See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/376618918

Exploring the quality and safety issues in the coconut oil processing industry in
Sri Lanka: A Review

Article in Journal of Science of the University of Kelaniya · December 2023

DOI: 10.4038/josuk.v16i2.8081

CITATIONS READS

0 955

3 authors:

Udara Chandrajith Samaranayake G.A.D.B. Sandarenu Dharmaprema

University of Peradeniya University of Peradeniya
10 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS 4 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

H.G. Amal Sudaraka Samarasinghe

KIU
35 PUBLICATIONS 8 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Udara Chandrajith Samaranayake on 19 December 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

J. Sci. Univ. Kelaniya 16 (2) (2023): 63-76 https://doi.org/10.4038/josuk.v16i2.8081

Exploring the quality and safety issues in the coconut oil processing industry in Sri Lanka: A Review

H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe1,2,3*, U.C. Samaranayake1 and G.A.D.B.S. Dharmaprema4,5,

1
Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka.
2
Department of Medical Science in Acupuncture, KIU, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.
3
Research and Innovation Division, KIU, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.
4
Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
5
Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University, Mihintale, Sri Lanka

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5032-2679

Received: 29.05.2023 Revised: 28.07.2023 Accepted: 14.09.2023 Online: 15.12.2023

Abstract Coconut oil is a significant dietary component in Sri Lanka and serves as the primary source of fat for Sri
Lankans, primarily used for culinary purposes. This review focuses on the quality and safety concerns within the
coconut oil processing industry of Sri Lanka. The study collected data through interviews with industry personnel,
conducted field visits to both small-scale and large-scale operations, and analyzed existing research. Several factors
impact the quality and safety of coconut oil products. Key issues include the increase in free fatty acid content, the
production of aflatoxin in copra, phthalate contamination from packaging, and the contamination of coconut oil with
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). These quality and safety concerns result from cross-contamination with metals
and other chemicals during equipment use, a shortage of trained personnel, insufficient laboratory testing of oil quality
parameters before market distribution, and inadequate surveillance of small and medium-sized oil mills by regulatory
bodies. Additionally, the local market faces high levels of adulteration, where coconut oil is mixed with lower-quality
oils, stored improperly, or is of overall poor quality. Issues related to coconut cultivation include a decline in yields
due to inefficient land usage, reduced productivity, climate change impacts, pest infestations, diseases, and increased
production costs. The adulteration problem arises from the supply-demand gap for coconut oil in Sri Lanka and the
high cost of producing one litre of good-quality coconut oil. The Sri Lankan government and the Sri Lanka Standards
Institution have introduced a product standard for coconut oil production, outlining key parameters for the final
product. Nevertheless, the absence of a comprehensive process standard affects quality control throughout production.
Small and medium-scale producers lack awareness of SLSI standards, leading to non-compliance, along with an
absence of regular quality and safety checks. Consequently, stringent enforcement is necessary to address these
challenges. While improvements have been made, unresolved issues remain; therefore, a quality assurance system for
the coconut oil processing industry is an urgent requirement, especially for small and medium-scale oil production
facilities, which are key suppliers to the local market.

Keywords: Coconut oil, copra, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, aflatoxins, phthalate

Introduction performance, Sri Lanka plays a significant role in

the global coconut oil industry, meeting 1.33% of
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is one of the foremost the global demand valued at USD 62.7 Million by
plantation crops in Sri Lanka, having significant 2022. In 2018 and 2019, the export of coconut oil
cultural, economic, and culinary value. The coconut amounted to 4,606 and 4,056 metric tons,
market comprises of diverse products, including respectively, earning 3,019.96 and 1,903.45 million
fresh coconut, kernel products such as coconut oil, rupees, respectively (Coconut Development
desiccated coconut, coconut milk, and coconut Authority, 2020; EDB, 2023). Key importers
cream, and various by-products such as coconut include the USA, Australia, Germany, Saudi
water, coconut fiber, coconut shell charcoal, and Arabia, the UK, and the Netherlands. In 2019,
activated carbon (Abeysekara et al., 2020). Over the coconut oil held a substantial market share,
past decade, the coconut industry in Sri Lanka has representing roughly half of the global coconut
displayed consistent growth in its export products market due to its widespread use in food,

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International

 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

beverages, and personal care products. but the smoke produced during combustion can lead
Additionally, the rising global demand for Virgin to the production of low-quality copra with a
Coconut Oil (VCO) as a functional food with health blackish colour (Mendis 2017; Herath et al., 2022).
benefits has prompted Sri Lankan coconut oil Furthermore, the smoke can contaminate the copra
manufacturers to produce VCO to cater to this with polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and dioxin,
growing market (EDB, 2023; Aiome et al., 2022). which can result in residues in the coconut oil
Kernel products emerged as the primary contributor produced, leading to rejections of Sri Lankan
to the total export value, accounting for 52% with a coconut oil in the international market.
value of USD 434.57 million in 2021 (Central Bank Additionally, incomplete combustion of coconut
Annual Report, 2021). husks can lead to the generation of PAHs. Uneven
Effective implementation of quality and safety drying can also occur if the kiln is not heated prior
measures is critical for ensuring the sustainability to loading the split kernels, leading to cold air
and competitiveness of Sri Lanka's coconut oil pockets and delaying the drying of the kernel (Credo
industry in the global market. Therefore, ongoing & Valmoria, 2019; Herath et al., 2022).
research and development efforts should be directed Storage of copra in inadequately ventilated and
towards identifying and addressing the quality and damp conditions, especially in small-scale
safety issues that are specific to Sri Lanka's coconut operations, can lead to the reabsorption of moisture
oil industry, with the aim of improving the quality from the environment, activating mold and bacteria
and safety of coconut oil products and enhancing the on the copra surface, resulting in the growth of
industry's reputation and profitability. microorganisms, increased free fatty acid content,
and aflatoxin production (Sultan et al., 2019;
Quality and safety issues regarding raw materials Tuhumuri et al., 2021). Transporting copra for
milling presents challenges due to long travel times
Raw materials play a crucial role in the processing and uncontrolled conditions, leading to increased
of any commodity, and the quality and safety of the contamination (Udana & Amarasinghe, 2016).
raw materials can significantly impact the final Further, the mixing of superior and ordinary-
product's quality (Th et al., 2018). Specifically, the grade copra during white coconut oil extraction
raw materials can be in the form of dried copra for increases the moisture and FFA content of the
the dry process, fresh coconut kernel for the wet resulting oil, reducing its shelf life and quality
process, and testa for pairing oil (Jia et al., 2023; (Herath et al., 2022). Furthermore, rejected copra
Josephrajkumar et al., 2019). Sun drying is a with bacterial and fungal growth, which can contain
traditional and low-cost method used in copra harmful substances like aflatoxins, is also used for
processing in Sri Lanka. However, it is highly oil production, further compromising the quality of
dependent on the availability of sunlight, and the extracted oil. High moisture content in such
sudden increases in humidity can cause copra to copra promotes rancidity and FFA production in the
reabsorb moisture from the environment (Herath et resulting oil (Deepa et al., 2015; Wanniarachchi et
al., 2022; Stein et al., 2015). Sun drying is typically al., 2023).
done in open and unshaded areas, where copra can Scientifically, the primary concern with copra
meet dust, sand, and animal faecal material, is its contamination with aflatoxins due to
potentially contaminating the copra with pathogenic inadequate drying methods, low-quality nuts, and
microorganisms. Oxidation of oil can also occur improper storage (De Asis et al., 2020; Farias et al.,
during this period if sun drying is not conducted 2019; Guchi, 2015). Sun-dried copra is especially
under hygienic and controlled conditions prone to contamination, and aflatoxin B2 and G1
(Karunarathna et al., 2019; Wanniarachchi et al., have been detected in local coconut oil (Herath et
2023). al., 2022; Lakshman et al., 2022). Wanniarachchi, et
Direct heat drying, such as using a copra kiln, al., 2023; Lakshman et al., 2022 indicate that 38%
is another common method of copra drying in Sri of local coconut oils in Sri Lanka exceed the
Lanka. Coconut husks or shells are commonly used aflatoxin limits set by the Sri Lanka Standards
as fuel for the kiln, and the split kernels are kept on Institute, including branded coconut oils. They
a platform above the fuel that is set on fire. The heat suggest that the source of contamination is copra.
generated comes into direct contact with the kernels, During copra processing, exposure to smoke could

64
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

reduce the aflatoxin levels. However, this could methods to remove impurities from copra, such as
increase the risk of potential contamination with sand, soil, ashes, broken shells, and wood particles
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, introducing a new which can affect the safety and quality of the end
safety issue. product (Herath et al., 2022; Lira et al., 2017;
Contamination of coconut oils with Marasinghe et al., 2019; Mohammed et al., 2021;
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), a group of Ng et al., 2021).
over 200 different contaminants, poses a significant The filtration process of coconut oil, which is
industry problem as these lipophilic compounds are utilized in both white and crude coconut oil
readily absorbed by coconut oil (De Silva et al., production, presents several challenges. Plate-type
2018; Ji et al., 2022). PAH is formed during the filters are typically used in the filtration process,
incomplete combustion of organic material, and the with the cotton cloth being the filter medium. As
main source in the coconut oil industry is the smoke coconut oil is highly corrosive, the cotton cloth
produced during copra drying (Sampaio et al., quickly deteriorates, resulting in the addition of
2021). PAH contamination can also occur through small cotton strands to the oil (Beristaín-Bauza et
air transfer, if the kilns are placed within the mill's al., 2018; Dharmaratne et al., 2016; Rohman et al.,
land or if the mills and refining plants are in highly 2021). This presents a major problem in white
polluted areas. Despite this, PAH contamination in coconut oil processing, as it is not subjected to any
coconut oil remains an unsolved issue in Sri Lanka further purification steps after filtration. The
(Herath et al., 2022). accumulated cotton strands or cloth particles can
Testa, the by-product of desiccated coconut remain in the oil, diminishing its clarity and
and virgin coconut oil mills, is utilized to extract negatively affecting its quality (Dharmaratne et al.,
high-quality pairing oil; nevertheless, challenges 2017; Oseni et al., 2017)
arise in its production when appropriate methods Controlling the processing temperature is
and hygienic conditions are not implemented challenging, especially in small and medium-scale
(Srivastava et al., 2016). In the case of many virgin expelling processes, and it is particularly difficult to
coconut oil producers, which is the main income, maintain the pressure head below 60°C during the
the production of pairing oil, which serves as an extraction of Virgin Coconut Oil from desiccated
additional source of income, is often paid less coconut (Agarwal & Bosco, 2017; Cañeda et al.,
attention and improper processing of testa results in 2019). Large-scale companies use water-jacketed
the production of low-quality pairing oil (Zainol et expellers to remove the heat, but smaller operations
al., 2023). have difficulty controlling temperature as they
The high free fatty acid and moisture content cannot afford expensive equipment. Discoloration
of testa make it susceptible to microbial attacks and of coconut oil due to heat is a common issue among
rancidity. Therefore, it is important to send testa for small-scale coconut oil millers, which is difficult to
oil extraction immediately after separation from the avoid (Ghani et al., 2018).
kernel (Ramesh et al., 2021). However, this is often
not the case, as producers store testa until they have Issues related to processing equipment
collected the desired amount, leading to the growth
of microorganisms due to the high lipid and The coconut oil milling process involves the use of
moisture content. Proper handling and processing of a limited number of processing equipment,
testa are necessary to ensure the quality and safety especially in medium and small-scale plants (Herath
of the pairing oil extracted from it (Marasinghe et et al., 2020). Despite this, there are several issues
al., 2019). that can significantly affect the quality of the
coconut oil produced. One such issue is the potential
Issues related to the processing methods for cross-contamination with metals and other
chemicals from the equipment. Therefore, it is
Inadequate fulfilment of specific processing recommended to use stainless steel for expellers and
conditions for different varieties of coconut oil filters to withstand the acidity of the oil (Hasan et
affects the end product's quality and safety, with al., 2015). However, many medium and small-scale
small and medium-scale processing plants often manufacturers do not follow this recommendation,
neglecting the critical step of using separation leading to contamination of the oil with metal

65
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

particles, especially ferrous ions, which can have Challenges in Ensuring Quality and Safety of
negative health implications (Syukur et al., 2022). Coconut Oil through Laboratory Testing
Poor sanitation, cleaning, and maintenance
practices of equipment in coconut oil production There are several challenges associated with
contribute to quality issues, as the high nutritional laboratory testing that affect the reliability of test
content of coconut oil and raw materials makes results. One major challenge is the insufficient
equipment surfaces highly susceptible to microbial testing of coconut oil quality parameters before
growth, emphasizing the need for regular cleaning releasing the product to the market (Odoom &
and maintenance. However, inadequate attention to Edusei, 2015). Small and medium-scale coconut oil
this aspect by many millers leads to contamination mills in Sri Lanka typically lack laboratory
of the oil with microorganisms and dust particles facilities, while larger-scale mills possess these
(Gamage et al., 2018; Jose et al., 2017; Lee at al., resources. A study conducted by the Coconut
2015; Mohan et al., 2015). Small-scale producers Research Institute in Sri Lanka revealed that 36% of
using the same expeller for different oil types samples from retail shops and 20% of samples from
without proper cleaning between processes can wholesale shops exceeded the Sri Lanka Standards
result in cross-contamination and oil oxidation, (SLS) limits for free fatty acids of 0.8% as lauric
while the use of non-food grade cleaning agents that acid. Additionally, high moisture content was found
are inadequately removed can further contribute to in 30% of samples from wholesale shops and 33%
contamination (Thanuja, 2015). The lubricants and from retail shops (Kaushalya et al., 2018; Pathirana
chemicals used for repairing the equipment should et al., 2021). This indicates that proper quality
never contact the food contact surface, as they can parameter testing is not being conducted at the
contaminate the oil. Overall, education on these processing mills themselves. A significant deficit in
issues is crucial for millers to improve the quality of laboratory testing for aflatoxin, Polyaromatic
coconut oil production (Gunawan et al., 2018; Liu hydrocarbons, and phthalate exists in the Sri Lankan
et al., 2019). coconut industry, with larger-scale mills conducting
tests mainly upon buyer's request, while small and
Issues related to the employees medium-scale millers lack the financial capacity to
establish their own laboratories or afford external
Employee-related issues have a significant impact testing services, resulting in reliance on industry
on the quality and safety of food products, including experience rather than comprehensive testing to
coconut oil, with the behaviour and attitudes of maintain quality (Dharmakantha, 2015).
employees playing a crucial role. However, in
coconut oil mills, the presence of trained staff varies Issues related to packaging and labelling of coconut
depending on the scale of production, with small- oil
scale mills lacking knowledge regarding quality and
safety aspects, relying on experience-based World Health Organization Report 2020 noted that
knowledge and advice (Herath et al., 2022). Limited the packaging of coconut oil is not regulated in Sri
opportunities for acquiring expert knowledge Lanka, and the responsibility falls upon the
contribute to employee-related problems in small- purchaser and supplier to agree upon a suitable,
scale mills, while medium-scale mills face well-closed container. This lack of regulation
challenges in maintaining quality and adhering to increases the risk of contaminants, such as
standards due to financial constraints despite having phthalates, which can act as hormones and interfere
both trained and untrained staff (Gordon, 2017). with the body's natural endocrine responses,
The recruitment of non-executive workers in both affecting the body's physiological control
large and medium-scale mills often occurs without mechanism, anti-androgenic and damaging the
prior investigation, and their health conditions are DNA in sperms (Giuliani et al., 2020; Stelmach et
not checked, which is a crucial aspect to consider. al., 2015; Mariana et al., 2016). While Sri Lanka
Daily-wage workers may not be fully focused on lacks specific regulations on migration limits of
their assigned tasks within the mill, which can lead phthalates, Sri Lankan exporters have proactively
to poor hygienic practices and safety precautions adopted measures to prevent contamination with
(Bhuvaneswari, 2015). phthalates in coconut oil through adherence to

66
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

stringent packaging regulations in foreign markets, of good quality regular coconut oil falls between
guided by the migration limits set by the European Rs.500 - 600.00 in the year 2023, whereas the
Food Safety Authority based on epidemiological market price is much higher. Adulteration is,
evidence of adverse health effects (Dharmakantha, therefore, a way for vendors to maximize their
2015). However, no government-intervened profits.
analysis has been done to identify the presence of
phthalates in coconut oil within the local market. Quality and safety issues related to the consumption
Therefore, it is crucial to introduce regulations and of coconut oil in sri lanka
carry out analyses to ensure the safety and quality
of coconut oil in Sri Lanka. Coconut oil is a significant dietary component in Sri
Lanka and is the primary source of fat for many Sri
Issues related to the marketing of coconut oil Lankans (Mulyadi et al., 2019; Sankararaman et al.,
2018). However, concerns regarding the quality and
In Sri Lanka, the quality and safety of coconut oil safety of coconut oil extend to consumption,
depend largely on the marketing stage rather than particularly in domestic and food service industry
the processing stage. Adulterations and food safety settings, where the common practice of reusing
breaches are common during the marketing of coconut oil for frying can result in the formation of
coconut oil. About 70% of the coconuts produced in harmful compounds such as free radicals, increased
Sri Lanka are for domestic consumption, making free fatty acid content, and the generation of trans-
coconut oil the main edible oil for Sri Lankans. fatty acids due to high temperatures and exposure to
Coconut oil is deeply embedded in Sri Lankan oxygen during frying (Bhardwaj et al., 2016;
culture, and despite the availability of alternative oil Wallace 2019). These compounds can be absorbed
types, 91% of the population still relies on coconut by the food being fried and can pose health risks to
oil as their primary source of fat (Gunawardana consumers and it is suitable for reuse only up to two
2018; Phanga et al., 2022; Sandupama et al., 2022). times (Boateng et al., 2016).
Therefore, the potential for adulteration and food In Sri Lanka, coconut oil is frequently reused in the
fraud incidents is high in the local market. The food service industry, especially in small restaurants
issues identified in the local market include the and street vendors. The oil used in star-class hotels
adulteration of coconut oil with low-quality oils, is often sold to small restaurants for reuse
used coconut oils, and palm oil for economic gain (Arachchige et al., 2021). The consumption of free
and higher profit. In the virgin coconut oil industry, fatty acids, trans-fats, and molds that can produce
instances of food fraud manifest through the aflatoxin and other harmful metabolites can pose
blending of virgin coconut oil with RBD (refine, health risks to consumers. In households, coconut
bleach, deodorize) coconut oil and palm olein, oil is mostly reused due to economic barriers, but it
aiming to attain heightened profits (Weerasinghe & is not as problematic as in the food industry
Malkanthi, 2022). (Karunarathna et al., 2019).
The adulteration of coconut oil, predominantly
occurring during the release of oil to the markets Issue related to the regulations and standards for
rather than within mills, continues to be a significant coconut oil in sri lanka.
challenge in the Sri Lankan coconut oil industry,
with palm olein, palm kernel oil, corn oil, soybean Food standards and regulations play a pivotal role
oil, used coconut oil, and non-food grade coconut in safeguarding food quality and ensuring food
oil being commonly used for adulteration purposes safety within any nation. Unfortunately, Sri Lanka
(Jayathunga et al., 2020; Wara 2019). Palm kernel exhibits significant shortcomings in its food
oil has almost the same characteristics as coconut regulations, leading certain food processors to
oil, making it easy to mix and difficult to exploit these gaps in an attempt to introduce
differentiate (Herath et al., 2020). substandard products to the market. Consequently,
The reason for adulteration is the gap between it is imperative to establish robust rules and
the supply and demand for coconut oil in Sri Lanka, regulatory frameworks in Sri Lanka, specifically
not in terms of quantity but prices (Weerasinghe & tailored to guarantee the quality and safety of
Malkanthi, 2022). The production price of one litre coconut oil and coconut-based products.

67
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

Furthermore, stringent enforcement measures by resulting in the need to import compliant packaging
regulatory authorities are essential to ensure full materials. Furthermore, the absence of mandatory
compliance with these standards. While there have limits for aflatoxin and Poly-aromatic
been improvements in coconut oil standards, issues hydrocarbons, unless included in the Food Act,
remain that require attention, such as the need for a combined with the burdensome process of obtaining
process standard to ensure product quality and SLS certification, discourages compliance among
safety throughout the production process (Herath et small, medium, and middle-scale millers. This
al., 2022). emphasizes the necessity for mandated standards
The lack of packaging regulations in coconut and regulatory inclusion to promote widespread
oil production has led to contamination issues, such compliance (Wanniarachchi et al., 2023).
as phthalate contamination, due to the absence of
limits in Sri Lankan standards and regulations,
Parameter SLSI Standards EU Standards
Aflatoxin level Aflatoxin B1 5.0 µg/ kg max 2.0 µg/ kg max

Total aflatoxin 10.0 µg/ kg max 4.0 µg/ kg max

Polycyclic Aromatic Benzo(a)pyrene 2.0 µg/ kg max 2.0 µg/ kg max

Hydrocarbon (PAH)
Total PAH 20.0 µg/ kg max 20.0 µg/ kg max
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benz(a)anthracene
Benzo(b) fluoranthene
Chrysene

Heavy metals Arsenic 0.1 mg/ kg, max 0.1 mg/ kg, max
Lead 0.1 mg/ kg, max 0.1 mg/ kg, max
Cadmiun 0.1 mg/ kg, max 0.1 mg/ kg, max

Sum of 3- Not established 1250 μg/kg

monochloropropanediol (3-
MCPD) and 3-MCPD fatty
acid esters, expressed as 3-
MCPD
Table 1: Comparison between critical parameters of SLSI and EU standards of Coconut oil intended for
direct human consumption or use as an ingredient in food
Sources: SLS 32: 2017 Amendment No. 1 and Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915

Currently, several standard-setting bodies, such as certification is completely voluntary (Karunarathna

the European Union (EU), have established et al., 2019).
guidelines governing maximum permissible levels The table 1, provides a comparison between the
for aflatoxins in human food and animal feed (Wu standards set by the (SLSI) and the (EU) for
& Guclu, 2012), to ensure consumer safety and to coconut oil across various parameters related to
promote international trade. Sri Lanka Standards food safety.
Institute (SLSI) has taken measures to incorporate Since aflatoxins are genotoxic carcinogens, it is
maximum permissible levels for aflatoxins in their appropriate to limit the total aflatoxin content of
certification scheme for edible oils. However, it is food (sum of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2) as well
not mandatory for all edible oil producers to comply as the aflatoxin B1 content alone (Benkerroum,
with this standard as participation in SLS 2020; Tang et al., 2015). Sri Lanka's SLSI standard

68
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

allows for a maximum concentration of 5.0 µg/kg identical maximum limits, ensuring consistent
of Aflatoxin B1 in coconut oil, while the EU sets a safety in this regard.
more stringent limit of only 2.0 µg/kg. This MCPD is a chemical food contaminant, detected
signifies that the EU places a stronger emphasis on first as a by-product of hydrolyzed vegetable
minimizing Aflatoxin B1 contamination in protein by action of hydrochloric acid on residual
products intended for human and animal lipid (Dubois et al., 2012). 3-MCPD is known to
consumption. Sri Lanka's SLSI standard permits a have an in vivo carcinogenic and in vitro genotoxic
maximum total aflatoxin concentration of 10.0 activity (Hamlet et al., 2002) while palm oil, corn
µg/kg, while the EU sets a more stringent limit of oil and coconut oil possess the highest potential for
4.0 µg/kg. This indicates that the EU places stricter 3-MCPD formation (Matthäus et al., 2011).
controls on the cumulative aflatoxin contamination Notably, for the presence of a Sum of 3-
in food and feed products, emphasizing a higher monochloropropanediol (3-MCPD) and 3-MCPD
level of food safety and quality fatty acid esters, expressed as 3-MCPD, the EU sets
In terms of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons a specific limit of 1250 μg/kg, while the SLSI does
(PAHs), both organizations have set the same limit not provide a clear standard.
for Benzo(a) pyrene. Similarly, for the total PAH In summary, the European Union's standards
content, they share an identical limit as well. In the for coconut oil tend to be more comprehensive and
case of heavy metals like arsenic, lead, and stringent in various aspects, including aflatoxin and
cadmium, both SLSI and EU have established 3-MCPD levels compared to the standards set by
the Sri Lanka Standards Institution.

Table 2: Comparison between SLSI and Codex standards of chemical and physical characteristics of
coconut oils

Parameters SLSI Standard Codex Standard

Fatty acid composition (as C6:0 ND - 0.7 ND - 0.7
methyl esters), percentage C8:0 4.6 - 10.0 4.6 - 10.0
by mas C10:0 5.0 - 8.0 5.0 - 8.0
C12:0 45.1 - 53.2 45.1 - 53.2
C14:0 16.8 - 21.0 16.8 - 21.0
C16:0 7.5 - 10.2 7.5 - 10.2
C18:0 2.0 - 4.0 2.0 - 4.0
C18:1 4.5 - 10.0 5.0 - 10.0
C18:2 1.0 - 2.5 1.0 - 2.5
C18:3 ND - 0.2 ND - 0.2
Antioxidants Propyl Gallate 100 mg/kg max 100 mg/kg max

Butylated 200 mg/kg max 175 mg/kg max

Hydroxyanisole (BHA)

120 mg/kg max 120 mg/kg max

Iodine value 7.5 - 11.0 6.3 - 10.6
Insoluble impurities per cent 0.05 0.05
by mass, max
Saponification value (mg 248 - 265 248 - 265
KOH/g oil)
(Sources: SLS 32: 2017 Amendment No. 1 and Codex Alimentarius Commission. (1999))
ND – Not detectable (defined as ≤ 0.05)

69
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

Table 2 presents a comparison between the Conflicts of interest

standards set by the Sri Lanka Standards Institution
(SLSI) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
for various chemical and physical characteristics of
coconut oils. Notably, both SLSI and Codex References
standards align closely in terms of fatty acid
composition, specifying similar ranges for various Abeysekara, M. G. D., Prasada, D. V. P., &
fatty acids. Likewise, the regulations for Pathiraja, P. M. E. K. (2020). Equilibrium
antioxidants, such as Propyl Gallate, (BHA), and Relations in the Coconut Sector: An Analysis
(TBHQ), show harmonization between the two of Fresh Nut, Oil and Desiccated Coconut
standards, while BHA shows slight differences in Market in Sri Lanka for the Period 1956-2017.
allowable limits (Lucaccioni et al., 2019). Tropical Agricultural Research, 31(1) 1-12.
Among the key quality parameters, the https://dOI: 10.4038/tar.v31i1.8339
saponification value, iodine value, and the presence Agarwal, R. K. & Bosco, S. J. D. (2017). Extraction
of insoluble impurities play a crucial role in Processes of Virgin Coconut Oil. MOJ Food
assessing the chemical composition of the oil and Processing & Technology, 4(2), 54-56.
ultimately determining its overall quality (Odoom https://doi.org/10.15406/mojfpt.2017.04.000
& Edusei, 2015). For the saponification value and 87
the insoluble impurities, both organizations have Aiome, G. V. N., Fernando, S.P., Kuruppu, I. V.,
set the same limits. According to the Codex De Silva, P. C. J. & Samarakoon. S. M. A.
Alimentarius (1999) the iodine values range (2022). Present status and future prospects of
between 6.3-10.6 while in SLSI it is 7.5 to 11. The coconut kernel-based industries in Sri Lanka.
iodine value or iodine number is the generally Proceedings of 4th International Conference
accepted parameter expressing the degree of of Agricultural Sciences, Sabaragamuwa
unsaturation, the number of carbon-carbon double University of Sri Lanka, 189-192.
bonds in fats or oils. Therefore, the higher the Arachchige, U. S. P. R., Wijenayake K.I.A,
iodine value the greater the degree of unsaturation Miyuranga K. A. V, Thilakarathne D.,
(Chebet et al.,2016). Weerasekara N. A., & Jayasinghe, R. A.
(2021). Potential utilization of waste cooking
Conclusions oil in Sri Lanka: Policy implementation.
International Journal of Scientific
Ensuring consistent quality and safety in the Engineering and Science 5, (11): 1-5.
coconut oil industry requires addressing various Benkerroum, N. (2020). Aflatoxins: Producing-
factors such as raw materials, processing molds, structure, health issues and incidence
conditions, packaging, storage, equipment, in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African
employees, and laboratory testing. Implementing countries. International journal of
rigorous quality control measures, standardized environmental research and public health,
procedures, employee training, and regular 17(4), 1215.
equipment maintenance are essential. Additionally, Beristaín-Bauza, S., Martínez-Niño, A., Ramírez-
government intervention and close surveillance can González, A. P., Ávila-Sosa, R., Ruíz-
contribute to the overall improvement of the Espinosa, H., Ruiz-López, I. I., & Ochoa-
coconut oil processing industry in Sri Lanka. Velasco, C. E. (2018). Inhibition of
Salmonella Typhimurium growth in coconut
Acknowledgement (Cocos nucifera L.) water by hurdle
technology. Food control, 92, 312-318.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Coconut https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.05.0
Development Authority, Sri Lanka Standard 10
Institute, and the Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka for Bhardwaj, S., Passi, S. J., Misra, A., Pant, K. K.,
their invaluable insights and support, which greatly Anwar, K., Pandey, R. M., & Kardam, V.
contributed to the development of this manuscript. (2016). Effect of heating/reheating of
fats/oils, as used by Asian Indians, on trans

70
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

fatty acid formation. Food Chemistry, 212, Aspergillus flavus link in copra (Dried Cocos
663–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem. nucifera L. meat). Philippine Journal of
2016.06.021 Science, 149(Special Issue 1), 113-116.
Bhuvaneswari, V. (2015). A study on consumer De Silva, J.A.Y.P., Gajanayake, B. and
attitude towards edible oils in Coimbatore Priyadarshana, L.B.M.D.L., 2016.
city. International Journal of Investigation of Microbiological
Multidisciplinary Research and Development, contamination during manufacturing process
2(1), 325-329. of desiccated Coconut. Proceedings of 15th
Boateng, L., Ansong, R., Owusu, W., & Steiner- Agricultural Research Symposium, 363-367
Asiedu, M. (2016). Coconut oil and palm oil’s Deen, A., Visvanathan, R., Wickramarachchi, D.,
role in nutrition, health and national Marikkar, N., Nammi, S., Jayawardana, B. C.,
development: A review. Ghana Medical & Liyanage, R. (2021). Chemical
Journal, 50(3), 189-196. http://dx.doi.org/ composition and health benefits of coconut
10.4314/ gmj.v50i3.11 oil: an overview. Journal of the Science of
Cañeda, T. J., & Bathan, B. M. (2019). Food and Agriculture, 101(6), 2182-2193.
Comparative Analysis of Value Chains of https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.10870
Virgin Coconut Oil in Quezon and Laguna, Deepa, J., Rajkumar, P., & Arumuganathan, T.
Philippines. Journal of Economics, (2015). Quality analysis of copra dried at
Management & Agricultural Development, different drying air temperatures.
5(1), 37-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.22004 International Journal of Agricultural Science
/ag.econ.309429 and Research (IJASR), 5(4), 1-5.
Central bank of Sri Lanka, (2021). Annual Report, Dharmakantha, K. H. P. (2015). Analysis of
Colombo: Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Phthalate Concentrations in Coconut Oil
Chebet, J., Kinyanjui, T., & Cheplogoi, P. K. Available in the Sri Lankan Market (Doctoral
(2016). Impact of frying on iodine value of dissertation, University of Sri
vegetable oils before and after deep frying in Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda).
different types of food in Kenya. Journal of Dharmaratne, P. P., Gajanayake, B., Karunarathna,
Scientific and Innovative Research, 5(5), 193- K. M. H. I., & Priyadarshane, L. B. M. D. L.
196. (2016). Enhancing the quality of virgin
Codex Alimentarius Commission. (1999). Standard Coconut oil associated with clarity by
for Named Vegetable Oils (CODEX STAN reducing its sediments. Proceedings of 15th
210-199). Agricultural Research Symposium (2016)
Coconut Development Authority. (2020). Annual 368-372
Report 2019(p.48). Coconut Development Dharmaratne, P. P., Gajanayake, B., Karunarathna,
Authority, Sri Lanka. K. M. H. I., & Priyadarshane, L. B. M. D. L.
Credo, M. C., & Valmoria, R. T. (2019). (2017). Enhancing the Quality of Virgin
Development and Performance Evaluation of Coconut Oil by Reducing Sediments: A Case
an Indirect Heat Copra Dryer with Phase Study at Cocotana Coconut Product Mills,
Changer: A Comparison with Kiln Drying and Katana. Proceedings of the International
Open Sun Drying of Copra. Recoletos Symposium on Agriculture and Environment-
Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 7(1), 27- ISAE 2017, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka,
36. 177-179.
De Silva, S. A., da Silva Torres, E. A., de Almeida, Dubois, M., Tarres, A., Goldmann, T., Empl, A. M.,
A. P., & Sampaio, G. R. (2018). Polycyclic Donaubauer, A., & Seefelder, W. (2012).
aromatic hydrocarbons content and fatty acids Comparison of indirect and direct
profile in coconut, safflower, evening quantification of esters of
primrose and linseed oils. Food Chemistry, monochloropropanediol in vegetable oil.
245, 798-805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.f Journal of Chromatography A, 1236, 189-
oodchem.2017.11.109 201.
De Asis, D. L., Tumlos, R. B., & Su, G. I. S. (2020). European Commission. Commission Regulation
Gamma irradiation for the inactivation of (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum

71
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

levels for certain contaminants in food and Gunawardana, A. (2018). Agriculture sector
repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 performance in the Sri Lankan Economy: A
(Text with EEA relevance). Of Journal of the systematic review and a Meta data analysis
European Union. 2023;119:103–57 from year 2012 to 2016. Agriculture Sector
Farias, N. N. P., Freitas, E. R., do Nascimento, G. Performance in the Sri Lankan economy,
A. J., Xavier, R. P. S., de Melo Braz, N., British School of Commerce, Colombo
Dantas, F. D. T., Figueiredo, C.W.S., Gomes, Dissertation for MBA Executives. 17.
V.L.M. and Watanabe, P.H., (2019). Fresh Hamlet, C. G., Sadd, P. A., Crews, C., Velíšek, J.,
and stored copra meal in meat quail diets. & Baxter, D. E. (2002). Occurrence of 3-
Tropical Animal Health and Production, 51, chloro-propane-1, 2-diol (3-MCPD) and
179-185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250- related compounds in foods: a review. Food
018-1674-8 Additives & Contaminants, 19(7), 619-631.
Gamage, G. D. M. D., Amarathunga, M. K. S. L. Hasan Kawser, M., Kabir, H., Premadasa, F., &
D., Amarakoon, A. M. C., Rathnayaka, R. M. Nayeem, N. (2015). A Comprehensive Design
D. H., & Samarawikrama, S. (2022). An and Construction of Coconut Oil Extraction
empirical study on the impact of declining Machine and Analysis of Coconut Oil
coconut production in Sri Lanka on kernel- (Doctoral dissertation).
based export products and coconut oil http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/93
production for the domestic market. Herath, H. M. N. U., Dimbulkumbura, T. C., &
Proceedings of 4th International Conference Samarakoon, E. R. J. (2022). Maintenance of
of Agricultural Sciences, Sabaragamuwa quality output by copra and traditional
University of Sri Lanka.114-177. coconut oil processors in the Kurunegala
Ghani, N.A.A., Channip, A.A., Chok Hwee Hwa, District, Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of
P., Ja'afar, F., Yasin, H.M. and Usman, A., Science, 51(4), 407-417.
(2018). Physicochemical properties, Herath, S., H. K. Weerasooriya, D. Y. L.
antioxidant capacities, and metal contents of Ranasinghe, W. G. C. Bandara, H. M. V. R.
virgin coconut oil produced by wet and dry Herath, G. M. R. I. Godaliyadda, M. P. B.
processes. Food Science & Nutrition, 6(5), Ekanayake, and Terrence Madhujith.
pp.1298-1306. "Quantitative assessment of adulteration and
https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.671 reuse of coconut oil using transmittance
Giuliani, A., Zuccarini, M., Cichelli, A., Khan, H., multispectral imaging." arXiv preprint
& Reale, M. (2020). Critical review on the arXiv:2011.14644 (2020).
presence of phthalates in food and evidence of https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2011.14644
their biological impact. International journal Jayalath, K.V.N.N., Punyawardena, B.V.R., Silva,
of environmental research and public health, P., Hemachandra, D. and Weerahewa, J.,
17(16), 5655. 2020. Climate change and extreme events in
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165655 WL1a agroecological zone of Sri Lanka:
Gordon, A. (Ed.). (2016). Food Safety and Quality implications on coconut production. Tropical
Systems in Developing Countries: Volume II: Agricultural Research, 31(4), 13-25.
Case Studies of Effective Implementation. http://doi.org/10.4038/tar.v31i4.8417
Academic Press. 1-19. Jayathunga, H. G. T. H., Somasiri, H. P. P. S., &
Guchi, E. (2015). Implication of aflatoxin Mahanama, K. R. R. (2020). Rapid
contamination in agricultural products. determination of adulteration in virgin and
American Journal of Food and Nutrition, 3(1), copra coconut oil using Fourier transform
12-20. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajfn-3-1-3 near infrared spectroscopy. International
Gunawan, I., Vanany, I., Widodo, E., & Mulyana, Journal Food Science and Nutrition, 5(3), 38-
I. J. (2018). Improving traceability system in 43.
Indonesian coconut oil company. IEEE Ji, J., Jiang, M., Zhang, Y., Hou, J., & Sun, S.
International Conference on Industrial (2022). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Engineering and Engineering Management contamination in edible oils: A review. Food
(IEEM), 51-55.

72
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

Reviews International, 1-27. https://doi.org/ finger, bitter gourd and mustard seeds, and
10.1080/87559129.2022.2131816 copra. International Journal of Food
Jia, Z., Wan, L., Huang, Z., & Zhang, W. (2023). Properties, 18(11), 2508-2527.
Quality Evaluation of Hainan Robusta Coffee https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2014.9865
Bean Oil Produced by Ultrasound Coupled 77
with Coconut Oil Extraction. Foods, 12(11), Lira, G. M., Cabral, C. C. V. Q., De Oliveira, Í. B.
2235. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12112235 A., Figueiredo, B. C., Simon, S. J. G. B., &
Jose, S., Mishra, L., Basu, G., & Kumar Samanta, Bragagnolo, N. (2017). Changes in the lipid
A. (2017). Study on reuse of coconut fiber fraction of king mackerel pan fried in coconut
chemical retting bath. Part II---Recovery and oil and cooked in coconut milk. Food
characterization of lignin. Journal of Natural research international, 101, 198-202.
Fibers, 14(4), 510-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2017.08.070
https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2016.1212 Liu, R., Guo, X., Cheng, M., Zheng, L., Gong, M.,
772 Chang, M., Jin, Q. and Wang, X., 2019.
Josephrajkumar, A., Mohan, C., Prathibha, P. S., Effects of chemical refinement on the quality
Rajkumar, Nalinakumari, T., & Nair, C. P. R. of coconut oil. Journal of Food Science and
(2019). Pest dynamics and suppression Technology, 56, pp.3109-3116.
strategies. The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-03810-w
L.)-Research and Development Perspectives, Lucaccioni, L., Trevisani, V., Passini, E., Righi, B.,
557-634. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13- Plessi, C., Predieri, B., & Iughetti, L. (2021).
2754-4_12 Perinatal exposure to phthalates: From
Karunarathna, N. B., Fernando, C. J., Munasinghe, endocrine to neurodevelopment effects.
D. M. S., & Fernando, R. (2019). Occurrence International Journal of Molecular Sciences,
of aflatoxins in edible vegetable oils in Sri 22(8), 4063. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms
Lanka. Food Control, 101, 97-103. 22084063 Lugo-Méndez, H., Sánchez-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.02.0 Domínguez, M., Sales-Cruz, M., Olivares-
17 Hernández, R., Lugo-Leyte, R., & Torres-
De Silva, J.A.Y.P., Gajanayake, B. and Aldaco, A. (2021). Synthesis of biodiesel
Priyadarshana, L.B.M.D.L., 2016. from coconut oil and characterization of its
Investigation of Microbiological blends. Fuel, 295, 120595.
contamination during manufacturing process https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.1 20595
of desiccated Coconut. Proceedings of 15th Marasinghe, S. S. K., Marikkar, J. N., Yalegama,
Agricultural Research Symposium, 363-367 C., Wimalasiri, S., Seneviratne, G.,
Kaushalya, K. C., Ampitiyawatta, A. D., & Weerasooriya, R., & Liyanage, R. (2019).
Yalegama, C. (2018). Application of Comparison of inter-varietal differences in
Improved Traditional Wet Method to Produce chemical composition and nutritional
Good Quality Virgin Coconut Oil in Pilot properties of coconut testa flour. Journal of
Scale. 8th Annual Research Session of the the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka,
Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, 47(3), 349-357. http://dx.doi.org/10.403
19th December 2018, 63. 8/jnsfsr.v47i3.8699
Lakshman, P. L. N., Dilrukshi, D. M. N., & Mariana, M., Feiteiro, J., Verde, I., & Cairrao, E.
Bulathgama, B. E. A. U. (2022). The aflatoxin (2016). The effects of phthalates in the
occurrence of food commodities in Sri Lanka: cardiovascular and reproductive systems: A
an overview of prevalence, detection and review. Environment international, 94, 758-
decontamination techniques. Tropical 776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016
Agricultural Research & Extension, 25(3), .07.004
200-222 Matthäus, B., Pudel, F., Fehling, P., Vosmann, K.,
Lee, S. T., Radu, S., Ariffin, A., & Ghazali, H. M. & Freudenstein, A. (2011). Strategies for the
(2015). Physico-chemical characterization of reduction of 3‐MCPD esters and related
oils extracted from noni, spinach, lady’s compounds in vegetable oils. European

73
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, Properties of Virgin Coconut Oil Extracted
113(3), 380-386. from Different Coconut (Cocos nucifera L)
Mendis, A. R. L. (2017). Evaluation of moisture Varieties. CORD, 37, 1-10.
diffusivity in copra at different drying https://doi.org/10.37833/cord.v37i.440
condition (Doctoral dissertation). Phanga, G., Chanb, J. K. L., Limc, T. Y., &
Mendis, A. R. L., Amarasinghe, A. D. U. S., & Fresnidod, M. B. R. (2022) Key Success
Narayana, M. (2016, April). Numerical Factors, Marketing Opportunities and
simulation of the moisture diffusion in copra Challenges: A Case Study of Bonco Virgin
drying process. In 2016 Moratuwa Coconut Oil. Journal of Agribusiness, 9(1),
Engineering Research Conference 57-71. https://doi.org/10.56527/jabm.9.1.5
(MERCon). 92-197. Ramesh, S. V., Pandiselvam, R., Shameena
Mohammed, N. K., Samir, Z. T., Jassim, M. A., & Beegum, P. P., Saravana Kumar, R. M.,
Saeed, S. K. (2021). Effect of different Manikantan, M. R., & Hebbar, K. B. (2021).
extraction methods on physicochemical Review of Cocos nucifera L. testa-derived
properties, antioxidant activity, of virgin phytonutrients with special reference to
coconut oil. Materials Today Proceedings, phenolics and its potential for encapsulation.
42(5), 2000-2005. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Journal of Food Science and Technology, 1-
j.matpr.2020.12.248 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-
Mohan, C., Remya, S., Murthy, L., Ravishankar, 05310-2
C., & Asok Kumar, K. (2015). Effect of filling Rohman, A., Irnawati, Erwanto, Y., Lukitaningsih,
medium on cooking time and quality of E., Rafi, M., Fadzilah, N. A., Windarsih, A.,
canned yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares). Sulaiman, A. and Zakaria, Z., (2021). Virgin
Food Control, 50, 320-327. https://doi.org/ coconut oil: extraction, physicochemical
10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.08.030 properties, biological activities and its
Mulyadi, A. F., Schreiner, M., & Dewi, I. A. (2019, authentication analysis. Food Reviews
July). An overview of factors that affected in International, 37(1), 46-66. https://
quality of virgin coconut oil. In AIP doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1687515
Conference on Biology and Applied Sampaio, G. R., Guizellini, G. M., da Silva, S. A.,
SCIENCE Proceedings (Vol. 2120, No. 1). de Almeida, A. P., Pinaffi-Langley, A. C. C.,
AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/ Rogero, M. M., & Torres, E. A. (2021).
1.5115683 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in foods:
Ng, Y. J., Tham, P. E., Khoo, K. S., Cheng, C. K., Biological effects, legislation, occurrence,
Chew, K. W., & Show, P. L. (2021). A analytical methods, and strategies to reduce
comprehensive review on the techniques for their formation. International Journal of
coconut oil extraction and its application. Molecular Sciences, 22(11), 6010.
Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering, https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijms22116010
44(9), 1807-1818. https://doi.org/10.1007/s Sandupama, M. W. P., Munasinghe, H. M. D. H.,
00449-021-02577-9 & Silva, M. (2022). Attitudinal and
Odoom, W., & Edusei, V. O. (2015). Evaluation of behavioural changes in Coconut (Cocos
saponification value, iodine value and nucifera) oil consumption with the occurrence
insoluble impurities in coconut oils from of Aflatoxin contamination in Sri Lanka.
Jomoro District of the Western Region of Proceedings of the International Conference
Ghana. Asian Journal of Agriculture and on Applied and Pure Sciences (ICAPS 2021-
Food Sciences, 3(5), 494-499. Kelaniya), 2, 74.
Oseni, N. T., Fernando, W. M., Coorey, R., Gold, Sankararaman, S., & Sferra, T. J. (2018). Are we
I., & Jayasena, V. (2017). Effect of extraction going nuts on coconut oil?. Current Nutrition
techniques on the quality of coconut oil. Reports, 7, 107-115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s
African Journal of Food Science, 58-66. 13668-018-0230-5
https://doi.org/doi:10.5897/AJFS2016.1493 Sarathep, P., & Phonkaew, W. (2018). A lost world
Pathirana, D. H., Yalegama, C., Arachige, D. J., & disease: Copra itch outbreak caused by
Senarathne, M. (2021). Physicochemical

74
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

Tyrophagus longior mite. ID Cases, 12, 58- plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria
63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idcr.2018.02.003 (PGPR) with biocontrol agent Trichoderma
Sri Lanka Export Development Board. (2023, harzianum. Icar. 3(4), 404-409.
September 01). Export potential of coconut Thanuja, T. T. (2015). Cost effective technology for
and coconut-based products. https://www. home scale and small scale production of
srilankabusiness.com/coconut/exporter- virgin coconut oil. (Doctoral dissertation,
information/export-potential.html Department of plantation crops and spices,
Sri Lanka Standards Institute. (2017). Sri Lanka College of Agriculture, Vellayani).
Standard Specification for Coconut Oil (SLS Tuhumuri, E., Setiaji, B., Usman, S., &
32:2017 Amendment No. 1). Sancayaningsih, R. P. (2021, September).
Srivastava, Y., Semwal, A. D., & Majumdar, A. Degradation of Copra quality as the result of
(2016). Quantitative and qualitative analysis the application of Sasi Kelapa for six months
of bioactive components present in virgin period in Waenalut Village, South Buru,
coconut oil. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 2(1), Indonesia. In AIP Conference Proceedings
1164929. 2360(1). 45-55. https://doi.org/10.
Stein, H. H., Casas, G. A., Abelilla, J. J., Liu, Y., & 1063/5.0059505
Sulabo, R. C. (2015). Nutritional value of high Udana, H. P. K., & Amarasinghe, A. D. U. S.
fiber co-products from the copra, palm kernel, (2016). Evaluation of single bed and multi bed
and rice industries in diets fed to pigs. Journal dried copra on the quality of extracted coconut
of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 6, 1-9. oil. Journal of the National Science
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-015-0056-6 Foundation of Sri Lanka, 44(4). 120-132.
Stelmach, I., Majak, P., Jerzynska, J., Podlecka, D., Wallace, T. C. (2019). Health effects of coconut oil
Stelmach, W., Polańska, K., Ligocka, D. and - A narrative review of current evidence.
Hanke, W. (2015). The effect of prenatal Journal of the American College of Nutrition,
exposure to phthalates on food allergy and 38(2), 97-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/073
early eczema in inner-city children. Allergy & 15724.2018.1497562
Asthma Proceedings 36(4), 72-78. Wanniarachchi, P. C., Uthpala, T. G. G., &
https://doi: 10.2500/aap.2015.36.3867. Ranaweera, K. K. D. S. (2023). Aflatoxin
Sultan, A. Z., Nur, H., & Rusdi, M. (2019). Quality Occurrence, Contamination, Detection, and
Improvement of Copra through the Decontamination with Special Emphasis on
Implementation of White Copra Drying Oven. Coconut Oil: A Review. Journal of
In Proceeding of the 2nd International Agricultural Sciences (Sri Lanka), 18(1). 101-
Conference on Food and Agriculture. 104- 128 http://doi.org/10.4038/jas.v18i1.10101
112. Wara, L. R. (2020). A comparative study:
Syukur, S., Safrizayanti, S., Zulaiha, S., Examining the value chain of virgin coconut
Supriwardi, E., Fahmi, A., Nurfadilah, K. K., oil (VCO) domestic market in Rabi and Cicia,
& Purwati, E. (2022). Potential antioxidant Fiji. Master of Agriculture Thesis. Suva:
activity of Lactobacillus fermentum KF7 University of the South Pacific.
from virgin coconut oil products in Padang, Weerasinghe, W. A. R. N., & Malkanthi, S. H. P.
West Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas (2022). Consumer Buying Behavior of
Journal of Biological Diversity, 23(3). Coconut Oil: A Case of the Homagama Ds
https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d230354 Division in Sri Lanka. Contemporary
Tang, J., Mu, B., Zheng, M., & Wang, A. (2015). Agriculture, 71(3-4), 203-211.
One-step calcination of the spent bleaching World Health Organization, 2020. Landscape
earth for the efficient removal of heavy metal analysis for trans-fat limits for Sri Lanka: a
ions. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & synthesis report. https://iris.who.int/handle/
Engineering, 3(6), 1125-1135. https://doi.org/ 10665/336179?show=full
10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00040 Wu, F., & Guclu, H. (2012). Aflatoxin regulations
Th, K. R., Gupta, A., Gopal, M., Hegde, V., & in a network of global maize trade. Plos One,
Thomas, G. V. (2018). Evaluation of https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045151
combinatorial capacity of coconut and cocoa

75
 H.G.A.S. Samarasinghe et al.

Zainol, F. A., Arumugam, N., Daud, W. N. W., chain analysis: a systematic review.
Suhaimi, N. A. M., Ishola, B. D., Ishak, A. Z., Agriculture, 13(7), 1379.
& Afthanorhan, A. (2023). Coconut value

76

View publication stats