FORM 1 PHYS Simplified Notes FORM 1 PHYS Simplified Notes

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FORM 1 PHYS Simplified Notes
Physics practicals (University of Nairobi)
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PHYSICS NOTES
FORM 1 SIMPLIFIED VERSION
QUICK REVISION GUIDE
An Updated Well-Organized Detailed Learning Notes for the

Current Form 1 Syllabus.
A Comprehensive Summary Analysis of

Physics Education Work.
SERIES 1
Past KCSE Topical Questions Available At The End Of This Book.
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PHYSICS AS A SCIENCE Relationship between Physics, Other Subjects

 Physics is a branch of science and Technology
 Science is divided into 3 main branches:- Physics And Geography
a) Physics Accurate use of weather instruments like thermometer,
b) Chemistry wind vane, rain gauges etc. require physics knowledge.
c) Biology Concepts like heat transfer by convection which explain
Definition of Physics the formation of convectional rainfall and pressure
 Physics is defined as the study of matter and variation can be best explained in physics.
it’s relation to energy. Physics and Mathematics
 It involves explaining phenomena such as: Many concepts in physics like laws, effects, principles
I.The falling of bodies towards the ground, etc. are expressed mathematically.
II.Rising up of liquids through a drinking straw, Mathematical skills are therefore very instrumental in the
III.Seasonal occurrence of tides, leaning of physics
IV.A plastic pen rubbed against dry fur or hair picks Physics and Chemistry
small pieces of paper, Physics has helped in explaining the nature of particles
V.A crackling sound is heard when a nylon cloth is within atoms and therefore atomic structure of
removed etc. substances.
Study of Physics Atomic structure of different / various substances
The study of physics entails: determine their reactivity (chemical reactions).
i.Measurements of quantities and collection of data. Physics and History
ii.Drawing and testing of hypotheses through Historians use carbon dating to establish ages of fossils
experiments and observation. and therefore past patterns of earlier life.
iii.Establishment of laws and principles This concept of carbon dating is explained better in
atomic physics.
BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
Physics and Home Science
1. Mechanics
Physics knowledge is used in designing and manufacture
 It deals with the study of motion under the
of kitchen equipment e.g. electric cookers, microwave
influence of force.
ovens, and Mechanizing jikos etc.
2. Electricity and magnetism
Physics and Technology
 It deals with relationship between electric
Machines used in the field of medicine such as x-rays,
field and magnetic field and their applications in
body scanners and lasers are all applications of physics.
the working of motor, microphones, electro-
Manufacture and use of satellites and microwave dishes
magnets etc.
used in information technology to relay information is
3. Thermodynamics
based on physics knowledge
 It deals with the transformation of heat to
Physics knowledge is also used in defense industry in the
and from other forms of energy and the
manufacture and use of most modern and complex
accompanying changes in pressure, volume etc.
machines.
4. Geometric optics
Physics and Biology
 It deals with the behavior of light as it
Knowledge of lenses studied in physics has led to the
passes through various media.
manufacture of microscopes used in the study of the cell
 Properties of light like reflection, refraction
and diseases.
etc. are studied in this branch of physics.
5. Waves
 It deals with propagation of energy through CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN PHYSICS
space and effects such as reflection, diffraction of  A career refers to a job or a profession that one has
light and sound waves. been trained for and intends to do for a long period of
6. Atomic physics time e.g. teaching career, medicine, engineering,
 It is deals with the study of the behavior of electrical technician etc.
particles constituting the nucleus (centre) of the  A course refers to lessons in particular subject
atom and their accompanying energy changes.  An occupation refers to a job or a profession.

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Examples of courses offered at university level FIRST AID MEASURES

(degrees) that require physics knowledge Accident Possible Cause of the First Aid Measures
(a) Bachelor of education (science) Accident
(b) Bachelor of Science (civil engineering) Cuts  Poor  Seek assistance to
(c) Bachelor of medicine handling of glass stop bleeding
(d) Bachelor of architecture apparatus and cutting  Immediate
(e) Bachelor of technology (production tools i.e. scalpels and dressing of the wound
engineering) razors
burns  Naked  In case of a burn
Examples of courses offered at college level that
flames caused by an acid or a base,
require physics knowledge  Splashes of quickly run cold water over
(a) Diploma in civil engineering concentrated acids the affected part as you seek
(b) Diploma in computer science and bases for further treatment
(c) Diploma in water technology Poisoning  Inhaling  Seeking immediate
(d) Diploma in laboratory technology poisonous fumes assistance
 Accidental
THE LABORATORY swallowing of
 A laboratory is a special room designed and poisonous chemicals
equipped conducting experiments and practical. Eye damage  Bits of  In case of irritating
Major systems of the Laboratory solids chemicals wash your eyes
i. Gas piping system  Dangerous with a lot of clean water.
ii. Electrical energy supply system chemicals
Electrical  Touching  Put off the main
iii. Water system
shock exposed (naked) switch first before treating
Basic Laboratory Rules wires the shock
 For safety purposes, the following laboratory  Using faulty
rules must be followed and observed while in the electrical appliances
laboratory:
1.Locations of electrical switches, firefighting
Revision Exercise
equipment, first aid kit, gas supply and water supply1) Name 3 branches of science subject in secondary schools
systems must be noted.
2.Windows and doors should be kept open while 2) Explain the steps involved in scientific approach.
working in the laboratory. 3) Name and briefly explain the branches of physics
3.Any instructions given must be followed carefully. 4) Give instances where physics interdependent with agriculture.
NEVER attempt anything while in doubt. Topic Branch of physics
4.There should no eating, drinking or chewing in the
laboratory. 1 Measurement I
5.Ensure that all electrical switches, gas and water
2 Force
taps are turned off when not in use.
6.When handling electrical apparatus, hands must be 3 Pressure
dry.
7.Never plug in foreign materials into electrical 4 Particulate nature of matter
sockets.
8.Shirts and blouses must be tucked in and long hair 5 Rectilinear propagation of light
tied up. and reflection at plane surfaces
9.Keep floors and working surfaces dry. Any spillage
should be wiped off immediately. 6 Thermal expansion
10. All apparatus must be cleaned and returned to
correct location of storage after use. 7 Heat transfer
11. Laboratory equipment should not be taken out of
8 Electrostatics
laboratory unless authorized.
12. Any waste after an experiment must be disposed of 9 Simple cells and electric circuits
immediately.
13. Hands must be washed before leaving the laboratory
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Chapter Two 𝐌𝐄𝐀𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐄𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓 𝐈

Introduction 3. Complete the table below
 Measurement refers to the process of finding the Basic quantity SI Symbol of unit Derived
size of a physical quantity. unit quantity
 Scientists all over the world have one Length
international system of units i.e. systeme internationale Mass
de unites (SI units) for physical quantities. Electric current
Thermodynamic
Reasons for Establishing SI Units temperature
1. To have international uniformity among Luminous intensity
scientists. Amount of
2. To avoid confusion among scientists. substance
4. Why is it necessary to establish SI units?
TYPES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
i. Basic Physical Quantities (Fundamental Physical LENGTH
Quantities)

 These are quantities that cannot be obtained from
t is the measure of distance between two points.
other physical quantities.
Examples of length are:
 There are seven basic quantities according to the
 Breadth
international system of units (SI units). They are as
shown in the table below:  diameter
Basic physical quantity SI unit Symbol of the SI  height
unit  Depth etc.
Length Meter m Multiples and Sub-multiples of the metre
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s 1000 𝑚
Electric currents Ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin K 100 𝑚
temperature
Luminous intensity Candela Cd 10 𝑚
Amount of substance mole mol
10 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝑑𝑚)
ii. Derived Physical Quantities
100 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑐𝑚)

hese are quantities obtained by multiplication or division
of other physical quantities e.g. area, volume, work, 1 000 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚𝑚)
density, momentum etc.
1 000 000 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (µ𝑚)
Exercise 2.2
Convert the following into SI units
a) 1000km (answer: 1 000 000 m)
b) 0.00025 mm (answer: 0.00000025 m)
c) 0.01Hm (answer: 1 m)
d) 25 mm (answer: 0.025 m)
e) 25 µm (answer: 0.000025 m)

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Factors Considered When Choosing an Instrument

for Measuring Lengths
1. Size of the object to be measured.
2. Level of accuracy required.
The Meter rule

 Meter rules and a half– meter rules are
graduated (calibrated) in centimeter and millimeter
 The smallest division on a meter rule scale is
1mm (0.1cm or 0.001 m). This is the accuracy of the R 1 = 77. 9 cm, R 2 = 82.8 cm, R 3 = 25.5 cm, R 4 =30.0
meter rule. cm, R 5 =3.4 cm, R 6 =7.0 cm
Note:
I. Accuracy of a measuring instrument is the Exercise
smallest value that can be accurately obtained using Express the above readings in:
the instrument. I. Mm
II. The measurement taken using a measuring II. M
instrument must be expressed to the number of Precaution When Using a Meter Rule
decimal places of the accuracy of that instrument.  Care should be taken to avoid damage to the ends
For example, any measurement taken using a meter of meter rules. This is because most of them do not
rule should be expressed in whole number if in have a short allowance at the ends to cater for tear.
millimeter, to 1 decimal place if in centimeters and
to 3 decimal places if in meters.
TAPE MEASURE
Types of Tape Measure
Procedure Followed When Using a Meter Rule
i. Tailor’s tape measure
1. Place the meter rule in contact with the object
ii. Carpenter’s tape measure
whose length is to be measured.
iii. Surveyor’s tape measure etc.
2. Place the end of the object against the zero cm
Note: The choice of tape measure depends on the
mark of the scale.
nature and length of distance to be measured.
3. Position your eye perpendicularly above the
Precaution When Using Tape Measure
scale.
 Ensure it is taut (very straight) during use.
Measuring Curved Lengths

 To measure curved lengths such as rails and roads
on maps, a thread is placed along the required length.
The length is then found by placing the thread on a
millimeter scale.
 For curved surfaces like a cylinder, a thread is
Sources of Error When Using a Meter Rule closely wrapped around the surface a number of times.
 When using a meter rule, an error may arise Experiment 2.1
when: Aim/ Objective
I. the rule is not in contact with the object, To measure the circumference of a measuring cylinder
II. the end of the object is not aligned to the zero mark using a thread
of the meter rule scale, Apparatus
III. the position of the eye is not perpendicular to the i. 10 ml measuring cylinder
scale. ii. Thread
 NB: The error that occurs when the position iii. Meter rule
of the eye is not perpendicular to the scale is called Procedure
parallax error 1. Closely wrap a thin thread ten times around the
Example cylinder as shown below.
What are the readings indicated by arrows R 1 ,R2 , R

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3, R 4 , R 5 and R 6 below.
2. Mark with ink the beginning and end of the

turns.
3. Remove the thread.
4. Measure the length between the ink marks
and call it 𝑅1.
5. Repeat two times, recording readings as 𝑅2
and 𝑅3 so as to ensure accuracy of your
Results and Calculations
measurements.  Height of the tree is estimated using the
𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 expression:
6. Find the average length as 1 2 3. ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒, ℎ𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒
3
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑, ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑
Results and Calculations 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒, 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 =
 Average length of 10 turns, 𝑅 = 3
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑, 𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝑅
 Circumference of the cylinder =
10
Example
 Diameter of the cylinder (D) is obtained as:
𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 In an experiment to estimate the height of a tree in
𝑫= Nyabururu Girls’ Secondary School compound,
𝝅
Grace recorded the following data.
I. Length of shadow of the tree= 1000cm
Exercise
II. Length of shadow of the rod = 200cm
Theoretical III. Height of the rod = 100cm
1. A length 550cm of a thin thread wraps IV. Determine the height of the tree
around a cylinder exactly 25 times. Calculate the
circumference and the radius of the cylinder. Solution
𝟐𝟐
(Take 𝝅 = 𝟕 ). ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒, 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒
=
2. Philip found that the perimeter of his ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑
farming plot was approximately 500 strides. His 𝑥 1000
=
stride was 1.1 m long. What was the perimeter of 100 200
the plot? 𝑥 = 5.0𝑚
Experimental AREA
1. Estimate the width of your desk by counting  Area refers to the measure of surface.
how many of your palm lengths are there  The SI unit of area is the square meter(𝒎𝟐 ).
2. Describe a method you can use to estimate
the thickness width of one sheet of paper of your Multiples and sub-multiples of the square metre
book. I. 1 m2 = 1000 000 mm2
3. Describe a method that can be used to II. 1 m2 = 10 000 cm2
estimate the thickness of a razor blade. III. 1 km2 = 1000 000 m2
Estimation of Length a)
Experiment 2.2 Exercise

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Aim /objective: To estimate the height of a tree 1.Express the following in square centimeter
Apparatus a) 0.00027 km2
 A rod of length 2 meters b) 4.5 m2
 A meter rule. 2.Express the following in SI units
b) 9000 cm 2
Procedure
1. Hold the rod upright and measure its length. c) 0.009 cm2
2. Measure the length of its shadow. d) 25 km2
3. Measure the length of the shadow of a tree in
the school compound.
Measurement of Area Example
Area of Regularly –Shaped Objects
Estimate the area of the irregular surface shown in the figure
 Area of irregular-shaped objects is obtained using
below by counting the small squares. The area of one complete
appropriate formulae.
square is 1cm2.
A. Rectangle
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 × 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 Solution

B. Circle 𝟏
o 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔 + 𝟐 ×
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔) 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆
𝟏
o 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝟒 + 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟐 ) × 𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝟐
o 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟐
Exercise
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔
C. Triangle 1) Trace the outline of your palm on a graph paper and estimate the area
of the shape obtained.
2) Determine the area of the top of your desk.
3) The diameter of the bore of a capillary tube is 2.0mm. Calculate the
cross-section area of the bore in cm2(take π=3.142)
4) A sheet of paper measures 25cm by 15cm. Calculate its area in mm2
𝟏 Volume
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 × 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝟐 Volume refers to the amount of space occupied by matter.
D. Trapezium It is a derived quantity of length.
The SI unit of volume is the cubic meter (m3)
Multiples and Sub- Multiples of the Cubic Metre
(a) 1𝑚3 = 1000000 𝑐𝑚3
(b) 1𝑚3 = 1000 000 000 𝑚𝑚3
(c) 1𝑘𝑚 3 = 1000 000 000 𝑚 3
𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔) × 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝟐 (d) 1𝑚3 = 1000 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
(e) 1 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑚𝑙
Area of Irregularly-Shaped Surfaces (f) 1𝑙 = 1𝑑𝑚3
 Area of irregularly shaped surface can be estimated by
sub-dividing the surface into small equal squares and the area Exercise
obtained as: Convert each of the following volumes to SI unit
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 I. 1500 000 000 cm3
𝟏 II. 20.0 liters
= (𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔 + III. 1.0 ml
𝟐
IV. 9000 000 000 mm3
× 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔) 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆
V. 1000 000 l
Volume of Regular – Shaped Solids

 Volume of regularly – shaped solids is obtained by applying
an appropriate formula.

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1. CUBOID Examples
Volume = cross-section area x height 1) A rim of foolscaps contains 500 papers and has a mass of 2kg.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 × 𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒕𝒉 × 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 The size is 300mm by 200mm by 50mm. find:
I. The thickness of one sheet of paper.
200𝑚𝑚
= 0.4𝑚𝑚
500 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠
= 0.0004 𝑚
II. The mass of one sheet of paper.
o 500 papers = 2kg
2𝑘𝑔
 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 =
500
2. Triangular prism o = 0.004𝑘𝑔
III. The volume of the rim.
o 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 × ℎ
o 300 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 200 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 50 𝑚𝑚
= 3 000 000 𝑚𝑚3
= 0.003 𝑚3
IV. The volume of one sheet of paper
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 500 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 0.003 𝑚3
0.003 𝑚3
o 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 =
500
Volume = cross-section area x length
= 0.000006 𝑚3
𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 × 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 × 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 2) A block of glass is 50cm long, 4.0cm thick and 2.5cm high.
𝟐 Calculate its volume
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
3. cylinder = 5.0 𝑐𝑚 × 4.0 𝑐𝑚 × 2.5 𝑐𝑚
= 50𝑐𝑚2
= 0.000050 𝑚3
3) Find the volume of the cylindrical tin of radius 7.0cm and height
3.0cm.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑛 = 𝜋𝑟2
22
= × 7 𝑐𝑚 × 7 𝑐𝑚 × 3 𝑐𝑚
7
= 462.0𝑐𝑚3
= 0.0004620 𝑚3
Volume= cross section area x height 4) Find the volume of a triangular prism if base = 6.0cm, height
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐h =5.0cm and length =12.0cm
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
4. Sphere e.g. foot ball 1
= ( × 6.0 𝑐𝑚 × 5.0 𝑐𝑚) × 12.0 𝑐𝑚
2
= 180.0 𝑐𝑚3
= 0.0001800 𝑚3
5) Find the volume of a sphere whose radius is 3.0cm
4
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
4 22
= × × 3.0 𝑐𝑚 × 3.0 𝑐𝑚 × 3.0 𝑐𝑚
3 7
= 113.14 𝑐𝑚3
𝟒 𝟑 = 0.00011314 𝑚3
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓 6) A sphere of diameter 6.0 mm is molded into a uniform wire of
𝟑 𝟐𝟐
diameter 0.2mm. Calculate the length of the wire. (𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝝅 = )
𝟕
5. Cone 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
4 3
𝜋𝑅 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙
3
4 22 22
× × 3.0 𝑚𝑚 × 3.0 𝑚𝑚 × 3.0 𝑚𝑚 = × 0.1 𝑚𝑚 × 0.1 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑙
3 7 7
3
36 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01 𝑚𝑚 𝑙 2
36 𝑚𝑚3
𝑙= = 3600 𝑚𝑚 = 3.6 00 𝑚𝑙
0.01 𝑚𝑚2
𝟏 𝟐
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓 𝒉
𝟑

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Measurement of Volume of Liquids Solution

i. Using a Container with Uniform Cross- Section 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 0.12 𝑐𝑚3
Area. 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 100 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 1000 × 0.12𝑐𝑚3
 The liquid is poured into the container and the = 12 𝑐𝑚3
height of the liquid in the container is measured. The 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 24 𝑐𝑚3
volume of the liquid is calculated using the 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = (24 + 12)𝑐𝑚3
expression: = 36 𝑐𝑚3
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 Note:
= 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓  When using a measuring vessel the reading of the
× 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 volume is taken with the eye positioned in level with the
bottom of the meniscus (for liquids which curve
upwards) as in (a) or top of the meniscus (for liquids
which curve downwards) as in (b) below.
Measuring Volume of Irregular- Shaped Solids
 The method used in this case is called
displacement method since the solid displaces some
liquid when immersed.
ii. Using a suitable volume measuring apparatus Conditions under which displacement method works:
 The following apparatus are used to measure For displacement method to work best, the solid whose
volume accurately of liquids in laboratory: volume is to be determined should:
a) Pipette (a) not be soluble in the liquid being used,
b) Burette (b) not react with the liquid,
c) Volumetric flask (c) sink in the liquid and,
d) Syringe (d) not absorb the liquid.
 Pipette and volumetric flask measure fixed
volumes of liquids. Experiments
 The following apparatus are used to Aim: To measure volume of irregularly – shaped solid
approximately measure volume of liquids in Requirements: stone, thread, measuring cylinder, water,
laboratory: Eureka can (also called displacement or overflow can),
a) Measuring cylinders floater and a sinker.
b) Graduated beakers
c) Conical flasks Method 1: Using measuring cylinder
Procedure
The Burette
1. Partly fill the measuring cylinder with water and

not the volume 𝑉1 of the water
2. Tie the stone with a thread and lower it gently in
The scale of the burette is marked such that zero cm 3 the cylinder until it is fully submerged
mark is at the top and the maximum value mark at 3. Note the new volume of water V2
the bottom. Results and calculations
Example The volume of the stone can be calculated as:
3
Water level in a burette is 24 cm . If 100 drops of 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏
water fall from the burette and the average
volume of one drop is 0.12 cm3. What is the final
water level in the burette?

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Method 2: Using Eureka can Example

Procedure
1. Fill Eureka can with water until it overflows 1) Determine the volume of water in the cylinder shown
2. Wait for the water to stop coming out of the spout below.
3. Place a measuring cylinder under the spout
4. Tie the stone with a thread and lower it gently into water
until it is fully submerged
5. Collect the water coming out of the spout using a
measuring cylinder.
Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 33 𝑐𝑚3
(Remember that accuracy of the scale shown above is 1 𝑐𝑚3 )
Results and calculations 2) If a stone of volume 6cm3is inserted to sink in water in the
The volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder is above cylinder what will be the new water level?
the volume of the stone. Solution
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 33 𝑐𝑚3 + 6 𝑐𝑚3
Method 3: Measuring volume of an irregular-shaped = 39 𝑐𝑚3
floater using Eureka can Mass
Procedure  Mass is the quantity of matter in an object.
1. Fill the Eureka can with water until it overflows  The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
2. Wait for the water to stop coming out of the spout
3. Lower the sinker tied with a thread gently into the can Multiples and Submultiples of the kilogram
4. Measure the volume V1that flows into the measuring  1𝑘𝑔 = 1000𝑔
cylinder  1𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 = 1000𝑘𝑔
5. Remove the sinker and tie it to the cork as you fill  1𝑔 = 1000𝑚𝑔
Eureka can again and allow it to overflow. Then place  1𝑘𝑔 = 1000000𝑚𝑔
the measuring cylinder under the spout.  1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 = 1000000𝑔
6. Lower the sinker and cork tied together gently and 1.
measure V2that overflows into the measuring cylinder. Exercise
2. Convert 39.6mg into kg (answer: 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟔𝒌𝒈)
3. Change 50 tonnes into g (answer: 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒈)
4. 340 kg into tonnes (answer: 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔)
5. 20 g into kg (answer: 0.020 kg)
6. 100g into kg (answer : 0.100 kg)
Measurement of Mass
 There are three instruments that can be used used:
Results and calculations I. Top pan balance (electrical type)
The volume of the stone can be calculated as: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 =II. Beam balance (mechanical type)
𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 III. Lever balance (mechanical type)
Advantages of Electrical Balance (Top Pan Balance) Over

the Beam Balance (Mechanical Type)
1. Electrical balance is accurate.
2. It is easy to use than beam balance.

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𝑉 =𝐿×𝑊×ℎ
= 6 𝑐𝑚 × 4 𝑐𝑚 × 3 𝑐𝑚
𝑉 = 72 𝑐𝑚3
𝑚 200𝑔
𝜌= ; = 2.7777𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑣 72𝑐𝑚3
1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
2.7777 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 2.777 × 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= 2778𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
1.The density of a substance is 15g/cm3. Express this in SI
units
1𝑔1𝑐𝑚3 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑙𝑚3
15𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 1000𝑘𝑔𝑙𝑚3
15𝑔𝑙𝑐𝑚3 =
Density 1𝑔𝑐𝑚3
 It is defined as the mass per unit volume of a = 15000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
substance.
 Density is denoted by a Greek letter 𝒓𝒉𝒐 (𝝆) 2.The figure alongside shows a measuring cylinder which
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 contains water initially at level A. When a solid of mass
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 11g is immersed in water the level raises to B. Determine the
density of the solid.
𝒎 𝒎
𝝆= ; 𝒗= ; 𝒎= 𝝆×𝒗
𝒗 𝝆
 Since mass is measured in kg and volume in m 3

then the SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic
meter (kg/m3 or kgm-3)
1g/cm3= 1000kg/m3
Examples 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴

48 𝑐𝑚3 − 33 𝑐𝑚3 = 15 𝑐𝑚3
3. Show that 1g/cm3= 1000kg/m3 𝑚
1𝑔 𝜌=
𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 𝑣
1𝑐𝑚3 30 𝑔 𝑔
0.001 𝑘𝑔 = 3 = 2.000
= 15 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚3
0.000001 𝑚3 = 2000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Exercise
4. Determine the density in kg/m3 of a solid whose
mass is 40g and whose dimensions in cm are 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟒𝟎 × 1.The diagram below shows the change in volume of water in
𝟑 a measuring cylinder when an irregular solid is immersed in
𝑉 =𝐿×𝑊×ℎ it.
𝑉 = 30 × 3 × 4 = 360𝑐𝑚3
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
40𝑔
= 0.11111 𝑔𝑐𝑚3
360𝑐𝑚3
o 1𝑔1𝑐𝑚3 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑙𝑚3
0.1111 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 1000𝑘𝑔𝑙𝑚3
0.1111 𝑔𝑙𝑐𝑚3 = Given that the mass of the solid is 56.7g determine the density
1𝑔𝑐𝑚3 of the solid in g/cm3 (give answer correct to 2decimal places
2.Complete the table
= 111.1 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 mass volume Density
3
0.012kg 20cm 0.6glcm3
5. A wooden block of mass 200g is 4.0 cm wide 3.0 200g ….….…cm 800kglm3
cm thick and 6.0 cm long. Calculate the density of the 3
wooden block in kg/m3 ……….tonne 125m3 ….…..glcm3
s

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𝑚
Density Bottle 𝑉=
 It is a small glass bottle fitted with glass stopper 𝜌
0.080 𝑘𝑔
(made of ground glass) which has a hole through which =
excess liquid flows out. 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= 0.00008 𝑚3
i) Volume of the density bottle
Precautions When Using a Density Bottle
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒
1. The bottle should be held by the neck when wiping it. = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑡.
This is to prevent it from expanding due to body warmth 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 = 0.000008 𝑚3
when held by sides by using hands.
2. The outside of the bottle must be wiped dry carefully. ii) Mass of solid D in part b)
3. There should be no air bubbles when the bottle is filled iii) 96 − 8𝑔
with liquid. = 48𝑔
= 0.088 𝑘𝑔
iv) Density of solid D
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
0.088 𝑘𝑔
=
0.00008 𝑚3
= 1100 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
v) Volume of water in c)
𝑚
N/B Density bottle is used measure the density of either 𝑉=
𝜌
liquid or solid. 0.030 𝑘𝑔
=
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Examples = 0.000030𝑚3
1. The mass of a density bottle is 20.0g when empty, 70.0g vi) Mass of solid D in d).
when full of water and 55.0g when full of a second 𝑚 =𝜌×𝑣
𝑚 = 1100 × (0.000080 − 0.000030)
liquid x. Calculate the density of the liquid (take
𝑚 = 0.055 𝑘
density of water to be 1g/cm3)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Exercise
 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 = 20.0𝑔
 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡 = 70.0𝑔 A density bottle has a mass of 17.5g when empty. When full
 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙 = 50.0𝑔 of water its mass is 37.5g. When full of liquid x its mass is
𝑚 50.0 𝑔 35 g. If the density of water is 1000kg/m3, find the density
 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 = = 3 = 50𝑐𝑚3 of liquid x.
𝜌 1𝑔/𝑐𝑚
 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 + 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 55.0𝑔 Density of Mixtures
 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒  A mixture is obtained by putting two or more
= 55.0 − 20.0 = 35.0𝑔 substance such that they do not react with one another.
 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒  The density of the mixture lies between the densities
3
= 50 𝑐𝑚 of its constituent substances and depends on their
𝑚 proportions.
 𝜌 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 =
𝑣 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
35.0 0.7𝑔 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
= = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
50 𝑐𝑚3
= 700𝑘𝑔/𝑚 3 Example
2. In an experiment to determine the density of a certain 1. A mixture consists of 40cm3 of water and 60cm3 of
solid D, the following readings were obtained using a liquid X. if the densities of water and liquid X are 1.0g/cm 3
3
density bottle and 0.8g/cm respectively, calculate the density of the
a) Mass of empty density bottle = 8g mixture.
b) Mass of a density bottle and solid D =96g 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑤 × 𝑉𝑤
c) Mass of density bottle +30g water +solid D= 132g = 1.0𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 40𝑐𝑚3
d) Mass of density bottle +water =88 g = 40 𝑔
Calculate 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑥 × 𝑉𝑥
vii) Mass of water in density bottle in part d). = 0.8 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 60𝑐𝑚3 = 48 𝑔
88 𝑔 − 8 𝑔 = 80 𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑋
= 0.080 𝑘𝑔 =
viii) Volume of water in d) (take density of water be 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑋
3
1000kg/m ).
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40 𝑔 + 48 𝑔 Simple Pendulum
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 3 3 
40 𝑐𝑚 + 60 𝑐𝑚 It is a device that can be used to determine time intervals.
88 𝑔  It makes oscillations when displaced slightly.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 0.880 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
100 𝑐𝑚3  An oscillation is a complete to and fro motion.
2. A solution contains 40cm3 by volume of alcohol
and 60cm3 water. If the density of the alcohol is Experiment
0.79g/cm3 and water is 1.0g/cm3. Calculate the density of Aim: To determine time taken to complete given oscillations
the solution. Apparatus: Pendulum bob, thread, stop watch, clamp, boss
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑤× 𝑉𝑤 and retort stand.
= 1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 60𝑐𝑚3 = 60𝑔 Procedure
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 = 𝜌𝑎 × 𝑉𝑎 i) Set your apparatus as shown below.
= 0.79 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 40𝑐𝑚3 = 31.6𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙
=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙
60 𝑔 + 31.6 𝑔 91.6 𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 3 3 =
60 𝑐𝑚 + 40 𝑐𝑚 100 𝑐𝑚3
= 0.916 𝑔/ 𝑐𝑚3
Time
 Time is the measure of duration. i) Slightly displace the bob and determine the time taken
 SI unit is the second (s). to make 3 oscillations
ii) Repeat the procedure for the following number of
Multiples and submultiples of second oscillations and fill the table below.
1𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 60𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 No. of oscillations Time (s) Time for 1
1ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 oscillation, T (s)
1𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 86400 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 2
1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 100 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 4
1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (𝑚𝑠) 6
1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 1000 000 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (µ𝑠) 8
Measurement of Time Calculations
 Time is measured using either the stop watch or a Time for 1 oscillation can be calculated as:
stop clock depending on level of accuracy required. 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑇=
𝑛
Advantages of Stop Watch Over Stop Clock Revision Exercise
1.) Stop watch is easy to handle and read than stop
clock. 1) Identify the mistake in the following SI units and
2.) It is more accurate than stop clock. hence write them correctly.
Example (a) Amperes(a)
Express the time shown on the stop watch screen below in (b) Candela(cand)
SI. (c) Metres(M)
(d) Kalvin
(e) Seconds
(f) Kilograms
(g) Pascals
(h) newtons
2) convert the following into derived SI units
(a) 0.01cm
(b) 100cm2
(c) 20days
(d) 3.625g
(e) 324tonnes
= 10 × 60 + 22 + 34 × 0.01
(f) 5dm3
= 600 + 22 + 0.34 = 622.343 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 (g) 400ml

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3) Estimate the length of the curve shown.
4) Define density and give its SI units.

5) A burette shows a liquid level as 20cm3. Ten drops of
the same liquid each of volume 0.5cm3 are added.
Calculate the new liquid level.
6) An empty density bottle has a mass of 15g. When full
of alcohol of density 0.8g/cm3, its mass is 47g.
Calculate:-
i) The volume of the bottle. If the initial reading was at 0cm mark, determine the
ii) Its mass when full of water. volume of one drop.
iii) It mass when full of mercury of density 13.6g/cm3.
7) A measuring cylinder contains 8 cm3 of water. A small
piece of brass of mass 24g is lowered carefully into a 14. A mixture is made up of two metals X and Y. The
measuring cylinder so that it is carefully submerged, if mass of the mixture is 30 g and the volume of the
the density of the brass is 8g/cm3, what is the new
mixture is 4.5 cm 3. Determine the mass of metal X
reading of the level of water in the cylinder in m3.
8) A Eureka can of mass 60g and cross sectional area of in the mixture. (Density of metal X is 6 000 Kgm -3
60cm2 is filled with water of density 1g/cm3. Apiece of and density of metal Y is 7 900 Kgm -3)
steel of mass 20g and density 8g/cm3 is lowered
carefully into the can as shown
This is a Property of Mwalimu

Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke
. 0746-222-000 for more Educational
Calculate;
a) The total mass of water and the Eureka can before the Materials.
metal was lowered.
b) The volume of water that over flowered.
c) The final mass of the eureka can and its contents
d) In finding the density of liquid, why is the method of
using density bottle more accurate than the one of
using a measuring cylinder.
9) 25cm3 of a liquid x of density 1.2g/cm3 is mixed with
liquid of volume 30 cm3 and 0.9g/cm3 without change
in volume. Calculate the density of the mixture.
10) The mass of an empty density bottle is 25.0g. Its
mass when filled with water is 50.0g and when filled
formalin its mass is 60.0g. Calculate.
a) Mass of water
b) Volume of water.
c) Volume of bottle.
d) Mass of formalin.
e) Volume of formalin.
f) Density of formalin.
11) A butcher has a beam balance and masses 0.5 kg
and 2 kg. How would he measure 1.5 kg of meat on the
balance at once?
12) Determine the density in kg/m3 of a solid whose
mass is 40g and whose dimensions in cm are 30 x 4 x 3
13)Figure below shows the reading on a burette after 55
drops of a liquid have been used.

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Chapter Three 𝐅𝐎𝐑𝐂𝐄

DEFINITION OF FORCE c) The figure below shows two objects of mass m 1and
 Force refers to a push or a pull that result from m2 acted upon by a force F
interaction of bodies.
 It is that which changes the state of motion of a body.
 The SI unit of force is the newton (N).
 Force has both magnitude and direction and is
represented by a straight line with an arrow as shown Identify force F
below. Gravitational force
2. Centripetal Force
 The length of the line shows the magnitude of the force  This is a force which maintains a body to move in a
while the arrow head shows the direction of the force. circular orbit or path.
Effects of Force  It is directed towards the centre of the circular orbit /
i. Force can make stationary object move. track.
ii. It can increase speed of moving object. Examples of situations in which centripetal force acts
iii. It can stop a moving object. include:
iv. It can decrease speed of moving object.  Whirling a stone tied to a string.
v. It can change shape of an object (i.e. can deform an
object).
vi. It can make an object turn about a fixed point (pivot).
This is called turning effect of force.
vii. It can change the direction of a moving object.
Exercise
Which of the effects above can be caused by:
a) A push only?
b) A pull only?
c) A push or a pull?
TYPES OF FORCE  The earth revolving around the sun along it is orbit.
 Centrifuge used to separate ghee from milk.
1. Gravitational Force  A car moving round a circular track or road (corner).
 It refers to the force of attraction between any two 3. Magnetic force
bodies e.g. force of attraction between the earth and the  Magnetic force is the force of attraction or repulsion due
moon. to a magnet.
 Gravitational force is a non-contact force.  It is non-contact force.
Gravitational Force of the Earth  Magnetic attraction occurs between a magnet and a
 It is the force of attraction on bodies toward the centre of magnetic material or between unlike poles of a magnet
the earth. while repulsion occurs between like poles of magnet.
Factors affecting gravitational force
I. Masses of the objects - The larger the masses the stronger
the gravitational force.
II. Distance of separation between the two objects. The
longer the distance of separation the weaker gravitational
force.
Examples 4. Upthrust force

a) What are non-contact forces?  Upthrust is an upward force acting on objects immersed in
 There are forces which act even if objects are not in fluids (liquids or gases).
contact with one another.  Upthrust can also be defined as the apparent loss in weight
b) Explain why a ball thrown upwards returns back to the of a body immersed in a liquid or gas.
ground
 It is due to attraction by earth’s gravitational force

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𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒂 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 f) Smoothening surfaces.

= 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 g) Using ball bearings.
− 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 h) Air cushioning
 Upthrust is a contact force.
6. Electrostatic Force
 Electrostatic force is the force of attraction or
repulsion between electrically charged bodies.
 It is non-contact force. There are two types of
electrical charges (positive and negative).
 Attraction occurs between unlike charges i.e.
positive and negative while repulsion occurs between like
Examples of situations in which upthrust force acts charges.
include:
 Balloons to rising
 Swimmers and boats floating
 Bodies immersed in liquids weighing less than their
weight in air.
Numerical Example Examples of situations in which electrostatic force acts

A body weighs 100 N in air and 80 N when submerged in include:
water. Calculate the upthrust acting on it. a) A plastic ruler or pen rubbed with piece of dry cloth or
𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 hair attracts pieces of paper.
b) A wiped glass window rapidly attracts dust due to
= 100𝑁 − 80𝑁 = 20𝑁
charges left on them during wiping.
c) Polished shoes rapidly attract dust due to charges left on
5. Frictional Force
 This is a force that opposes motion between two them during brushing.
surfaces that are in contact. d) A nylon cloth produces crackling sound and sticks
 Frictional force in fluids (liquid and gases) is called on the body when being removed etc.
viscous drag (viscosity).
 Frictional force is a contact force and it acts in the 7. Action and Reaction Forces
direction opposite to that of motion of the body.  Action and reaction are two equal forces acting in
opposite directions.
 They are contact forces.
 When a block of wood is placed on a table, its
weight (action) acts on the table. The reaction of the table
(opposite force) acts on the block.
Advantages of Frictional Force

Frictional force helps in:
a) Writing.
b) Braking.
c) Walking.
d) Erasing.
e) Lighting a match stick etc
Disadvantages of Frictional Force

a) Causes wear and tear.
b) Hinders motion. 8. Nuclear Force
c) Produces unwanted heat.  This is a force that binds protons and neutrons in
d) Produces unwanted sound. atomic nuclei.
Methods of Reducing Frictional Force  Nuclear force is a contact force.
i) Oiling and greasing.
j) Using rollers.
k) Streamlining bodies.

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9. Tension Force iii) Bristles of a brush spread in water but cling together
 It is a force which acts on stretched bodies. when the brush is retrieved out of water. The clinging
 Tension is as a result of two opposing forces together of bristles is due to surface tension of water on the
applied one at each end of a body. surface of bristles.
 It is a contact force.
iv) A drop of water from a burette or water tap grows

and stretches out before it falls off due to surface tension
on the surface of the drop.
Note: Surface tension acts along the surface of a liquid so as

to reduce surface area. This can be illustrated by the
following observations:
i) When bubble of soap is blown to the wide end of the funnel
10. Surface Tension and the left with the upper end, the bubble recedes slowly
 Surface tension is defined as the force per unit until it flattens to a film. It therefore makes its surface as
length in the plane of a liquid surface acting at right angles
small as possible.
on either side of an imaginary line drawn in that surface.
Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension

 A molecule deep in the liquid is surrounded by
liquid on all sides so that the net force on it is zero. A
molecule on the surface has fewer molecules on the vapour
side and therefore will experience a resultant inward force,
causing the surface of the liquid to be in tension.
ii) When a film of a soap contained in a wire loop is
Examples of situations in which surface tension force acts punctured or pierced at point X as shown below, the
include: remaining part of the film acquires a minimum area. The
i) A steel razor blade or needle floats when carefully thread is therefore pulled from one side making a perfect
placed on water although steel is denser than water. curve. This is because of forces of surface tension from one
side only.
ii) A glass of water can be filled with water above the

brim without water pouring out. This is due to surface
tension on the surface of water.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension

i) Impurities
 Impurities reduce surface tension of a liquid. Soap
(detergent) weakens the cohesive forces between surface
liquid molecules and therefore reducing surface tension.
ii) Temperature
 Temperature reduces surface tension of the liquid
because it weakens cohesive force of attraction between
liquid molecules.
EXERCISE  The level of mercury in capillary tubes is lower than that

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of mercury in the basin. Being lowest in the narrow tube.

 In both capillary tubes mercury curves downwards at the
Explain the following observations: edge (does not wet glass). This is due to stronger cohesive
a) A steel needle placed carefully on the surface of water force between mercury molecules than adhesive forces
does not sink. between mercury and glass molecules.
b) When a small drop of detergents is placed on water, the  The downward curve is called convex meniscus
floating needle moves rapidly away from it and sinks
when more detergent is added Water on Clean and Waxed glass surfaces
c) A match stick wrapped at one end with soap starts
moving immediately in one direction when placed on the
surface of water.
11. Adhesion (adhesive force)  When water is dropped on a clean piece of glass, it
 Adhesion refers to the force of attraction between spreads because adhesive forces between glass and water
molecules of different kind e.g. force of attraction molecules are stronger than cohesive forces between water
between water and glass molecules. molecules.
Examples of situations in which adhesive force acts  When water is dropped on waxed glass surface, it rolls
include: into small droplets. This is because waxing reduces
1) Liquid wetting glass. adhesive force between water and glass molecules.
2) Paint sticking on wall. Cohesive force becomes greater than adhesive force.
3) Ink sticking on paper.
4) Chalk mark sticking on the board. Mass and Weight
 Mass is defined as the quantity of matter in a body.
12. Cohesion (Cohesive Force)  Weight is the gravitational pull on a body. It is a force and
 Cohesion refers to the force of attraction between therefore its SI unit is Newton (N).
molecules of same kind e.g. force of attraction between  The direction of action of weight on earth is towards the
water molecules. centre of the earth
Some Effects of Adhesive and Cohesive Forces Relationship between Mass and Weight
a) Capillary Tubes Dipped in Water  Mass and weight are related as follows:
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
= 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
(𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉)
𝑾 = 𝑴𝒈
Definition of acceleration due to gravity (g)

 It is defined as the gravitational force acting on a unit
mass at a place.
 In both capillary tubes water curves upwards at the edge  The SI unit of g (gravitational field strength) is the
(wets glass).The rise of water up the tube is due to newton per kilogram (N/kg)
adhesive forces between glass and water molecules being  Note: A graph of weight versus mass is a straight line
stronger than cohesive force of attraction between water through the origin and the slope of the graph gives
molecules. acceleration due to gravity, g i.e.
 The upward curve is called concave meniscus.
b) Capillary Tubes Dipped in Mercury

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Differences between Mass and Weight a) Time

b) Temperature
Mass weight c) Energy
The quantity of matter Gravitational pull on an d) Speed
in an object body object e) Area
The SI unit kg SI unit is the newton f) Volume
(kilogram) g) Length
Constant everywhere Varies from place to place h) Mass
A scalar quantity A vector quantity i) Distance.
1)
Measured using a beam Measured using a spring 2) Vector Quantity
balance balance A vector quantity is one with both magnitude and direction
e.g.
i) Weight
Examples ii) Force
1. State a reason as to why weight of a body varies from iii) Velocity
place to place on the earth’s surface. iv) Momentum
Gravitational field strength varies from one place to another v) Acceleration
on the earth’s surface being strong at the poles and weak vi) Displacement
at the equator.
 If the weight of a car is 8000 N, 8000 gives
2. An object weighs 1000N on earth’s surface ( 𝒈 = magnitude of the weight, N is the SI unit and direction is
𝟏𝟎𝑵/𝒌𝒈) towards the centre of the earth.
a) Calculate its mass.
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 Resultant vector
𝑁  This is the sum of two or more vectors taking into
1000 𝑁 = 𝑚 × 10
𝑘𝑔 account the direction of the vectors.
1000 𝑁 Example
𝑚= = 100 𝑘𝑔
10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔 Find the resultant force of the forces acting on a point
object shown below.
b) If the same object weighs 160N on the moon
surface, find the gravitational field strength of the moon.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 (a)
160 = 100 × 𝑔
160 Solution
𝑔= = 1.60 𝑁/𝑘𝑔 (+4 𝑁) + (+ 5 𝑁) = +9 𝑁
100
3. A mass of 7.5kg has a weight of 30N on a certain planet.
Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on this planet.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
30 = 7.5 × 𝑔
30 (b)
𝑔= = 4𝑁/𝑘𝑔
7.5
4. A man has a mass of 70kg. calculate : Solution
a) His weight on earth where the gravitational field (−7 𝑁) + (−3 𝑁) + (+2 𝑁) + (+4 = − 4 𝑁
strength is 10N/kg.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
70 × 10 = 700 𝑁
b) His weight on moon where the gravitational field

strength is 1.7N/kg.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
70 × 1.7 = 119 𝑁
Scalar and Vector Quantities
1) Scalar Quantity
 A scalar quantity is one with magnitude only but
no direction e.g.
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Examples 11) Define the terms.

1) The figure below shows two glass tubes of different diameter a) Mass
dipped in water.
b) Weight.
12) The mass of a lump of gold is constant
everywhere, but its weight is not. Explain this.
13) A man has a mass of 70kg. Calculate:
a) His weight on earth, where the gravitational
field strength is 10N/kg.
Explain why h2 is greater than h1 b) His weight on the moon, where the
i) Adhesive force in narrow tube is greater than adhesive force in
gravitational field strength is 1.7N/kg.
wider tube.
ii) Volume of water in both tubes is the same hence the column of 14) A mass of 7.5kg has weight of 30N on a certain
water in narrow tube h2 is greater. planet. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on
2) Name two forces that determine the shape of liquid drop on this planet.
the solid surface 15) Define the following terms, giving examples.
Cohesive and adhesive forces
a) Vector quantity
3) Give a reason why weight of the body varies from place to
place. b) Scalar quantity
The gravitational field strength varies from place to place. 16) (a) Define a resultant vector.
4) A metal bin was observed to float on the surface of pure water. (a) Find the resultant of a force of 4N and a force
However the pin sank when a few drops of soap solution were of 8N acting at the same point on an object if:
added to the water. Explain this observation.
Soap solution is an impurity. When added to water, it lowers the
i) The force act in the same direction in the same
surface tension (by dissolving) of water making the needle to straight line.
sink. ii) The force act in the opposite directions but in
the same straight line.
Revision Exercise 17) Show diagrammatically how forces of 7N and
1) By considering action-reaction forces, identify why water rises 9N can be combined to give a resultant to give a
up a thin capillary tube. resultant force of:
2) Give two examples of contact force and non-contact force. (a) 16N (b) 2N
3) Sketch how a vector quantity is represented on a diagram.
4) Define force and give SI unit.
5) Name all the forces acting on the following bodies:
(a) A box placed on a table
(b) A mass suspended from a spring balance.
(c) A moving car negotiating a bend.
6) Define cohesive force and adhesive force.
7) Explain why a man using a parachute falls through air slowly
while a stone fall through air very fast.
8) A spring stretches by 6cm when supporting a load of 15N.
(b) By how much would it stretch when supporting a load of 5kg?
(c) What load would make the spring extend by 25mm?
9) Explain each of the following, using the behaviour of
molecules where possible:
(a) A steel needle placed carefully on the surface of water does
not sink.
(b) When a small drop of detergent is placed on water, the needle
moves rapidly away from it and sinks when more detergent is
added. ( assume that detergent does not affect the density of
water)
(c) A match –stick rubbed at one end with soap starts moving
immediately in one direction when placed on the surface of
water.
10)Define surface tension.
a) How does temperature rise and impurities affect the surface
tension of water?
b) How would the surface tension of water be increased?

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Chapter Four 𝐏𝐑𝐄𝐒𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐄

Definition of Pressure 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑎) 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
 Pressure refers to force acting perpendicularly per unit
area. 48 × 10
=
 Since force is measured in newtons and area in square 4×3
meter, then the SI unit of pressure is the newton per square 480
= = 40𝑁/𝑚2
meter (N/m2) or the pascal (Pa). 1 newton per square 12
meter (N/m2) = 1 pascal (Pa)
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 480
b) 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = =
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭 = 𝑷×𝑨 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 2×3
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = = 80𝑁/𝑚2
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑭 𝑭
𝑷= 𝑨= 5. An object whose area of contact with the floor is 5m 2
𝑨 𝑷
exerts a pressure of 900 pascal. Calculate its mass
𝐹(𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) = 𝑃 × 𝐴
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 900 𝑁/𝑚2 × 5 𝑚2
Pressure in Solids 𝑤
𝑚=
𝑔
Force exerted by a solid resting on a surface is equal to the
weight the object. 4500 𝑁
= = 450𝑘𝑔.
10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆(𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅)
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 6. Tracks which carry heavy loads have many wheels.
Explain.
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 Many wheels increase the area of contact with the ground
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = thereby reducing pressure exerted on the road. This
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 prevents damage of the roads by tracks.
7. A block of copper of density 9g/cm3 measures 5cm by
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 3cm by 2cm. Given that g is 10N/kg, determine:
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
Factors Affecting Pressure in Solids

a) The maximum pressure
1. Weight of the solid (force) 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
 If the area of contact between solid and surface is constant, 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜌𝑉𝑔
pressure increases with weight. 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
2. Area of contact of the solid with surface. 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑘𝑔
 The smaller the area, the higher the pressure if same force 9000 3 × (30 × 10−6 𝑚3 ) × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
= 𝑚
is applied. Therefore pressure can be reduced by increasing
6 × 10−4 𝑚2
the area of contact. = 4500𝑁/𝑚2
b) The minimum pressure that it can exert on a
Examples horizontal surface.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑊
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
1. A block of a soap stone of dimension 4m by 2m by 3m is 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
48kg and is made to rest on a smooth horizontal surface 2.7𝑁
=
2. Calculate the minimum pressure it exerts on the surface. 15 × 10−4 𝑚2
3. Calculate the maximum pressure it will exert on the 2.7𝑁
= = 1800 𝑁/𝑚2
surface 0.0015𝑚2
8. It is painful if one tries to lift a heavy load by a thin
string.
There is a small area of contact with the fingers when a thin
string is used. As a result, more pressure is generated and
this is painful.
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Exercise 2. Density of the Liquid

1.A pick up carrying stones weighs 40,000N. The  Pressure in liquids increases with density of the
weight is evenly spread across the 4 types. The area of liquid.
contact of each tire with the ground is 0.05m2.  Consider two identical cylinders filled with water (of
Calculate the pressure exerted by each tire on the density 1000kg/m3) and glycerine (of density
ground. 1260kg/m3) respectively.
2.A thumb is used to push a thumb pin into a piece of  Pressure at point B is greater than pressure at point A
wood. Explain in terms of pressure why the pressure because glycerine is denser than water and therefore
on wood is greater than the pressure on the thumb. exerts more pressure than water.
3.An elephant of mass 2800kg has feet of average area
of 200 cm2. A vulture of mass 12 kg walks beside the
elephant on a muddy area, the average area of the
feet of the vulture is 2.0 cm 2. Which one is likely to
sink? Explain your answer showing any necessary
calculations.
4.A girl standing upright exerts a pressure of 15000
N/m2 on the floor. Given that the total area of contact
of shoes and the floor is 0.02m 2.
a) Determine the mass of the girl. To Demonstrate Variation of Pressure with Depth of
b) Determine the pressure she would exert on the floor Liquids
if she stood on one foot.  Consider a tall tin with holes A, B and C equally
5.A block of copper of density 8.9 g/cm 3 measures spaced on one side along a vertical line as shown
below.
𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎 × 𝟔 𝒄𝒎 × 𝟒 𝒄𝒎. Given that the force of
 When the tin is filled with water, the water jets out
gravity is 10Nkg-1, determine:
of the holes with that from hole A thrown farthest
a) The maximum pressure.
followed by that from hole B and lastly from hole C.
b) The minimum pressure that it can exert on a
 This means that pressure of water at A is greater than
horizontal surface.
pressure at B and pressure at B is greater than pressure
Pressure in Liquids at C. Hence, Pressure in liquids increases with dept
Factors Affecting Pressure in Liquids

1.Depth of the Liquid
 Pressure in liquids increases with depth.
 This is the reason as to why walls of a dam are
thicker at the bottom than at the top as shown below.
Thick walls at the bottom of the dam withstand high
pressure due to water at the bottom.
To Demonstrate Variation of Pressure with Depth and
 Pressure increasing with depth of liquid explains why
Density of Liquids
a diver at the bottom of the sea experiences more
 Consider a transparent glass vessel filled with water
pressure due to more weight of water above him than a
and a thistle funnel connected to a u-tube filled with
diver near the top/ surface of the sea.
colored water to some level dipped into it.
 It is observed that the deeper the funnel goes below
the surface of water, the greater the difference in levels
of water in the two limbs of the u- tube, h. This is due
to increase in pressure with depth.

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When glycerine is used in place of water it is observed that at the  The pressure p, exerted at the bottom (base) of the
same depth the difference in levels, h is greater than when water is container by the weight of the liquid above it is given by:
used. This is because glycerin is denser than water and therefore it 𝑭
is pressure at same depth is higher than that of water. 𝑷=
𝑨
𝒘(𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅)
=
𝑨(𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓)
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒘 = 𝝆𝑨𝒉𝒈
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒉 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑨𝒉𝝆𝒈
∴𝑷=
𝑨
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂.
 From the formula it is clear that pressure in fluids
does not depend on cross- section area of the container
holding the liquid.
Examples
1.) A diver working under water is 15 m below the
To Demonstrate that Pressure at Equal Depth, Acts Equally in All surface of the sea. Calculate the pressure due to water
Directions experienced by the diver (take g=10N/kg) and density of
sea water to be equal to 1.03g/cm3.
Consider a tin with two similar holes on its side at same height as 𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
shown alongside.
When the tin is filled with water, it is observed that water travels
= 15 𝑚 × 1030 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔
out of the holes equal horizontal distances from the can. Therefore = 154500 𝑁/𝑚2
pressure exerted at equal depth is same in all directions. 2.) The figure below shows a liquid in a pail.
Fluid Pressure Formula

If the liquid has a density of 0.79 g/cm3, determine the
Consider a container with cross- section area, A, filled with a
liquid of density, ρ, to the height, h, as shown alongside. pressure exerted at the bottom of the pail by the liquid.
o 𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
= 0.45 𝑚 × 790 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
= 3555 𝑁/𝑚2
b) Suggest a reason why pail manufactures prefer
the shape shown to other shapes
To reduce the height of the pail but maintain the capacity.
This reduces the pressure exerted by the liquid at the
bottom of the pail.
3.) Calculate the pressure exerted by 76 mm column
of mercury given that its density is 13.6g/cm3
o 𝑝 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑘𝑔
o = 0.76 𝑚 × 13600 3 × 10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔
𝑚
o = 103360𝑁/𝑚2
4.) A column of glycerin 8.20m high, a column of sea
water 10.08m high, a column of mercury 0.76m high and
column of fresh water 10.34 m high exert the same
pressure at the bottom of a container. Arrange these
substances in decreasing order of their densities.
Mercury, glycerine, sea water, fresh water

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Pascal’s Principle (The Principle of Transmission of  Pressure exerted on the liquid by piston, S due to force,
Pressure in Liquids) FS, is PS.
 Pascal’s principle states that pressure applied at 𝑭𝑺

𝑷𝑺 =
one part in a liquid is transmitted equally to all other parts 𝑨𝑺
of the enlarged liquid.
Demonstrating Pascal’s Principle  By Pascal’s principle this pressure PS is equal to pressure
 Consider a liquid under pressure due to force, F, PL exerted by liquid on piston, L.
acting on the plunger as shown below.
 Note: The holes are of equal diameter. 𝑷𝑺 = 𝑷 𝑳
𝑭𝒔 𝑭𝑳
=
𝑨𝒔 𝑨𝑳
Examples
1. The figure below shows two masses placed on light

 When the plunger is pushed in, water squirts out of pistons. The pistons are held stationary by the liquid
the holes with equal force. This shows that pressure whose density 0.8g/cm3. Determine the force F .
generated by the piston on the water is transmitted equally
to all other parts of the liquid.
Applications of Pascal’s Principle
 Pascal’s Principle is applied in the working of the

hydraulic machines. These machines include:
a) Hydraulic press used to compress textile products like
blankets for packing.
b) Hydraulic lift used to hoist cars in garages.
c) Hydraulic brake system used for braking in cars.
𝑭𝑩 𝑭 (𝒊.𝒆.𝒘=𝒎𝒈)
o 𝒉𝝆𝒈 + = 𝑨
Pressure Transmission in Hydraulic Machines 𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝑨
𝟔𝟎×𝟏𝟎 𝑵 𝒌𝒈 𝑭𝑩
o = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝒎 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝑵/𝑲𝒈 +
 Note that pressure at same level in the liquid is the 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝟐 𝒎 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝟐
𝑵 𝑭𝑩
same as seen earlier. o 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟐 +
𝒎 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓
 Consider the hydraulic machine below consisting of o 𝑵 𝑵
𝑭𝑩 = (𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝟐 ) 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝟐
a small piston, S, and a large piston, L, of cross- section as 𝒎 𝒎
shown alongside. = 𝟏𝟖𝟕. 𝟏𝟒 𝑵
2. The area of the large syringe in an experiment is 18cm 2

and that of the smaller one is 3.0cm2. A force of 2N is
applied on the smaller piston. Find the force produced on
the larger piston.

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𝑭𝒔 𝑭𝑳 Properties of the Hydraulic Brake Fluid

o =
𝑨𝒔 𝑨𝑳
𝟐𝑵 𝑭𝑳
o = (a) It should not corrode parts of the system
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝟐
(b) It should be highly incompressible
𝟐 𝑵 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝟐 (c) It should have a low freezing point and high boiling
𝑭𝑳 = = 𝟏𝟐 𝑵 point.
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝟐
4. The diagram below shows a u- tube filled two liquids, x Atmospheric Pressure
and y. If the density of liquid y is 1.00 g/cm3, determine the
 This is the pressure exerted on the earth’s surface by the
density of liquid x.
column of air around it.
To Demonstrate Existence of Atmospheric

Pressure(Crushing Can Experiment)
 Consider a tin container with some water in it. The

container is heated for some time while open and closed
o 𝒉𝒙 𝝆𝒙 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒚 𝝆𝒚 𝒈 after withdrawing heating. Cold water is then poured on it
𝑵 𝒌𝒈
o 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝒎 × 𝝆𝒙 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝒎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑵/𝒌𝒈 immediately.
𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟑
𝟒.𝟎𝑵𝒎 𝑵
o × 𝝆𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐
𝒌𝒈
o 𝝆𝒙 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝒎𝟑
Hydraulic Brake System
 The hydraulic brake system uses the principle of

transmission of pressure in liquids (Pascal’s principle) in its
operation.
 It is observed that the container crushes inwards when

cold water is poured on it. This is because steam from
boiling water drives out the air inside the container and a
partial vacuum is created when the container is cooled. The
higher atmospheric pressure from the outside crushes the
container inwards.
Mode of Operation of Hydraulic Brake System
Example
 When a small force is applied on the brake pedal, it pushes
A sea diver is 18 m below the surface of sea water. If the
the piston of the master cylinder inwards. This produces a
density of sea water is 1.03g/cm3 and g is 10N/ kg,
pressure that is equally transmitted to the pistons in the
determine the total pressure on him. (Take atmospheric
slave cylinders. The pressure generates a force which
pressure pa = 103 000N/m2).
pushes the pistons of the slave cylinder outwards. The
pistons then push the brake shoes and therefore the brake 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃𝑎
lining outwards. The brake lining touches and stops
rotating wheel drum. 𝑘𝑔 𝑁
 The return spring returns the brake shoes into their = 18 𝑚 × 1030 × 10 + 103 000 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
original position after force on brake pedal has been
removed. = 288 400 𝑁/𝑚2

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Measurement of Pressure 2) The diagram below show a mercury manometer. Some

dry gas is present in the closed space. If the atmospheric
1) U- Tube Monometer pressure is 105000N/m2 and density of mercury
 It is used to measure gas pressure. 13600kg/m3, determine pressure of the gas (take
 It consists of u- tube filled with suitable liquid to some g=10N/kg).
level.
 Consider u-tube manometer below in which one limb is
connected to gas supply.
o ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎
𝑘𝑔 𝑁
o 0.25 𝑚 × 13600 × 10 + 𝑃𝑔 = 105000𝑁/𝑚2
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
o 34000𝑁/𝑚2 + 𝑃𝑔 = 105000𝑁/𝑚2
𝑁 𝑁
o 𝑃𝑔 = 105000 − 34000
𝑚2 𝑚2
o = 71000 𝑁/𝑚2
 A and B are at the same horizontal level and therefore

pressure at A is equal to pressure at B.
 Pressure at A is due to the gas, pg while pressure at B is 2) Mercury Barometer
due to the column of liquid and atmospheric pressure.  It is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
 It employs the fact that atmospheric pressure supports a
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑨, 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑩, 𝑷𝑩
column of liquid in a tube.
𝑷𝒈 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 + 𝑷𝒂
 Where ρ is the density of liquid in the u- tube. Construction of Mercury Barometer
Examples  It is made of a thick- walled glass tube of about 1m long

1) The height, h of a water manometer is 20 cm when used sealed at one end.
to measure pressure of a gas.  The tube is then filled carefully with mercury to the top.
 Any bubbles of air in the tube are removed by closing the
open end and inverting the tube severally.
 The tube is then inverted into a dish filled with mercury.
 Mercury is preferred in the construction of barometer to
other liquids because its very high density.
a) Determine the pressure due to gas, If atmospheric

pressure is 103000N/m2.
o 𝑃𝑔 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃𝑎
o = 0.20 𝑚 × 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔 + 103000𝑁/𝑚2
o = 105000𝑁/𝑚2 
b) What would be the height if the liquid used is glycerin of
density 1.26g/cm3
o 𝑃𝑔 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃𝑎
𝑁
o 105000 = ℎ × 1260𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔 +
𝑚2
103000𝑁/𝑚2
o 105000𝑁/𝑚2 = 12600𝑁/𝑚3 × ℎ + 103000𝑁/𝑚2
o 2000𝑁/𝑚2 = 12600𝑁/𝑚3 × ℎ
2000𝑁/𝑚2
ℎ= = 0.16 𝑚
12600𝑁/𝑚3

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Using Mercury Barometer
 The height h, of the mercury column is the measure of

atmospheric pressure.
 The column of mercury h, at sea level is 76cmHg.In SI unit
it is:
𝑷𝒂 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 𝒎 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑵/𝒌𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎𝑵/𝒎𝟐
 The atmospheric pressure at sea level is called one Siphon
atmosphere or standard atmospheric pressure (76cmHg or
103360N/m2)  Siphon is used to transfer liquid from one container to
another.
Examples  The use of siphon to transfer liquid due to pressure
1) A student in a place where the mercury barometer reads difference is called siphoning. Consider the siphoning
75cm wanted to make an alcohol barometer. If alcohol arrangement shown below.
has a density of 800 kg/m3, what is the minimum length
of the tube that could be used?
𝑃𝑎 = ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔 = ℎ𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑎𝑙 𝑔
0.75 𝑚 × 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
= ℎ𝑎𝑙 × 800𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
10200
ℎ𝑎𝑙 = = 12.75 𝑚
8000
2) The barometric height in a town is 70cm mercury. Given
that the standard atmospheric pressure is 76cm mercury
and the density of mercury is 13600kg/m3, determine the
altitude of the town. (Density of air is 1.25kg/m3).  Pressure at A is equal to pressure at B and it is the
(Note: Standard pressure refers to the atmospheric pressure atmospheric pressure, Pa
at sea level).  Pressure at c is equal to pressure at B plus pressure due
𝑃 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 − 𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑛
to water column , h, i.e. 𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑩 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
(ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝑠𝑙 − ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝑡𝑛 ) × 𝜌𝐻𝑔 × 𝑔 = ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝑔
 Pressure difference between B and C (i.e. 𝑷𝑪 − 𝑷𝑩 =
(0.76 − 0.70) 𝑚 × 13600𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
= ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 1.25𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔
𝒉𝝆𝒈) is what makes the liquid to flow from the upper
8160 container to the lower one.
ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
12.50 Conditions under which Siphon Works
= 652.8 𝑚(𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑛)
3) The figure below shows a person sucking water using a a) The tube must be filled with the liquid first. This
straw. Explain how sucking is made possible.
creates a pressure difference.
b) There must be a difference in levels of liquid in the two
containers.
c) The end of the tube must remain below the liquid
surface of the upper container.
When one sucks pressure inside the straw reduces below the Example
atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference causes
water to go into the straw and rise up to the mouth. The figure below shows how to empty water from a
Testing the Vacuum in the Barometer large tank into a low lying tank using rubber tubing.
 The vacuum is tested by tilting the tube. If the tube is fully

filled then the space is a vacuum but if the tube is not fully
filled then the space is not a vacuum; it has some air
occupying it and therefore, the barometer is faulty.

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2) The Bicycle Pump
 The leather washer acts as both a valve and piston

inside the pump barrel.
 When the pump handle is drawn out as shown, air
in the barrel expands and its pressure reduces below the
atmospheric pressure. Air from outside the pump then flows
a) Explain why the tube must be filled with water before past the leather washer into the barrel. At the same time, the
the emptying process starts. higher air pressure in the tyre closes the tyre valve.
 When the pump handle is pushed in, the air is
To create pressure difference between C and D this will lead forced into the tyre through the tyre valve which now
to continuous flow of water from the upper tank to the opens.
lower tank. Note: There is an increase in temperature of the pump barrel
during pumping this is because of the work done in
b) Soon after the tank begins to empty the lower end is
compressing air.
momentarily blocked by placing a finger at end D.
I. Determine pressure difference between point A and D.
o 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 3) The Lift Pump
𝑘𝑔 𝑁
o 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 2𝑚 × 1000 3 × 10
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
o 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 20 000 𝑁/𝑚2
II. what will be the pressure experienced by the finger at
point D. (take density of water= 1000kg/m3 and pa=
100,000N/m2
o 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑁 𝑁2
o 𝑃𝐷 = 100000 + 20 000
𝑚2 𝑚
o = 120000 𝑁𝑚−2
Applications of Pressure in Liquids and Gases
1) A Syringe
 To start the pump, water is poured on top of the
piston so that good air tight seal is made round the piston
and in valve P the pump is operated by means of a lever
Upstroke
 When the plunger moves up during the upstroke,
valve R closes due to its weight and pressure of water above
it. At the same time, air above valve expands and its
pressure reduces below atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure on the water in the well below thus
pushes water up to past valve into the barrel.
 The plunger is moved up and downhill the space
between R and S is filled with water.
 When the piston is pulled upwards (during upstroke), Down stroke
space is created in the barrel thus lowering the pressure  During down stroke, valve S closes due to its
inside below atmospheric pressure. The higher weight and pressure of water above it.
atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid pushes the
liquid into the barrel.
 During a down stroke, the pressure inside increases above
atmospheric pressure and the liquid is expelled from the
barrel.

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Limitations of the Lift Pump Exercise on applications of pressure

 In practical, the possible height of water that can (a) The figure below shows
be raised by this pump is less than 10m because of a lift pump
i) Low atmospheric pressure in places high above sea
level,
ii) Leakage at the valves and pistons
4) The Force Pump
This pump is used to raise water to heights of more than
10m.
Explain why, when the piston is;

(b) Pulled upwards, valve A
opens while valve B closes.
(c) Pushed downwards,
valve A closes while valve B opens
(d) After several strokes,
water rises above the piston as shown below.
Upstroke State how water is removed from the cylinder

 During upstroke, air above the valve F expands through the spout.
and its pressure reduces below atmospheric pressure.
(e) A lift pump can lift water
The atmospheric pressure on water in the well pushes
up to a maximum height of 10m. determine the
water up past valve F into the barrel. Pressure above
maximum height to which the pump can raise
valve G is atmospheric. Hence, this valve does not
paraffin.(take density of paraffin as 800kgm -3and
open in this stroke.
density of water as 1000kgm -3)
Down stroke
(f) State one factor that
 During the down stroke, the valve F closes.
determines the height to which a force pump can lift
Increase in pressure due to water in the barrel opens
water.
valve G and forces water into chamber S so that as
water fills the chamber, air is trapped and compressed
at the upper part. During the next upstroke, valve G
closes and the compressed air expands ensuring a
continuous flow.
Advantage of Force Pump over the lift pump
a) It enables a continuous flow of water.
b) The height to which it can raise does not depend
on atmospheric.
Factors Affecting Working of the Force Pump
a) Amount of force applied during the down stroke.
 Ability of the pump and its working parts to
withstand pressure of the column of water in chamber
c.

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Revision Exercise 15. The figure below shows a hydraulic press

1. A piston whose diameter is 1.4m is pushed into a cylinder
containing a fluid, If the pressure produced in the cylinder
is 4.0 x 105 pa, Calculate the force applied on the piston.
2. An octopus is resting in the ocean. If the octopus is at a
depth of 47m in sea whose water has a density of 1200
kg/m3, calculate the pressure experienced by the octopus
(Take atmospheric pressure = 1.0125 x 105 Pa)
3. Explain why if air gets in the brake system would reduce
the efficiency of the brakes. (2marks)
4. A concrete block of mass 50kg rests on the surface of the
table as shown below. The two pistons are of areas10mm2 and 20mm2
respectively. A force of 100N is applied on the smaller
piston, find the load that can be lifted on the larger
piston if:
a. The piston has negligible weight and no frictional
forces exist.
b. The pistons have negligible weight and frictional10N
What is the maximum pressure that can be exerted on the and 40N respectively.
bench by the block? The smaller piston has the weight 5N the larger piston has
5. A hole of area 4.0cm² at the bottom of a tank 5m deep is a weight of 10N and the frictional forces are negligible.
closed with a cork. Determine the force on the cork when
the tank is filled with water. (Take g = 10msˉ² and density
of water = 1000kgmˉ³).
6. A measuring cylinder of height 25cm is filled to a height
of 15cm with water and the rest is occupied by kerosene.
Determine the pressure acting on its base (density of water
= 1gcmˉ³ density of kerosene = 0.8gcmˉ³ and atmospheric
pressure = 103,000pa).
7. State one advantage of hydraulic brakes over mechanical
brakes.
8. Explain why a lady wearing sharp heeled shoes is not
likely to skid on a slippery muddy road.
9. Why does atmospheric pressure decrease towards higher
altitude?
10. Show that Pressure in fluids is given by P= hρg
11. Give a reason why nose bleeding is likely to occur at
the top of a mountain.
12. A block of glass of density 2.5g/cm3 has
dimensions 8 cm by 10cm by 15cm. It is placed on one of
its faces on a horizontal surface. Calculate:-
a) The weight of the block
b) The greatest pressure it can exert on the horizontal
surface.
c) The least pressure it can exert on the horizontal surface.
13. The reading of a mercury barometer is 75.58 cm at
the base of a mountain and 66.37cm at the summit.
Calculate the height of the mountain (Density of mercury
= 13.6g/m3 and density of air= 1.25kg/m3
14. In a hydraulic brake, the master piston has an area
of4mm2 and the wheel piston each has an area of 4 cm2.
Find the forces applied to the wheel when a force of 10N is
applied on the master piston.

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CHAPTER 5 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Introduction
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Matter is not continuous but it is made up of every tiny
particles hence participate nature of matter.
 Particulate nature of matter therefore refers to the
existence of matter in very tiny particles.
Experiment to demonstrate that Matter is made up of

Tiny Particles  The chalk dust is observed to be in constant
random motion. This is due to the continuous collision
i) Use of a Piece of Paper of chalk dust particles with the water molecules which
 A piece of paper can be cut continuously until when the are in continuous random motion.
small pieces cannot be cut into pieces any further. This
suggests that the sheet of paper is made of tiny pieces of To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Gases (The Smoke
paper. Hence matter is made up of tiny particles. Cell Experiment)
 Consider the set up below for the smoke cell

experiment.
ii) Diluting Potassium Permanganate Solution

 The process of diluting purple potassium manganese
(VII) can continue until the solution appears colorless.
 This suggests that the particles of potassium
permanganate are spread evenly in water and each
dilution process spread them further. This is a proof that  Note: The smoke is introduced into the smoke cell
matter is made up of tiny particles which can be by burning the straw and letting the smoke fill the smoke
separated. cell from the other end. Smoke is used here because
smoke particles are light and bright.
Explain why it is possible to dissolve sugar in water  The converging lens is used to focus/ concentrate
without any noticeable increases in volume of water. converge the light to the smoke cell thereby illuminating
The sugar particles occupy the small intermolecular the smoke. The microscope assists the observer see the
spaces of water molecules. This behaviour of sugar illuminated smoke particles clearly.
suggests that matter is made up of very tiny particles.  The bright specks are observed moving randomly
in the smoke cell. The bright specks are the smoke
Brownian motion particles which scatter / reflect light shining on them.
They move randomly due to continuous collision with
 Brownian motion refers to the random movement of invisible air particles which are in continuous random
liquid and gas particles. motion.
To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Liquids

 Consider the set- up alongside in which chalk dust is
sprinkled on the surface of water in the beaker and the
beaker covered using a transparent lid. The behaviour
of chalk dust is then observed with the help of a hand
lens as shown below.

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The Kinetic Theory of Matter Example
 The above experiments on Brownian motion constitute the Using a block diagram and correct terminology show
kinetic theory of matter which states that matter is made up how one state of matter changes to the other when the
of tiny particles which are in continuous random motion. temperature is changed. Define all terminologies used.
Arrangement of Particles in Matter i)Melting- is the process by which a solid changes to a

liquid at fixed temperature.
Solids ii) Evaporation - is the process by which a liquid
changes to a gas at any temperature.
 Particles are closely packed together in an organized iii) Condensation - is the process by which a gas
manner and in fixed position. changes to a liquid at fixed temperature.
 Particles in solid do not move randomly but instead vibrate iv) Freezing - is the process by which a liquid
about their fixed positions (vibratory motion) because of changes to a solid at fixed temperature.
very strong intermolecular force (cohesive force).This v) Sublimation - is the process by which a solid
explains why solids have fixed volume and definite shape. changes to gas directly without passing the liquid state.
vi) Deposition - is the process by which a gas
changes to solid directly without passing the liquid state.
Diffusion
 Diffusion refers to the process by which particles

spread from region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration. Noticeable diffusion takes place in
Liquids
liquids and gases due to their continuous random
 Particles in liquids are not closely fixed as in solids but motion.
move about randomly (Brownian motion). This is because
the intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than those in Demonstrating Diffusion in Liquids
solids.  Consider the set up below used to investigate
 The same reason explains why liquids have no fixed shape diffusion in liquids. Concentrated copper (II) sulphate
but assume the shape of the container. (blue in colour) is carefully and slowly introduced into
 The intermolecular force in liquids is stronger than in gases the beaker through a funnel to obtain two layers.
a reason as to why liquids have fixed volume but gases
don’t.
Gases
 Particles in gases are further apart and have an increased

random motion compared to liquid particles.  After some time, it is observed that the boundary
 This is because of very weak intermolecular forces in gases between the two liquids disappears and a homogenous
particles as compared to liquids and solids. The same reason pale blue mixture is obtained. This is because there is a
explains why gases have no definite shape and volume. greater rate of movement of water particles from the
water layer to copper (II) sulphate layer. At the same
time there is greater movement of copper (II) sulphate
particles from the copper (II) sulphate layer to the water
layer.
 Note: If hot liquids are used, formation of the
mixture will be faster because the particles move faster
due to increased kinetic energy.

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Demonstrating Diffusion in Gases (b) On the diagram, show the observation

(c) If the experiment was performed at a high
 Consider the set up below used to demonstrate temperature will you expect it to take longer or
diffusion in gases shorter time to form white deposit? Explain.
Shorter time. This is because an increase in
temperature increases the kinetic energy of the
particles of the gases and hence increased rate of
diffusion of the gases.
Diffusion through Porous Materials
 When the cardboard is removed and the two jars

pressed together, it is observed that a homogenous pale
brown mixture forms in the two jars. This is because
bromine gas spreads into gas jar containing air at a
greater rate. At the same time air spreads into gas jar
containing bromine at a greater rate.
 Note: Diffusion in gases is faster than in liquids
because:
(a) Gases have low density.
(b) Gases have high kinetic energy.
(c)Gases very weak cohesive forces.
 Initially, hydrogen gas diffuses into the
Rates of Diffusion of Gases porous pots at a faster rate than air diffusing out. As
a result, air bubbles out of water as shown in figure
 Different gases have different rates of diffusion i).
depending on their density or relative masses.  When the gas supply is stopped hydrogen gas
 A gas with a higher density has heavier particles and diffuse out of the pot through the fine holes at a
therefore its rate of diffusion is lower than the gas with faster rate than air gets back into the pot. This
lower density. decreases the gas pressure in the pot and as a result
Example the higher atmospheric pressure acting on the water
surface in the beaker to pushes water up the tube as
 In the figure below, ammonia gas and hydrochloric in figure ii).
acid gas diffuse and react. Note: The beaker is used to confine the hydrogen gas
around the porous pot. It is obvious that air is
denser than hydrogen gas.
(a) State and explain the observation made after

sometime.
 A white deposit is formed near the cotton wool soaked
in concentrated in hydrochloric acid. The ammonia gas
is less dense and has light particles thus it will diffuse
faster than the hydrochloric gas which is dense.

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REVISION EXERCISE
1.What is matter?
2.With the aid of a diagram, describe an experiment that
you would use to show that matter is made up of tiny
particles.
3.During a class discussion, Emmanuel observed that
Brownian motion was only exhibited by small particles.
(a) Is this observation correct?
(b) Explain your answer in (a) above.
4.State the kinetic theory of matter.
5.Distinguish between the three states of matter in terms
of the intermolecular forces.
6.What factor determines the state of matter?
7.Explain why solids are not compressible while gases
are.
8.Define Brownian motion.
9.During Brownian motion experiment, the smoke
particles must be small and light. Explain why it is
necessary that the particles be light.
10. Smoke is introduced into smoke cell which is
then viewed under a microscope.
(a) What do you observe through the microscope?
(b) What conclusion can be drawn from this
observation?
11. Temperature affects Brownian motion. Explain.
12. Lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on a
clean water surface in a large tray. A red hot needle is
plunged into the centre of the water surface. State and
explain what is observed.
13. Define diffusion.
14. Describe an experiment to demonstrate the
process of diffusion in;
(i) Liquids
(ii) Gases.
15. Name and explain the factors that affect the rate
of diffusion in gases.

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Chapter Six 𝐓𝐇𝐄𝐑𝐌𝐀𝐋 𝐄𝐗𝐏𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐈𝐎𝐍

Definition Thermometric Liquids
 Thermal expansion refers to increase in volume of a body  They include:

when heated. a) Mercury
b) Alcohol
c) Oil of creosote
Temperature
Properties of a Good Thermometric Liquid
 Temperature is the degree (extent) of hotness or coldness of
a body on some chosen scale. a) It should not wet glass.
 Temperature is measured using a thermometer and it is a b) It should expand uniformly (regularly).
basic quantity whose SI unit is the Kelvin. c) It should be a good conductor of heat.
 Degree Celsius (0C) is another unit in which temperatures d) It should be visible.
can be measured. e) It should have high boiling point.
 Temperature is a scalar quantity. f) It should have low freezing point.
 Note: Water cannot be used as a thermometer
Thermometers liquid because:
(a) It wets glass,
 A thermometer is an instrument used to measure (b) It expands irregularly (anomalously),
temperature. There are many types of thermometers, each (c) It is a bad conductor of heat,
designed for a specific use. (d) It is invisible (colourless),
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer (Common Thermometer) (e) It has a relatively high freezing point.
 The liquid commonly used in a liquid – in – glass Comparison between Mercury and Alcohol as
thermometer is mercury. Alcohol can also be used. Thermometric Liquids
 Note: A liquid used in thermometer is commonly known as
Mercury Alcohol
thermometric liquid.
It has a high boiling It has a low boiling point
Features of a Liquid –In – Glass Thermometer point (3570C). (780C).
It has a relatively higher It has a low melting
melting point (– point (-1150C).
0
39 C).
It is a good thermal It is a poor thermal
conductor. conductor.
(a) It expands regularly. Its expansion is slightly
A Bulb irregular.
 Contains the thermometric liquid. It is thin walled to It does not wet glass. It wets glass.
increase sensitivity of the thermometer (i.e. allow quick It is opaque and silvery. It is transparent and
transfer of heat). therefore has to be
(b) Capillary Bore coloured to make it
 It allows the liquid in the bulb to rise and fall when visible.
temperature changes.  Notes
 It has a small diameter to increase its accuracy so that a I. Alcohol thermometer is the best for use in very cold
small change in temperature can easily be measured. conditions because its freezing point is very low (-1150c)
(c) Glass Stem but cannot be used in a very high temperature because
 It is made up of thick glass to strengthen the thermometer its boiling point is relatively low (78 0C).
and therefore protect the liquid inside. II. Mercury thermometers is best for use in high
 Thick glass also acts as a magnifying glass to magnify the temperature because of its high boiling points (357 0c)
liquid thread. but cannot be used in very low temperature because it
has a relatively high freezing point (-390c).

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Calibrating Liquid-in –Glass Thermometer 1) An uncalibrated mercury thermometer is attached to a cm

scale which reads 14 cm in pure melting ice and 30cm in
 A thermometer has two main fixed points: steam. If it reads 10 cm in freezing mixture, what is the
I. The upper fixed point (1000c) temperature of the freezing mixture?
II. The lower fixed point (0c) o 𝐼𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑐𝑒, 14𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 00 𝐶
 The upper fixed point is marked by putting the bulb of the o 𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚, 30𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1000 𝐶
0
thermometer in steam of water boiling at standard o ∴ 100 𝐶 − 00 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 30 𝑐𝑚 − 14 𝑐𝑚
o 1000 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 16 𝑐𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
atmospheric pressure of 76 cmHg. 1 𝑐𝑚×1000 𝐶 0
 The lower fixed point is marked by putting the bulb of the o 1 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 16 𝑐𝑚 = 6.25 𝐶
thermometer in pure melting ice. o 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑠:
 The range between upper fixed point and lower fixed point 00 𝐶 + (10 − 14) × 6.250 𝐶 = −250 𝐶
0
is sub divided into equal divisions of 1 C each.
2) A faulty thermometer reads 𝟏𝟖℃ at ice point and 𝟖𝟎℃ at
The Celsius (Centigrade) and Kelvin (Thermodynamic steam point. Determine the correct temperature when it
Temperature) Scale reads 𝟔𝟎℃.
o 𝐴𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 18 0 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 00 𝐶
 The Celsius scale has fixed points at 0 0C and 1000C while o 𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 80 0 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 1000 𝐶
0 0 0 0
the Kelvin scale has fixed points at 273 K for pure melting o (80 𝐶 − 18 𝐶) 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 (100 𝐶 − 0 𝐶)
0 0
ice and 373 K for steam or pure boiling water at standard o 62 𝐶 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 100 𝐶
10 𝐶×1000 𝐶
atmospheric pressure. o 10 𝐶 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 620 𝐶 = 1.6 0 𝐶
 Temperature on Celsius scale and Kelvin scale are related o 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 600 𝐶 𝑖𝑠:
by: 𝑻(𝑲) = 𝜽(℃) + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 0℃ + (60 − 18) × 1.6℃ = 67.2 ℃
Absolute Zero Temperature

Exercise
 This is the lowest temperature on Kelvin scale in which the
energy of the particles in a material is zero. 1) A faulty mercury thermometer reads 𝟏𝟓℃ when dipped into
 Its value is zero Kelvin (-2730C). melting ice and 𝟗𝟓℃ when in steam at normal atmospheric
pressure. What would this thermometer read when dipped
into a liquid at 𝟐𝟓℃
2) When marking the fixed points on a thermometer it is
observed that at 𝟎 ℃ the mercury thread is of length 2cm
Examples and 9 cm at𝟏𝟎𝟎℃. What temperature would correspond to a
length of 4cm?
3) Convert each of the following from Celsius to Kelvin
(𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑻(𝑲) = 𝜽(℃) + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. ) Clinical Thermometer
0
a) -20 C
𝑇 = −20 + 273 = 253𝐾 It is a special type of thermometer used for measuring human
0 body temperature whose temperature range is about 350C-
b) 0 C
430C.
𝑇 = 0 + 273 = 273𝐾
c) 100C
𝑇 = 10 + 273 = 283𝐾
d) -2730C
𝑇 = −273 + 273 = 0𝐾 The tube has a constriction which breaks the mercury thread
0 for temperature reading to be taken.
4) Convert each of the following from Kelvin to C After the thermometer has been read the mercury is returned
(𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝜽(℃) = 𝑻(𝑲) − 𝟐𝟕𝟑. ) to bulb by a lightly shaking the thermometer.
a) 0K Methylated spirit is used to sterilize the thermometer after use.
𝜃 = 0 − 273 = −2730 𝐶 Note: clinical thermometer cannot be sterilized by boiling
b) 167K water because it will break since the boiling point of water is
𝜃 = 167 − 273 = −1060 𝐶 far above the temperature range of the thermometer.
c) 283K
𝜃 = 283 − 273 = 10℃
d) 3450K
𝜃 = 3450 − 273 = 3177℃

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Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

 This thermometer records the maximum and minimum
temperature reached in a place during a specified period of
time, say a day.
Observation: When the ball is heated, it does not pass

through the ring but when it is left on the ring for
sometimes it passes through. Explanation: When
heated, the ball expands and so cannot go through the
ring. When it is left on the ring for some time the
temperature of the ball decreases and the ball contracts.
At the same time the ring absorbs some heat from the
ball its temperature increases and so it expands
allowing the ball to pass through.
2. The Bar and Gauge Experiment
Question
Mode of Operation of the Six’s Thermometer In the figure below, at room temperature, the bar fits into
the gauge.
 When temperature rises, the alcohol in bulb R expands
and pushes the mercury up the right limb of the u- tube. The
mercury pushes index Y upwards. The lower end of this index
indicates the maximum temperature reached during the
specified period.
 When temperature falls, the alcohol in bulb R contracts
and mercury is pulled back, rising up in the left limb. The
index X is therefore pushed upwards. During contraction of
alcohol, the index Y is left behind in the alcohol by the falling
mercury. The minimum temperature is read from the lower
end of index X. (a) Explain what would happen when the bar is heated
To reset the thermometer, a magnet is used to return the steel and you try to fit it in the gauge.
indices to the mercury surfaces. The bar does not fit into the gauge because it expands
when heated.
Expansion and Contraction of Solids (b) Consider a case where the bar is slightly bigger than
the gauge at room temperature. Explain what you will
 When solids are heated they expand (increase in size/
do to make the bar fit into the gauge.
volume) and when cooled they contract (decrease in size/
Heat the gauge so that it expands and the bar will fit.
volume). Mass of the solid does not change when it contracts
or expands.
 Density of the solid increases when the body is cooled Comparing Expansion and Contraction of Different
(because volume decreases) and it decreases when the body is Metals
heated (because volume increases).
Question
Experiments to Demonstrate Expansion and Contraction of
Solids An experiment was set to compare the expansion of
different metals as shown below.
1. The Ball and Ring Experiment
 The ball and ring experiment apparatus are as shown in
the figure below. The ball just passes through the ring at room
temperature and pressure.

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Example
The figure below shows a bimetallic strip at a room

temperature (250C)
(a) Explain how the experiment works
o When the metal bar is heated it expands and pushes the
pivoted pointer and the reading is taken on the scale. Metal
bars of the same size made of different materials are
attached to the clamp one at a time and heated for the same i) Draw the same bimetallic strip when at 900c.
length of time. The readings on the scale are recorded and Explain the observation.
compared.
(b) What precautions should be taken to ensure fair result
i) The metals should be of same length and diameter.
ii) The metals should be heated using same burner.
The metal should be heated for same length of time.
When temperature increases above room temperature

Linear Expansivity
aluminum expands at a faster rate than copper.
 Linear expansivity is the tendency of a material to expand
when heated. Different materials have different linear ii) Draw the bimetallic strip when at -250C. Explain
expansivities meaning that their rates of expansion or the observation.
contraction are not the same except a few materials.
 The unit of linear expansivity is measured in per Kelvin. The
following are some examples;
Material Linear Expansivity (K-1)

Aluminum 26 x10-6
When temperature decreases below room temperature
Brass 19x10-6
aluminum contracts at a faster rate than copper.
Copper 16.8x10-6
Iron 12x10-6
Concrete 11x10-6 Applications of Expansion and Contraction of Solids
Steel 11x10-6
1) Expansion joints in Steam Pipes
The Bimetallic Strip  Pipes carrying steam are fitted with loops or
expansion joints to allow for expansion when steam is
 Bimetallic strip is made by riveting together two metals of passing through them and contraction when they are
different linear expansivities. The metal which expands at a cooled. Without the loop the force of expansion and
higher rate when heated contracts faster when cooled. contraction will cause breakage of the pipes.
 Consider a bimetallic strip made of iron and brass at room
temperature and pressure in figure (a) below. Brass has a
higher linear expansivity than iron and therefore expands at a
faster rate than iron. When the strip is heated to a
temperature greater than room temperature it bends towards
iron as shown in figure (b) and when the strip is cooled, it
bends towards brass as shown in figure (c) below.

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2. Fixing of Railway Line 5. Installation of Telephone/ Electric Wires

 Railway lines are constructed in sections with  They are loosely fixed to allow for contraction.
expansion gaps and the sections held together by Telephone or electric wires appear to be shorter and taut in
fishplates. The bolt holes in the rails are oval to allow the morning. When it is hot, the wires appear longer and
free expansion and contraction of rails as the bolts slackened.
move freely in the holes.
 A modern method of allowing for expansion and
contraction in railways is to plane slant the rails so that
they overlap.
6. The Bimetallic Metal Application

 One of the most common application of a
bimetallic strip is in the in the thermostat. A thermostat is
3. Fixing of Steel Bridges a device for maintaining a steady temperature. The
 In bridges made of steel girders, one end is fixed thermostat shown below is used for controlling the
and the other end placed on rollers to allow for temperature of an iron box. A heater circuit is connected
expansion and contraction. through the electrical terminals.
4. Rivets
 Thick metal plates in ships and other structures are
joined together by means of rivets. A rivet is fitted  If the iron box becomes too hot the bimetallic strip
when hot and then hammered flat. On cooling it bends curving away from the lower contact. This breaks
contracts pulling the two plates firmly together. the contacts and switches off the heater. When it cools, the
bimetallic strip bends closing up the gap between the
contacts and the heater is switched on again.
 If the iron box is required to be very hot (i.e. high
temperature), the setting knob is adjusted to push the
metal K such that the contacts are tight together. For low
temperature range the adjusting knob is released so that
the position K is lowered.
 Thermostat is also used to control the temperature
of electric cookers, electric heaters for warming rooms,
and fridges.

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Expansion and Contraction of Liquids

To Demonstrate Expansion of Liquids
 Consider the flask below filled with colored water as
shown below.
Effects of Anomalous Expansion of Water
1) Support Aquatic Life in Polar Countries During

Winter
 During winter water freezers into ice. Ice being
less dense than water floats on water. Since ice is a poor
conductor of heat, it insulates the water below against
heat loss to air above it.
 When the flask is heated it is observed that water in the

glass tube falls slightly and then starts rising.
 The initial fall of the water level in the tube is due to
expansion of the flask which gets heated first. The
water starts expanding when heat finally reaches it and 2) Anomalous expansion of water leads to formation
it rises up the tube since liquids expand faster than of ice bags which pose a great danger to ships.
solids. 3) It causes weathering of rocks since when water
 Note: Different liquids expand differently (i.e. they trapped in freezes; it expands thus breaking rocks into
have different rates of expansion) small pieces.
 If the above experiment was repeated using alcohol and 4) It causes bursting of water pipes when water
then methylated spirit for the same length of time and freezers in them.
using same heater, it would have been noted that Expansion of Gases
methylated spirit expands most followed by alcohol and
finally water. Experiment to Demonstrate Expansion and Contraction
of Gases
Anomalous Expansion of Water
 Consider the set up below which can be used to
 Anomalous expansion of water is defined as the unusual demonstrate expansion and contraction of gases.
behavior of water in which it contracts when heated and
expands when cooled between 0 and 40C.
 Consider heating ice from -80C until it changes to water
and its temperature increases to 80C. A plot of volume
verses temperature for the water is as in figure (a) while
density verses temperature is as in figure (b) below.

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 When the flask is warmed, it is observed that the level of 7) The figure below represents a bimetallic strip of
water column inside the glass tube drops indicating that the metals X and Y at room temperature
air has expanded. When the flask is warmed further, some
bubbles are seen at the end of the tube in water as air escapes
from the flask.
 When the flask is cooled, water level is observed to rise up
the glass tube because the air inside the flask contracts to The figure below shows its shape when dipped into
create space. crushed ice
Examples
1) The figure below shows a beam balance made out of
concrete and reinforced with steel
Use a diagram to explain the behaviour of the shape of the Sketch a diagram in the space given below to show the
beam when heated up. shape when the strip is heated to a temperature above
the room temperature
The beam expands linearly. The beam remains straight but

longer than before heating. Both concrete and steel have
same rates of expansion. Their value of linear expansivity is
11x10-6K 8) Give a reason why a concrete beam reinforced
2) State two liquids which are used in thermometer. Alcohol with steel does not crack when subjected to Changes in
and Mercury. temperature.
3) With a reason, state which of the two liquids in 3 (a) above Both concrete and steel have same rates -6
of expansion.
is used to measure temperature in areas where Their value of linear expansivity is 11x10 K
temperatures are: 9) Aquatic animals and plants are observed to
(i) Below -400C alcohol, because it has a low freezing point of survive in frozen ponds. Explain this observation.
–115oC. Water freezes and the ice formed floats in water because
(ii) 150 C, mercury, because it has a high boiling point of its density is less than that of water, insulating water
0
357oC, below it. Temperatures increases down the pond because

of anomalous expansion of water.
4) What do you understand by the statement ‘lower fixed
point’ on a temperature scale?
This is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard/normal
atmospheric pressure;
5) Name two adaptations that can be made to a mercury
thermometer to make it more sensitive.
Using a thin walled bulb Using a narrower
capillary tube
6) The figure below shows a bimetallic strip made of brass
and iron. A marble is placed at end A of the bimetallic strip
as shown below:-
State and explain what will be observed when the bimetallic

strip is strongly cooled
On cooling, the brass contracts more than iron, hence become

shorter than iron and forms upwards curve, making the
marble to roll and settle at the centre of the curve.

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1. One property of a liquid that is considered while This is a Property of Mwalimu

constructing a liquid in glass thermometer is that the liquid
expands more than the glass for the same temperature Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke
change. State any other two properties of the liquids that are
considered. 0746-222-000 for more Educational
2. Give a reason why a concrete beam reinforced with steel
does not crack when subjected to change in temperature Materials.
3. Explain why a glass container with thick walls is more likely
to crack than one with a thin wall when a very hot liquid is
poured into it.
4. Figure below shows a circuit diagram for controlling the
temperature of a room.
i) State and explain the purpose of the bimetallic strip.

ii) Describe how the circuit controls the temperature
when the switch S is closed.
5. Figure below shows a fire alarm circuit.
Explain how the alarm functions

6. Figure below shows a bimetallic strip at room temperature.
Brass expands more than invar when heated equally.
Sketch the bimetallic strip after being cooled several

degrees below room temperature
7. Figure below shows a bimetallic thermometer.
8. Figure below shows a flat bottomed flask containing some

water. It is heated directly with a very hot flame. Explain
why the flask is likely to crack.

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Chapter Seven  Wood

 Air
𝐇𝐄𝐀𝐓 𝐓𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐅𝐄𝐑  Water
Definition of Heat  Rubber
 Heat is a form of energy which flows from a point of  Plastic
higher temperature to another point of low  Glass
temperature.
Example
Differences between Heat and Temperature
The figure below shows pieces of wood and iron of
HEAT TEMPERATURE equal length and diameter maintained in contact
Form of energy that Degree of hotness or by a sheet of paper. A flame is then passed over
flows due to coldness of a body the paper several times.
temperature in some chosen
difference. scale.
The flow of heat Can be measured
cannot be measured accurately using a
precisely. thermometer. State and explain the observation made:
SI unit and joules (J). SI unit is Kelvin (k). The paper gets blacked on the region covering the
Modes of Heat Transfer wooden rod. This is because wood is a poor
 There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction,
conductor of heat and therefore does not conduct
convection and radiation. heat from the paper and therefore the paper burns.
Iron is a good conductor of heat and conducts heat
Conduction away from the paper.
 Conduction is the transfer of heat within an object Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity
without the movement of the object as a whole.
1. Nature of Materials
Mechanisms of Heat Conduction  Nature of material means what the material is
made of.
(a)Vibration of molecules  Consider the set up below.
(b) Through free electrons
Classification of Materials In Terms of Conduction
 Materials can be classified as good or poor conductors
in terms of heat conduction.
(a) Good Conductors
Good conductors are materials that can allow heat to pass
through them e.g.
 Copper
 Silver  It is observed that the wax attached to copper
 Aluminium drops first followed by that on aluminum, iron lead
 Brass and that of wood did not drop since wood is a poor
 Mercury conductor.
 Iron Precautions
 Zinc
 Tin (a) Rods of same diameter to be used.
 Lead etc. (b) Rods equal length to be used.
(b) Poor Conductors (Insulators) (c) Wax of the same size to be used.
 These are materials which do not readily allow heat to
pass through them e.g.
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2. The Thickness/ Diameter/ Cross Section Area of  It is observed that wax on rod B dropped first.
the Conductor Therefore, thermal conductivity increases with
 Consider the set up below; decrease in length of the conductor.
Precautions
(a) Rods placed at equal distance from heat
source.
 It is observed that the wax on the thicker iron rod (b) Rods of same material used.
drops first. This is because more heat flows through a (c) Wax of the same size used.
thicker conductor per unit time. (d) Rods of same thickness used.
 Therefore, conductivity of conductors increases
with thickness of the conductor. Lagging
Precautions
 Lagging refers to the covering of a good
(a) Equal time of exposure of the rods to heat.
conductor of heat with an insulating material to
(b) Equal length and type of rods used.
reduce heat loss through surface effects.
(c) Same size of wax used.
 Consider the set up below;
(d) Rods placed at equal distances from the heat
source.
3. Temperature Difference
 Consider the set ups A and B below.
 Plots of temperature variation from the hot

end to the cold end with lagging and without lagging
on same axes will be as follows;
 It is observed that wax in set up B dropped first

because of greater temperature different than in A.
Therefore, heat is transferred faster when temperature
difference is greater.
Precautions
(a) The rods of equal diameter used. Applications of Lagging
(b) Rods of equal length used.
 Iron pipes carrying steam from boilers or
(c) Wax of same size used.
steam wells are covered with thick asbestos material
(d) Wax placed at equal distance from one end of the
which is an insulator to reduce heat loss from steam.
rod in each case.
(e) Rods of same material used. Thermal conductivity In Liquids
5. Length of the Conductor  Liquids are generally poor conductors of heat.

 Consider the set up below;


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To Demonstrate that Water is a Poor Conductor Applications of Good and Poor Conductors of Heat
Experiment 1 (a) Cooking utensils and boilers are made of metals that
 Consider the set up below for demonstrating that water conduct heat rapidly while their handles are made of
is a poor conductor of heat. insulators (poor conductors).
(b) Modern buildings are made of double walls with an

insulator between the walls to minimize heat loss from
the house and therefore maintain stable temperature.
(c) Fire fighters put on suits made of asbestos which is a
poor conductor of heat to keep them safe while putting
off fire.
(d) Birds flap their wings after getting wet to introduce air
pockets within their feathers this helps to minimize heat
loss from their bodies.
 After sometimes it is observed that water at the top of (e) In experiments involving heating liquids in glass vessel.
the tube boils while the ice remained unmelted. Water The vessel is placed on a wire gauge because the gauge
is a poor conductor of heat. Glass used for making test is a good conductor of heat it therefore spreads the
tube is also a poor conductor of heat. heat to a large area of the vessel.
Experiment 2 Convection
 Another experiment than can be used to show that
 Convection is the process by which heat is transferred
water is a poor conductor of heat is as shown below. through fluids.
To Demonstrate Convection in Liquids
Experiment 1
 Consider the diagram below in which potassium

permanganate crystal is put at one corner in a beaker
containing water and the beaker heated at that point.
 It is observed that the wax coating on beaker

containing mercury melted while that on beaker
containing water did not melt. This is because mercury
is a good conductor of heat while water is a poor
conductor heat.  After sometime, it is observed that a purple coloration
rises up from potassium permanganate forming a
Thermal Conductivity in Gases circular loop. This is due to creation of convection
currents in water.
 Gases are poor conductors of heat. The set up below
can be used to support this fact. Experiment 2
Consider the set up below
 It is observed that the match stick held within the

unburnt gas region does not get ignited because gas is
a poor conductor of heat.
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 It is observed that the purple colouration of potassium 2.Engine Cooling System

permanganate moves in the anticlockwise direction in  Engine cooling is enhanced by both
the tube. This is due to creation of convection current conduction and convection processes.
by heat whose direction is anti-clockwise
Convection in Gases
 Consider the set up shown below.
 The metal surface conducts away heat from

engine. This heats up the water setting up
convection currents which circulates as shown in
the diagram.
 It is observed that the smoke is sucked into the box  The hot water is pumped into the radiator
through chimney P and exits through chimney Q. This which has thin copper fins that conduct away heat
is due to convection currents which are set up when the from the water.
air in the box is heated.  The fins are made of copper because it is the
best conductor of heat. They are painted black
APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTION IN FLUIDS because a black surface is a good absorber of heat.
 Fast flowing air past fins speeds up the
1. Ventilation cooling process.
 Ventilation refers to the supply of fresh air to the room.
3.Domestic Hot Water System
 Warm air exhaled by the occupants of the room rises

and gets out through ventilators since it is less dense.
Fresh cold air flows into the room through windows
and doors. This way convection current is set up and
there is always supply of fresh air.

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 Hot water rises up because of the lowering of its Application of Thermal Radiation
density when heated.
1. Solar Heater
 Cold water move down from the cold water tank to the
boiler because it is relatively heavier.
 The expansion pipe has an outlet for excess water that
could have resulted from overheating
 The pipe that conveys the hot water and the cylinder are
lagged to minimize heat losses.
Thermal Radiation
 Thermal radiation is the process by which heat is
transferred through vacuum. In thermal radiation
therefore matter is not involved in transfer of heat
 It is through this process of radiation that radiant heat
reaches the earth’s surface from the sun.
 The higher the temperature of a body the more the
amount of thermal radiation.
Absorption and Emission of Radiant Heat

 A good absorber of radiant heat is also a good emitter
of radiant heat while a poor absorber of radiant heat is
also a poor emitter of the heat.
 Consider the set up below.
 Copper pipe is used because it is a good

conductor of heat and will conduct heat into the water
inside the pipe. It is painted black colour is a good
absorber of heat.
 The glass cover allow radiant heat from the sun to
pass through and prevents the weaker energy emitted
after.
 The black copper collector absorbs heat energy
and conducts it to copper pipes which transmit it to the
water.
 The insulating material prevents heat from being
lost from the pipe.
 The copper pipe is coiled severally to increase
 It is observed that water level in limb A rises up while surface area for absorption of heat.
that in limb B falls. This is because boiling tube B
receives more heat than boiling tube A warming the air
inside it more. The air expands and therefore pushes
down the water in limb B. As a result water level in
limb A rises.

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2. Thermos Flask 6.Houses in hot areas have their walls and roofs
painted with bright colours to reflect away heat
while those in cold areas have walls and roofs
painted silvery bright to reflect as much heat as
possible back to the house.
7.Kettle, cooking pans and iron boxes have polished
surfaces to reduce heat loss through thermal
radiation
Revision Exercise
1.Two similar open tins with equal amounts of
water at 800c were left to cool. If tin A is shiny
and tin B is blackened, sketch on the same axes
the graphs of temperature against time for the
two tins.
2.The figure below shows a box with two glass
 The stopper rubber pad and rubber ring pad prevent heat
tubes A and B projecting from the top of a
loss through conduction since rubber is a poor conductor of rectangular wooden box with removable glass
heat front.
 Silvered wall prevents heat loss through radiation since the
shinny surface is a poor radiator and emitter of heat.
 Vacuum prevent heat loss through conduction and
convection since the two modes of heat transfer require
material medium for transfer of heat.
 Shock absorber prevents breaking of the glass walls due to
pressure from the outside.
 Vacuum seal prevents air from reoccupying the vacuum. It
is through the vacuum seal that air was sucked out.
(i) What will be the direction of the smoke
3. Green House Effect (Heat Trap) through the box?
 Green house effect is a phenomenon in which heat is allowed (ii) What conclusion can be made from the
to pass through a transparent material but does not penetrate observation?
to the outside. This way heat accumulates in the green house (iii) Why are the ventilations for a room made
continuously.
high up the roof?
 Green houses are used to provide appropriate conditions in
plants especially in cold areas. 3.Study the set up below and use it to answer the
questions that follows:
4. Solar Concentrators
(a) What does the experiment illustrates?

 Concave reflector is used to reflect radiant heat from the sun (b) What two factors should one consider when
into a common point (focus). Temperature at this point is selecting the rod to be used?
very high therefore the concentrated heat can be used for (c) State the observations made in this
purposes like heating water. experiment.
4.Explain the Greenhouse effect.
5.Name two examples of greenhouse gases.
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1. The diagram below shows the essential features

of a solar heating panel. A small electric pump
circulates the liquid through the pipes.
State briefly why:
i. The pipes and metal plates are blackened.

ii. There is a material fibre glass on the panel.
2. The figure below shows an electric iron.
Two
metal plates A and B are riveted to form a bimetal strip
as used above.
(i) Which metal expands more
(ii) Explain how the electric iron works when the

power is on

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CHAPTER 8 1. Two balloons inflated with air are tied with

strings and held 1 metre apart. Both balloons are
ELECTROSTATICS rubbed with fur. Why do the balloons move apart
when brought close together?
Introduction 2. For each situation below state whether the
 Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with force between them is repulsive or attractive.
static electricity which is a non-moving electric charge on
the surface of an object.
 All substances are made of atoms .Atoms have three
sub- atomic particles namely:
 Protons
 Neutrons
 Electrons
 Protons have a positive charge. Electrons have a
negative charge. Neutrons do not have any charge (i.e. they
are neutral).
Types of Charges
 Positive charge(s). These charge(s) are obtained when an
atom loses an electron(s).
a) Conductors and Insulators.
 Negative charge(s). These charge(s) are obtained when an  Substances which do not allow electrons to
atom gains an electron(s) pass through them are called insulators.
 The SI unit of charge is the coulomb, C.  Substances which allow electrons to pass
 A charged atom (positively or negatively) is called an easily through them are called conductors. The
ion. reasons why they (metals) conduct easily is because
 A body that has neither a negative charge nor a within any metal some electrons are not attached to
positive charge contains an equal number of protons and specific atoms but are free to wander about.
electrons (Neutral atom). When these charges are equal in  If you were to hold a metal rod and rub it with
number, a body is electrically neutral. wool would it be charged? NO However if you fit
Electrostatic Charges of a Material
polythene handle onto the metal rod it can be
 A hard rubber rod gains millions of electrons when it
is rubbed with a wool cloth. The cloth loses electrons to
charged by rubbing it. We explain this by saying
the rod and becomes positively charged. The rubber that the polythene is an insulator and will not allow
becomes negatively charged. electrons to move through it on along its surface.
 When glass rod is rubbed with fur, the fur loses When an insulator is rubbed, the electrons which
electrons to the glass rod. Glass rod becomes negatively are transferred come from atoms on the surface. The
charged and fur becomes positively charged. metals become charged by electrons from the wool.
 A body is said to be positively charged if it has an But if the metal is directly held, these electrons
excess of positive charges or it has lost some electrons. immediately ‘leak’ away to the earth through the
 A body is said to be negatively charged if it has an hand on the body whereas when the handle is
excess of electrons i.e. If it has gained some electrons. insulated they remain on the metal because they
 The following materials becomes negatively charged
cannot pass through the insulating handle.
by friction when rubbed:
 Polythene
Charging Methods
 Most plastics The following methods are used to charge materials:
 Ebonite (a) Induction
 The following on the other hand becomes posyitively (b) Contact
charged when rubbed: (c) Separation
 Acetate
 Perspex
 Glass
 Fur
The Basic Law of Electrostatics
 It states that like charges repel, unlike charges
attract.

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(a) Induction (b) Contact method

Charging polystyrene ball negatively by induction  Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with
 Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with aluminium using dry silk thread.
aluminium using dry silk thread.  Bring a charged glass rod close to but not
touching the suspended ball.
 Bring apositively charged glass rod close to but
not touching the suspended ball.
 Bring a charged glass rod in contact with the ball,

rolling it over the surface.
Note: The positive charges are repelled while the negative

charges are attracted to the rod.
 Touch the side of the ball away from the glass rod
with the finger.
 Withdraw the charged rod.
Note: Electrons flow from the earth to neutralize the

positive charge on the ball.
 While holding the glass rod near the ball, Notes
withdraw the finger and then the glass rod. a) When a positive rod is rolled on the ball, some of
the negative charges induced in the ball are neutralized
by some positive charges on the rod.
b) When the rod is withdrawn, the positive charges
redistribute themselves all over the surface of the rod.
c) When a body is charged by contact method, it
acquires charges that are similar to the ones on the
charging rod.
Question: Explain how a material is charged negatively
by contact method
Note: The remaining negative charges redistribute
themselves uniformly on the ball. (c) Separation Method
 When a body is charged by induction, it acquires  Place two spheres A and B together so that they
the charges that are opposite to the inducing charge. form a single conductor.
 Bring a charged polythene rod close to but not
Question:
Explain by use of diagrams how the above material can
be charged positively by induction method.
touching sphere A.

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 Move sphere B away so as to break the contact,  It consists essentially of a metal cap (brass) and rod
while holding the charged rod in position. (boast) at which is connected a piece of very thin metal
foil called the leaf (sometimes gold foil, aluminum)
supported with a piece of insulating material (could be
cork, cellulose acetate) which forms part of a box with
glass slides.
 The metal casing protects the leaf from the effect of the
draught.
 The glass window is transparent for observation to be
made.
 Withdraw the charged rod and test the two spheres  The rod is supported by a plug of good insulators which
using a negatively charged rod for the presence and type stops charges given to the cap from spreading to the case
of charge in each sphere. and hence leaking away.
 The cap is circular to ensure uniform distribution of
charge on it.
 Earthing-Process of losing charges to or gaining charges

from the earth through a conductor. Represented by the
symbol:
Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope by Contact

 An electroscope is charged negatively by bringing a
Exercise charged polythene strip up to the electroscope and roll it
over the electroscope cap. The negatively charged
When a charged rod is held close to a metal sphere polythene rod repels the negative charge which spreads
placed on an insulated stand, the charge distribution on the plate and the leaf, making them repel each other
on the sphere is as shown below. hence leaf divergence. If the process is repeated several
times the leaf divergence will keeps increasing until it
reaches the maximum point. This way the electroscope
is said to have been charged by contact.
 The metal cap, leaf and rod will therefore remain
diverged.
 In damp weather, this process may be difficult. It is
helped if a razor blade is cello taped on to the cap so that
(a) What is the sign of charge on the rod? it projects over the edge. The razor edge will then be
(b) Describe a simple method to charge the rod. found to gather the charge more readily than the cap
(c) Explain why the far side of the metal sphere has alone.
a positive charge.  To charge an electroscope positively, a charge cellulose
(d) What happens to the charges on the metal acetate strip is rubbed along the edge of the cap.
sphere, if the charged rod is moved away from the Electrons are accepted from the cap to the strip which
means that the cap and leaf gain a net positive charge.
sphere?
 The leaf therefore diverges again.
The Gold Leaf Electroscope
Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope Positively by
Induction
 Touch the cap of the electroscope with your finger to
ensure that it is fully discharged.
 Bring a charged rod (-) close to the cap of the uncharged
electroscope.
 While the rod remains in its position, touch the cap.
 Withdraw the finger and subsequently remove the rod.
Observations
 When the charged rod (-) is brought close to the cap, the
leaf rises.
 When the cap is touched while the rod is in position, the
leaf divergence decreases.
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 When the finger is withdrawn and the then the rod, the leaf
diverges.
Explanation Charge on Charge Effect on
When the rod is brought close to the cap, electrons are repelled electrosco brought leaf
to the plate and the leaf making the leaf to diverge. pe near the divergenc
When the cap is touched, electrons flow to the earth through cap e
the body.
When the earth connection is broken by removing the finger
+ + Increase
and the rod, the positive charges redistributes onto the leaf - - Increase
and the plate. The leaf as a result diverges and the + - Decrease
electroscope becomes positively charged. - + Decrease
Uses of Electroscope +or- Uncharged Decrease
1. Detecting the presence of charge on a body body
 Charged bodies brought near the cap will cause the leaf to
rise (diverge). If the leaf doesn’t diverge the body is
uncharged.
2. Measuring the insulating properties of an object(material)
 Charge the electroscope and bring the object to the top of
Charges in Air
the electroscope and earth the electroscope. The rate at Air can be charged by:
which the leaf fall is the measure of the conducting ability  Heating
of the object.  Radiations
3. To measure the quantity of charge on a charged body Applications of Electrostatic Charges
 If a body being tested has little charge on it the leaf of the  Electrostatics precipitators
electroscope will diverge a little and if the body has much  Finger printing
charge on it the leaf will diverge more.  Spray painting
4. testing the sign of charge on a charged body
 If a charged body is brought near the cap of a charged
 photocopying
electroscope, the leaf of the electroscope will diverge more
if the body and the electroscope have similar charges and Danger of Electrostatics
the leaf divergence will decrease if the two have different  Rubbing liquid molecules can be charged. If
charges. the liquid is inflammable, it can spark and explode.
It is advisable to store fuels in metal cans so that
Testing for charges any charges generated continually leak out. This is
a) Charge an electroscope negatively. Bring a negatively the reason behind the presence of loose chain in
charged polythene strip close to the cap. Notice that the leaf tankers carrying inflammable liquids.
diverges further.
b) Bring up a positive charge cellulose acetate strip close to Assignment
the same negatively charged electroscope. Notice that this 1. A nylon dress sticks on the body and crackles when
time the leaf collapses (decrease in divergence.) removed. Explain.
c) Place your hand on any uncharged metal close to the
charged electroscope. Notice again that the leaf collapses. 2. You are given a positively charged electroscope
 Note that the results in experiments ( b) and (c) were the and a charged body. Explain how you will
same hence the collapsing of the leaf is not evidence for the
determine the type of the charge on the charged
presence of a charged body. We can therefore state the
rule for testing a charge as follows :
body.
1) If the leaf of charge electroscope diverges further when a
body brought close to the cap then that body is charged. 3. You are provided with the following: polythene
2) The sign of the charge on the body is the same as that on rod, duster and a uncharged electroscope. Explain
the electroscope. how you will charge the electroscope negatively.
 Increase in divergence is the only sure way of testing the
sign of charge on a body. Note that charging by contact is
not a sure way but induction is.

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Chapter Nine 𝐂𝐄𝐋𝐋𝐒 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐒𝐈𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝐂𝐈𝐑𝐂𝐔𝐈𝐓𝐒

Introduction Notes
 Electrical energy is used for lighting, Heating and a) A circuit that allows charges to move in a
operating electronic devices such as T.V, computers, complete path when the switch is closed is said to
high speed trains etc. This energy is carried through be a closed circuit.
conductors like wires. b) A circuit that does not allow charges to move in a
complete path such a circuit is said to be an open
Electric Current (broken circuit). Open circuit can also be as a
result of loose connection of wires.
 Electric current is the rate of flow of charge (flow of
c) For clarity and neatness, symbols are used in
charge per unit time). SI unit is the ampere (A)
representing an electrical circuit.
 From the definition above,
Charge ,Q
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = Time ,t
𝑄
𝐼= , 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑡
Example
Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb

if 360 coulombs of charge flows through it in 3.5 Direction of the Flow of Electric Current
minutes.
 Conventionally, the flow of current is from the
Solution positive terminal to the negative terminal of the
cell. It is opposite to the direction of flow of
Q electrons.
I=
t  The instrument for measuring electric current is
called an ammeter while electric current flow is
360
I= controlled by a variable resistor.
3.5x60
Device Symbol
= 1.714 A
Cell
Types of Electric Current Battery
Switch
a) Direct current(d.c) – which flows in one direction only
b) Alternating current(a.c) – which reverses direction Bulb/filament
with a given frequency lamp
Simple Electric Circuits Wires crossing
with no
 A simple electric circuit consist of a cell, a bulb and connection
connecting wires. Wires crossing
with
connection
Fixed resistor
Potential divider

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The table below shows Cells in Parallel

some of the
 Two or more cells
electrical symbols
are placed side by side, the positive terminals joined
used in drawing together and the negative terminals also connected
circuits. Fuse together.
Capacitor  When cells are in
parallel arrangement their e.m.f. is the same as the e.m.f.
of one cell.
Rheostat  Current is supplied
for a longer time in parallel connection of cells.
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Galvanometer
Note: Cells should should be arranged in parallel only
when they have the same e.m.f otherwise one will drain
the other.
Electromotive Force (E.m.f) and Potential Difference Bulbs in Series and Parallel Connection
 Electromotive force (E.m.f) refers to voltage across the Bubs in Parallel
 Each bulb
terminals of a battery in an open circuit (when no
functions independently. If one goes off, others continue
current flows in the circuit). lighting.
 Potential difference (Pd) refers to the voltage across  There’s decreased
the terminals of a battery in a closed circuit (when resistance as the current has many alternative loops
current is flowing in the circuit). (complete paths) through which to flow.
 Potential difference and E.m.f are measured in volts by  Bulbs in parallel
an instrument called voltmeter. A voltmeter is always have the same potential difference but different amounts
connected in parallel (across). of current.
 The difference between Potential difference and E.m.f
is known as lost voltage 𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇 =
𝑷. 𝒅 + 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇 − 𝑷. 𝒅
Bulbs in Series
 This voltage is lost because of the opposition to the  If one bulb goes
flow of charges within the cell (internal resistance) off, others also go off.
 There’s increased
Connecting Cells in Series and Parallel resistance thus the bulbs might not be as bright as those
in parallel connection.
Cells in Series  Bulbs in series
have the same current but different potential difference.
 Two or more cells are connected such that the positive
terminal of one is joined to the negative terminal of
another one.
 Two or more cells connected in series make a battery
Note: Bulbs in parallel arrangement light brighter than

those in series arrangement.
Note: Connecting cells in series increases the e.m.f and
current in the circuit is higher.
Example Note:
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An electrician installed electric wiring in a house and 1) Materials whose electrical properties fall
connected the bulbs and the switches as shown in the between those of conductors and insulators are
below.C referred to as semi-conductors e.g. silicon and
germanium.
2) Some liquids such as dilute sulphuric acid,
sodium chloride solution and potassium hydroxide
conduct electricity. They are referred to as
electrolytes.
Sources of Electricity
 Main sources:
 Chemical cells
(a) Explain what happens when switch:  Generators
(i) S1 is closed.  Solar cells
Only bulb B1 will light;  Other sources include:
(ii) S2 is closed.  Thermocouples
Bulb B1 and B2 lights but with less brightness because of  Piezo electricity
increase in resistance.
(iii) S3 is closed. Chemical Cells
Bulb B1B2 and B3 will all light but with much less
brightness compared to a (ii) These are cells that produce an E.m.f as a result of a
chemical reactions. They are categorized into two:
(b) (i) Using a redrawn diagram show the best
I. Primary cells
position the bulbs should be installed.
 These are cells which cannot be recharged
for use again e.g. simple cell.
Simple Cell
(ii) Explain why you consider the arrangement in (b)

(i) above to be the best.
When the bulbs are connected such that they are in
parallel, the circuit résistance is significantly reduced;
and hence more current flow, the bulb lights with equal Defects of a simple cell
brightness since the operation voltage is the same;
 Polarization – accumulation of bubbles
around the copper plate (positive plate). This defect
Conductors and Insulators provides insulation to the flow of current and also
sets up some “local” cells with copper whose
 Conductors are electron flow tends to oppose the flow of electrons
materials that allow electric current to flow through from the zinc plate. The overall effect is increase in
them e.g. copper, silver, graphite and aluminium. the internal resistance of the cell, which reduces the
 Insulators are flow of current.
materials that do not allow flow of electric current  Local action – the zinc plate is depleted
through them e.g. plastic, paper and rubber. (eaten away) as it reacts with dilute sulphuric acid.
Impurities in zinc promote local action.

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Ways of correcting Polarization defect: The Dry Cell
 Addition of potassium dichromate (depolarizer).

Oxygen from the depolarizer combines with the
hydrogen atoms to produce water.
 Removing copper plate and brushing off the gas
bubbles.
Ways of correcting Local action defect:
 Use of pure zinc.

 Coating zinc with mercury (amalgamation).
The Leclanche’ cell

Local action and Polarization have been minimized in this
cell.  It is referred to as dry cell because it has no liquid.
 The ammonium chloride solution in the Leclanche’
cell is replaced with the ammonium chloride jelly or
paste which is used as the electrolyte.
 Manganese (IV) oxide and act as the depolarizer.
 carbon powder increases the surface area of the
positive electrode (carbon Rod)
 The zinc case acting as the negative electrode gets
depleted by the ammonium chloride and changes to
zinc chloride. Local action is still a defect in this
cell.
 The cell cannot be renewed once the chemical
action stops. A new dry cell has an e.m.f of about
1.5 V.
Care for the dry cell
 Large currents should not be drawn from the dry

cell within a short time.
 The terminals should not be shorted.
 The carbon rod (positive terminal) is surrounded with  The cells must be stored in dry places.
manganese (IV) oxide mixed with carbon powder.
Uses of the dry cells
 Carbon powder increases the effective area of the plates
hence reduced resistance.  Dry cells are used in torches, calculators and radios.
 The manganese (IV) oxide acts as a depolarizer
(depolarization is slow thus large currents cannot beII. Secondary Cells:
drawn out of this cell steadily for a long time).  These are rechargeable cells.
 Local action is still a defect in this cell.  They are also called storage cells as they can store
 The cell is used for purposes where current is not drawn electrical energy as chemical energy.
from it for a very long time, like operating bells and  Examples are the Lead-acid accumulator and the
telephone boxes. It has a longer life span than the Nickel-alkaline accumulator.
simple cell.

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Lead – acid accumulator Maintenance of the Accumulators
 Consist of positive and negative plates which are made 1) The level of the electrolyte should be checked
of lead-antimony alloy. regularly and maintained above the plates.
 The plates are dipped in sulphuric acid solution which Topping should be done by distilled water; NOT
is an electrolyte. ACID!
 The caps have small vent holes which allow gases to 2) The accumulator should be charged when the
escape(02 and H2) e.m.f of the cell drops below 1.8 V and when the
 If the density of the acid becomes too low the relative density of the acid is falls below 1.12
accumulator is said to be discharged. (using a hydrometer).
 It is charged by connecting a d.c source as shown 3) Large currents should not be drawn from the
below. battery for a long time.
4) Should not be left in a discharged condition for a
long period as sulphation may take place. (the
lead (II) sulphate deposits on the plates harden up
and cannot be converted back to lead (II) oxide
and lead.)
5) Shorting/ overcharging of the accumulator should
be avoided.
6) The terminals should always be kept clean and
greased.
7) The accumulator should not be directly placed on
the ground during storage. It should be rested on
 This is the most reliable, long lasting and cost-effective some insulator like a wooden block.
of the secondary cells. A 12 V lead-acid accumulator
has six cells connected in series. Alkaline Accumulators:
Capacity of an Accumulator  The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline solution,

such as potassium hydroxide.
 This is the amount of current that can be drawn in a  The common types are nickel-cadmium and
given time from the battery. nickel-iron accumulators.
 It is expressed in ampere-hours (Ah).
Examples
1.A battery is rated 120 AH. How long will it work if it
steadily supplies a current of 4A?
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

120 𝐴𝐻 = 4 𝐴 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
120 𝐴𝐻
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = 30 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 Advantages of Alkaline Accumulators over Lead –
4𝐴 Acid Accumulators
2. The current capacity of an accumulator is 40Ah.
Find the amount of current flowing if the 1. Large currents can be drawn from them over a
accumulator is used for 600 minutes. short period of time.
2. They require very little attention to maintain.
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 3. They are lighter (more portable) than the Lead –
acid accumulators.
600 4. They can be kept in a discharged condition for a
40 𝐴𝐻 = 𝐼 × very long time before the cells are ruined.
60
40 𝐴𝐻
𝐼= =4𝐴
10 𝐻

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Disadvantages 1.You are provided with a car battery, a switch and

two headlights of a car. Draw a possible circuit
1. They are very diagram for the arrangement that will allow the
expensive. driver to switch on the two lights simultaneously.
2. They have a lower 2.(a) Draw a well-labelled diagram of a dry cell and
e.m.f per cell. explain how it works.
Uses of Accumulators (b) What are the defects and the remedies in the
working of a dry cell?
They are used in ships, hospitals and buildings where
large currents might be needed for emergency. (c) How are dry cells maintained?
Differences between primary and secondary cells 3.Eight dry cells can be arranged to produce a total
e.m.f of 12V, just like a car battery.
Primary cells Secondary cells
a.What is e.m.f of an individual cell?
Cannot be recharged Are rechargeable
b.Why is it possible to start the car with the lead-acid
after use
accumulator, but not with eight dry cells in series?
Small current can be Large current can be
4.(a) Draw two separate diagrams showing a lead-
drawn from them drawn from them
acid accumulator when it is:
Revision Exercise a) Charging
b) Discharging.
9. In terms of electrons, distinguish between good
conductors, poor conductors of electricity and (b) Describe the changes that can observed during
insulators. the two processes above.
10. (a) Define current and state its SI unit.
(c) Why is it dangerous to light a cigarette near a
(b)(i) A charge of 180 coulombs flow through a lamp charging car battery?
every minute. Calculate the current flowing through
the lamp. 5.(a) What do you understand by the term capacity
of a lead-acid accumulator?
(ii) Calculate the number of electrons involved
(charge of electron is 1.6x10-19 C) (b)Why is it effective to charge a car battery over a
long time with a very small current rather than a
11. A battery circulates charge round a circuit for big current within a short time?
1.5 minutes. If the current is held at 2.5A, what
quantity of charge passes the wire? (c) A car battery is rated 40Ah and it is expected to
12. Define electromotive force and distinguish it supply a constant current for 120 minutes. What is
from potential difference of a cell. the strength of current delivered?
13. (a) Draw a circuit diagram of three-cell torch.
6.State at least five precautions that you would take
(b) What do you understand by? to maintain accumulators in your laboratory.
7.State the advantage and disadvantage of lead-acid
(i) Open circuit? accumulators over the alkaline accumulators.
8.The figure below shows the set up for a simple
(ii) Closed circuit? cell.
14. Explain why lights in a house are wired in
parallel and not in series.
15. (a) Give three differences between primary and
secondary cells.
(b) In making a simple cell, the two electrodes used are
not of the same kind. Explain.

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a) Name the Electrode A and the solution B This is a Property of Mwalimu

Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr
b) State two reasons why the bulb goes off after a short Isaboke
time 0746-222-000 for more
Educational Materials.
16. State one advantage of a lead-acid accumulator
over a dry cell
17. State one defect of a simple cell and explain how
it can be corrected.
18. The diagram below shows a simple cell:-
a. Name z and solution y

b. Name and explain the defect that occurs at plate z
c. Give one method of preventing the defect that occurs
at the copper plate
19. Explain why eight 1.5V cells arranged in series
to give a total of 12V cannot be used to start a car.
But car battery of 12V starts a car
20. Define the term topping as used in simple cells

and circuits.
21. I) A girl opened up a used up dry cell and found
the following:
a. The zinc casing was depleted
b. The cell was watery
II) Name the cell defect
III) Three identical bulbs are connected in series with a
battery of dry cells. At first the bulbs shine brightly
but gradually become dimmer. Using the same cells,
explain how you would increase the brilliance of the
bulbs
22. A car battery requires topping up with distilled
water occasionally. Explain why this is necessary
and why distilled water is used
23. State one advantage of:

a. A lead-acid accumulative over a dry cell
b. A dry cell over lead-acid accumulator

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Chapter Ten 𝐑𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐈𝐋𝐈𝐍𝐄𝐀𝐑 𝐏𝐑𝐎𝐏𝐀𝐆𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐎𝐅 𝐋𝐈𝐆𝐇𝐓

𝐀𝐍𝐃
𝐑𝐄𝐅𝐋𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐀𝐓 𝐏𝐋𝐀𝐍𝐄 𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐅𝐀𝐂𝐄𝐒
Introduction  Make a small hole in each of the three card
boards ensuring that all the holes are at the same
 Optics is a branch of physics which studies the behaviour of
height.
light as it traverses various media.
 Optical instruments such as cameras, microscopes,
 The lamps positioned in such a way that a ray
periscopes and laws governing their working form a major of light passes through all the holes.
part of this branch of physics.  When the cardboard is displaced by moving
 Light is a form of energy. Light regulates your daily life. it slightly to the one side, the eye will not see the
You need light to see the size, shape and colour of things lamp. This shows that light travels in a straight
around you. line.
Sources of Light Rays of Light and Beam of Light

 A ray is a narrow stream of light of
 There are two : luminous (incandescent) and non- negligible thickness while a beam of light is a
luminous
collection of rays of light.
 Luminous objects are those which produce their own light
e.g. sun, candles, electric lamps, glowing worms etc.
 Non-luminous objects are those which don’t give their own
Types of beams
light but reflect light that comes from a luminous object.
 A beam in which rays are parallel to each
These are objects. Examples are: the moon, paper, you etc.
 You can see an object clearly if light from it enters your other is called parallel beam.
eyes.
Transparent, Translucent and Opaque Objects

 Transparent objects are those which allow light to pass
through them e.g. a glass window, clear water, the air around
you. All these substances let light pass through them.
 Opaque objects are those which cannot allow light to pass
 A beam in which the rays converge at a point
through them e.g. wool, steel, Brick.
 Translucent bodies are those which let light pass through is called a convergent beam.
them, but scatter in all directions e.g. lamp shades, frosted
glass, some plastic etc.
Rectilinear Propagation of Light

 This is the property of light to travel in a straight line in a
medium of homogeneous propagation density.
 Light does not travel around corners. The formation of
shadows shows that light travels in a straight line. When an
opaque body is placed in a beam of light, a shadow is
formed.
 A beam in which the rays spreads out from a point
Demonstrating Rectilinear Propagation of Light
is a divergent beam

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The Pinhole Camera
 A pin-hole camera is made using a small rectangular

box with a pin hole at one end, a large rectangular
hole at one end, a large rectangular hole at the other
end.
 The rectangular hole at the back is covered with a
ho=object height
screen of special paper like grease proof paper which
hi=image height
lets some light pass through it (i.e. it is translucent).
u=object distance
v=image distance from pinhole
Advantage
Given that magnification is m, then
 It is able to form focused images on the film of ℎ 𝑣 ℎ𝑖 𝑣
objects both near and far from the camera. 𝑚 = ℎ 𝑖 or 𝑚 = 𝑢 and so =𝑢
𝑜 ℎ𝑜
Image Formation by a Pinhole Camera Examples

1. A pinhole camera of length 15 cm forms an
image 3cm high of a man standing 9m in front
of the camera what is the height of the man?
ℎ𝑖 𝑣
ℎ
=𝑢
𝑜
0.03 𝑚 0.15 𝑚
=
ℎ𝑜 9𝑚
0.03 𝑚 × 9 𝑚
ℎ𝑜 = = 1.8 𝑚
0.15 𝑚
2. Lamp A of height 6cm stands in front of a
pinhole camera at a distance of 24 cm. The
camera screen is 8cm from the pinhole. What is
the height of the image?
ℎ𝑖 𝑣
=
The Length (Size) Of Image ℎ𝑜 𝑢
 The length of the image formed depends on: ℎ𝑖 0.08 𝑚
a) The distance of the object from the pinhole =
0.06 𝑚 0.24 𝑚
b) The length of the camera box 0.08 𝑚
ℎ𝑖 = × 0.06 𝑚
0.24 𝑚
MAGNIFICATION ℎ𝑖 = 2 𝑚
 This is the ratio of the image size to the object size or
the ratio of the image distance to the object distance.
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

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Exercise Shadow Formed by a Point Source

1. An image 100mm long of a man 2m tall is pinned on top
of a pin-hole camera. The distance of pin hole from the
screen if the man is standing 6cm from the pinhole.
2. An object 1m tall forms an image 5 cm tall from the
screen of a pinhole camera. Find the distance of the object
from the pin hole of the object if the length of the camera
box is 40 cm.
Effect on the Image Formed by the Pinhole Camera On:

(a) Many pin holes
 Each pinhole will form its image resulting into brighter but  A point source of light is one which is small
blurred image. enough for all the rays of light to come
(b) Large pinhole effectively from a single point.
 A large hole is equivalent to several holes and will produce  The shadow is uniformly and totally dark all over
brighter but blurred image. and is called umbra. The umbrella shape edges
 However, a sharp image can be produced where a wide hole on the shadow shows that light travels on a
or several holes have been used by simply placing a straight line.
converging lens in front of the many holes and in contact
with the box. The convex lens brings all rays from a point Shadows Formed by an Extended Source of Light.
on object to unique point on the screen.
The pin-hole camera can be modified as follows in order to

take photographs:
 Should be painted black on the inside to eliminate
reflection of light.
 Translucent screen to be replaced by light-tight lid with
photographic film fitted on the inside.
 Should be covered with a thin black card which acts as a
shutter.
The exposure time of a pin-hole camera depends on:  An extended source of light is large enough for
 Size of the pin-hole rays to be seen to come from many points.
 Lighting conditions  The shadow is larger and has a central dark
 Sensitivity of the film region called umbra surrounded a ring of partial
 Length of the camera shadow called penumbra.
Advantage of the Pinhole Camera over the Lens Camera Application of extended light sources
 The pinhole camera is preferred to the lens camera because a) Lampshades are used at home to provide a more
it does not produce distortion. pleasant kind of lightning.
The disadvantages of using a pin hole camera:
b) Fluorescent tubes are usually surrounded by a
a) It takes a long time for image to be formed since the amount
of light passing through the hole is small. frosted diffuse to scatter the light & reduce
b) It cannot be used to take photographs of moving objects. shadow sharpness.
Shadows Eclipses
 A shadow is a shade cast by an object blocking direct rays An eclipse is the total or partial disappearance of
of light. The formation of shadows depends on the fact that sun rays as seen from the earth.
light travels in a straight line
The size of the shadow formed depends on: The Solar Eclipse or Eclipse of the Sun
a) Size of sources of light.
b) Size of opaque object.
c) Distance between the object and source of light.

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 The ray from the source AO is called the incident

 The solar eclipse occurs when the moon comes ray. The ray that bounces off from the Mirror O is
between the sun and the earth called the reflected ray. ON is the normal.
 The angle between incident ray and the normal is
The Annular Eclipse of the Sun called Angle of incident angle, I between the
normal and the Reflected ray is called angle of
reflection.
The Laws of Reflection

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
2. The incident ray, normal and reflected ray at the
 It occurs when the distance of separation between the point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
earth and the moon is great. The umbra of the moon
does not totally cover the sun edge of the dark disk of Types of Reflection
the moon. a) Regular or Specular Reflection
It occurs when parallel incident rays are reflected
parallel to each other when reflecting surface is
Lunar Eclipse or Eclipse of the Moon smooth.
b) Irregular or Diffuse Reflection

Parallel incident rays are reflected in different
directions for
 The eclipse of the moon occurs when the earth comes
between the sun and the moon.
 When the lunar eclipse occurs, it lasts longer (about
1hr) than the solar eclipse because the moon is much
smaller than the earth.
 During a total lunar eclipse some light reaches the
moon due to refraction by the earth’s atmosphere&
make it look a coppery colour.
Image Formation by a Plane Mirror.
REFLECTION BY PLANE MIRRORS.  The image of an object seen in a plane mirror is
 When a ray of light meets a plane mirror it is formed by rays of light travelling in straight lines
reflection. which are reflected according to the laws of
 An ordinary mirror is made by depositing a thin layer reflection.
of metal, often silver paint at the back of the glass
which acts as the reflecting surface.

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Exercise
1. Find the number of images formed when mirrors are

inclined at 20o
2. Find the angle between two mirrors if 35 images are
formed
3. At what angle would two mirrors be inclined if the
number of images formed are (i) 17 (ii) 29?
Rotation of a Mirror
 When a mirror is rotated through an angle 𝜃 the

reflected ray turns through 2𝜃.
 Hence, the reflected ray always turns through twice the
angle through which the mirror is rotated.
Exercise
From the above diagram one can see that the image
formed in a plane mirror is always: 1. A mirror is rotated through an angle of 15o through
a) Erect (Upright) what angle does the reflected ray turn?
2. A mirror is rotated through a certain angle and the
b) As far behind the mirror as object is in front of it.
reflected ray turned through 40o what angle had the
c) Virtual. mirror been turned?
A virtual image is one: 3. An incident ray makes an angle of 25o with the
 which cannot be received on the screen normal. If the mirror is turned through 9o in the
 which is formed by the intersection of virtual anticlockwise direction from the horizontal, through
rays. what angle is the reflected ray rotated?
c) Laterally inverted i.e. left appears on the right & vice
Application of Plane Mirrors
versa
d) The same size as the object. (a) The Periscope
Image Formation in Parallel in Mirrors
 When an object is placed between two parallel

mirrors as shown above an infinite number of images
are formed.
 Each image seen in one mirror acts as a virtual
object which in turn forms an image in the other mirror.
 The image becomes fainter because light energy
is absorbed by the mirror at each successive reflection.
 The number of images formed by two mirrors
inclined at an angle is given by the formula.  A periscope consists of a plane mirrors parallel to one
𝟑𝟔𝟎 another and inclined at angle of 45o to the horizontal.
𝒏 = – 𝟏  They are used to help one see over an obstacle.
𝜭

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 Periscopes in submarines use prisms instead of plane b) The length of the camera is made longer.
mirrors because.
1. The silver part of the mirror easily gets damaged c) The single hole is replaced by four pinholes
2. Thick mirrors produce multiple refractions close together.
3. There is no lateral inversion with prisms. 5. Define the term reflection of light.
(b) Use of plane mirrors in instrument scales 6. State the Laws of reflection of light.
 Plane mirrors are often used behind pointers as
instruments to improve the reading accuracy. 7. The mirror AB and CD are at right angles to
 When the pointer is viewed at an angle its image will each other.
be seen through the plane mirror.
 The image seen will enable the reader to know that
reading being taken will have an error due to parallax.
The reader will therefore position the eye vertically so
that the image of the pointer is not seen and hence a
correct reading will be taken.
 The sports galvanometer uses a ray of light as a pointer
instead.
(c)The kaleidoscope
 It applies the principle of mirrors inclined at an angle.
a) What is the value of the angle of incidence of
 It consists of two mirrors M1 and M2 placed to each
the ray PQ on the mirror AB?
other at 600 to each other inside a tube.
b) Complete the diagram to show the path taken
 The instrument is used by designers to obtain ideas on
by the ray PQ after reflection at both mirrors.
systematic patterns.
c) Determine:
Revision Exercise I. Angle of reflection on AB.
1. (a) Sally went to Mary salon to have her hair dressed. II. Angle incidence on CD.
The salon had two parallel mirrors placed on the III. Angle of reflection on CD.
walls which are 3 meters apart. While waiting to be 8. If a girl walks away from a plane mirror at a
attended to, she sat at a distance of 1 meter from one speed of 2m per second,
of the walls and noticed that there were multiple of I. In what direction does her image move?
her in each mirror. Determine the distance between II. With what speed does her image move?
the two nearest images formed in the two mirrors. 9. The figure below shows mirrors AB and CD
inclined at right angles. A ray PO makes an
(b) Two plane mirrors are placed at an angle of 60 0 as angle of 30o with mirror AB has as shown.
0
shown below. A ray of light makes an angle of 40
with mirror m1 and goes to strike mirror M2. Find the
angle of reflection of Mirror M2
(i) Show the path of the ray after reflection from

both mirrors.
(ii) What is the angle of incidence on the mirror
2. What is rectilinear propagation of light? CD?
3. Draw a ray diagram to show how a pinhole camera
forms an image.
4. State the changes that would occur in the size and
brightness of the image formed if
a) The object distance is made large.

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THE END

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F1 TOPICAL REVISION
QUESTIONS
A SERIES OF TOPICAL REVISION

PHYSICS QUESTIONS IN THIS CLASS.
An Intensive Analysis of Past KCSE

Questions. Candidates are Hereby
Advised to Keep attention to this
Crucial Quick Revision Kit.
For Marking Scheme/Answers

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MEASUREMENT I
1. (a) Distinguish between density and relative density of a substance
(b) A ship of mass 1300 tonnes floats on sea water:
(i) What volume of sea water is displaced (Density of sea water is 1025kg/m3)
(ii) Suppose it sails from sea water to fresh water, what cargo must be removed so that
the same volume of water is displaced? (Density of fresh water = 1000kg/m3
(c) Describe an experiment to verify the law of floatation
2. Define relative density
3. A bathroom shower has 200 holes each 2.5mm2 in area. Water flows from a pipe of cross-section
area of 15cm2 at 5m/s to the shower. Determine the speed of the spray.
4. A piece of metal N of mass 2kg weighs 18N in water and 12N in liquid M. Determine the density
of ;
(i) The metal N
(ii) The liquid M
5. A measuring cylinder contains 50cm3 of light oil at 0oC. When a lump of dried ice is placed in
the oil, the total volume is 72cm3. Determine the density of the ice
The figure 1 below shows a manometer connected to a gas supply. The pressure of the gas supply
above the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a 20cm column of water. Use this information and
the figure to answer questions 2 and 3.
FORCE
1. (a) The figure below shows a balloon carrying hydrogen gas 3m3 of density 0.09kgm-3. The mass
of the balloon fabric is 2kg and the density of air is 1.25kgm-3
i) Determine the tension in the string
ii) If the string is suddenly cut, calculate the acceleration of the balloon upwards
iii) What is the maximum mass of the equipment the balloon can lift at a constant velocity
b) State and explain two features of a hydrometer that make it sensitive in its function
2. A block of mass 5kg rests on an inclined surface as shown in the diagram below:
Determine the static friction on the block

3. State two factors that would raise the boiling point of a liquid
4. Give a reason why water wets glass while mercury does not.
5. (a) Give an example where force is applied and no work is done
(b) The graph below shows the variation between force and distance for a boy pushing a concrete
block of mass 25kg through a vertically height of 12m.

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(i) Determine the total work done by the boy within 70m
(ii) How much energy is wasted?
(iii) Give an account for the energy wasted
6. State the principle of moments.
7. State any two factors that affect the earth’s gravitational force
8. Figure 3 below shows a wire loop with a string that has been dipped into soap solution.
Fig. 3
i) Sketch a similar diagram to show the observed effect if the soap film is punctured at X
ii) Explain the observations made in (i) above
9. Figure 2 shows two glass tubes of different size of bore, dipped in a glass beaker half full of water
fig. 2
Complete the diagram to show how water will rise up in the two glass tubes
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10. (a) State the conditions necessary for the law of conservation of linear momentum to hold
(b) The diagram figure 13 below shows a steel ball bearing gently dipped in a viscous liquid
contained in a tall cylinder
fig. 13
(i) Name giving their directions the forces acting on the ball bearing as it moves down
the cylinder
(ii) The graph in figure 14 below shows the velocity-time graph (a) for the motion of the
above ball
fig. 14.
On the same diagram, draw the graph (b) for a steel ball of smaller radius in the same liquid
(iii) Explain the difference in the two graphs (a) and (b)
(c) (i) A breakdown truck tows a car of mass 1000kg along a level road, and accelerates
at 0.5m/s2. What is the tension in the tow line
(ii) If the tow line in (c)(i) above breaks when the car reaches a speed of 36km/h, how far will
the car travel before coming to rest if the breaking force is 2000N?
11. Explain why it is easier to ride a bicycle round a bend on a road if the surface is dry than
when it is wet
12. Give one difference between limiting and dynamic forces of friction
13. Mercury on a clean glass slide collects into small spherical balls as shown in figure 2 below.
Explain why
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14. The figure 7 below shows two blocks of masses M1=1.5kg and M2 = 2.0kg which are in
contact on a frictionless table
fig. 7
A force F=7N acts on the bodies, determine the force on mass M 2

15. State one factor that determines the depth to which mercury is depressed in a glass
capillary tube.
PRESSURE
1. State the possible reason why, if water is used as a barometer liquid, the glass tube required
to hold the column of the liquid is longer
2. State the definition of atmospheric pressure
3. What is the density of alcohol?
4. A person’s lung pressure as recorded by a mercury manometer is 90 mm Hg. Express this
pressure in SI units.
5. The figure below shows to light pith balls arranged as shown.
Pith balls
State what is observed when air is blown on the outer sides of the pith balls.
7. The barometric height at sea level is 76cm of mercury while at a point on a highland it is 74cm
of mercury. What is the altitude of the point? (Take g = 10m/s2 , density of mercury =
13600kg/m3 and density of air as 1.25kg/m3)
8. a) Define specific latent heat of fusion of a substance

b) Water of mass 200g at temperature of 60°Cis put in a well lagged copper calorimeter of mass
80g. A piece of ice at 0° C and mass 20g is placed in the calorimeter and the mixture stirred
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gently until all the ice melts. The final temperature, T, of the mixture is then measured.
Determine:
i) The heat absorbed by the melting ice at O°C
ii) The heat absorbed by the melted ice (water) to rise to temperature T (answer may be
given in terms of T)
iii) The heat lost by the warm water and the calorimeter (answer may be given in terms of T)
iv) The final temperature of the mixture
(Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 334 000 J kg-1
Specific heat capacity of water = 4 200 J kg-1 K-1
Specific heat capacity of copper = 900J kg-1 K-1)
9. Figure 4 below shows a measuring cylinder of height 30cm filled to a height of 20cm with
water and the rest occupied by kerosene
Fig. 4
Given that density of water = 1000Kgm-3, density of kerosene = 800Kgm-3 and atmospheric
pressure = 1.03x105 pascals, determine the pressure acting on the base of the container
10. State Pascal’s principle of transmission of pressure
11. A helical spring extends by 1 cm when a force of 1.5N is applied to it. Find the elastic potential
energy stored in it.
12. Two immiscible liquids are poured in a container to the levels shown in the diagram below.
Figure 5

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If the densities of the liquids A and B are 1g/cm3 and 0.8g/cm3 respectively, find the pressure
acting upon solid C at the bottom of the container due to the liquids
13. Mark the position of the water levels in the manometer when the gas supply is fully turned on
14. Calculate the pressure of the gas supply (Atmospheric pressure = 1.0x105Pa)
figure 1
15. A small nail may pierce an inflated car tyre and remain there without pressure reduction
in the tyre. Explain the observation
16. (a) State two ways of increasing pressure in solids
(b) The figure 1 shows a liquid in a pail
fig. 1
Suggest a reason why pail manufacturers prefer the shape shown to other shapes
17. Figure 8 shows a funnel inverted over a light ball.
fig. 8
Explain the observation that would be made when streamlines of air is blown strongly down
the narrow section of the funnel
18. A block measuring 20cm x 10cm by 5cm rests on a flat surface. The block has a weight of 3N.
Determine the maximum pressure it exerts on the surface.
19. The figure below shows a hydraulic press P which is used to raise a load of 10KN. A force
F of 25N is applied at the end of a lever pivoted at O to raise the load

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(a) State one property of liquid X

(b) Determine the distance x indicated on the press if force on piston B is 100N
19. A mercury –in-glass barometer shows a height of 70cm. What height would be shown in the
barometer at the same place if water density 1.0 x 103kg/m3 is used.
(Density of mercury = 13600kgm-3)
20. The total weight of a car with passengers is 25,000N. The area of contact of each of the four
tyres with the ground is 0.025m2. Determine the minimum car tyre pressure
21. (a) The diagram below represents a u-shaped glass tube sealed at one end and containing mercury
(i) What is the pressure of the gas as shown in the diagram above?
(ii) Explain why the gas should be dry if it is to be used to verify a gas law
(iii) Describe how the arrangement can be used to verify Boyle’s law.
(b) Use the kinetic theory of gases to explain why;
(i) the pressure of a gas increases with temperature increase
(ii) The pressure of a gas decreases as volume increases
22. The reading on a mercury barometer at Mombasa is 760mm. Calculate the pressure at Mombasa
(density mercury is 1.36xl04Kgm-3 )
23. The figure below is a manometer containing water. Air is blown across the month of one tube
and the levels of the water changes as the figure below.
Explain why the level of water in the right limb of manometer is higher.
CURRENT I
1. (a) Distinguish between natural and forced convection currents
(b) Draw the cross-section of a basic solar heating panel that uses heat from the sun to warm
water which flows through pipes
(b) Explain the following as regards to the solar heater:-
(i) Why the pipe is made of copper
(ii) How the green house effect occurs and aids the working of the panel
2. State two advantages of generating an alternating current (a.c) to direct current (d.c) in a
power station.
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3. The table below shows results obtained in an experiment to determine the internal resistance
of a cell
V(V) .4 .5 .6 .7 08 .3
R( ) .45 .65 .80 .05 .40 .4
/ (V-1)
/ ( -1)
i. Complete the table for values of 1/V and 1/R giving your answers to 3 d.p
ii. Plot a graph of 1/V against 1/R
iii. Use the graph to determine the e.m.f E and the internal resistance r of the cell given that
E=r 1
V R (4mks)
PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

1. (a) State the kinetic theory of matter
(b) State two reasons why gas particles diffuse faster than solid particles
(c) You are provided with a long glass-tube, fitting corks, cotton wool, concentrated solution
hydrochloric acid and concentrated ammonia solution.
(i) Draw a possible set-up to compare the rates of diffusion of ammonia gas and
hydrochloric acid gas
(ii) Outline a clear procedure on how the experiment can be carried out
(iii) What are the possible observations and conclusion
2. Distinguish between gases and liquids in terms of inter molecule forces.
3. What is the experimental evidence that shows that molecules in gases and liquids are in a state
of motion
4. State Newton’s second law of motion.
5. Smoke particles in air when strongly illuminated were observed to describe continuous, random
haphazard movements. Explain what would be observed when the air temperature is decreased
6. State how heat transfer by radiation is reduced in a vacuum flask
7. (a) A partially filled balloon is placed in a bell jar with its open end on a thick glass plate
as shown
in figure 16. The contact between the jar and the glass plate is greased to make it air tight:
fig. 16

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State and explain what happens to the balloon when air in the ball jar is slowly evacuated
(b) Figure 17 below shows an arrangement to demonstrate diffusion through solids:-
fig. 17
Beaker
The hydrogen gas is supplied for sometimes then stopped. State and explain what is likely
to be observed when the hydrogen gas supply:-
(i) is on
(ii) is stopped
(c) The diagram fig. 18 shows a glass tube containing enclosed air by a thread of mercury 50mm
long when the tube is held in a horizontal position
Mercury thread
fig. 18
Trapped
air
(i) The tube is slowly raised in a vertical position with the open end facing up. Determine
the new length of the trapped air (tube has same area of cross-section; atmospheric
pressure = 750mmHg)
(ii) Account for the difference in the column of trapped air using kinetic theory of matter
assuming that temperature is constant.
8. Two samples of bromine vapour are allowed to diffuse separately under different conditions, one
in a vacuum and the other in air. State with reasons the conditions in which bromine will diffuse
faster
9. In terms of kinetic theory of matter, explain why evaporation causes cooling
10. (a) In an experiment to demonstrate Brownian motion, smoke was placed in air cell and observed
under a microscope. Smoke particles were observed to move randomly in the cell.
(i) Explain the observation
(ii) Give a reason for using small particles such as those of smoke in this experiment
(iii) What would be the most likely observation if the temperature in the smoke cell was
raised?
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(b) An oil drop of average diameter 0.7mm spreads out into a circular patch of diameter
75cm on the surface of water in a trough
(i) Calculate the average thickness of a molecule of oil
(ii) State two assumptions made in (i) above
11. Give a reason why gases are more compressible than liquids
12. Explain the cause of random motion of smoke particles as observed in Brownian motion
experiment using a smoke cell.
THERMAL EXPANSION
1. Figure 1 shows a beam balance made out of concrete and reinforced with steel
Use a diagram to explain the behaviour of the shape of the beam when heated up
2. (a) Sate two liquids which are used in thermometer.
(b) With a reason, state which of the two liquids in 3 (a) above is used to measure temperature in
areas where temperatures are:
. (i) below -400c (ii) 1500c
3. What do you understand by the statement ‘lower fixed point’ on a temperature scale?
4. Name two adaptations that can be made to a mercury thermometer to make it more sensitive
5. Figure 5 shows a bimetallic strip made of brass and iron. A marble is placed at end A of the
bimetallic strip as shown below:-
fig. 5
State and explain what will be observed when the bimetallic strip is strongly cooled
6. The figure below represents a bimetallic strip of metals X and Y at room temperature
The figure below shows its shape when dipped into crushed ice

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Sketch a diagram in the space given below to show the shape when the strip is heated to a
temperature above the room temperature
7. Give a reason why a concrete beam reinforced with steel does not crack when subjected to
Changes in temperature.
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION OF

LIGHT
1. State the property of light associated with formation of shadows.
(1mk)
2. The diagram shows a lamp and a piece of cardboard. The piece of cardboard has a hole in it. Light
from the lamp passes through the hole and forms a bright spot on a wall.
piece of
cardboard wall
A
B
C
hole
D
lamp E
(a) (i) Which point on the wall, A B, C, D or E, is lit up by the lamp?

1 mark
(ii) Explain why the other points on the wall are not lit up by the lamp.
1 mark
(b)A piece of clear green plastic is placed over the hole.
What is the colour of the light which shines on the wall?
1 mark
(c) The diagram shows a ray of light from a lamp hitting a mirror.

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S mirror
lamp
Which arrow, P, Q, R or S, shows the reflected ray?

1 mark
Maximum 4 marks
3. (a) The diagram shows a motorist looking into her driving mirror.
(i) Mark on the diagram: the letter 'I' to show the incident ray and the letter 'r' to show the angle of
reflection.
(2 marks)
(ii) Name the dashed line shown in the diagram.
(1 mark)
4. The diagram below shows an object X placed in front of a plane mirror. A ray of light is drawn
coming from the object X and striking the mirror at Y. After striking the mirror the ray of light is
reflected.

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(a) (i) Which of the three dots represents the correct position of the image of X? Label this dot Z.
(1)
(ii) Draw a line to represent the reflected ray at Y.(2)

(b) Mark on the diagram, for the ray XY at the mirror,
(i) The angle of incidence and label it i; (1)
(ii) The angle of reflection and label it r. (1)
(c) Is the image at Z real or virtual?
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0746-222-000 for more Educational Materials.
5. James shone a ray of light at a mirror as shown below.

incident ray
mirror
angle of incidence
angle of reflection
reflected ray
diagram 1
He measured the angle of reflection for different angles of incidence. His results are shown below.

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angle of incidence (º) 30 40 50 60 70

angle of reflection (º) 30 40 50 65 70
(a) Which angle of reflection was not measured accurately?

..................°
How can you tell this from the table?
.....................................................................................
.....................................................................................
1 mark
(b) James set up a different experiment as shown below.
glass block
incident ray
angle of incidence
angle of refraction
refracted
ray
diagram 2
He measured the angle of refraction for different angles of incidence.

His results are shown in the graph.
30
20
angle of
refraction (º)
10
0
0 20 40 60
angle of incidence (º)

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Use the graph to answer the questions below.

(i) When the angle of refraction is 20°, what is the angle of incidence?
..................°
1 mark
(ii) What conclusion could James draw from his graph? Complete the sentence below.
When light passes from air into glass, the angle of incidence is
always .......................................................... the angle of refraction.
1 mark
(c) On diagram 2, draw a line to continue the refracted ray as it leaves the glass block.
1 mark
maximum 4 marks
6. The diagram shows a plane mirror used by a dentist to see the back of a patient’s tooth.
(a) Use a ruler to draw a ray of light on the diagram to show how the dentist is able to see the tooth
labelled Z.
(3)
(b) Describe the image formed by a plane mirror.

(2)
(Total 5 marks)
It is night-time and the desk lamp is on. Light shines onto the key.

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(c) (i) Draw one ray of light on the diagram to show the light shining from the lamp onto the key.
Use a ruler.
Put an arrow on the ray to show the direction of the light. 2 marks
(ii) There is a patch of light on the wall. This light has been reflected from the key. Draw a reflected
ray of light on the diagram. Use a ruler. 1 mark
(d) There is a dark shadow on the table beside the mug. Explain how this shadow is formed.
HEAT TRANSFER
1. A glass beaker contains water. When the centre of the base of the beaker is heated, a convection
current is set up.
Which statement explains this?

A. The evaporation of water causes water molecules to rise to the surface.
B. The expansion of water molecules causes them to rise to the surface.
C. The water above the heat source rises because it becomes less dense.
D. The water at the sides sinks because it becomes less dense.
2. Two identical copper cans are filled with boiling water.
One can is insulated with wool. The temperature of the water in each can is taken every minute for
several minutes. Graphs of the results are plotted.
Which graph shows the results obtained?

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3. In a vacuum flask, which methods of heat transfer are prevented by the vacuum?
A conduction only
B convection only
C conduction and convection only
D conduction, convection, and radiation
4. The diagram shows a cooling unit in a refrigerator.
Why is the cooling unit placed at the top?

A Cold air falls and warm air is displaced upwards.
B Cold air is a bad conductor so heat is not conducted into the refrigerator.
C Cold air is a good conductor so heat is conducted out of the refrigerator.
D Cold air remains at the top and so prevents convection.
5. Two metal teapots are identical except that one is black on the outside and the other is white on the
outside, as shown below.

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The teapots each contain the same amount of hot water.

State and explain which teapot will cool down more quickly. [3] [Total3m]
6. Logs of wood are burning in a camp-fire on the ground. A person is sitting nearby.
(a) (i) State two types of energy that the burning logs possess.
(ii) State the main method of heat transfer by which energy from the fire reaches the person sitting
nearby.
[3] (b) A spark jumps out of the fire.
(i) State the name of the type of energy that the spark possesses due to its movement.
(ii) The spark lands on the person’s hand.
State which method of heat transfer causes the person to feel the spark.
(iii) The pain caused by the spark makes the person stand up.
1. State the type of energy that has increased, now that he is standing.
2. State the type of energy stored in his body that enabled him to stand.
[4]
7. The main parts of a cold store are shown in Fig. 4.1.

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(a) Explain why the cooling tubes are positioned at the top of the store.
(b) Suggest why the refrigeration unit is outside the cold store.
(c) The walls are made of thick thermally-insulating material. Why is it important to have the walls
made like this?
Even when the refrigeration unit is running continuously, there comes a time when the temperature in
the store stops falling, and remains constant. Explain why this happens.
Fig. 7.1 shows a refrigerator in which a liquid absorbs thermal energy from the cold compartment and
evaporates. As the vapour is compressed by the pump, work is done on it. The vapor condenses,
giving out thermal energy to the surroundings through the cooling fins on the back of the
refrigerator.

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(a) Explain the difference between boiling and evaporation.

Explain why the pump compresses the vapour much more than it could compress a liquid.
Explain the effect that a refrigerator has on the temperature of the air surrounding it.
The pump is rated at 220 V, 110W.
(i) Calculate the working current of the pump.
Show your working.
Calculate the working resistance of the pump.
9. Three horizontal rods are placed with one end just above a Bunsen flame. The other end of each
rod is coated with wax, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Describe how you would use the apparatus to discover which rod is the best conductor of heat.
FOR MARKING SCHEMES
CONTACT MR ISABOKE
0746222000

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[email protected]
CALL/TEXT 0746 222 000
[email protected]
THIS IS A PROPERTY OF MWALIMU

CONSULTANCY LTD.
POWERED BY MR
ISABOKE
SUCCESS

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FORM 1 PHYS Simplified Notes

Physics practicals (University of Nairobi)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

An Updated Well-Organized Detailed Learning Notes for the

A Comprehensive Summary Analysis of

Past KCSE Topical Questions Available At The End Of This Book.

Mr Isaboke 0746 222 000

Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd.

CONTACT 0746-222-000 FOR SIMILAR RESOURCES.

PHYSICS AS A SCIENCE Relationship between Physics, Other Subjects

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Examples of courses offered at university level FIRST AID MEASURES

Chapter Two 𝐌𝐄𝐀𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐄𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓 𝐈

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Factors Considered When Choosing an Instrument

The Meter rule

Measuring Curved Lengths

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2. Mark with ink the beginning and end of the

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𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 × 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 Solution

Volume of Regular – Shaped Solids

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Measurement of Volume of Liquids Solution

1. Partly fill the measuring cylinder with water and

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Method 2: Using Eureka can Example

Advantages of Electrical Balance (Top Pan Balance) Over

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 Since mass is measured in kg and volume in m 3

Examples 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴

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3) Estimate the length of the curve shown.

4) Define density and give its SI units.

This is a Property of Mwalimu

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Chapter Three 𝐅𝐎𝐑𝐂𝐄

Examples 4. Upthrust force

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𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒂 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 f) Smoothening surfaces.

Numerical Example Examples of situations in which electrostatic force acts

Advantages of Frictional Force

Disadvantages of Frictional Force

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iv) A drop of water from a burette or water tap grows

Note: Surface tension acts along the surface of a liquid so as

Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension

ii) A glass of water can be filled with water above the

Factors Affecting Surface Tension

EXERCISE  The level of mercury in capillary tubes is lower than that

of mercury in the basin. Being lowest in the narrow tube.

Definition of acceleration due to gravity (g)

b) Capillary Tubes Dipped in Mercury