management can cause
siltation of bodies of water.

Acid mine drainage - water that has come to

contact with oxidized rock or overburden that
contains sulphide material (coal, zinc, copper, and
lead). When acid mine drainage is not properly
managed, it can find its way into waterways and the
ground water. High pH waters can be detrimental to
plant and animal life.