Anatomy comes from the Greek word - Ex.

(Cardiac Physiology)
C. SYSTEMIC PHYSIOLOGY
• ANA- Apart
- All aspects of the functions of specific
• TOMY- To cut
organs.
Physiology- Normal Function - They are interconnected to another
system.
D. PATHOLOGIC PHYSIOLOGY
TYPES OF ANATOMY - Effects of disease on organ system
function.
A. GROSS/MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY
- Big enough to be studied. Level of structure organization of the body
- Can be studied with an unaided eye.
1. CHEMICAL LEVEL
• SYSTEMIC ANATOMY
- Smallest unit of matter
- Deals with different systems of our
- Ex. (Atom, Molecule)
body.
2. CELLULAR LEVEL
- Ex. (Nervous System, Circulatory)
- Studies body cell
• REGIONAL ANATOMY
- Cell + Cell = Tissue
- Study of structure by body region.
3. TISSUE LEVEL
- Ex. (Head Region)
- Group of cells with similar structure
• SURFACE ANATOMY
and function together.
- Study of the body landmark on the
4. ORGAN LEVEL
body surface of different Visceral
- Different types of tissue joined
Organ (covering or protective layer
of organs) together with the same function.

B. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY • HEAD- Cranial, Cranium, Cephalic.

- Studies the human body through the • NECK- Cervical connects head and
use of MICROSCOPE trunk
• CYTOLOGY- Study of Cell • TRUNK- Thorax
• HISTOLOGY- Study of Tissues
- THORACIC- From Clavicle to Last rib
- ABDOMINAL- Last rib to First line of
C. EMBRYOLOGY- The development of pubic hair.
human body from Fertilization. - PELVIC – Lower part of the pubic hair

D. NEURO ANATOMY
• CAVITY- Hole or Space
- Gross features and development of
• PELVIC CAVITY OF FEMALE
the nervous system.
- round shape
- Conduction of the electricity in the
- Gynae
brain
- Reproductive system
TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGY • PELVIC CAVITY OF MALE
A. CELL PHYSIOLOGY - Heart shape
- Function of a living cell • PERENNIAL AREA
B. SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY -
- Studies of specific organ
PERINEUM - Ex. (Mast + Ectomy = Mastectomy)
- External Genitalia • + Otomy – to cut or to open surgically
- Ex. (Crani + otomy = Craniotomy)
▪ UPPER EXTREMITIES- Upper Limb
• + Ostomy – Creates an opening
(shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm and hand)
- Ex. (Colon + Ostomy = Colostomy)
▪ LOWER EXTREMITIES- Lower Limb
(Hip; Thigh; Knee; Leg; Ankle; Foot)

VENTRAL/ANTERIOR – Front
▪ ANATOMICAL POSITION DORSAL/POSTERIOR - back
LATERAL- Side
INTERMEDIATE- Between a more medial
PROXIMAL- Closer to the origin
DISTAL- Far from the origin
SUPERFICIAL- External, surface
DEEP- Internal, away from body surface

- Standing erect, palm facing anterior

- Position when doing Passive Exercise ANATOMICAL RELATIONSHIPS
(while lying supine) • CENTRAL- nearer or toward the center
• PERIPHERAL- Farther or away from the
• ANATOMICAL PLANE center
- Imaginary Plane • PARIETAL- External wall of a body cavity
4 IMAGINARY PLANES
- Parietal Pleura – Forms the external
1. MEDIAN PLANE wall of the pleural cavity.
- Mid, Dividing the body into left and - VISCERAL- Covering of an organ
right
2. SAGITTAL PLANE
- Vertical planes
- Not midline, dividing the body left and
right
3. CORONAL PLANE
- Anterior (Front) and Posterior (Back)
4. HORIZONTAL PLANE
- Transverse or X section
- Superior (Top) and Inferior (Bottom)
SUFFIXES
GENERAL ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGIES
• + Itis- Inflammation
- Ex. (Tonsil + Itis = Tonsilitis) 1. BIO = LIVING
• + Ectomy- Removal 2. ECTO/ECO/ECTRA = OUTSIDE
3. ENDO = INSIDE - Movement for
4. SUPRA = ABOVE forearm
5. HYPO/INFRA = BELOW (Radius and
6. PRE = BEFORE Ulna)
7. POST = AFTER - Palm facing
8. INTER = IN BETWEEN upward
9. PERI = AROUND 11. PRONATION
- Movement for forearm (Radius and
10. EPI = ON OR UPON
Ulna)
- Palm facing inward

TERMS OF MOVEMENTS 12. PROTRACTION

- Takes place at joint where two or more - When the jaw/mandible is moving
bones meet or Articulate forward
13. RETRACTION
ARTICULATION - When the jaw/mandible is moving
- a medical terminology for movement backward
*Digestion is slow when there is no movement * Chewing means Masticate in Medical terms

1. FLEXION
- Bending
- Decreasing the angle
2. EXTENSION 14. OPPOSITION
- Straightening - All fingers touching
- Decreasing the angle the thumb
3. HYPEREXTENSION
- Can go beyond a 90-degree angle
4. ABDUCTION LIFE PROCESSES
- Moving away from the median 1. MOVEMENT
5. ADDUCTION - It helps the function of our other
- Movement toward the median systems
6. ROTATION 2. RESPONSIVENESS
- Long axis bone (ball&socket) - Ability to sense stimuli
- - Reaction to a certain stimulus
7. CIRCUMDUCTION
- Either the combination of the four *Stimulus happens within internal and
(Flexion, Extension, Abduction, external environment
Adduction) 3. DIGESTION
8. EVERSION - Breaking down food into smaller
- For the sole of our foot particles
- Lateral movement (palabas) • MECHANICAL DIGESTION
9. INVERSION - happens in your mouth (teeth,
- For the sole of our foot tongue, saliva, and mandible)
- Movement towards medial (papasok) - Bolus – food mixed with saliva
10. SUPINATION - Chyme – Digestive enzymes
• CHEMICAL DIGESTION
- Happens in the stomach
 - stomach produces chemical COMPONENTS OF EXTRINSIC
substances such as gastric juice 1. RECEPTOR
- food stays in the stomach for 2-4 - Response to the stimuli
hours 2. CONTROL CENTER
4. METABOLISM - Determines appropriate response
- Different chemical substances 3. EFFECTOR
happen in our body - Provides all the means for the
- Respiration response to the stimulus
- Bone metabolizes calcium

5. EXCRETION NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

- Eliminating the waste in our body - Decrease the stimulus
• Excreta (human body waste such as POSITIVE FEEDBACK
fecal material/stool) - Increase the stimulus
- Urine – Excreta of our kidney, - Increase in heartbeat/heartrate
produces 35ml/hr
- Menstruation – For female as their
excreta BODY CAVITIES
6. REPRODUCTION
- To produce an offspring 1. DORSAL CAVITY (back of the body)
7. GROWTH ➢ CRANIAL CAVITY
- Could be the increased number of - brain
cells - Space inside the body skull
• Physiological ➢ SPINAL CAVITY
• Psychological - Spinal cord
• Cognitive (knowledge & intelligence) - Extends from the cranial cavity to the
• Emotional growth end of the vertebral column.
• Spiritual growth - Formed through our spinal bone
2. VENTRAL CAVITY (Front of the body)
➢ THORACIC CAVITY
HOMEOSTASIS - Dome-shaped muscle in the
- State of being equal or equilibrium diaphragm
- Homeo – The same - Protected by rib cage
- Stasis – Standing - Sternum (diaphragm, lungs, liver,
heart)
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
- PLEURAL CAVITIES – lungs
• SEROSITIS – Inflammation of the serous - MEDIASTINUM – Trachea, esophagus
membrane - PERICARDIAL CAVITY – heart, great
vessels
1. AUTOREGULATION ➢ ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
- Automatic happens in our body - Houses digestive system and most
2. EXTRINSIC REGULATION urinary system organs
- Result from the activities of our - Cavity to the diaphragm
nervous and endocrine system - ABDOMINAL CAVITY – Liver, stomach,
- Response to the stimulus pancreas, and intestines
- PELVIC CAVITY – reproductive organs,
bladder, and rectum
FOUR ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS - Inferior to the umbilical region
- Right upper quadrant (RUQ) - Contains small intestine, rectum,
- Right lower quadrant (RLQ) urinary bladder, ovaries, and uterus
- Left upper quadrant (LUQ) (for female) and some of the large
- Left lower quadrant (LLQ) intestine
❖ RIGHT AND LEFT ILIAC OR INGUINAL
REGIONS
- ILIAC – superior part of the hipbone
- Contains cecum, appendix (right)
- Contains the initial part of the sigmoid
colon (left)
❖ RIGHT AND LEFT HYPOCHONDRIAC
- CHONDRO – Cartilage
- Contains gallbladder and liver (right)
- Contains diaphragm and spleen (left)
9 REGIONS OF ABDOMINOPELVIC
OTHER BODY CAVITIES
▪ Oral and digestive cavities
▪ Nasal cavities
▪ Orbital cavities
▪ Middle ear cavities
▪ Synovial cavities

ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

❖ INTEGUMENTARY
- Protects deeper organs from injury
due to bumps, chemicals, bacteria,
and dehydration
- Excretes salts and urea
- Helps regulate body temperature
- Produces vitamin D
- Components: Skin, nails, hair, and
cutaneous sense organs and glands.
❖ UMBILICAL REGION ❖ SKELETAL
- Central most - Protects and support internal organs
❖ EPIGASTRIC REGION - Provides levers for muscular action
- EPI – upon - Cavities provide a site of blood cell
- GASTRIC – stomach information
- Contain lower rib - Stores mineral
- Superior to the umbilical region - Components: bones, cartilage,
- Contains stomach, liver, and some of tendons, and ligaments
the large intestine ❖ MUSCULAR
❖ HYPOGASTRIC REGION - Produces movement
- HYPO – below - Maintains posture
- GASTRIC – stomach - Produces heat
❖ NERVOUS -Eliminates indigestible material as
- Fast-acting control system feces
- Responds to internal and external - Components: Oral cavity, esophagus,
change stomach, small intestine, large
- Activates muscles and glands intestine, rectum, and anus
- Helps maintain short-term ❖ URINARY
homeostasis of the body via rapid - Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
transmission of electrical signals - Maintains acid-base balance
- Components: Brain, sensory receptor, - Regulates water and electrolytes
spinal cord, nerves - Components: kidney, ureter, urinary
❖ ENDOCRINE SYSTEM bladder, and urethra
- Secretes chemical molecules, called ❖ REPRODUCTIVE
hormones into the blood - Produces offspring
- Body functions controlled by - Testes produce sperm and male
hormones include: growth, hormone
reproduction, and use of nutrients - Ovaries produce eggs and female
- Plays a role in regulating long-term hormones
homeostasis
- Components: pineal gland, pituitary
gland, thyroid gland, thymus gland,
• CELL
adrenal glands, pancreas, testis
- Basic unit of life
(male), and ovary (female)
- Smallest unit of an individual
❖ CARDIOVASCULAR
- Transports materials in body via blood • GENES
pumped by heart (oxygen, carbon - Inherited from both of the parents
dioxide, nutrients, wastes) - 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs
- Components: heart and blood vessels - XX – female
❖ LYMPHATIC - XY – male
- Returns fluids to blood vessels
- Cleanses the blood THREE (3) MAIN PART OF THE CELL
- Involved in immunity 1. NUCLEUS
- Components: Thoracic duct, lymph - bound by a double-membrane barrier
nodes, and lymphatic vessels called nuclear envelope or nuclear
❖ RESPIRATORY membrane
- Keeps the blood supplied with oxygen - contains one or more small, dark
- Removes carbon dioxide staining essentially round bodies
- Contributes to the acid-base balance called nucleoli (sites where
of the blood ribosomes assemble
- Components: Nasal cavity, pharynx, 2. CYTOPLASM
larynx, trachea, bronchus, left lung - Factory area
❖ DIGESTIVE - Liquid parts of the cell
- Breaks down food - Site where most of the cellular
- Allows for nutrients absorption into activities happen
blood
 - Includes cytosol, inclusions, and 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION
organelles - Net movement of particles from an
3. CELL MEMBRANE area of higher concentration to an
- Fragile, transparent barrier that area of lower concentration
contains the cell 2) OSMOSIS
- Simple diffusion of water
FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE a. ISOTONIC – same solute and water
1. Gives shape to the cell b. HYPERTONIC – Contain more solute
2. Separated the cell from its environment c. HYPOTONIC – solutions contain fewer
3. Serves as recognition sites acting as solution
antigenic determinants e.g Kidney
4. Serves as barriers 3) FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- Same as simple diffusion, but the
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT diffusing substance is attached
- The plasma membrane is a selectively e.g insulin
permeable barrier
- Some materials can pass through B. FILTRATION
while other materials are excluded - Movement of water and solute from
hydrostatic pressure to an area with
e.g nutrients can enter the cell while
lower hydrostatic pressure
undesirable substances are kept out.
• SOLVENT
- Substance present in the largest 3 factors that affect the rate of diffusion
amount in a solution
e.g water 1. CONCENTRATION GRADIEENT
• SOLUTE - The larger the concentration gradient,
- Substance or components present in the higher the rate of diffusion
a smaller amount in a solution 2. TEMPERATURE
e.g salt - Higher temperature gives the particles
more energy
- Move around faster
2 basic methods of membrane transport
- Diffuse more quickly
3. SURFACE AREA
- The larger the surface area, the higher
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT PROCESS the rate of diffusion
- Substances are transported across
the membrane without the use of
energy FORMED ELEMENTS OF CYTOPLASM
2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT • ORGANELLES
- Uses energy to transport substance • INCLUSION
(ATP) • CYTOSKELETON

1. ORGANELLES
❖ PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- The little organs of our cells
A. DIFFUSION
- Specialized cellular compartments
- Molecules to scatter themselves
each performing its own job to
throughout the available space
maintain the life of the cell.
 D. GOLGI APPARATUS OR GOLGI BODY
A. MITOCHONDRIA (DICTYOSOMES)
- Are usually depicted as tiny threadlike - Appears as a stock of flattened
(mitos = thread) or sausage-shaped membranous sacs
organelles - Connected to RER
- Consists of double membrane, the - Gather excreta of our cell
outer membrane is smooth and - The cell membrane will open to
featureless but the inner membrane dispose of waste that eventually
has shelflike protrusions called becomes our excreta
cristae - Functions to accumulate and
- Powerhouse of the cell concentrate the secretory products

B. RIBOSOMES E. LYSOSOMES
- Are tiny, dark bodies made of CHON - Contains powerful digestive enzymes
and a variety of RNA called ribosomal - Defends the cell against foreign
RNA substances
- Actual site of CHON synthesis - Abundant in white blood cells (WBS)
- Can be found in Cytoplasm and RER
- Synthesizes or simplified our protein I. PRIMARY LYSOSOMES
o These are not yet engaged in
to convert to amino acid
digestive activity
II. SECONDARY LYSOSOMES
C. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM o Site of current previous digestive
- The passageway activity
- Canal, tube o Has the ability to fight certain
- is a system of fluid filled cisterns organism
(tubules or canals) that coil and twist o “pro player”
through the cytoplasm III. RESIDUAL
- “Network within the cytoplasm” o Terminal phases of lysosomal
function
• ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM OR o Contains undigestible materials
GRANULAR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
✓ Contains bound ribosomes hence F. PEROXISOMES
connected with CHON synthesis - Membranous sacs containing
✓ Connected to our ribosome powerful oxidase enzymes
✓ Only the protein will pass through - Detoxifies harmful and poisonous
substances such as alcohol and
RER throughout other part of the cell formaldehyde
• SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM OR - Breaks down free-radicals
GRANULAR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - Most important function is to disarm
✓ Does not contain ribosomes dangerous free-radicals
✓ Function in lipid metabolism and
detoxification ➢ VACUOLES – collected crystalline wastes
product of our cell which is the salt
(reason kung bakit may bato sa katawan
ang tao, dahil naipon sa cell)
 2. INCLUSIONS TYPES OF INTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
- Are not functioning units but 1) AUTOPHAGY
chemicals substances that may not - Controlled degradation of organelles
be present in our cell. in a healthy cell
e.g Glycogen, Lipid, Pigments - When the cell is about to die, it’s either
becomes excreta or is eaten by
• GLYCOGEN
another cell
- Head glucose, sugar, carbohydrates
• LIPID
2) HETEROPHAGY
- Fats
- Degradation of exogenous material
• PIGMENTS
taken into the cell.
- Color
- “microorganism” huhulihin, kakainin,
itatapon.
3. CYTOSKELETON
- Framework of the cell CELL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION
- Skeletal system of the cell A. CELL CYCLE
- Series of changes; from formation to
❖ MICROFILAMENTS division
- Thinnest cytoskeleton ➢ INTERPHASE (18-24 hrs)
❖ INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT - Inactive
- Help from desmosomes - Resting phase
❖ MICROTUBULES
- Determined the overall shape of the 4 PHASES
cell and distribution of organelles • G1 PHASE
- No DNA but RNA and CHON synthesis
➢ CENTRIOLES - Follows telophase of mitosis
- Rod-shaped bodies that lie at the right • S SYNTHESIS PHASE
angle to each other - DNA synthesis and replication
➢ BASAL BODIES
• G2 PHASE
- Anchoring points for cilia and flagella
- Final preparation for cell division
(sperm)
➢ CILIA
- Whip-like cellular extensions that B. CELL DIVISION
move substances along the cell - Shortest period of cell cycle
surface - Division of nucleus
➢ FLAGELLA
- Long centrioles TYPES OF NUCLEAR DIVISION
- Propel the cell ➢ MITOSIS – nuclear division of vegetative or
➢ MICROVILLI somatic cells (46 chromosomes)
- Finger-like extensions of the plasma ➢ MEIOSIS – formation of reproductive
membrane cells/gametes (23 chromosomes)
- Increase the area for absorption
4 PHASES OF MITOSIS (P.M.A.T)
1. PROPHASE
- Chromosomes progressively shorten
and thicken to form double structures
 - Nucleolus gradually disappears - Avascular
2. METAPHASE • FUNCTIONS:
- Double chromosomes occupy the - Protection
plane of the plane of the equator of - Absorption
the centromere - Filtration
3. ANAPHASE - Secretion
- Separation of the sister chromatids
and passage as daughter
chromosomes to the opposite poles
4. TELOPHASE
- New nuclear membrane
- Nucleoli are reformed

• CLASSIFICATIONS
1. SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
- One layer of CELLS
2. STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
- Two or more layers of cells
SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
- Concerned with absorption, secretion,
and filtration
CYTOKINESIS – Division of the cytoplasm
1. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
TISSUES - Single thin layer of squamous cells
- Group of cells with similar structure - Flattened cells
and function - Like fish scales
• FOUR PRIMARY TYPES - Usually forms membranes where
1. Epithelial tissue (Epithelium) - covering filtration or exchange of substances by
2. Connective Tissue - support rapid diffusion occur.
3. Muscle Tissue - control
4. Nervous Tissue – movement

• EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- Epithe – laid on
- Covering
• Characteristics:
- Epithelial cells fit closely together to
form continuous sheets
- Has one free surface or edge. Apical
surface is exposed to the body to the
body’s exterior or to the cavity of the
internal organ.
- Has a basement membrane
2. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM 4. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
- Cells that are wider than they are tall - Cells are shorter than the others
- Cube-like cells with large spherical - The nuclei appear in different heights
central nuclei above the basement membrane
- Common in glands and their ducts - PSEUDO – false
(salivary glands and pancreas

• NON- CILIATED
- Lining of the ducts of male and
accessory male repro
• CILIATED
- Lining of the respiratory tract (LUNGS)
3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
- Tall cells STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
- Common in the GIT (stomach to the - Primary function is PROTECTION
anus)
➢ GOBLET CELLS – produce a 1. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
lubricating mucus - Most common stratified squamous
epithelium
- Consist of several layers (free edge
squamous cells; basement membrane
cuboidal or columnar)
- Common sites are those which
receive friction (esophagus, mouth,
outer layer of skin)

2. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
- Highly modified, stratified squamous
epithelium
- Cells have the ability to slide past one
another and change their shaped
 - Common at the ureter and urinary 3. MUCO-SEROUS GLAND – mixed
bladder secretion (sublingual gland)
4. CYTOGENIC GLANDS – Produce cells
(testis, ovaries)
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Connects body parts
- Functions: supporting and binding
together
• Characteristics:
- Well vascularized (except tendons and
ligaments…poor blood supply)

3. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX

- GLAND – consist of one or more cells • 2 ELEMENTS
that makes and secrete a particular 1. GROUND SUBSTANCES = composed
product/s of water and some adhesion CHONs
- ENDOCRINE GLAND = Ductless and large charge polysaccharide
➢ THYROID 2. FIBERS
- EXOCRINE GLAND = with ducts a. COLLAGEN (WHITE) = high
➢ SWEAT GLANDS, SALIVARY tensile strength
GLANDS b. ELASTIC (YELLOW) = ability
to stretch and recoil
c. RETICULAR FIBERS = Fine
collagen that forms the
internal skeleton
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. BONE
- called osseous tissue
- Composed of bone cells sitting in
cavities called lacunae

• EXOCRINE GLAND
- Number of cells
1. UNICELLULAR GLAND = goblet cells
2. MULTICELLULAR GLAND = all glands
except goblets
2. CARTILAGE
• NATURE O SECRETION
1. MUCOUS GLAND – secretes thick - Less hard and more flexible
product (goblet cells) TYPES OF CARTILAGE
2. SEROUS GLAND – secretes thin 1. HYALINE – has abundant collagen
watery product (parotid gland) fibers hidden by a rubbery matrix e.g
trachea
 2. FIBROLAST – forms the cushion like 2. ADIPOSE TISSUE – fat
disk between the vertebrae of the
spinal column
3. ELASTIC – structure with elasticity
desired e.g external ear

3. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE – aka dense

fibrous tissue
= forms strong rope like structure
2 types
1. TENDONS – attach skeletal
muscles to joints 3. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE –
2. LIGAMENTS – connect bones to consist of delicate network on interwoven
bones at joints reticular fibers e.g stroma or internal
framework

4. BLOOD – vascular tissue

4. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE – are softer
and have more cells and fewer fibers
• TYPES
1. AREOLAR TISSUE – soft, pliable,
“cobwebby” tissue that cushions and
protects the body organ
- Function as universal packing and
connective tissue glue

MUSCLE TISSUE
- Are highly specialized to contract or
shorten to produce movement

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

1. SKELETAL MUSCLES
- Attached to the skeleton
- Can be controlled voluntarily
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE
- Found in the heart
- Involuntarily controlled
3. SMOOTH MUSCLES
- Aka visceral muscle
- Cell has single nucleus and are
spindle in shape (pointing at each
end)
- Found in the wall of hollow organs
such as stomach, bladder, uterus, and
blood vessels. MICROSCOPE
1. SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
- EYEPIECE
- ARM
- NOSEPIECE
- OBJECTIVE LENS
- STAGE
- DIAPHRAGM
- COARSE ADJUSTMENT
- FINE ADJUSTMENT
- LIGHT SOURCE
- BASE
NERVOUS TISSUE
- Can be found in the brain, spinal cord,
nerves
2. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
- OCULAR LENS (EYEPIECE)
- DIOPTER ADJUSTMENT
- HEAD
- NOSE PIECE
- ARM
- OBJECTIVE LENS
- STAGE CLIP
- APERTURE
- MECHANICAL STAGE
- COARSE ADJUSTMENT
- DIAPHRAGM
- CONDENSER
- STAGE CONTROLS
- ILLUMINATOR (LIGHT SOURCE)
- BASE
- BRIGHTNESS ADJUSTMENT
- LIGHT SWITCH
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM - Provide a protective barrier against UV
• SKIN APPENDAGES radiation
- Cutaneous gland iii. TACTILE OR MERKEL CELLS
- Sweat gland - Tactile or touch receptor
- Sebaceous gland iv. NON-PIGMENTED GRANULAR
- Hair DENDROCYTES
- Nails - Larger than all
• SKIN - Phagocytosis
- Aka integumentary (covering) 2. STRATUM SPINOSUM (SPINY LAYER)
- Largest organ in the body - Contains thick bushes of intermediate
filaments made of pre-keratin
Functions: - Not yet fully keratinized
- Keep water and other molecules in the 3. STRATUM GRANULOSUM
body - Flatter, full of keratin
- Keeps water out 4. STRATUM LUCIDUM (CLEAR LAYER)
- Protect the body from external agent - Lips and thick skins (soles and palms)
- Cushion deeper organs 5. STRATUM CORNEUM
- Protects the body from mechanical - Outermost (horn-like layer)
and thermal damage - Capability to form callus
- Absorbs vit D - 20-30 cell layer
- Regulates the thermoregulation - Completely filled with keratin
- Acts as an excretory system - Cornified or horny cells (cornu horn)
- Has a lot of receptors (pain, touch,
pressure, and temperature)
- Regulates the heat-loss from the body • DERMIS
surface - Deeper part of our integumentary
system
LAYERS OF SKIN - Vascularized (present blood vessels)
• EPIDERMIS - Strong and stretchy envelope
- Superficial protective layer - hold and keep the body intact
- Stratified squamous epithelial • LAYERS OF DERMIS
(keratinizing) 1. PAPILLARY
- Avascular (no blood vessels) - In contact with epidermis
• LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS - Fingerprints (provide frictions)
1. STRATUM BASALE - Dermal papillae (pappil = nipple)
- Lies closest to the dermis - Extended from the upper fingerprints
- Stratum germinatavum (germinating for gripping and grasping
layer) - Houses pain receptor (free nerve
- receive oxygen via diffusion ending)
i. KERATINOCYTES - Touch receptor (Meissner corpuscles)
- Produce keratin which toughens and 2. RETICULAR LAYER
waterproofs the skin - Deepest skin layer
ii. MELANOCYTES - has blood vessels, sweat glands and
- Synthesize pigment oil glands
 - pressure receptor (Pacinian HAIR
corpuscles) - Characteristics of mammals
- Phagocytis (bacteria pass through - Hairless part (palms, soles, nipple,
epidermis) and penis)
- Lifespan: (eyelash 3-4 months) (scalp
hair 3-4 years)
• COLORATION OF THE SKIN
• HAIR FOLLICLE
1. MELANIN – brown-black pigment
- Parts of the hair shaft
2. CARROTENE – produces yellowish
pigment
3. HEMOGLOBIN – Oxygen-binding pigments 3 layers of hair
found in RBC 1. MEDULLA – inner part
2. CORTEX – thick median part
3. CUTICLE – covers the cortex and forms;
• CUTANEOUS GLANDS
outer portion
- All exocrine glands (duct or daanan)
1. SEBACEOUS GLANDS 3 types
- Found all over the skin except the 1. LANUGO
palm and soles - Fine silky fetal hair
- Passes through hair - Fetus, after 5th month the hair will
- Produces sebum (oily and vanish
fragmented) 2. ANGORA
- Keeps skin moist and soft and - Grows continuously
prevents hair from becoming brittle 3. DEFINITIVE
- Contains chemical kills bacteria - Grows on a certain length than ceases
2. SWEAT GLANDS to grow (eyelash, axillary hair, pubic
- Sudoriferous glands hair)
- Widely distributed in the skin
- Palms, soles, axillary, and pubic region • NAILS
2 types - part of our epidermis
- to protect and cover distal part of our
• ECCRINE
fingers
- Odorless
1. NAIL BODY
- Forehead, back, palms, and soles
- Visible attached portion
• APOCRINE
2. FREE EDGE
- Axillary and pubic region
- The white part
- Odoriferous secretion
3. NAIL ROOT
- Not functional until puberty
- Embedded in the skin
4. NAIL BODY
3. MAMMARY GLAND
- The base stratum spinosum
- Found within the breast
5. HYPONICHIUM
- Secretes milk during lactation
- Beneath the free border
(female)
6. EPONICHIUM (CUTICLE)
- Under the stimulus of pituitary gland
- Cover the nail root
7. NAIL MATRIX • MEDULLARY CAVITY
- Growth area of the nail - RED MARROW - blood cell
8. LUNULA - YELLOW MARROW – lipids and fats
- Whitish crescent-shaped
4. SHORT BONES
- Cube-shaped
SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Less wide than long bone
- Composed of joints, cartilage, and - Carpal bones of wrist and ankles
ligaments 5. SESAMOID BONE
- Special type of short bone
• SKELETON - Covered in tissue fascial
- Dried up (Greek) - Ex. Patella (knee cap)
- Axial Skeleton – form the longitudinal
area (from cranial to coccyx) Median tibia
- Appendicular Skeleton – upper and Lateral fibula
lower extremities
• AXIAL SKELETON (80 bones) 6. FLAT BONES
- Skull (28) - Thin, flattened, and curve
- Hyoid (26) - Ex. Sternum and scapula
- Ribs (24) 7. IRREGULAR BONES
- Sternum (2) - Different shape
• APPENDICULAR SKELETON (126 bones) - Vertebrae
- Upper Extremities (64) - Vertebral bone
- Lower Extremities (62)
• SKELETAL SYSTEM BONE FORMATION
- For support, protection, movement,
• BONE CELLS
storage, blood cell formation
1. OSTEOBLAST
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES/OSSEOUS - Active in bone formation
Adult bones: 206 2. OSTEOCLAST
- Active in bone resorption
• BONE TISSUE 3. OSTEOCYTES
1. COMPACT BONES - Principle cell of matured bones
- Dense and look smooth and DIVISION OF THE SKELETON
homogenous
A. AXIAL
- Same with other bones (outer
1. SKULL – formed (28)
covering)
- Cranium/cranial bones
2. SPONGY BONES
- 1 Frontal
- Compose of small needle-like pieces
- 2 Parietal
of bone and lots of open spaces
- 2 Temporal
3. LONG BONE – longer than they are wide
- 1 Occipital
- DIAPHYSIS – Shaft
- Sulture line (the division)
- EPIPHYSIS – two ends
- Occipital has hole called foramen
magnum
• FACIAL BONE (14 bones) • COCCYX (1 bone, 4 fused)
- Maxillae (2 bones) – maxillary bone or - Irregularly shape
upper jaw - Aka tailbone
• PALATIVE (2 bones) • RIBS (24)
- Palate - True ribs - attached to sternum (1-7)
• ZYGOMATIC (2 bones) - False ribs – attached to 7th rib (8-10)
- Cheekbones - Floating ribs – 11 and 12
• LACRIMAL BONE (2 bone) - Outer coastal space – pagitan ng mga
- Fingernail size ribs
• NASAL BONE (2 bones) - Outer coastal muscle – muscle
- Nasal bridge
• VOMER (1 bones) • APPENDICULAR SKELETON (126)
- Posterior part of nasal septum - Clavicle (2) – collarbone
• INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE (2 bones) - Scapula (2) – shoulder blade,
- Lateral walls of nasal cavities shoulder girdle = clavicle
• MANDIBLE (1 bone) - Humerus (2) – long bone of the upper
- Lower jaw arm
- Largest and strongest bone of the face - Ulna (2)
- Radius (2)
2. HYOID (1 bone) - Carpals (16) –
- Horseshoe – upper part of anterior ▪ Scaphoid
neck ▪ Lunate
• TRUNK (5 bones) ▪ Triangular
- Vertebrae (26 bones) ▪ Pisiform
• CERVICAL (7 bones) ▪ Capitate
- Vertebrae in the neck - Lateral to medial
- C1 – atlas (tango) ▪ Hamate
- C2 – axis (ikot) ▪ Trapezium
- Both bones are not prominent ▪ Trapezoid
- C3-C7 – prominent spinous process - Metacarpals (16) – bones of the hand
- Phalanges (28) – fingers
• SPINOUS PROCESS
- Cervical – not yet pointed • LOWER EXTREMITIES (62)
- Thoracic – pointed - Hipbone (2) – aka pelvic bone, ilium,
- Lumbar – flat ischium, pubis
- Femur (2) – thigh bone, longest bone
- Patella (2) – kneecap, sesamoid
• THORACIC (12)
- Tibia (2) – shin, anteromedial
- T1-T12
- Fibula (2) – splint bone, lateral to tibia
• LUMBAR (5)
- Tarsal (7) – bones of ankle
- L1-L5
▪ Calcaneus
• SACRUM (1 bone, 5 fused)
▪ Talus
- Inverted triangle
▪ Nanicular
- Alae, median sacral crest, sacral canal
▪ Cuboid
 ▪ First cuneiform (medial)
▪ Second cuneiform
(intermediate)
▪ Third cuneiform (lateral)
- Metatarsals (10) – bones of the foot
- Phalanges (28) – toes

JOINTS
- Arthroses
- Between 2 or more bone
• TYPES OF JOINTS (3)
• FIBROUS JOINTS
- Connective tissue holds bone together
- Immovable (synarthroses)
• CARTILAGENOUS JOINTS
- Cartilage holds the bone
- Slightly movable
• SYNOVIAL JOINTS
- A cavity fluid in bones (between)
- Freely movable (diarthrosis)

TYPES
• HINGE JOINT
- One direction
- Elbow and knee
• FIRST JOINT
- Rotation
- Atlantoaxial (c1 and c2)
• CONDYLOID
- 2 directions
- Wrist joint
• SADDLE JOINT
- Deeper articulate
• BALL AND SOCKET
- Allows in any movement
• GLIDING JOINT
- Plain joints
- Slides over one
- Commonly happen with Carpal and
tarsal