CE 1101- Lecture Notes (Part-1 of Module-4)

Module- 4: Air Pollution (Part-1): General Concept, AQ standard, Sources of pollutants

A. Physical & Chemical Fundamentals – Impacts of Air pollution

The Gaseous Environment surrounding the earth is called atmosphere. It is divided into Layers; from the surface
outward they are – troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere.
From Environmental significance – “Troposphere” & partly “Stratosphere” are matter of concern
Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, extending up to about 8-18 kilometers (5-miles)
above sea level. It contains most of the Earth's weather, including clouds, rain, and storms. The temperature
in this layer decreases with altitude, typically @ 7-10/ 12oC/ KM. More than 80% of the mass of atmosphere
and virtually all of water vapour, clouds and precipitation occur in the Troposphere
Stratosphere:
The stratosphere lies above the troposphere, extending from about 15 to 50 kilometers (9 to 31 miles) above the
Earth's surface. This layer contains the ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters ultraviolet solar radiation.
Unlike the troposphere, the temperature in the stratosphere increases with altitude.
Mesosphere:
The mesosphere is the layer above the stratosphere, extending from about 50 to 85 kilometers (31 to 53 miles)
above the Earth. It is where most meteors burn up upon entering the Earth's atmosphere. The temperature
in this layer decreases with altitude, making it the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
Thermosphere:
The thermosphere is above the mesosphere, extending from about 85 kilometers (53 miles) to 600 kilometers
(373 miles) or more. It is characterized by a rapid increase in temperature with altitude. The thermosphere
contains the ionosphere, a region of ionized particles that play a critical role in radio communication. The
auroras (northern and southern lights) occur in this layer
Ideal Gas Law:
3
PV = nRT, P  Absolute Pr. atm, V  Volume, L or m , n  mole,T  Temperature K, R  Gas
Constant, L.atm/K.mole
Important to remember – Volume of 1 mole gas (g mole) = 22.414 L at 273 K (0oC) & 1 atm pressure,
Volume of 1 mole gas (g mol) at 298 oK (25oC) & 1 atm pressure is 24.465 L

Species % Dry Air

Nitrogen 78.12%
Oxygen 20.91%
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.04

MW = 0.7812x28+0.209x32+0.0093x40+0.0004x44 = 28.95 g/mole

dry

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Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure:
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ------ P = Total Pr. of mixture of Gases, P1, P2 = Partial pressure of each components

Partial pressure  If a component occupies the container volume alone

P=𝑛 +𝑛 +𝑛 + … . = (𝑛 + 𝑛 + 𝑛 + ⋯ )
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = 𝑛 and P = 𝑛
P n
Therefore, = = Y (mole fraction component i)
P n

Mass Concentration of Species „i‟ (Mass/ volume): 𝐶 = 𝑀𝑊 = 𝑀𝑊 𝑌 = 𝑀𝑊 𝑌

Units Fundamentals:
3
3 Basic units of reporting pollution data are: microgram per m ( ) or mg/m3, ppm & micrometer (µ)
3
ppm & ( ) or mg/m reflects concentration while (µ) or (µm) is used to report particle size
ppm is volume to volume or mole to mole ratio (1 part in million part) but ( ) mass to volume ratio

Concept of ppm:
ppm i.e. parts per million is expressed as =

Find out % of CO in air if concentration is 420 ppm?

2

420 ppm = = 4.2𝑥10 (fraction) and in % = ( )x100 = 0.042%

Conversion of mg/m3 to ppm:

o
= (at 0 C & 1 atm)
.
o
= (at 25 C & 1 atm)
.

Mole Fraction and Further:

∑ 𝑌 = 1.0 i.e.𝑌 + 𝑌 + 𝑌 + ⋯ = 1
Hence in case of Air, YO +YN +YCO2+YAr +YH2O = 1
If the mole fraction of water vapor is 0.03, calculate MW of moist air

YH2O = 0.03, Hence Ydry = 1- 0.03 = 0.97

MWdry, air = 28.95 gm/mole (from previous example)

MW moist air = (18x0.03 + 0.97x28.95) gm/mole, =MW moist air = 28.62 g/mol

Adiabatic Expansion and Compression: Air pollution Meteorology, partly, a consequences of the
Thermodynamic processes in the atmosphere. Adiabatic expansion/ contraction is important from this
perspective

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Adiabatic = No addition or removal of heat (system is perfectly insulated)

Here F = Force applied which is equal to P (pressure) exerted x Area

H=U+W
The overall Energy balance can be represented as:
(Heat added to gas) = (Increase in thermal Energy) + (external work done by or on the gas)

For Adiabatic process, heat addition / removal = 0

Hence, change in internal thermal energy = work done = F.ds, where ds is the displacement of piston

So, for Compression  increase in temperature (increase in internal energy) i.e heating effect
Expansion  decrease in temperature (decrease in internal energy), cooling effect

Example 4.1

Ideal Gas Law, PV = nRT,

P = absolute Pr. (atm), V = volume (m3 or L), n = Mass (mole), R = Gas constant = 0.08205 L.atm.K-1mole-1, T=
Abs temp (K)

At, STP (1 atm pr, 0oC or 273oK), Volume of 1 mole gas = 22.414 L
. . . .
At 25oC or 298oK & 1 atm Pr., = = 24.465

In general, the conversion from ppm to mg/m3 is given by:

( )
mg/m3 = .
𝑥 ( )
𝑥 for conversion at 25oC (Pr remains 1 atm) , mg/m3 = .

Example 4.2

AQI standard for CO is 9 ppm. Express the standard as a percent by volume and in mg/ m3 at 1 atm Pr., 25oC

Percent CO in atmosphere = 𝑥 100 = 0.0009 %

CO has molecular wt = 28, CO (in mg/ m3) = .

= 10.3 mg/m3, Also µg = 10-3 mg

Example 4.3

AQ standard sets a limit of NO2 is 500 µg/m3 at 25oC & 1atm pressure. Find out the concentration in ppm

NO2 has a molecular wt. = 46 g/mole, Vol. of 1 mol gas at 25oC & 1 atm = 24.46 L = 2.46x10-3 m3

. / /
NO2 in ppm = /
= 0.28 ppm (ppm is dimension less volume fraction)

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B. Effects/ Impacts of Air Pollutants:

Effects on Materials/ Structure:

• Solubilization & Oxidation/ reduction reaction – Rust/ corrosion, attacks on marble, statue etc
• Besides pollutants, moisture, sunlight, temperature, position of structure are important factors
• UV ray, Ozone, sunlight stimulates air pollution damage e.g. cracking of Rubber, fading of color/ dyes
is caused by Ozone as a result of photochemical reaction
Effects on Vegetation:
Ozone (from photochemical reaction) injures chloroplasts – result is formation of red-brown spot on leaves that
turns white over time
Plant growth is inhibited in presence of NO2 – exposure to 2.5 ppm of NO2 for even a few hours produces Necrosis
(surface spotting due to loss of protoplasm)
SO2 injury produces Necrosis – exposure to 0.3 ppm SO2 for a few hours offer bleaching effect

Effects on Health:

Chronic respiratory disease – breathing trouble, Asthma, different Lung diseases or even some form of cancers

Carbon Monoxide (CO)- Hemoglobin has higher affinity for CO than O2. Exposure to higher level (around 5000
ppm) for a few minutes may be lethal due to Asphyxia (CO is call Asphyxsiant as it suppresses/ replaces O2 in
blood)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)- reddish brown color. Exposure to even 15 ppm cause irritation. Exposure for a longer
time may cause pulmonary edema
Sulfur Oxides (SOx): Includes SO2, SO3, their acids/ salts termed as TSP. Exposure to TSP level > 350ug/m3 and
SO2 > 0.1 ppm for a period result in chronic bronchitis

Particulate matter (PM10 & PM2.5): Exposure to higher lever PM, particularly PM2.5, increases risk of
respiratory, cardiovascular and cancer related diseases including pneumonia and loss of lung function

Lead (Pb): Atmospheric Pb occurs as particulate, size varies 0.15 um ~ 0.4 um. An early manifestation of Pb
poisoning is Anemia. Exposure to a higher level for a longer period causes brain damage leading to convulsion,
coma or cardiorespiratory arrest.

Photochemical Oxidants: Major oxidants produced through photochemical reaction are O3, Nitrogen oxides and
some other organic pollutants e.g. aldehyde, Acrolein, Peroxy acetyl nitrate etc. Oxidant concentration above 0.1
ppm result in eye irritation, at 0.3 ppm triggers chest discomfort/ respirator trouble

Role of Meteorology:

Weather or Meteorology plays an important role for movement & dilution of pollutants. Stagnation effect often
promotes adverse impact of atmospheric pollution. Air pollution episodes/ disasters are mainly caused by sudden/
shock release of higher amount of pollutants, accompanied by meteorological condition, restricted air volume and
failure of authority to sense abnormalities in advance

Origin & Fate of Air Pollutants:

Oxides of Sulfur (SOx):

 Majority comes from burning of fossil fuels (Power plant & Transportation)
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  Others include industries like petroleum refinery, Copper smelters, Cement etc
 Emission primarily include SO2 which may oxidize to SO3 (photo chemical reaction, oxidation etc
 Acid rain (H2SO4, HNO3 produced with reaction of gases like SO2, SO3, NO2 etc and water and other
health impacts. Acid rain or acidic deposition attacks marble, steel structures, damage aquatic lives,
lowers soil pH causing harm to plantation

Particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5):

 Dispersed fine particles (micron size) may be solid or liquid droplets or combined – Aerosol. It comes from
burning of fossil fuels (coal, petrol, diesel etc), hays, crop stubs etc
 Have irregular shape – expressed in equivalent aerodynamic diameter
 PM10 means particles with equivalent aero-dynamic diameter below 10 micron and PM2.5 means particles
with equivalent aero-dynamic diameter less than 2.5 micron
 Particles of 10 micron or above settles gradually but lower size (< 2.5 micron) remains in air for longer
duration and possibility of inhaling is high

Lead (Pb):
 Mostly come from vehicle – burning of petrol. Petrol has additive of TEL (tetra Ethyl Lead) for enhancing
antiknocking quality of petrol. Currently lead free petrol is also available
 Modern car uses Catalytic converter to reduce/ control emissions (including Lead)
 Lead may come from industrial sources (Pb smelter, Lead based paint, Lead-acid battery) etc
 Human exposure to lead mainly from inhalation

Photo chemical Oxidants:

 NOx (mainly NO), VOCs & sunlight can trigger a complex reaction resulting to formation of O3 , NO2 &
others like Formaldehyde, PAN etc
 A photochemical smog (Smoke + Fog) is the resulting features with different health impacts

Ammonia (NH3):
 Primarily through fixation of atmospheric N2 by microbial activities in cultivation, vegetation. Also, decay of
different vegetation, animal wastes and soil humus by different microbes release Ammonia in atmosphere
 Ammonia soluble in water, alters pH balance and excess quantity may harm aquatic lives. Exposure to a
lower concentration (≈ 500 ppm or more) can cause respiratory distress, coughing, eye irritation. Exposure
to higher concentration (> 2500 ppm) may cause serious damage to respiratory track, impairs vision and
other damaging effects

C. National Ambient Air quality: Concept & Approach

 Air (prevention & control of Potion ) Act 1981 – CPCB with state pollution control boards (SPBs) are
responsible for implementing provisions of act
 Standards for Emissions – came into force in 1986. It comprises standard for Ambient air quality in
general with stringent provisions specific to industries
 Both the provisions of act and emission standard are reviewed/ revisited , updated periodically such as in
2008, 2024
 National Ambient Air quality primary look for 7 or 8 different species of concern which are PM2.5, PM10,
SO2, NO2, O3 (near ground), CO, Pb, NH3, while some other additional parameters like Benzene, BaP, As,
Ni and different others like VC, dioxin, BTX etc are in general specific to industries/ industrial zones
 There are 208 Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations all over the country are connected
with NAQI (as in 2019)
National Ambient Air quality Standard (given in Table 1)

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Air Quality Index (AQI) and AQI Computation:

Air Quality Index (AQI) is estimated from real-time data collected at monitoring stations across the country by
calculating sub-indices for individual pollutants like PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, CO, and Ozone, then combining them
based on their concentration levels against health-based breakpoints, ultimately providing a single AQI value on a
real-time basis through a web-based system; this data is primarily managed by the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD) which also uses air quality models to forecast AQI
trends
There are 2 set of standards – For residential & general industrial area & for Ecologically sensitive area

There are 2 measurement approaches – Annual & hourly basis (24 hrs, 8 hrs, 1 hr)
Annual – arithmetic mean of at least 104 measurements in a location twice in a week on 24 hourly basis at regular
interval and Hourly - (24,8 or 1)- data must comply with the given standard with 98 % & 2% deviation from
standard is allowed

Table – 1 (CPCB notified Air Quality Standard, Notification dated 18th November 2009)

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Criteria/ Maor pollutants: PM, CO, NO2, SO2, O3, Pb and NH3 which are mainly measures across varoius palces
in the country to assess local air quality and report the AQI in a particular location, particular day/ time. These are
called Criteria or Major Air Pollutants.

Other Pollutants – Air pollutants like Benzene, Benzopyrene (PAH), Arsenic, Nickel and many others (VOCs,
Dioxin, Toluene, Formaldehyde etc) are often due to industrial or different working establishments. Air pollution
due to industrial activities and related small establisments have specific pollution control norms/ rules along with
installation of suitable mitigation/ control devices as per the CPCB regulations. Owners/ authority of such
establishments need NOC for starting of their activities including periodic check/ audit by CPCB or SPCB as
applicable

National Air Quality Index (AQI):

The AQI consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb), it is calculated only if
data are available for minimum three (3) pollutants out of which one should necessarily be either
PM2.5 or PM10.

While PM2.5, PM10, CO, NO2, SO2, Pb mainly originates from burning of different fossil fuels like
petroleum products, coal, wood, forest fire, stubble etc, O3 is not emitted from such sources
directly.
O3 near ground area is mainly secondary pollutant which is primarily produced due to photochemical
reaction from other pollutants like NO2. A typical reaction of ozone formation may be represented as-
𝑵𝑶 + 𝒉ν (𝒔𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕) → 𝑵𝑶 + 𝑶 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑶 + 𝑶 → 𝑶

Such O3 production in troposphere (near ground area) is typically associated with the presence of
sunlight gradually increasing as the day progresses reaching a peak value around 10 AM to 1PM and
further declines.

Pb particles in atmosphere mainly come from vehicular emissions (leaded petrol) and from other
sources like lead smelting unit, battery industry etc

Ammonia (NH3 ) – mainly from natural processes like microbial activities of cultivation/ vegetation and
microbial decay of vegetation wastes, animal wastes, human waste materials containing protein
substances etc.

For the purpose of air quality reporting of general concern, an AQI (Air quality Index) has been devised.
There are six AQI categories namely, Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.
Computation of AQI is done using real-time data of Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations. Total 208
Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations all over the country are connected with NAQI (as in 2019)

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Table- 2: AQI guidelines & associated Health Impact

Table – 3: AQI category against each of different values of measured Pollutants

The above Table explains that a particular AQI category is assigned against different values of different
parameters. For example, AQI value POOR (AQI 201-300), PM10 lies 251-350, PM2.5 is 91-120, NO2 is 181-280,
O3 (169-208), CO is 10-17 mg/m3 and others. However for reporting purpose a consolidated value AQI (Poor) is
mentioned which is mainly dominated by the highest / worst value in respect of qualitative assessment of any of
these measured parameters or combinations.

AQI, an indicator of overall Ambient Air Quality based on the inputs of 7/ 8 major / criteria pollutant. Each
parameter has its individual limit/ value, time duration of measurement, frequency and/ or reproducibility etc. The
following Table-3 which assigns AQI against each such pollutant provides guidelines to get overall AQI. Based on
the measured values of such pollutants in a particular location Overall AQI of a day or any specific time is

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reported. The idea is at least values of 3 parameters out of which should be PM10 or PM2.5 to get overall
AQI

Approach for computing AQI from the measured parameters:

AQ parameters (PM, CO, NO2, O3, SO2) are often measured in mg/m3 or µg/m3 though for general reporting
purpose it is mentioned as ppm (parts per million. For gases to attain the conversion into ppm (vole by volume)
and concept of ideal gas law is applied. Examples of such conversion have been computed/ presented in
previous section (section – A)

D. Control/ Mitigation of Air Pollution – Engineering Approach

The air pollution can broadly be classified as mobile and stationary sources. Control/ abatement of emissions or
polluting items at the source is the subject of primary focus.

Mobile sources primarily mean transportation sector i.e. motor vehicles, railway engine, water transport (ship/
motor vessel) etc. All of these mainly use fossil fuels in the form of petrol, diesel, natural gas or equivalent.

On the other hand stationary sources include power plants (coal based thermal, gas based or other form of
fossil fuels, woods, husks etc) and varieties of industries. For all these stationary sources of pollution need NOC /
Environmental clearance from MoEF and clearance of CPCB/ SPCB. Such NOC of MoEF is required even before
the start of project implementation. Commissioning/ beginning of activities is permitted only after clearance of
CPCB/ SPCB obtained only after installation of adequate & proper pollution control devices/ equipment capable
of abating / controlling emissions below the prescribed limit

Mobile Sources:

Petrol/ Gasoline Engine: In a typical 4 stroke engine, a mixture of fuel & Air is fed into a cylinder (intake stroke),
next compressed and ignited by a spark from spark plug (compression stroke). The explosive energy of burning
moves the piston (power stroke) and the piston‟s movement is transmitted to the crank shaft that drives the car.
In the Exhaust stroke, the spent, burnt mixture and pollutants ext.The Figure 4.1 explains the different strokes of
an petrol engine.

The conventional petrol is blend of different HCs, an average formulation can be approximated as C7H13. (or
more precisely CH1.8) Assuming air comprises only O2 and N2, a combustion reaction can be represented as:

𝐶 + 10.25 + 38.54 →7𝐶 + 6.5 + 38.54 + 𝑛𝑒𝑟

Also, in the above reaction any oxidation of N2 into NO/ NO2 has been neglected as Nitrogen is generally inert in
nature.

Petrol/ gasoline is primarily blend of hydrocarbon compounds (HCs) and a density of 0.75 – 0.78 g/cc with an
effective overall composition of CH1.8. With an equivalence ratio of φ (it varies between slightly less than 1 to
slightly more than 1), the following stoichiometric equation of combustion is presented.

1.45 5.48 1
𝐶 . + ( + 3.78 )→𝐶 + 0.9 + + 1.45 ( )

Where, φ = Equivalence Ratio

φ = 1, indicates Stoichiometric reaction

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φ > 1 RICH Fuel condition (Mo0re Fuel, Less Air)

φ < 1, LEAN Fuel condition (More Air, Less Fuel)

In case φ = 1, the above general equation reduces to:

𝐶 . + 1.45( + 3.78 )→𝐶 + 0.9 + 5.48

Stoichiometric Air-to-Fuel Ratio:

1 mole of CH1.8 = 13 g, 1 mole O2 = 32 g, 38. 1mole of N2 = 28 g

. ( . )
Then stoichiometric Air-to-Fuel Ratio of Petrol is: = = 14.5

Figure 4.1 explains different strokes of a Petrol Engine a) Intake Stroke - a mixture of fuel & Air is fed into a cylinder through
Carburetor b) Compression stroke- Compression & ignition by spark c) Power Stroke – burning of fuel produces energy and
drives the piston. Piston movement transmitted to the Crank shaft & drives the car d) Exhaust Stroke- spent gases, burning
residuals exits

Implications of Air to Fuel Ratio:

 If Air is less than the stoichiometric value, the mixture is called RICH (Rich in Fuel, φ is slightly > 1 which
is around 1.02-1.05). A RICH mixture burning promotes generation of CO & unburned HCs as there is not
sufficient oxygen to complete combustion. It also reduces combustion temperature and generation of NOs.
Fuel is used less efficiently under fuel-rich condition but more fuel is burned in each stroke and generates
more power.
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  Mixture with excess air is called LEAN (Lean in Fuel, φ is slightly <1 which is around 0.97 – 0.95). Lean
mixture promotes better combustion which offers better fuel economy, produces less CO & HCs and also
increases NOx up to a certain point unless it becomes so lean that misfiring occurs
 The Air-to-Fuel ratio is not the only factor responsible for pollution. Other factors like fuel type, ignition
timing, compression ratio, vehicle condition like accelerating or decelerating or idling all contribute
 Following development of catalytic converter for controlling emissions of CO, NOx, HCs, maintaining of A-
to-F ratio within a narrow range has been achieved through electronic controlling system

The following Figure 4.2 & Figure 4.3 explain the relationship between CO, HCs, NOx, Fuel consumption etc
and A-to-F

It can be observed that maximum power is derived for a slightly RICH mixture while maximum fuel ECONOMY
can be obtained for a little LEAN mixture

Figure 4.2 exhibits effect of A to F ratio on emissions (pollutants- CO, HC, NO2)

Figure 4.3 explains effect of A to F ratio on power and Economy

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DIESEL ENGINE;

It differs from Petrol Engine. Here Air supply is not throttled/ controlled (no Carburetor). It runs at a higher A to F
ratio (LEAN mixture). There is no Spark plug as for ignition through spark. The Fuel ignites spontaneously during
Compression stroke. The air is heated by compression (recall heating effect of adiabatic compression) Cylinder is
squeezed is enough to reach a temperature of about 540oC to start ignition spontaneously.

Diesel Engine runs with LEAN mixture and in general generates less CO, HCs compared to petrol-engine but
high compression leads to higher combustion temperature and increase production of NOx

Also, Diesel-engine emits carbonaceous soot particles (PM2.5 or equivalent) due to uneven mixing of air & fuel
in in pockets within cylinder (as a result of cracking of fuel species in absence of air) which have been labeled as
probable carcinogens

The figure 4.4 explains the steps of operation of a Diesel-engine.

Figure 4.4 explains the steps of operation of a diesel engine a) in the 1st stroke, Piston is at the bottom, exhaust valve &
cylinder port are open, blower pushes Air in cylinder b) In the 2nd stroke, piston rises, exhaust valves close, air ports shut off,
air is compressed. When piston reaches the top, fuel is injected into highly compressed hot air. Heated air ignites the Fuel
without spark

Comparison between Petrol & Diesel Engine

Petrol / Gasoline Engine Diesel Engine

Fuel – Petrol/ Gasoline relatively lighter fraction of Crude Diesel – relative heavier fraction of crude oil, high flash
oil, Low flash point, easily catch fire point, catches fire after attaining a certain temperature
Spark Ignition (uses spark plug); usually 4 stroke engine No spark plug, it is compression ignition type engine.
o
common Compression increases temperature to 540 C or more to
start combustion, there are both 2 strokes and 4 strokes
engine are available
Optimum A to F – Maintained around 14.8/ 14.9 in respect It run usually lean Fuel condition ie. more air compared to
of fuel economy, better power & pollution control (though stochiometric demad
stoichiometric is 14.5)
Pollutants – CO, unburnt HC, NO2 NOx (mainly NO2) and Carbon soot
Pollution control – 3 way catalytic converter which control Pollution control – Filter for soot material, catalytic
all three pollutants (CO, HC & NOx) converter for NOx
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Exhaust/ Emission Control approaches for Petrol & Diesel engines

The most commonly used systems for exhaust gas controlling are 1) Thermal reactor 2) Exhaust Gas
recirculation (EGR) and 3) Catalytic Converter

 Thermal reactor – a after burner that encourages the continued oxidation of CO & HC after they have left
combustion chamber. It includes multipass exhaust manifold with an external air source. It reduces CO &
HC in exhaust gas
 Recirculation of a part of exhaust gas back into the incoming air/ fuel mixture. Relatively inert NO in hot
condition helps decrease in production of NOx
 The most preferred & effective system is catalytic converter. The 3-way catalytic converter helps CO to
get oxidized to CO2, HCs to get oxidized to CO2 and water vapour, while NOX is reduced to N2. It is
effective in controlling emissions through a electronic controlling circuit that maintain the A to F ratio within
a narrow band of equivalence ratio φ. A typical controlling arrangement/ diagram is represented here.
 For diesel engine besides the catalytic converter (for controlling and complying emissions of HC, CO,
NOx), additional filter is required to control emissions of carbonaceous soot materials

Further the following Figure 4.5 describes the provision of calalytic converter along with its controlling circuit for a
petrol/ gasoline driven car. To facilitate functioning of catalytic converter properly a narrow band of Air-to- fuel
ratio 14.8 to 14.9 (slightly more than the stoichiometric ratio, a slightly lean fuel condition) is maintained. A closed-
loop controlling system monitors the composition of exhaust gas and sends corrective signals to the air-fuel
metering system

Figure 4.5 explains the provision of catalytic converter

along with its controlling circuit for a petrol/ gasoline driven car. A closed-loop controlling system monitors the composition of
exhaust gas and sends corrective signals to the air-fuel metering system

Alternative Fuels:

For the purpose of reduction of vehicular emissions, different alternative fuels and arrangements are being tested,
tried and made commercial uses. Some of them are:

Ethanol blend – mainly sourced through fermentation from grains/ woods etc and blend with petrol containing 10-
20% methanol (C2H5OH). Since ethanol is targeted to source from grain etc, emissions of CO2 for the entire fuel
cycle can be reduced. Ethanol blend helps lowering of CO emission & HCs in comparison with petrol but
advantage may be offset by increased Fuel vaporization as ethanol is more volatile.

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Compressed natural gas (CNG): it is much cleaner fulel with low emissions of CO, HCs and PMs though NOx
emissions tend to be higher. A good NOx emission control system is desired. Another disadvantage is
requirement of carrying a highly pressurized gas tank adds to the inconvenience including demands for separate
gas-filling stations. Another alternative is LPG burning for running the vehicles and it somehow bears the
similarity with CNG in respect of advantages and disadvantages

Electric Vehicle –Drive by electricity supplied by battery banks and such batteries need to be recharged after a
certain distance of running. Improved battery technologies have prompted the market of EVs. Based on the
current technologies it is the cleanest approach in terms of emissions which is negligible compared to the
conventional arrangements. However, new infrastructural facilities for recharging and fast charging are some
deterrent factors for the EVs to be popular

Hybrid car: It has both conventional system of combustion and and battery bank with electricity generation. It
works to the effort of reducing emissions as produced by conventional fuel cars. Also, it attempts to reduce the
fuel consumption (petrol) to a great extent.

Stationary Sources:

Non-transportation, fossil-fuel combustion is responsible for almost 80 - 85% of SOx, half of NOx and PMs in
several developed and developing countries. It mainly includes different industries and one of the major
contributories of such pollutants is coal-fired thermal power plant for electricity production.

Since coal fired electric generating unit includes varieties of emissions and mitigation/ controlling devices for the
same, the example of coal-fired power plant has been placed here as a model example. Besides coal based
power plant there are other industries like Iron & Steel, Petroleum refineries, different metal extraction & refining
units are such example. The Figure 4.6 explains a typical coal-fired power plant of present days.

The typical reaction of coal burning (coal contains C, H, N, O, S & other metal impurities) is given by:
Coal: C H O N S (impurities, HM etc) + Air (N +O )  Energy + Emissions (CO2, CO H2O, SO2, NO2, Ash, PM, HM etc)
a b c d x Heavy Metal 2 2

Where, HM stands for metals like Hg, Cr etc. Also, except CO2 & H2O all other emitting species are considered
pollutants

Figure 4.5 displays a typical coal fired power plant comprising pollution control devices like Electrostatic precipitator (ESP),
scrubber with thickener & vacuum filter etc and a cooling tower for controlling thermal pollution

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 ----- End of Module-4: Air Pollution Part-1-----
References:
1. Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science - Gilbert M. Masters
2. Environmental Engineering – M. L. Davis, D. A. Cornwell
3. Environmental Engineering Science – W. W. Nazaroff, L. Alvarez-Cohen
4. CPCB report on “National Ambient Air Quality Status & Trends- 2019, Published in 2019

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