FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

DEFINITION OF FLUE GAS

Flue gas refers to a chemical byproduct substance that is generated as a result of a combustion reaction
that has escaped through long pipes such as those in boilers, furnaces or steam generators. Flue gas may
also be referred to as exhaust gas and may act as a reactor agent for atmospheric corrosion. The contents
of flue gases vary, depending on the main unit operation from which they are generated. Regardless of the
combustion reaction constituents involved, most flue gases consist of mostly nitrogen, which is due to
combustion reactions involving air, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor in the presence of oxygen
(artificial or via air).
Flue gases are accompanied by pollutants, which include particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides and sulfur oxides. These pollutants are the primary components of photochemical smog, a type of
air pollution that is generated when the sun's ultraviolet rays react with nitrogen oxides in the Earth's
atmosphere. Regions that experience higher levels of photochemical smog also observe higher corrosion
rates of metallic structures that are situated outdoors. Atmospheric corrosion is greatly increased in
chemically contaminated surroundings due to higher acidity levels.

Flue gas MAY ALSO BE REFFERED AS THE gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue, which is a pipe
or channel for conveying exhaust gases, as from a fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator. It
often refers to the exhaust gas of combustion at power plants. The flue is simply a piece of pipework or
duct that moves gases and hot air from the combustion chamber of the boiler to outside. With condensing
boilers, the flue is effectively part of the heating system, as it is the heat from the burned gases that starts
warming the returning water from the system.. Combustion of fossil fuels is a common source of flue gas.
They are usually combusted with ambient air, with the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-
fuel combustion being nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.

Power plants[edit]
Quite often, the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants. Its composition
depends on what is being burned, but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen (typically more than two-
thirds) derived from the combustion of air, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water vapor as well as
excess oxygen (also derived from the combustion air). It further contains a small percentage of a number
of pollutants, such as particulate matter (like soot), carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur
oxides.[2]

SCRUBBING
At power plants, flue gas is often treated with a series of chemical processes and scrubbers, which
remove pollutants. Electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters remove particulate matter and flue-gas
desulfurization captures the sulfur dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels, particularly coal.
[3] Nitrogen oxides are treated either by modifications to the combustion process to prevent their
formation, or by high temperature or catalytic reaction with ammonia or urea. In either case, the aim is
to produce nitrogen gas, rather than nitrogen oxides. In the United States, there is a rapid deployment of
technologies to remove mercury from flue gas—typically by absorption on sorbents or by capture in inert
solids as part of the flue-gas desulfurization product. Such scrubbing can lead to meaningful recovery of
sulfur for further industrial use.
There are a number of proven technologies for removing pollutants emitted from power plants that are
now available. There is also much ongoing research into technologies that will remove even more air
pollutants.

Fossil fuels
Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air (as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen).
Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen (N2), which is essentially non-
combustible, the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted
nitrogen. Carbon dioxide (CO2), the next largest part of flue gas, can be as much as 10−25 volume
percent or more of the flue gas. This is closely followed in volume by water vapor (H2O) created by the
combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen. Much of the 'smoke' seen pouring
from flue gas stacks is this water vapor, forming a cloud as it contacts cool air.
A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen
oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter. The nitrogen oxides are derived from the
nitrogen in the ambient air, as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel. The
sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels. The particulate matter is
composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases
their smoky appearance.

PARAMETERS FOR FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

The presence of pollutants in flue gas can be detected from the concentration of the gas components. The
following units are generally used:

ppm (parts per million)

Like "per cent (%)", ppm describes a proportion. Per cent means "x number of parts in every hundred
parts", while ppm means "x number of parts in a million parts". For example, if a gas cylinder contains
250 ppm carbon monoxide (CO), then if one million gas particles are taken from that cylinder, 250 of
them will be carbon monoxide particles. The other 999,750 particles are nitrogen dioxide (N2) and
oxygen particles (O2).

The unit ppm is independent of pressure and temperature, and is used for low concentrations. If larger
concentrations are present, these are expressed as percentages (%). The conversion is as follows:

10 000 ppm = 1 %
1 000 ppm = 0.1 %
100 ppm = 0.01 %
10 ppm = 0.001 %
1 ppm = 0.0001 %

An oxygen concentration of 21% volume would be equivalent to a concentration of 210,000 ppm O2.

mg/Nm3 (milligrams per cubic metre)

With the unit mg/Nm3, the standard volume (standard cubic metres, Nm3) is taken as a reference variable
and the mass of the pollutant gas given in milligrams (mg). Because this unit varies with pressure and
temperature, the volume in normal conditions is taken as reference. Normal conditions are as follows:

Temperature: 0 °C
Pressure: 1013 mbar (hPa)

However, this information alone is not sufficient, because the respective volumes in the flue gas change
according to the proportion of oxygen (dilution of flue gas with ambient air). The measured values
therefore have to be converted to a particular volume of oxygen, the reference oxygen content (reference
O2).

Only data with the same reference oxygen content can be directly compared. The measured oxygen
content (O2) of the flue gas is also needed when converting ppm into mg/Nm3.

mg/kWh (milligrams per kilowatt-hour of energy)

Calculations are made with fuel-specific data in order to determine pollutant gas concentrations in the
energy-related unit mg/kWh.There are thus different conversion factors for each fuel.

The conversion factors for ppm and mg/m3 into the energy-related unit mg/kWh are shown below. Before
converting to mg/kWh, the measured emission value concentrations first have to be converted to
undiluted flue gas (0 % reference oxygen content).
The conversion factors for solid fuels also depend on the form in which the fuel is available (in one piece,
as chippings, powder, shred etc.) For this reason the factors should be checked carefully.

The COMPOSITION of flue gas ANALYSIS are listed below in the order of concentration in the gas.

Nitrogen (N2)

Nitrogen (N2) is the main component (79 vol.%) of the air we breathe. This colourless, odourless,
tasteless gas plays no part in combustion. It is drawn into the boiler as ballast, heated and sent to the
stack.

Typical values in flue gas: Oil/gas burners: 78 % - 80 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas with a slightly sour taste. Under the influence of sunlight
and the green leaf colour, chlorophyll, plants convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into oxygen (O2).

Human and animal respiration converts the oxygen (O2) back into carbon dioxide (CO2).

This creates an equilibrium which gaseous products of combustion distort. This distortion accelerates the
greenhouse effect. The threshold limit value is 5000 ppm. At concentrations of over 15% volume (150000
ppm) in breath, loss of consciousness occurs immediately.

Typical values in flue gas: Oil burners: 12.5 % - 14 % and gas burners: 8 % - 11 %

Water vapour (Humidity)

The hydrogen contained in the fuel combines with oxygen to form water (H2O). This escapes with the
water from the fuel and the combusted air, depending on the flue gas temperature (FT), in the form of flue
gas moisture (at a high flue gas temperature FT) or as condensate (at a low flue gas temperature).

Oxygen (O2)

The remaining oxygen not used in combustion in the case of excess air appears as gaseous flue gas and is
used to measure combustion efficiency. It is used to determine flue gas loss and carbon dioxide content.

Typical values in flue gas: Oil burners: 2% - 5% and Gas burners: 2% - 6%

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless breathing poison and is the product of incomplete
combustion. In too high a concentration, it prevents the blood from absorbing oxygen. If for example the
air for breathing in a room contained 700 ppm CO, a human being breathing in that air would be dead in
3 hours. The threshold limit value is 50 ppm.

Typical values in flue gas: Oil burners: 80 ppm - 150 ppm and Gas burners: 80 ppm - 100 ppm

Nitrogen oxides (NOX)

At high temperatures (combustion), the nitrogen (N2) present in the fuel and in the ambient air combines
with the oxygen of the air (O2) to form nitrogen monoxide (NO). After some time, this colourless gas
oxidises in combination with oxygen (O2) to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

NO2 is a water-soluble respiratory poison which causes severe lung damage if breathed in and
contributes to ozone formation in combination with ultraviolet radiation (sunlight). The NO and NO2
components together are called nitrogen oxides (NOX).

Typical values in flue gas: Oil/gas burners: 50 ppm - 100 ppm

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a colourless, toxic gas with a pungent smell. It is formed by the sulphur present
in the fuel. The threshold limit value is 5 ppm. Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) is formed in combination with
water (H2O) or condensate.

Typical value in flue gas of oil burners: 180 ppm - 220 ppm

Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC)

Unburned hydrocarbons (HC) are formed when combustion is incomplete and contribute to the
greenhouse effect. This group includes methane (CH4), butane (C4H10) and benzene (C6H6).

Typical value in flue gas of oil burners: under 50 ppm

Soot

Soot is almost pure carbon (C) resulting from incomplete combustion.

Typical value in flue gas oil burners: Smoke spot number 0 or 1

Particulate Matter

Particulate matter (dust) is the name given to the smallest solids distributed through the air. These may
occur in any shape and density. Particulate matter is formed by the ash and mineral components of solid
fuels.
Gas Analysis Technique
Flue gas analysis is done by inserting a probe into the flue of a boiler, furnace, or other appliance
between the last heat exchanger and draft diverter, or indeed any source of make-up air that may enter
the flue that did not flow through the combustion process. This is referred to as an "in-situ" examination.
Most probes presently are either electrochemical or infrared, based on the gas being analyzed. Certain
values are computed based on gases which are measured and afterward factored based on input fuel
qualities. Not all gases are measured directly by all meters; some values are derived based on gasses that
are measured and thereafter factored depending on the input fuel characteristics.

Other Flue Gas Techniques

In-situ probes are not used by all flue gas analyzers. Some devices deliver flue gases towards the
instrument through a tube. This is particularly common with continuous monitoring devices and
extremely big systems, where reaching a location in the flue to insert a probe or locate a portable meter
is difficult.
To prevent the product being measured from escaping, the tube might have to be heated. To avoid
moisture damage to a probe, the flue gases should be cooled and dried in other circumstances.
Instrumentation employs a 'Peltier Cooler,' an electrochemical device that creates a cold surface that
condenses any moisture in the flue gas before it enters the measurement sensor.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

Flue gas analysis is essential for evaluating air-to-fuel ratios in combustion for best efficiency. The kind
of fuel consumed and the combustion circumstances at each plant define the particular composition of
flue gas. For combustion to occur efficiently, whether a facility employs solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels, an
appropriate balance of fuel and air must be reached.

It is also crucial to detect contaminants in emissions. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), and other pollutants are all measured using a flue gas
analyzer. Following detection, equipment can treat flue gas using scrubbers and/or chemical processors
for removing contaminants, thus enhancing sustainable development and satisfying EPA and other
organizations' regulations.

EFFECT OF FLUE GASES

Flue gas treatment, a process designed to reduce the amount of pollutants emitted from the burning
of fossil fuels at an industrial facility, a power plant, or another source. Flue gas—the emitted material
produced when fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, or wood are burned for heat or power—may
contain pollutants such as particulates, sulfur dioxide, mercury, and carbon dioxide. Most flue gas,
however, consists of nitrogen oxides. If left untreated, flue gas from power plants, industrial facilities,
and other sources can substantially affect local and regional air quality.
Under many national-level clean-air regulations, power plants and other facilities are required to use
flue gas treatments to reduce the amount of emitted pollutants. Such approaches, which use devices such
as electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers, can successfully remove 90 percent or more of certain
pollutants. However, they can be very costly to install and operate, and requirements for flue
gas treatment frequently provoke complex legal battles. Treatments vary widely from one plant to
another, and some c Flue gas treatment, a process designed to reduce the amount of
pollutants emitted from the burning of fossil fuels at an industrial facility, a power plant, or another
source. Flue gas—the emitted material produced when fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas,
or wood are burned for heat or power—may contain pollutants such as particulates, sulfur
dioxide, mercury, and carbon dioxide. Most flue gas, however, consists of nitrogen oxides. If left
untreated, flue gas from power plants, industrial facilities, and other sources can substantially affect
local and regional air quality.
Under many national-level clean-air regulations, power plants and other facilities are required to use
flue gas treatments to reduce the amount of emitted pollutants. Such approaches, which use devices such
as electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers, can successfully remove 90 percent or more of certain
pollutants. However, they can be very costly to install and operate, and requirements for flue
gas treatment frequently provoke complex legal battles. Treatments vary widely from one plant to
another, and some c
Treatment process
At plants that emit a number of pollutants, flue gas may go through a series of devices for cleaning. Flue
gas treatment has achieved the greatest success in reducing particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and
sulfur dioxide. In a typical treatment process, the gas is first sent to an electrostatic precipitator, although
fabric filters can be used as well. That device removes ash and other particulates by electrostatically
charging them, causing them to be attracted to and deposited on plates or other collection devices.
Particulate removal is an essential part of the process, because particulates released into
the atmosphere can affect the respiratory systems of people and animals, reduce visibility, and influence
climate. Depending on such factors as the size of the particles and the design of the electrostatic
precipitator, this treatment can remove 99 percent of particulate matter.
The gas then moves on to a denitrification unit that alters the chemical composition of nitrogen oxides
through a catalytic reaction with ammonia or urea. The goal is to produce nitrogen gas, rather than
nitrogen oxides. Some facilities can also reduce nitrogen oxide emissions through modifications to the
combustion process. If emitted into the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides can irritate the lungs and contribute
to the formation of smog.
Sulfur dioxide is removed by one of a number of processes, most of which involve scrubbers in one form
or another. Most U.S. facilities rely on wet scrubbers, which use a slurry of alkaline sorbent
(usually comprising limestone or lime) or seawater to clean the gases. Other technologies include
spray-dry scrubbing, which also uses sorbent slurries; a wet sulfuric acid process that recovers
the sulfur in the form of sulfuric acid; dry sorbent injection systems; and a flue gas desulfurization
technique known as SNOX, which uses catalytic reactions to clean flue gases of nitrogen oxides (NOx)
and particulates, as well as sulfur dioxide. Newer technologies can remove more than 90 percent of sulfur
dioxide from flue gas. Sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere can aggravate respiratory illnesses and
cardiovascular conditions; it also leads to acid rain, reduces visibility, and affects clouds and climate.