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DESIGN OF PILLARS IN SHRINKAGE STOPING

R.W.O. Kersten

Anglovaal Limited
Johannesburg, South Africa

For Presentation at the

First International SME-AIME Fall Meeting
Honolulu, Hawaii, September 4-9, 1982

Permission is hereby given to publish with appropriate acknowledgments,

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 DESIGN OF PILLARS I N SHRINKAGE STOPING - R.W.O. KERSTEN

1 . INTRODUCTION

, The s h r i n k a g e method of s t o p i n g w i t h p i l l a r s u p p o r t h a s been used a t

Agnes Gold Mine s i n c e mining commenced. U n t i l r e c e n t l y , rock
i n s t a b i l i t y d i d n o t have any d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on s a f e t y o r p r o d u c t i o n .

P r e s e n t l y s i l l p i l l a r s a r e f a i l i n g n o t o n l y on t h e c u r r e n t p r o d u c t i o n
l e v e l s , b u t a l s o i n s h a l l o w e r o l d worked-out a r e a s . The i n c i d e n c e of
f a i l u r e raises t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o whether t h e p i l l a r dimensions a r e
a d e q u a t e a t t h e c u r r e n t working d e p t h s and what t h e i r s i z e s h o u l d b e
a t g r e a t e r depths. The e f f e c t of p i l l a r dimensions on t h e economics
of t h e mining o p e r a t i o n i s of paramount importance because of t h e
amount of o r e t h a t c a n b e l e f t unmined.

P i l l a r d e s i g n formulae have been developed f o r t h e South A f r i c a n c o a l

mines by Salamon ( ~ e f ) ,b u t v e r y l i t t l e o r no work h a s been done on
t h i s s u b j e c t f o r h a r d r o c k mining. Coates ( R e f . ) g i v e s formulae f o r
p i l l a r s t r e n g t h s t h a t a r e b e i n g used i n Canadian mines.

S i n c e t h e abovementioned formulae have n o t b e e n proven t o b e a p p l i c a b l e

t o mines s u c h a s Agnes Gold Mine, a b a c k - a n a l y s i s t y p e of approach w a s
c o n s i d e r e d i n o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o compare t h e two methods, and t o
determine t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y .

The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by t h e two approaches were used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e

required p i l l a r sizes. From t h e p e r c e n t a g e o r e e x t r a c t i o n a t g r e a t e r
d e p t h s w a s determined t o a s s e s s t h e economic v i a b i l i t y of t h i s method
of mining.

2. GEOLOGY AM3 ROCK LWSS PROPERTIES

Agnes Gold Mine i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e Swaziland Supergroup i n t h e

E a s t e r n T r a n s v a a l , R e p u b l i c of South A f r i c a . The Swaziland Supergroup,
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 , 5 b i l l i o n y e a r s o l d c o n s i s t s i n t h e main of argillaceous

and arenaccous s e d i m e n t s , and a v o l c a n i c sequence, i n t r u d e d by a b a s i c

to ultrabasic suite. The Agnes d e p o s i t comprises l a r g e lowgrade
r e s e r v e s of c o n s i s t e n t v a l u e which a r e found i n t h e s h a l e s of t h e
C l u t h a Formation. The r e e f i s s i t u a t e d i n s t e e p l y d i p p i n g (85' - 90')

i n t e n s i v e l y l a m i n a t e d , metamorphosed s h a l e .
Sulphide M i n e r a l i s a t i o n o c c u r s i n 1 t o 2 metres wide s t r a t a bound
zones, t h e s e b e i n g t h e economic gold h o r i z o n s . Two of t h e s e "shoots"
a r e p r e s e n t l y b e i n g mined v i z . t h e Woodbine and t h e G i l e s . The e x t e n t
on s t r i k e i s shown i n f i g u r e 1 and they a r e open ended a t d e p t h .

The u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h of t h e r o c k i n t h e hangingwall and

f o o t w a l l a s w e l l a s t h a t of t h e r e e f h o r i z o n i s 80 - 100 MPa a t r i g h t
angles t o the laminations. The s t r e n g t h of t h e r o c k mass i s s t r o n g l y
anisotropic, i.e. f a i l u r e o c c u r s p r e f e r e n t i a l l y a l o n g t h e "bedding
planes".

H o r i z o n t a l j o i n t s spaced approximately 1 m e t r e a p a r t a r e found on most

levels. These j o i n t s a r e t i g h t l y c l o s e d , b u t a g a i n form p l a n e s of
failure.

There b e i n g no evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e v e r t i c a l p r i m i t i v e s t r e s s
i s assumed t o b e a f u n c t i o n of t h e d e p t h of overburden, w h i l e t h e
h o r i z o n t a l v i r g i n s t r e s s a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e orebody, i s 0 , 8 5 of
the v e r t i c a l primitive stress. (This r a t i o was determined employing
t h e h y d r o - f r a c t u r i n g method).

MINING GEOMETRY

F i g u r e 1, a l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n , g i v e s t h e e x t e n t of mining on t h e
G i l e s and Woodbine s h o o t s t o d a t e . Figure 2 i s a generalised
t r a n s v e r s e s e c t i o n of t h e s e two s h o o t s showing t h e i r s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i 1
Included i n f i g u r e 2 i s t h e s t a n d a r d l a y o u t f o r s i l l and crown p i l l a r s
used t o d a t e .

The e x t e n t of mining on s t r i k e i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s i m u l a t e a two

dimensional computerised model. The boundary-element method a s
developed by Crouch ( r e f . ) was used and t h e diagrammatric s e c t i o n a s
shown i n f i g u r e 2 was modelled t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s t r e s s v a l u e s on t h e

various l e v e l s .
 I n o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e r e g i o n a l i n f l u e n c e of mining i t
w a s n e c e s s a r y t o t r e a t t h e crown and s i l l p i l l a r s as a "combined
pillar".

By s e l e c t i n g t h e l e v e l s where f a i l u r e of p i l l a r s had o c c u r r e d , t h e
s t r e s s l e v e l s f o r t h e combined p i l l a r s was e s t a b l i s h e d . Visible signs
of i n s t a b i l i t y i n s i l l p i l l a r s a r e a p p a r e n t a t 70 MPa, w i t h t h e r e e f
d r i v e becoming i n a c c e s s i b l e , due t o t o t a l p i l l a r f a i l u r e , a t 120 MPa.

5. PILLAR DESIGN

I n p r e v i o u s y e a r s p i l l a r d e s i g n was l a r g e l y a s u b j e c t i v e o p i n i o n of
t h e l i n e s t a f f b u t i n more r e c e n t times t h e importance of p i l l a r
s t r e n g t h and p i l l a r l o a d have been r e c o g n i s e d a s t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .

5.1 P i l l a r strength

P i l l a r s t r e n g t h depends on:-

a) t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e r o c k mass.

b) t h e p r e s e n c e of j o i n t s , and o t h e r weak zones and t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n .

c) t h e w i d t h t o h e i g h t r a t i o of t h e p i l l a r s .

The w i d t h t o h e i g h t r a t i o a f f e c t s t h e s t r e n g t h of p i l l a r s a s was shown

by Salamon and summarised by Coates. Salamon's formula i s : -

0,46
P i l l a r strength = k / H k~/,'
~ ~ ~ ~
where w = p i l l a r width i n metres
H = p i l l a r h e i g h t i n metres
3
k = s t r e n g t h of Im of c o a l a s measured i n
the laboratory.

Various v a l u e s f o r t h e s u p e r s c r i p t s have been proposed b u t i t a p p e a r s

t h a t v a l u e s of 0 , 5 and 0,75 a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o h a r d rock mines
( d e Jongh) (Ref. ) .
I t should b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s formula i s a p p l i c a b l e t o s q u a r e
p i l l a r s , and t h a t if r e c t a n g u l a r ~ i l l a r s ,such a s t h e crown p i l l a r s
 i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , a r e used t h e formula h a s t o b e modified, The
" E f f e c t i v e width" i s t h e n used i n s t e a d of t h e a c t u a l width.

E f f e c t i v e width = 4 A / ~
where A = . p i l l a r area
C = p i l l a r circumference.

The u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h of t e s t specimens i s a c c e p t e d a s t h e

maximum v a l u e b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e a c t u a l s t r e n g t h of t h e r o c k mass i s
lower.

I n order t o include t h i s f a c t o r i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n equation 1 i s

modified a s suggested by Wagner. ( ~ e f )

0,5 h 0,75
P i l l a r Strength = ( 1 /(=) c

where w = p i l l a r width
wo = specimen width
h = p i l l a r height
ho = specimen h e i g h t
c = u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h .

Equation 3 w a s used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e curves g i v e n i n f i g u r e 3 f o r t h e

crown p i l l a r s and t h e s i l l p i l l a r s , w i t h t h e u n i a x i a l compressive
s t r e n g t h of 80 MPa.

The r e a s o n f o r t h e g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h of t h e crown p i l l a r s i s t h a t t h e
e f f e c t i v e width was used a s d e f i n e d above, w i t h t h e crown p i l l a r
extending f o r 50 metres on s t r i k e .

5.2 P i l l a r load

The magnitude of t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e p r i m i t i v e s t r e s s

f i e l d a t r i g h t a n g l e s i s 0,85 of t h a t of t h e v e r t i c a l p r i m i t i v e
stress.

I n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s t r e s s l e v e l s on t h e combined p i l l a r width<

a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s , t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a t h e o r y was used. This theory

s t a t e s t h a t i f t h e e x t e n t of mining i s such t h a t t h e p i l l a r s s u p p o r t
 t h e overburden l o a d ( h o r i z o n t a l l o a d i n t h i s s t u d y ) evenly and t h a t
"edge e f f e c t s " of unmined s o l i d a r e excluded, t h e magnitude of t h e
s t r e s s l e v e l s c a l c u l a t e d i n t h i s manner a r e i n i t i a l l y over-estimates
b u t , a s mining p r o g r e s s e s i n depth, they become a p p l i c a b l e .

The s t r e s s v a l u e s g i v e n i n f i g u r e 3 were c a l c u l a t e d i n t h i s manner f o r

t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s w i t h d i f f e r e n t combined p i l l a r widths.

6. DISCUSSION

6.1 C a l c u l a t i o n of p i l l a r s i z e s

I n o r d e r t o determine t h e s a f e p i l l a r l o a d a s a f e t y f a c t o r i s
introduced.

Safety f a c t o r = Calculated P i l l a r Strength/

C a l c u l a t e d s t r e s s imposed on p i l l a r .

I n t h e p r e s e n t p i l l a r d e s i g n a v a l u e of 1,5 was accepted. (This v a l u e

can b e reduced a s p r a c t i c a l c o n f i d e n c e limits a r e improved).

The u s e of t h e g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f i g u r e 3 i s i l l u s t r a t e d when
c o n s i d e r i n g 20 l e v e l . The s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h e p i l l a r s on 20 l e v e l ,
w i t h combined p i l l a r width of 6 m e t r e s , i s 90 MPa. The s t r e n g t h of a
3 metre crown p i l l a r and 3 m e t r e s i l l p i l l a r i s g i v e n a s 75 m a and
105 MPa r e s p e c t i v e l y . Therefore, t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e s i l l
pillar i s

and f o r t h e crown p i l l a r

These v a l u e s b e a r o u t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t s i l l p i l l a r s f a i l p r i o r t o
t h e crown p i l l a r s o r 20 Level a t Agnes Gold Mine.
6.2 Comparison of r e s u l t s

The s t r e s s l e v e l s a t which f a i l u r e o c c u r as d e t e r m i n e d by t h e back-

a n a l y s i s v a r i e d between 70 and 120 m a . F a i l u r e commences a t 70 MPa
'
and a p r o g r e s s i v e d e t e r i o r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e u n t i l t o t a l f a i l u r e o c c u r s
a t 120 MPa.

A s d e p i c t e d i n f i g u r e 3 , t h r e e m e t r e s i l l p i l l a r s on 20 l e v e l s h o u l d
commence t o f a i l a t a stress l e v e l of 60 t o 70 MPa, and crown p i l l a r s
a t 90 ?Pa.

A s t h e back-analysis and p i l l a r d e s i g n f o r m u l a b o t h i n d i c a t e t h a t
p i l l a r f a i l u r e commences a t a b o u t 70 MPa a measure o f c o n f i d e n c e c a n
be p l a c e d i n t h e l a t t e r method of p r e d i c t i n g p i l l a r f a i l u r e a t g r e a t e r
depths.

C a l c u l a t i o n of p i l l a r s i z e s f o r v a r i o u s l e v e l s

The s t r e s s l e v e l s of v a r i o u s s i z e d combined p i l l a r s a t v a r i o u s d e p t h s
can now be determined from t h e c u r v e s on f i g u r e 3. The dimensions of
i n d i v i d u a l crown and s i l l p i l l a r s can t h e n b e c a l c u l a t e d (combined
p i l l a r w i d t h x 0,55 = s i l l p i l l a r w i d t h ) and t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r
determined f o r t h e i n d i c a t e d p i l l a r w i d t h s f o r g i v e n l e v e l s of stress.

By s e l e c t i n g a s a f e t y f a c t o r of 1 , 5 f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g
i s a summary of p i l l a r dimensions and t h e o r e t i c a l o r e e x t r a c t i o n of
d e p t h i n c r e m e n t s o f 50 m e t r e s .

The s t r e s s l e v e l s on v a r i o u s s i z e d combined p i l l a r s on t h e v a r i o u s
l e v e l s a r e read off f i g u r e 3 . The s i z e of t h e crown and s i l l p i l l a r
i s t h e n determined (combined p i l l a r w i d t h x 0,551 = S i l l p i l l a r w i d t h )
and t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e s e w i d t h s f o r t h e g i v e n s t r e s s
levels.

S e l e c t i n g a s a f e t y f a c t o r of l , 5 f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g
summary can be made f o r l e v e l i n t e r v a l s of 50 m e t r e s .
 Combined P i l l a r Crown P i l l a r Sill Pillar % Extraction
width - m
X
Level width mX m

v a l u e s g i v e n a r e approximate v a l u e s because of t h e
assumption of average r a t i o between crown and s i l l p i l l a r
width of 0,55, a s w e l l a s c u t t i n g p i l l a r s t o f r a c t i o n s of a
m e t r e would b e i m p r a c t i c a l .

7. CONCLUSION

The p e r c e n t a g e e x t r a c t i o n reduces s u b s t a n t i a l l y w i t h i n c r e a s e i n
, . d e p t h , and management h a s t o d e c i d e whether t h i s i s a c c e p t a b l e o r
whether a l t e r n a t i v e methods of mining, such a s c u t - a n d - f i l l , would n o t
b e a more economic p r o p o s i t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n , i t must b e remembered t h a t t h e s q u a r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n
r e q u i r e d f o r s i l l p i l l a r l e n g t h e n s t h e d i s t a n c e between draw p o i n t s up
t o 13 metres a p a r t , r e s u l t i n g i n widely spaced draw p o i n t s . This i n
t u r n r e s u l t s i n a l o s s of broken o r e which c o l l e c t s on top of t h e s e
p i l l a r s when drawing t h e s h r i n k a g e .

Adequately s i z e d p i l l a r s t o p r e v e n t c o l l a p s e of t h e working i s n o t t h e
only c r i t e r i o n . D i l u t i o n w i l l a l s o i n c r e a s e w i t h depth. This a s p e c t
has n o t been d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s a r t i c l e b u t t h i s does n o t mean t h a t it
should n o t a l s o b e considered a s a major problem a r e a when c o n s i d e r i n g
stope support design.

Unless a d e q u a t e l y designed p i l l a r s a r e l e f t t h e s t r e s s l e v e l on t h e
r e e f d r i v e i t s e l f i n c r e a s e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y and s i d e w a l l s c a l i n g and
unstable conditions r e s u l t , requiring c o s t l y support.
 +
I n summary, s h r i n k a g e s t o p i n g t o d e p t h s below 25 l e v e l (- 650 m below
s u r f a c e ) on t h e Agnes Mine, does n o t appear t o b e s a f e and economical.
A l t e r n a t i v e methods of s t o p i n g a r e , t h e r e f o r e , b e i n g d e s i g n e d t o
a m e l i o r a t e t h e e f f e c t s of h i g h e r s t r e s s i m p o s i t i o n s on t h e economics
of t h e mining o p e r a t i o n .

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The a u t h o r wishes t o thank t h e management of Anglovaal f o r p e r m i s s i o n

t o publish t h i s paper.
DE JONGH, C.L. The d e s i g n used and t h e m a t e r i a l s s e l e c t e d f o r
a new b a s e m e t a l mine i n t h e Republic of South A f r i c a .
Conference of A p p l i c a t i o n of Rock Mechanics t o c u t - a n d - f i l l
mining. L u l e a June 1-3, 1980 Volume 1, p.227.

SALAMON, M.D.S. and ORAVECZ, K . I . - Rock Mechanics i n coalimining.

Chamber of Mines p u b l i c a t i o n 1976 p.29.

COATES, D.F. Rock Mechanics P r i n c i p l e s .

CROUCH, S.L. Mining A p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e Boundary Element Methods.

Union of t h e Witwatersrand Workshop. Aug 14-17 1978.

WAGNER, H. and SALAMON, M.D.S. P i l l a r design.

S e r i e s of l e c t u r e s g i v e n a t Suppers Rust, P r e t o r i a Aug. 1979.
 AGNES GOLD MINE - LONGITUDINAL SECTION
B
WOODBINE
s REEFS
a GlLES .
. -...
. SCALE t:5000
 SURFACE
L

DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION
100
I t 1
metres

M i N E D OUT

17 LEVEL

18 LEVEL

$1
0
*
r

m
W
19LEVEL

-
J
(3
1 I 1 I
METRES
I I

20 LEVEL

TYPICAL SILL PILLAR AND

22 LEVEL

24 LEVEL

JRE 2
 5 10 15 20 I
COMBINED PILLAR WIDTH-metres
FIGURE 3 EXPECTED STRESS LEVELS AND PILLAR STRDJGTH
FOR VARIOUS LEVELS AND PILLAR SIZES. I

5 10 15 20

COMBIHED PILLAR WlDT H - motrorr

FIGURE 4 SAFTY FACTOR FOR COMBINED PILLAR WIDTHS