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ABSTRACT

Niels Bohr was a prominent physicist known for his key


contributions to quantum theory and for winning the Nobel Prize
for his research on atomic structure. He was born in Copenhagen
in 1885, where he developed an early interest in physics. Bohr
earned his doctorate in physics in 1911 from Copenhagen
University.

As a student, he won a contest for investigating liquid surface tension,


conducting experiments in his father's lab. His research on surface
tension was published by the Royal Society in 1908. Bohr's work
became more theoretical as he researched the electron theory of
metals and encountered Max Planck's quantum theory.

In 1912, while working with Nobel laureate J.J. Thomson, he met


Ernest Rutherford. Under Rutherford's guidance, Bohr studied atomic
properties. He held various academic positions, becoming a professor
at Copenhagen University in 1916 and the head of the Institute for
Theoretical Physics in 1920. Bohr combined Rutherford’s and Planck’s
ideas to explain atomic structure, earning his Nobel Prize in 1922.

That same year, he married Margaret Nørlund, with whom he had


six sons. Later, he became president of the Royal Danish
Academy of Sciences and joined various scientific academies
worldwide.
During World War II, Bohr escaped to Sweden and spent the last two
years of the war in the UK and the US, working on the Atomic Energy
Project. He advocated for the peaceful use of atomic energy and wrote
an Open Letter to the United Nations in 1950, emphasizing the
importance of transparency between nations regarding atomic
weapons.
INTRODUCTION
Niels Bohr's atomic model, proposed in 1913, revolutionized the
understanding of atomic structure by incorporating quantum theory.
It describes the atom as having a small, positively charged nucleus
with electrons orbiting in quantized energy levels. This model was a
major step forward from the previous "plum pudding" model and laid
the foundation for the development of quantum mechanics.

Bohr's model introduced the concept that electrons occupy specific


orbits and emit or absorb energy during transitions, explaining
phenomena such as spectral lines in hydrogen. This model was
crucial for the development of modern quantum mechanics, although
it has since been enhanced by theories like Schrödinger's wave
mechanics.
HISTORY OF THE ATOMIC MODEL
EARLY ATOMIC MODELS
DEMOCRITUS
(460 B.C to 370 B.C)
1. All matter composed of atoms in void.
2.Atoms were indivisible & indestructible.
3. Properties of atoms differ in shape, arrangement and
sizes.
4. Shape of the atom determines the substance properties.
Evidences for atom
JOHN DALTON
(1766-1844)

He developed a theory to explain why the elements in a


compound always join in the same way.
➢ He proposed explanations for many of the known
laws describing the behavior of matter.
➢ Dalton's theory states “All matter is made up of
individual particles called atoms, which cannot be Divided”.

The main points of Dalton's theory are as


follows;

➢ All matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles


called ATOM.
➢ All atoms of an element have identical
properties.
➢ Atoms of two or more elements can combine in
constant ratios to form new substances.
➢ In chemical reactions, atoms join together or
separate from each other but not destroyed.
Law of Conservation of Matter:
“Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any chemical
reaction”.

Law of Conservation of Mass:


“Atoms are separate, join or rearrange during a chemical reaction
but remain unchanged. Therefore, therewill be no change in mass.”

Law of Definite Composition:


“Atoms of different elements can physically mix together of
chemically combine with one another in singlewhole number ratios to
form compounds”.
The Billiard Ball Model

★ Proposed by John Dalton in 1804.

★ This theory proposed that matter was composed


of small, spherical particles.
Evidences For Subatomic Particles
J.J. Thomson's Water Melon Model (1897)

➢ It was based on his discovery of the electron in 1897.

Key features of Thomson's model :


● Sphere of positive charge :
Thomson proposed that the atom is a sphere of
positively charged matter.
● Embedded electrons :
Negatively charged electrons are embedded within this
positive sphere, like plums in a pudding.
● Neutral atom
The number of electrons is equal to the amount of positive charge,
making the atom electrically neutral overall.
Limitations of Thomson's model :

● No explanation for atomic spectra :


It couldn't explain the discrete nature of atomic spectra.

● Inconsistent with later experiments :


Rutherford's gold foil experiment disproved Thomson's model
by showing that most of the atom's mass and positive charge
are concentrated in a tiny nucleus.

Despite its limitations, Thomson's model was a valuable contribution to


the understanding of atomic structure and paved the way for further
discoveries.
Discovery Of The Nucleus
Rutherford's Atomic Model
★ proposed in 191
★ It came after his famous gold foil experiment, which disproved
the earlier Plum Pudding Model.

Key points of Rutherford's model:


1. Nucleus as the Atom's Core:
➢ The atom consists of a small, dense, positively charged core
called the nucleus.
➢ The nucleus contains nearly all the atom's mass and the
positively charged protons.

2. Electrons Surround the Nucleus:


➢ Electrons orbit the nucleus at a distance, much like planets
orbiting the sun.
➢ The space between the electrons and the nucleus is
mostly empty.

3. Positive and Negative Charges:


➢ The positive charge of the nucleus is balanced by the
negative charge of the electrons, making the atom
electrically neutral.
4. Atomic Stability:
➢ Rutherford did not explain how the orbiting electrons
prevent the atom from collapsing into the nucleus due to
electrostatic attraction, which was a limitation of this model.

Experimental Basis:

The model was based on the results of the gold foil


experiment, where most alpha particles passed through the foil,
but some were deflected at large angles, indicating the presence
of a dense, positively charged nucleus.
Modern Atomic Theory
Bohr's atomic model

The history of Bohr's atomic model traces the evolution of atomic


theory, combining earlier discoveries with Bohr's groundbreaking
ideas. Here’s an overview of its development:

1. The Predecessors:

● Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1803):


John Dalton proposed that matter is composed of indivisible
atoms, but this theory did not explain atomic structure or
subatomic particles.
● Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model (1897):
J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed that atoms
consist of a positively charged sphere with negatively charged
electrons embedded in it. This model failed to explain atomic
stability and spectral lines.
● Rutherford’s Nuclear Model (1911):
Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment showed that atoms
have a small, dense, positively charged nucleus, with electrons
orbiting it. However, his model did not explain why electrons
didn’t spiral into the nucleus due to energy loss (from
electromagnetic radiation).
2. The Development of Bohr's Model (1913):

Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist, addressed the shortcomings of


Rutherford’s model by incorporating quantum theory. His key
inspiration came from two sources:

● Planck’s Quantum Theory (1900):


Max Planck introduced the idea that energy is quantized,
meaning it exists in discrete packets (quanta).
● Einstein’s Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect (1905):
Albert Einstein showed that light is quantized into particles
called photons, reinforcing the idea of energy quantization.

With these concepts, Bohr developed his model to explain atomic


structure and spectral lines, specifically for the hydrogen atom.

3. Bohr’s Postulates (1913):


In his famous paper, Bohr introduced the following key ideas:

1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits


withspecific energies (stationary states).
2. Energy is emitted or absorbed when an electron
transitionsbetween these energy levels.
3. The angular momentum of an electron is quantized.
Bohr applied these postulates to explain the line spectra of
hydrogen, particularly the Balmer series, by calculating the energy
difference between levels. His calculations agreed with experimental
data, confirming the model’s accuracy for hydrogen.

4. Influence and Legacy:

● The Bohr model marked a critical shift in atomic theory,


moving from classical physics to quantum mechanics.
● It introduced quantization into atomic structure, inspiring
later developments like Schrödinger's wave mechanics and
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

5. Limitations and the Path Forward:

● While revolutionary, Bohr's model could not explain:


○ The spectra of multi-electron atoms.
○ Fine details of spectral lines (e.g., the Zeeman effect).
○ The wave-particle duality of electrons (explained later by
de Broglie).
● These limitations paved the way for the Quantum Mechanical
Model (Schrödinger, 1926), which replaced fixed orbits with
probabilistic electron clouds (orbitals).
Electron Cloud Model

➔ ELECTRON CLOUD is a visual model of the most likely


locations for electrons in an atom.
➔ The cloud is denser at those locations where the
probability of finding an electron is high.
➔ Scientists use the electron cloud model to describe the
possible locations of electrons around thenucleus.
POSTULATES
1: Electrons revolve around the nucleus in definite energy levels
called orbits or shells in an atom without radiatingenergy.

2: As long as an electron remains in a shell it never gains or loses


energy.

3: The gain or loss of energy occurs within orbits only due to jumping
of electrons from one energy level to another energylevel.
4: The angular momentum (mvr) of an electron is equal tonh/2π.
The angular momentum of an orbit depends upon its
quantum number (n) and it is integral multiple of the factor
h/2π.
i.e.,
mvr = nh/2 π
Where,
n = 1, 2, 3, 4,....
KEY CONCEPTS OF BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL
1. Quantized Energy Levels :
● Electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed paths or shells, each
corresponding to a specific energy level.

● These energy levels are quantized, meaning electrons


cannot exist between these levels.

2. Stationary Orbits:
● Electrons in a given orbit do not radiate energy,
ensuring stability of the atom.

● This addressed limitations of earlier models like


Rutherford's, which couldn't explain why electrons don’t
spiral into the nucleus.

3. Energy Absorption and Emission:


● When an electron transitions between orbits, it absorbs
or emits energy in discrete packets called quanta or
photons.

● The energy of these photons corresponds to the


difference between the initial and final energy levels, as
described by the formula:

E=hν
● E=hν

where,

E is the energy
h is Planck's constant
ν is the frequency of radiation

4. Angular Momentum Quantization:


The angular momentum of an electron in a stable
orbit is quantized, given by:

L=n (h/2πh)
Where,
n is the principal quantum number

5. Hydrogen Spectrum Explanation:


● The model successfully explained the spectral lines of
hydrogen, particularly the Balmer series, by correlating
them with electronic transitions.

6. Electron Orbits Are Fixed:


● Only certain orbits are allowed, and each orbit
corresponds to a fixed distance from the nucleus.
LIMITATIONS OF BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL
1. Applicable only to Hydrogen-like atoms:

Bohr's model was primarily successful in explaining the


spectrum of hydrogen atoms. It couldn't accurately account
for the spectra of atoms with multiple electrons.

2. Failed to explain Zeeman and Stark effects:

The model couldn't explain the splitting of spectral lines in


the presence of magnetic (Zeeman effect) or electric fields (Stark
effect).

3. Violated Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle:

Bohr's model assumed that electrons move in well-defined


orbits, implying precise knowledge of both position and
momentum simultaneously. This contradicts Heisenberg's
Uncertainty Principle, which states that it's impossible to
determine both quantities accurately at the same time.
4. Couldn't explain intensity of spectral lines:

The model didn't provide an explanation for the varying


intensities observed in spectral lines.

5. Limited to simpler atoms:

Bohr's model worked well for smaller atoms but failed to


provide accurate predictions for larger atoms.
REFERENCE

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https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=33a60c31ec762ab1030dfe71f
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1
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L3BoeXNpY2Fsc2NpZW5jZS9jaGFwdGVyL2hpc3Rvcnktb2YtYXRvb
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