History of the Atom Limitations: Bohr's model only explained the hydrogen atom

accurately and could not account for the spectra of larger

The concept of the atom has evolved significantly over atoms.
centuries as scientists conducted experiments, made
observations, and proposed theories. Here’s a chronological 6. Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) and Quantum Mechanics:
overview of the major developments in atomic theory. The Quantum Mechanical Model
Key Ideas (1926):
Wave-Particle Duality: Proposed that electrons exhibit both
1. Ancient Greek Theories particle and wave properties.
Electron Clouds: Suggested that electrons exist in regions of
Democritus (circa 460–370 BCE): probability called orbitals, not fixed paths.
Model:
Concept: Proposed that matter is made up of small, indivisible The Quantum Mechanical Model describes electron positions
particles called "atomos" (meaning indivisible in Greek). as probability distributions around the nucleus rather than
Belief: Atoms were the smallest particles, indestructible, and fixed orbits.
had different shapes and sizes based on the properties of the Schrödinger Equation: A mathematical model that calculates
material. the probability of an electron’s location in an atom.
Limitation: Lacked experimental evidence and was based on Significance: This model remains the accepted atomic model,
philosophical reasoning. accurately explaining the behavior of electrons in all
Aristotle (384–322 BCE): elements.
Concept: Rejected Democritus' idea; believed matter was 7. James Chadwick (1891–1974): Discovery of the Neutron
made up of four elements (earth, fire, water, and air).
Impact: Aristotle’s theory was widely accepted for nearly Discovery (1932):
2,000 years and delayed further exploration of atomic theory. Observation: Chadwick found particles with no charge
(neutrons) in the nucleus, which explained the extra atomic
2. John Dalton (1766–1844): The Solid Sphere Model mass in atoms.
Significance: This discovery helped explain atomic mass and
Key Ideas (1803): led to further understanding of isotopes (atoms with different
Atomic Theory: Proposed that all matter is made up of tiny, numbers of neutrons).
indivisible particles called atoms. Model:
Postulates: Updated the nuclear model to include neutrons within the
1. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and nucleus alongside protons.
properties.
2. Atoms of different elements vary in size and mass. Summary of Atomic Models
3. Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form 1. Democritus - Atoms are indivisible and indestructible
compounds. particles.
4. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms but2. Dalton’s Model - Atoms are solid spheres; atoms of each
do not change the atoms themselves. element are identical.
Model: Visualized atoms as solid, indivisible spheres. 3. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model - Atoms consist of
Limitations: Did not account for subatomic particles (protons,
electrons in a positively charged matrix.
neutrons, and electrons). 4. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model - Atoms have a central nucleus
with electrons orbiting around it.
3. J.J. Thomson (1856–1940): The Plum Pudding Model 5. Bohr’s Model - Electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed energy
levels.
Discovery of the Electron (1897): 6. Quantum Mechanical Model (Schrödinger) - Electrons exist
Experiment: Cathode Ray Tube Experiment. in orbitals, areas of probability around the nucleus.
Observation: Detected negatively charged particles (later 7. Modern Model - Incorporates protons, neutrons, and
electron probability distributions, based on principles of
named electrons) in a cathode ray, suggesting atoms contain quantum mechanics.
smaller particles.
Model (1897): Key Concepts to Review
Proposed the "Plum Pudding Model," where electrons were
embedded in a positively charged “pudding-like” sphere. Subatomic Particles: Protons (positive charge), neutrons
Limitation: Did not explain the arrangement of electrons or the (neutral), and electrons (negative charge).
nature of the positive charge.
Electron Configuration: Understanding how electrons are
4. Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937): The Nuclear Model arranged in different energy levels/orbitals.

Gold Foil Experiment (1909): Atomic Structure: How the nucleus (protons and neutrons)
Experiment: Directed alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold and electron cloud are organized within the atom.
foil. Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers
Observation: Most particles passed through, but some of neutrons.
deflected at large angles.
Conclusion: Atoms have a small, dense, positively charged
nucleus at the center, with electrons orbiting around it. Electron Configuration Overview
Model (1911):
Proposed a nuclear model with a central nucleus containing Electron configuration refers to the arrangement of electrons
positively charged protons, and electrons moving in the space in an atom's electron shells and orbitals. Each element’s
around the nucleus. electrons are arranged in a specific way, which determines its
Limitation: Could not explain why electrons do not collapse chemical behavior
into the nucleus due to attraction.
1. Electrons and Energy Levels:
5. Niels Bohr (1885–1962): The Bohr Model Electrons in an atom occupy energy levels (shells)
Key Ideas (1913): surrounding the nucleus.
These energy levels are labeled starting with K, L, M, N, or
Suggested that electrons orbit the nucleus in specific, fixed numerically as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
orbits or energy levels without radiating energy. Each energy level can hold a specific maximum number of
Electron Transitions: Electrons could jump between orbits by electrons:
absorbing or emitting specific amounts of energy (quanta). 1st level (K): Up to 2 electrons
Model: 2nd level (L): Up to 8 electrons
A planetary model where electrons revolve in fixed orbits 3rd level (M): Up to 18 electrons
around the nucleus. 4th level (N): Up to 32 electrons
Limitations: Bohr's model only explained the hydrogen atom However, to simplify configurations for elements with fewer
Electron Configuration Overview 4. Sodium (11 electrons):
Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹
Electron configuration refers to the arrangement of electrons Explanation:
in an atom's electron shells and orbitals. Each element’s 1s orbital holds 2 electrons.
electrons are arranged in a specific way, which determines its 2s orbital holds 2 electrons.
chemical behavior 2p sublevel holds 6 electrons.
The remaining electron goes into the 3s orbital.
1. Electrons and Energy Levels: 5. Calcium (20 electrons):
Electrons in an atom occupy energy levels (shells) Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s²
surrounding the nucleus. Explanation:
These energy levels are labeled starting with K, L, M, N, or First 18 electrons fill the 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, and 3p orbitals.
numerically as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. The last two electrons go into the 4s orbital.
Each energy level can hold a specific maximum number of
electrons: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
1st level (K): Up to 2 electrons The periodic table structure is directly related to electron
2nd level (L): Up to 8 electrons configuration:
3rd level (M): Up to 18 electrons Groups (Vertical Columns): Elements in the same group have
4th level (N): Up to 32 electrons similar valence electron configurations, which gives them
However, to simplify configurations for elements with fewer similar chemical properties.
electrons, the general rule for filling is 2, 8, 18, 32. Periods (Horizontal Rows): Each period corresponds to a new
energy level (shell) being filled with electrons.
2. Sublevels and Orbitals: For example:
Each energy level is further divided into sublevels (s, p, d, f). Group 1 elements (alkali metals) have one electron in their
Sublevel capacities: outermost s orbital (e.g., Na: 3s¹).
s sublevel: Holds up to 2 electrons (1 orbital) Group 18 elements (noble gases) have full outer shells,
p sublevel: Holds up to 6 electrons (3 orbitals) making them stable and non-reactive (e.g., Ne: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶).
d sublevel: Holds up to 10 electrons (5 orbitals)
f sublevel: Holds up to 14 electrons (7 orbitals) Common Notations
1. Shorthand Configuration (Noble Gas Configuration):
Rules for Electron Configuration Use the nearest noble gas to simplify writing configurations.
To determine the electron arrangement of an atom, we use For example, Sodium (11 electrons): Instead of writing 1s² 2s²
three main rules: 2p⁶ 3s¹, you can write [Ne] 3s¹ (Neon has the electron
1. Aufbau Principle: configuration 1s² 2s² 2p⁶).
Electrons fill the lowest energy levels (closest to the nucleus) Calcium (20 electrons): Instead of 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s², you
write [Ar] 4s².
before moving to higher levels.
Order of filling: Review Tips
1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p → 5s → 4d → 5p
→ 6s → 4f → 5d → 6p... Memorize the order of filling based on the Aufbau Principle.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle: Remember that s sublevel holds 2 electrons, p holds 6, d
Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite holds 10, and f holds 14.
spins.
This means that if an orbital has two electrons, they must Use the periodic table to guide configurations, especially for
have opposite spins (often represented as ↑↓). shorthand notation.

3. Hund’s Rule:
When electrons fill orbitals of the same sublevel (e.g., p, d, or
f), they will occupy empty orbitals singly first, and then pair up.
This reduces electron-electron repulsion and is more stable.
Electron Configuration Notation
Notation: Each electron configuration can be written as a
series of numbers and letters, indicating the energy level,
sublevel, and number of electrons.
Example: Carbon (6 electrons) has the configuration 1s² 2s²
2p².
"1" and "2" represent the energy levels.
"s" and "p" represent the sublevels.
The superscript numbers (²) indicate the number of electrons
in each sublevel.
Electron Configuration Examples
1. Hydrogen (1 electron):
Configuration: 1s¹
Explanation: Hydrogen has only one electron in the 1s orbital.
2. Helium (2 electrons):
Configuration: 1s²
Explanation: The 1s orbital can hold up to 2 electrons, so both
electrons go into 1s.
3. Oxygen (8 electrons):
Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁴
Explanation:
1s orbital holds 2 electrons.
2s orbital holds 2 electrons.
2p sublevel can hold up to 6 electrons, but here it has only 4.
4. Sodium (11 electrons):
Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹
Explanation:
1s orbital holds 2 electrons.
Electron Configuration Overview 4. Sodium (11 electrons):
Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹
Electron configuration refers to the arrangement of electrons Explanation:
in an atom's electron shells and orbitals. Each element’s 1s orbital holds 2 electrons.
electrons are arranged in a specific way, which determines its 2s orbital holds 2 electrons.
chemical behavior 2p sublevel holds 6 electrons.
The remaining electron goes into the 3s orbital.
1. Electrons and Energy Levels: 5. Calcium (20 electrons):
Electrons in an atom occupy energy levels (shells) Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s²
surrounding the nucleus. Explanation:
These energy levels are labeled starting with K, L, M, N, or First 18 electrons fill the 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, and 3p orbitals.
numerically as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. The last two electrons go into the 4s orbital.
Each energy level can hold a specific maximum number of
electrons: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
1st level (K): Up to 2 electrons The periodic table structure is directly related to electron
2nd level (L): Up to 8 electrons configuration:
3rd level (M): Up to 18 electrons Groups (Vertical Columns): Elements in the same group have
4th level (N): Up to 32 electrons similar valence electron configurations, which gives them
However, to simplify configurations for elements with fewer similar chemical properties.
electrons, the general rule for filling is 2, 8, 18, 32. Periods (Horizontal Rows): Each period corresponds to a new
energy level (shell) being filled with electrons.
2. Sublevels and Orbitals: For example:
Each energy level is further divided into sublevels (s, p, d, f). Group 1 elements (alkali metals) have one electron in their
Sublevel capacities: outermost s orbital (e.g., Na: 3s¹).
s sublevel: Holds up to 2 electrons (1 orbital) Group 18 elements (noble gases) have full outer shells,
p sublevel: Holds up to 6 electrons (3 orbitals) making them stable and non-reactive (e.g., Ne: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶).
d sublevel: Holds up to 10 electrons (5 orbitals)
f sublevel: Holds up to 14 electrons (7 orbitals) Common Notations
1. Shorthand Configuration (Noble Gas Configuration):
Rules for Electron Configuration Use the nearest noble gas to simplify writing configurations.
To determine the electron arrangement of an atom, we use For example, Sodium (11 electrons): Instead of writing 1s² 2s²
three main rules: 2p⁶ 3s¹, you can write [Ne] 3s¹ (Neon has the electron
1. Aufbau Principle: configuration 1s² 2s² 2p⁶).
Electrons fill the lowest energy levels (closest to the nucleus) Calcium (20 electrons): Instead of 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s², you
write [Ar] 4s².
before moving to higher levels.
Order of filling: Review Tips
1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p → 5s → 4d → 5p
→ 6s → 4f → 5d → 6p... Memorize the order of filling based on the Aufbau Principle.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle: Remember that s sublevel holds 2 electrons, p holds 6, d
Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite holds 10, and f holds 14.
spins.
This means that if an orbital has two electrons, they must Use the periodic table to guide configurations, especially for
have opposite spins (often represented as ↑↓). shorthand notation.

3. Hund’s Rule:
When electrons fill orbitals of the same sublevel (e.g., p, d, or 1. Period (Energy Level)
f), they will occupy empty orbitals singly first, and then pair up. The period of an element corresponds to the highest principal
This reduces electron-electron repulsion and is more stable. energy level (n) that contains electrons. The period tells you
which row the element is in on the periodic table.
Electron Configuration Notation How to Find the Period:
Notation: Each electron configuration can be written as a Look for the highest principal quantum number (n) in the
series of numbers and letters, indicating the energy level, electron configuration.
sublevel, and number of electrons. Example:
Example: Carbon (6 electrons) has the configuration 1s² 2s² For Sodium (Na): Electron configuration is 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹.
2p². The highest energy level is 3, so Sodium is in Period 3.
"1" and "2" represent the energy levels. For Calcium (Ca): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s². The highest energy
"s" and "p" represent the sublevels. level is 4, so Calcium is in Period 4.
The superscript numbers (²) indicate the number of electrons 2. Group Number
in each sublevel. The group number indicates the column an element occupies
on the periodic table, based on its number of valence
Electron Configuration Examples electrons.
1. Hydrogen (1 electron): For Main Group Elements (s- and p-block):
Configuration: 1s¹ Group 1 (alkali metals): Elements have 1 valence electron
Explanation: Hydrogen has only one electron in the 1s orbital. (e.g., Na: 3s¹).
2. Helium (2 electrons): Group 2 (alkaline earth metals): Elements have 2 valence
Configuration: 1s² electrons (e.g., Ca: 4s²).
Explanation: The 1s orbital can hold up to 2 electrons, so both Groups 13-18 (p-block elements): To find the group, add 10
electrons go into 1s. to the number of electrons in the outermost p and s orbitals
3. Oxygen (8 electrons): (e.g., oxygen with 2s² 2p⁴ is in Group 16).
Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁴ For Transition Metals (d-block):
Explanation: The group number is usually determined by adding the total
number of electrons in the s and d orbitals of the outermost
1s orbital holds 2 electrons. energy levels.
2s orbital holds 2 electrons.
2p sublevel can hold up to 6 electrons, but here it has only 4. 3. Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy
4. Sodium (11 electrons): level (shell) of an atom. These are responsible for chemical
Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹ bonding and reactivity.
Explanation: How to Find Valence Electrons:
1s orbital holds 2 electrons. Look at the highest energy level in the electron configuration
 Introduction to Quantum Numbers
3. Valence Electrons Quantum numbers are a set of numbers that provide
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy information about the location and energy of an electron
level (shell) of an atom. These are responsible for chemical within an atom. Each electron in an atom is described by a
bonding and reactivity. unique set of four quantum numbers, which together specify
How to Find Valence Electrons: its energy level, type of orbital, and orientation.
Look at the highest energy level in the electron configuration There are four quantum numbers:
and count all electrons in the s and p orbitals at that level. 1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
Example: 2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
Sodium (Na): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹ → The highest energy level is 3, 3. Magnetic Quantum Number (mₗ)
and it has 1 valence electron. 4. Spin Quantum Number (mₛ)
Chlorine (Cl): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁵ → The highest energy level
is 3, and it has 7 valence electrons (2 in 3s and 5 in 3p). 1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
Symbol: n
4. Core Electrons Definition: Indicates the main energy level or shell where an
Core electrons are the electrons found in the inner shells of electron is found.
an atom. These electrons do not participate in bonding. Possible Values: n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ... (only positive integers)
How to Find Core Electrons: Description:
Subtract the number of valence electrons from the total The principal quantum number determines the distance of the
number of electrons in the atom. electron from the nucleus and thus the size of the electron
cloud.
Example: Higher values of mean the electron is farther from the
Sodium (Na) has a total of 11 electrons, with 1 valence nucleus and has higher energy.
electron. Thus, it has 10 core electrons. Each value of corresponds to a specific period on the
Chlorine (Cl) has a total of 17 electrons, with 7 valence periodic table:
electrons. Therefore, it has 10 core electrons. n = 1: Closest to the nucleus (first energy level)
n = 2: Second energy level, etc.
5. Paired and Unpaired Electrons Example:
Paired electrons are two electrons occupying the same orbital For an electron in the 3rd energy level, n=3
with opposite spins (↑↓).
Unpaired electrons are single electrons in an orbital. 2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
Symbol: l
Steps to Determine Paired and Unpaired Electrons: Definition: Describes the shape of the electron's orbital (also
1. Write the Electron Configuration: Identify the distribution of known as the sublevel).
Possible Values: l = 0, 1, 2, ..., (n - 1)
electrons across the orbitals. The value of depends on : for a given , can be any integer
2. Use Orbital Diagrams: from 0 up to .
s sublevel has 1 orbital (can hold 2 electrons, so it’s always Description:
paired if filled). The shape of an orbital is determined by , and each value of
p sublevel has 3 orbitals, so it can hold up to 6 electrons. corresponds to a different type of orbital:
Electrons will fill each orbital singly before pairing (Hund’s l = 0: s orbital (spherical shape)
Rule). l = 1: p orbital (dumbbell shape)
d sublevel has 5 orbitals, holding up to 10 electrons. l = 2: d orbital (cloverleaf shape)
3. Identify Pairing: l = 3: f orbital (complex shape)
In a full orbital, electrons are paired.
In a partially filled orbital, some electrons may be unpaired. Example:
If n=3
Review Summary can be 0, 1, or 2.
This means an electron in the 3rd energy level can be in an s
Period: Look at the highest principal quantum number in the (l = 0), p (l = 1), or d (l = 2) sublevel.
electron configuration.
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (mₗ)
Group Number: Determined by the valence electrons (varies for Symbol: mₗ
main group vs. transition metals). Definition: Indicates the orientation of an electron's orbital in
space.
Valence Electrons: Electrons in the highest energy level (involved in Possible Values: mₗ = -l to +l, including 0.
bonding). For each sublevel (value of ), ranges from -l to +l.
Description:
Core Electrons: Total electrons minus the valence electrons. Each value of corresponds to a different orientation of the
orbital within the sublevel.
Paired and Unpaired Electrons: Paired if both electrons occupy the For example:
same orbital, unpaired if singly placed. If l=1 (p orbital), ml can be -1, 0, or +1, meaning there are
three orientations for the p orbital (px, py, pz).
Example:
For an electron in a p sublevel (l = 1):
ml can be -1, 0, or +1, representing three possible
orientations of the p orbital.
4. Spin Quantum Number (mₛ)
Symbol: mₛ
Definition: Indicates the spin direction of the electron within an
orbital.
Possible Values: mₛ = +½ or -½
Description:
An electron’s spin can be thought of as a tiny rotation, which
generates a magnetic field.
Electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins to
satisfy the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which states that no two
electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum
numbers.
Example:
For an electron in an orbital with mₛ = +½, the other electron
in that same orbital will have mₛ = -½.
Summary of Quantum Numbers and Their Roles
Rules and Principles to Remember
1. Pauli Exclusion Principle:
No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers. This principle ensures that each electron
is unique.
2. Aufbau Principle:
Electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals first. This helps
determine the order of filling in an atom’s electron
configuration.
3. Hund’s Rule:
In orbitals of the same sublevel, electrons fill each orbital
singly first, with parallel spins, before pairing up. This
minimizes electron repulsion within the atom.
How Quantum Numbers Describe Electron Arrangement
Quantum numbers provide a detailed "address" for each
electron:
1. Principal Quantum Number (n): Tells us how far the
electron is from the nucleus.
2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l): Tells us the
shape of the electron’s orbital.
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (mₗ): Tells us the specific
orientation of the orbital.
4. Spin Quantum Number (mₛ): Tells us the direction of the
electron’s spin.
Together, they define the energy, location, and magnetic
properties of electrons in an atom.