Form One Physics Handbook

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FORM ONE Physics Handbook
Computer Architecture (Mount Kenya University)
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232
FORM ONE PHYSICS
HANDBOOK
[With well drawn diagrams, solved examples and questions for exercise]
(2015 Edition)
The figure below shows a

transverse section of a water
dam. Explain why engineers
prefer the design to others.

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS Page 3
Chapter 2 MEASUREMENT 1 Page 5
Chapter 3 FORCE Page 16
Chapter 4 PRESSURE Page 23
Chapter 5 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER Page 33
Chapter 6 THERMAL EXPANSION Page 37
Chapter 7 HEAT TRANSFER Page 45
Chapter 8 ELECTROSTATICS I Page 52
Chapter 9 CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS Page 56
Chapter 10 RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT AND Page 63
REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACES
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Chapter One
Physics as a Science Relationship between Physics, Other Subjects and Technology
 Physics is a branch of science 1. Physics And Geography
 Science is divided into 3 main branches:-  Accurate use of weather instruments like thermometer,
a) Physics wind vane, rain gauges etc. require physics knowledge.
b) Chemistry  Concepts like heat transfer by convection which explain the
c) Biology formation of convectional rainfall and pressure variation
Definition of Physics can be best explained in physics.
 Physics is defined as the study of matter and it’s relation 2. Physics and Mathematics
to energy.  Many concepts in physics like law, effects, principles etc.
 It involves explaining phenomena such as: are expressed mathematically.
I. Eclipse  Mathematical skills are therefore very instrumental in the
II. Lightning leaning of physics
III. Rainbow 3. Physics and Chemistry
IV. Mirage  Physics has helped in explaining the nature of particles
within atoms and therefore atomic structure of substances.
Physics explains how and why behind:-  Atomic structure of different / various substances
a) The falling of bodies towards the ground, determine their reactivity (chemical reactions).
b) Rising up of liquids through a drinking straw, 4. Physics and History
c) Seasonal occurrence of tides,  Historians use carbon dating to establish ages of fossils and
d) A plastic pen rubbed against dry fur or hair picks therefore past patterns of earlier life.
small pieces of paper,  This concept of carbon dating is explained better in atomic
e) A crackling sound is heard when a nylon cloth is physics.
removed etc. 5. Physics and Home Science
Study of Physics  Physics knowledge is used in designing and manufacture of
The study of physics entails: kitchen equipment e.g. electric cookers, microwave ovens,
i. Measurements of quantities and collection of data. energy saving jikos etc.
ii. Drawing and testing of hypotheses through 6. Physics and Technology
experiments and observation.  Machines used in the field of medicine such as x-rays, body
iii. Establishment of laws and principles scanners and lasers are all applications of physics.
Branches of Physics  Manufacture and use of satellites and microwave dishes
1. Mechanism used in information technology to relay information is
 It deals with the study of motion of bodies under the based on physics knowledge
influence of force. Type of motion include, linear, circular  Physics knowledge is also used in defense industry in the
and oscillatory motion. manufacture and use of most modern and complex
2. Electricity and magnetism machines.
 It deals with relationship between electric currents field 7. Physics and Biology
and magnetic field and their extensive applications in the  Knowledge of lenses studied in physics has led to the
working of electric motor, microphones, electro-magnets manufacture of microscopes used in the study of the cell
etc. and diseases.
3. Thermodynamics
 It deals with the transformation of heat to and from Career Opportunities in Physics
other forms of energy and the accompanying changes in  A career refers to a job or a profession that one has been
pressure, volume etc. trained for and intends to do for a long period of time e.g.
4. Geometric optics teaching career, medicine, engineering, electrical
 It deals with the behavior of light as it passes through technician etc.
various media.  A course refers to lessons in particular subject
 Properties of light like reflection, refraction etc. are  An occupation refers to a job or a profession.
studied in this branch of physics.
5. Waves
 It deals with propagation of energy through space and

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effects such as reflection, diffraction of light and sound

waves.
6. Atomic physics
 It is deals with the study of the behavior of particles
constituting the nucleus (centre) of the atom and their
accompanying energy changes.
Examples of courses offered at university level (degrees) First Aid Measures

that require physics knowledge Accident Possible Cause of First Aid Measures
(a) Bachelor of education (science) the Accident
(b) Bachelor of Science (civil engineering) Cuts  Poor handling  Seek assistance to
(c) Bachelor of medicine of glass stop bleeding
(d) Bachelor of architecture apparatus  Immediate dressing
(e) Bachelor of technology (production engineering) and cutting of the wound
tools i.e.
Examples of courses offered at college level that require scalpels and
physics knowledge razors
(a) Diploma in civil engineering burns  Naked flames  In case of a burn
(b) Diploma in computer science  Splashes of caused by an acid or
(c) Diploma in water technology concentrated a base, quickly run
(d) Diploma in laboratory technology acids and cold water over the
bases affected part as you
The Laboratory seek for further
 A laboratory is a special room designed and equipped treatment
conducting experiments and practical. Poisonin  Inhaling  Seeking immediate
g poisonous assistance
Major Components of the Laboratory fumes
i. Gas piping system  Accidental
ii. Electrical energy supply network swallowing of
iii. Water system poisonous
iv. Various apparatus and chemicals. chemicals
Eye  Bits of solids  In case of irritating
Basic Laboratory Rules damage  Dangerous chemicals wash
 For safety purposes, the following laboratory rules must chemicals your eyes with a lot
be followed and observed while in the laboratory: of clean water.
1. Locations of electrical switches, firefighting equipment, Electrical  Touching  Put off the main
first aid kit, gas supply and water supply systems must be shock exposed switch first before
noted. (naked) wires treating the shock
2. Windows and doors should be kept open while working  Using faulty
in the laboratory. electrical
3. Any instructions given must be followed carefully. NEVER appliances
attempt anything while in doubt. Revision Exercise
4. There should no eating, drinking or chewing in the
1) Name 3 branches of science subject in
laboratory.
secondary schools
5. Ensure that all electrical switches, gas and water taps are
turned off when not in use. 2) Explain the steps involved in scientific
6. When handling electrical apparatus, hands must be dry. approach.
7. Never plug in foreign materials into electrical sockets. 3) Name and briefly explain the branches
8. Shirts and blouses must be tucked in and long hair tied of physics
up. 4) Give instances where physics
9. Keep floors and working surfaces dry. Any spillage should interdependent with agriculture.
be wiped off immediately. 5) Group the following form 1 physics

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10. All apparatus must be cleaned and returned to correct topics into the various branches of
location of storage after use. physics.
11. Laboratory equipment should not be taken out of Topic Branch of physics
laboratory unless authorized. 1 Measurement I
12. Any waste after an experiment must be disposed of 2 Force
immediately. 3 Pressure
13. Hands must be washed before leaving the laboratory 4 Particulate nature of matter
5 Rectilinear propagation of
light and reflection at plane
surfaces
6 Thermal expansion
7 Heat transfer
8 Electrostatics
9 Simple cells and electric circuits

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d)
Chapter Two
Introduction 3. Complete the table below
 Measurement refers to the process of finding the size of a Basic quantity SI Symbol of unit Derived
unit quantity
physical quantity.
Length
 Scientists all over the world have one international system Mass
of units i.e. systeme internationale de unites (SI units) for Electric current
physical quantities. Thermodynamic
temperature
Luminous intensity
Reasons for Establishing SI Units
Amount of substance
1. To have international uniformity among scientists. 4. Why is it necessary to establish SI units?
2. To avoid confusion among scientists.
LENGTH
Types of Physical Quantities  It is the measure of distance between two points. Examples
i. Basic Physical Quantities (Fundamental Physical of length are:
Quantities)  breadth
 diameter
 These are quantities that cannot be obtained from other
 height
physical quantities.  Depth etc.
 There are seven in number according to the international Multiples and Sub-multiples of the metre
system of units (SI units). 
Basic physical quantity SI unit Symbol of 
the SI unit 
Length metre m 
Mass Kilogram kg 
Time Second s 
Electric currents ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin K Exercise 2.2
temperature Convert the following into SI units
Luminous intensity Candela Cd a) 1000km (answer: 1 000 000 m)
Amount of substance Mole mol b) 0.00025 mm (answer: 0.00000025 m)
c) 0.01Hm (answer: 1 m)
d) 25 mm (answer: 0.025 m)
i. Derived Physical Quantities e) 25 µm (answer: 0.000025 m)
 These are quantities obtained by multiplication or division
of other physical quantities e.g. area, volume, work, Measurement of Length
density, momentum etc. There are two methods that can be used in measurement of
length:
Exercise 2.1 1. Measurement by estimation.

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1. Identify the mistake(s) in the following SI units and hence write 2. Accurate measurement using a suitable measuring
them correctly. instrument.
(a) Amperes(a) Examples of instruments used in measuring length
(b) Candela(cand) I. Meter rule and half-meter rule.
(c) Metres(M)
II. Tape measure used to measure relatively long lengths e.g.
(d) Kalvin
(e) Seconds length of a soccer field.
(f) Kilograms III. Vernier calipers – used to measure short lengths e.g.
(g) Pascals thickness of a textbook or diameter of as measuring
(h) newtons cylinder.
2. There are two types of physical quantities: basic and derived IV. Micrometer screw gauge – used to measure very short
quantities, state the difference between the two. lengths e.g. diameter of a wire.

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Factors Considered When Choosing an Instrument for

Measuring Lengths
1. Size of the object to be measured.
2. Level of accuracy required.
The Meter rule

 Meter rules and a half– meter rules are graduated (calibrated) in
centimeter and millimeter
 The smallest division on a meter rule scale is 1mm (0.1cm
or 0.001 m). This is the accuracy of the meter rule.
Note:
I. Accuracy of a measuring instrument is the smallest value
that can be accurately obtained using the instrument. R 1 = 77. 9 cm, R 2 = 82.8 cm, R 3 = 25.5 cm, R 4 =30.0 cm, R 5 =3.4 cm, R 6
=7.0 cm
II. The measurement taken using a measuring instrument
must be expressed to the number of decimal places of Exercise
the accuracy of that instrument. For example, any Express the above readings in:
measurement taken using a meter rule should be I. Mm
expressed in whole number if in millimeter, to 1 decimal II. M
place if in centimeters and to 3 decimal places if in
meters. Precaution When Using a Meter Rule
 Care should be taken to avoid damage to the ends of meter
Procedure Followed When Using a Meter Rule rules. This is because most of them do not have a short
1. Place the meter rule in contact with the object whose allowance at the ends to cater for tear.
length is to be measured.
2. Place the end of the object against the zero cm mark of
the scale. Tape Measure
3. Position your eye perpendicularly above the scale. Types of Tape Measure
i. Tailor’s tape measure
ii. Carpenter’s tape measure
iii. Surveyor’s tape measure etc.
Note: The choice of tape measure depends on the nature and
length of distance to be measured.
Precaution When Using Tape Measure
 Ensure it is taut (very straight) during use.
Measuring Curved Surfaces

 To measure curved lengths such as rails and roads on maps,
Sources of Error When Using a Meter Rule
a thread is placed along the required length. The length is
 When using a meter rule, an error may arise when:
then found by placing the thread on a millimeter scale.
I. the rule is not in contact with the object,
 For curved surfaces like a cylinder, a thread is closely
II. the end of the object is not aligned to the zero mark of
wrapped around the surface a number of times.
the meter rule scale,
III. the position of the eye is not perpendicular to the scale.
Experiment 2.1
Aim/ Objective
 NB: The error that occurs when the position of the eye is
To measure the circumference of a measuring cylinder using a
not perpendicular to the scale is called parallax error.
thread
Apparatus
i. 10 ml measuring cylinder
ii. Thread
iii. Meter rule
Example
What are the readings indicated by arrows R 1 ,R2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 and R 6
Procedure
below. 1. Closely wrap a thin thread ten times around the cylinder as
shown below.
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2. Mark with ink the beginning and end of the turns.

3. Remove the thread.
4. Measure the length between the ink marks and call it.
5. Repeat two times, recording readings as and so as to
ensure accuracy of your measurements.
6. Find the average length as .
Results and Calculations
 Average length of 10 turns, Results and Calculations
 Circumference of the cylinder =  Height of the tree is estimated using the expression:
 Diameter of the cylinder (D) is obtained as:
Example
In an experiment to estimate the height of a tree in Nyabururu Girls’
Secondary School compound, Grace recorded the following data.
Exercise I. Length of shadow of the tree= 1000cm
II. Length of shadow of the rod = 200cm
Theoretical III. Height of the rod = 100cm
1. A length 550cm of a thin thread wraps around a cylinder IV. Determine the height of the tree
exactly 25 times. Calculate the circumference and the radius of
the cylinder. (Take). Solution
2. Philip found that the perimeter of his farming plot was
approximately 500 strides. His stride was 1.1 m long. What
was the perimeter of the plot?
Experimental
1. Estimate the width of your desk by counting how many of
AREA
your palm lengths are there  Area refers to the measure of surface.
2. Describe a method you can use to estimate the thickness width  The SI unit of area is the square meter
of one sheet of paper of your book.
3. Describe a method that can be used to estimate the thickness Multiples and sub-multiples of the square metre
of a razor blade. I. 1 m2 = 1000 000 mm2
II. 1 m2 = 10 000 cm2
Estimation of Length III. 1 km2 = 1000 000 m2
Experiment 2.2 a)
Aim /objective: To estimate the height of a tree
Apparatus
 A rod of length 2 meters Exercise
1. Express the following in square centimeter
 A meter rule.
a) 0.00027 km2
Procedure b) 4.5 m2
1. Hold the rod upright and measure its length. 2. Express the following in SI units
2. Measure the length of its shadow. b) 9000 cm2
3. Measure the length of the shadow of a tree in the school c) 0.009 cm2
compound. d) 25 km2

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Measurement of Area Example

Area of Regularly –Shaped Objects Estimate the area of the irregular surface shown in the figure
 Area of irregular-shaped objects is obtained using below by counting the small squares. The area of one complete
appropriate formulae. square is 1cm2.
A. Rectangle
B. Circle Solution
o
o
o
Exercise
C. Triangle 1) Trace the outline of your palm on a graph paper and estimate the
area of the shape obtained.
2) Determine the area of the top of your desk.
3) The diameter of the bore of a capillary tube is 2.0mm. Calculate
the cross-section area of the bore in cm2(take π=3.142)
4) A sheet of paper measures 25cm by 15cm. Calculate its area in
mm2
Volume
 Volume refers to the amount of space occupied by matter.
D. Trapezium  It is a derived quantity of length.
 The SI unit of volume is the cubic meter (m3)
Multiples and Sub- Multiples of the Cubic Metre
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Area of Irregularly-Shaped Surfaces
(f)
 Area of irregularly shaped surface can be estimated by sub-
dividing the surface into small equal squares and the area Exercise
obtained as: Convert each of the following volumes to SI unit
I. 1500 000 000 cm3
II. 20.0 liters
III. 1.0 ml
IV. 9000 000 000 mm3
V. 1000 000 l
Volume of Regular – Shaped Solids

 Volume of regularly – shaped solids is obtained by
applying an appropriate formula.
1. Cuboid Examples
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Volume = cross-section area x height 1) A rim of foolscaps contains 500 papers and has a mass of 2kg. The
size is 300mm by 200mm by 50mm. find:
I. The thickness of one sheet of paper.
II. The mass of one sheet of paper.

o 500 papers = 2kg

o
2. Triangular prism III. The volume of the rim.
o
o
IV. The volume of one sheet of paper
Volume = cross-section area x length 2) A block of glass is 50cm long, 4.0cm thick and 2.5cm high.
Calculate its volume
3. cylinder
3) Find the volume of the cylindrical tin of radius 7.0cm and height
3.0cm.
4) Find the volume of a triangular prism if base = 6.0cm, height

Volume= cross section area x height =5.0cm and length =12.0cm
h
4. Sphere e.g. foot ball
5) Find the volume of a sphere whose radius is 3.0cm
6) A sphere of diameter 6.0 mm is molded into a uniform wire of

diameter 0.2mm. Calculate the length of the wire. ()
5. Cone

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Measurement of Volume of Liquids Solution

i. Using a Container with Uniform Cross- Section Area.
 The liquid is poured into the container and the height of
the liquid in the container is measured. The volume of the
liquid is calculated using the expression:
Note:
 When using a measuring vessel the reading of the volume is
taken with the eye positioned in level with the bottom of the
meniscus (for liquids which curve upwards) as in (a) or top of
the meniscus (for liquids which curve downwards) as in (b)
below.
Measuring Volume of Irregular- Shaped Solids
 The method used in this case is called displacement method
since the solid displaces some liquid when immersed.
Conditions under which displacement method works:
ii. Using a suitable volume measuring apparatus
For displacement method to work best, the solid whose volume
 The following apparatus are used to measure volume
is to be determined should:
accurately of liquids in laboratory:
(a) not be soluble in the liquid being used,
a) Pipette
(b) not react with the liquid,
b) Burette
(c) sink in the liquid and,
c) Volumetric flask
(d) not absorb the liquid.
d) Syringe
 Pipette and volumetric flask measure fixed volumes of Experiments
liquids. Aim: To measure volume of irregularly – shaped solid
 The following apparatus are used to approximately Requirements: stone, thread, measuring cylinder, water, Eureka
measure volume of liquids in laboratory: can (also called displacement or overflow can), floater and a
a) Measuring cylinders sinker.
b) Graduated beakers
c) Conical flasks Method 1: Using measuring cylinder
Procedure
The Burette
1. Partly fill the measuring cylinder with water and not the
The scale of the burette is marked such that zero cm3 mark is at
volume of the water
the top and the maximum value mark at the bottom.
2. Tie the stone with a thread and lower it gently in the
cylinder until it is fully submerged
Example 3. Note the new volume of water V2
Water level in a burette is 24 cm3. If 100 drops of water fall from the Results and calculations
burette and the average volume of one drop is 0.12 cm 3. What is the The volume of the stone can be calculated as:
final water level in the burette?

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Method 2: Using Eureka can Example

Procedure
1. Fill Eureka can with water until it overflows 1) Determine the volume of water in the cylinder shown below.
2. Wait for the water to stop coming out of the spout
3. Place a measuring cylinder under the spout
4. Tie the stone with a thread and lower it gently into water
until it is fully submerged
5. Collect the water coming out of the spout using a
measuring cylinder.
Solution:
(Remember that accuracy of the scale shown above is )
2) If a stone of volume 6cm3is inserted to sink in water in the above

cylinder what will be the new water level?
Results and calculations Solution
The volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder is the
volume of the stone.
Mass
 Mass is the quantity of matter in an object.
Method 3: Measuring volume of an irregular-shaped floater
 The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
using Eureka can
Procedure
Multiples and Submultiples of the kilogram
1. Fill the Eureka can with water until it overflows

2. Wait for the water to stop coming out of the spout 
3. Lower the sinker tied with a thread gently into the can 
4. Measure the volume V1that flows into the measuring 
cylinder 
5. Remove the sinker and tie it to the cork as you fill Eureka 1.
can again and allow it to overflow. Then place the Exercise
measuring cylinder under the spout. 2. Convert 39.6mg into kg (answer: )
6. Lower the sinker and cork tied together gently and 3. Change 50 tonnes into g (answer:
measure V2that overflows into the measuring cylinder. 4. 340 kg into tonnes (answer:
5. 20 g into kg (answer: 0.020 kg)
6. 100g into kg (answer : 0.100 kg)
Measurement of Mass
 There are three instruments that can be used used:
I. Top pan balance (electrical type)
II. Beam balance (mechanical type)
III. Lever balance (mechanical type)
Advantages of Electrical Balance (Top Pan Balance) Over the

Results and calculations
Beam Balance (Mechanical Type)
The volume of the stone can be calculated as:
1. Electrical balance is accurate.
2. It is easy to use than beam balance.

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1. The density of a substance is 15g/cm3. Express this in SI units
2. The figure alongside shows a measuring cylinder which contains

water initially at level A. When a solid of mass 11g is immersed
Density
in water the level raises to B. Determine the density of the solid.
 It is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.
 Density is denoted by a Greek letter
 Since mass is measured in kg and volume in m 3

then the SI unit of density is the kilogram
per cubic meter (kg/m3 or kgm-3)
1g/cm3= 1000kg/m3
Examples
3. Show that 1g/cm3= 1000kg/m3
Exercise
4. Determine the density in kg/m3 of a solid whose mass is 40g 1. The diagram below shows the change in volume of water in a
and whose dimensions in cm are measuring cylinder when an irregular solid is immersed in it.
Given that the mass of the solid is 56.7g determine the density of the
5. A wooden block of mass 200g is 4.0 cm wide 3.0 cm thick and solid in g/cm3 (give answer correct to 2decimal places
6.0 cm long. Calculate the density of the wooden block in kg/m 3
2. Complete the table
mass Volume density
0.012kg 20cm3 0.6glcm3
200g ….….…cm3 800kglm3
……….tonnes 125m3 ….…..glcm3

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Density Bottle
 It is a small glass bottle fitted with glass stopper (made of
ground glass) which has a hole through which excess liquid
i) Volume of the density bottle
flows out.
Precautions When Using a Density Bottle

1. The bottle should be held by the neck when wiping it. This
is to prevent it from expanding due to body warmth when ii) Mass of solid D in part b)
held by sides by using hands. iii)
2. The outside of the bottle must be wiped dry carefully.
3. There should be no air bubbles when the bottle is filled
with liquid. iv) Density of solid D
v) Volume of water in c)
vi) Mass of solid D in d).

N/B Density bottle is used measure the density of either liquid
or solid.
Examples
1. The mass of a density bottle is 20.0g when empty, 70.0gwhen
full of water and 55.0g when full of a second liquid x. Calculate
the density of the liquid (take density of water to be 1g/cm 3)
 Exercise

 A density bottle has a mass of 17.5g when empty. When full of water
 its mass is 37.5g. When full of liquid x its mass is 35 g. If the density of
 water is 1000kg/m3, find the density of liquid x.

Density of Mixtures

 A mixture is obtained by putting two or more substance
 such that they do not react with one another.
 The density of the mixture lies between the densities of its
constituent substances and depends on their proportions.
2. In an experiment to determine the density of a certain solid D,
the following readings were obtained using a density bottle
a) Mass of empty density bottle = 8g Example
b) Mass of a density bottle and solid D =96g 1. A mixture consists of 40cm3 of water and 60cm3 of liquid X. if the
c) Mass of density bottle +30g water +solid D= 132g densities of water and liquid X are 1.0g/cm 3 and 0.8g/cm3
d) Mass of density bottle +water =88 g respectively, calculate the density of the mixture.
Calculate
vii) Mass of water in density bottle in part d).
viii) Volume of water in d) (take density of water be

1000kg/m3).

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Simple Pendulum
2. A solution contains 40cm3 by volume of alcohol and 60cm3  It is a device that can be used to determine time intervals.
water. If the density of the alcohol is 0.79g/cm 3 and water is
1.0g/cm3. Calculate the density of the solution.  It makes oscillations when displaced slightly.
 An oscillation is a complete to and fro motion.
Experiment
Aim: To determine time taken to complete given oscillations
Apparatus: Pendulum bob, thread, stop watch, clamp, boss and
retort stand.
Procedure
i) Set your apparatus as shown below.
Time
 Time is the measure of duration of an event.
 SI unit is the second (s).
Multiples and submultiples of second





 i) Slightly displace the bob and determine the time taken
 to make 3 oscillations
ii) Repeat the procedure for the following number of
Measurement of Time
oscillations and fill the table below.
 Time is measured using either the stop watch or a stop
clock depending on level of accuracy required. No. of oscillations Time (s) Time for 1
oscillation, T (s)
Advantages of Stop Watch Over Stop Clock 2
1.) Stop watch is easy to handle and read than stop clock. 4
2.) It is more accurate than stop clock. 6
8
Example Calculations
Express the time shown on the stop watch screen below in SI. Time for 1 oscillation can be calculated as:
Revision Exercise

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1) Identify the mistake in the following SI units
and hence write them correctly.
(a) Amperes(a)
(b) Candela(cand)
(c) Metres(M)
(d) Kalvin
(e) Seconds
(f) Kilograms
(g) Pascals
(h) newtons
2) convert the following into derived SI units
(a) 0.01cm
(b) 100cm2
(c) 20days
(d) 3.625g
(e) 324tonnes
(f) 5dm3
(g) 400ml
3) Estimate the length of the curve shown.
4) Define density and give its SI units.
5) A burette shows a liquid level as 20cm 3. Ten

drops of the same liquid each of volume
0.5cm3 are added. Calculate the new liquid
level.
6) An empty density bottle has a mass of 15g.
When full of alcohol of density 0.8g/cm3, its If the initial reading was at 0cm mark, determine
mass is 47g. Calculate:- the volume of one drop.
i) The volume of the bottle.
ii) Its mass when full of water.
iii) It mass when full of mercury of density
13.6g/cm3.
7) A measuring cylinder contains 8 cm3 of water.
A small piece of brass of mass 24g is lowered
carefully into a measuring cylinder so that it is
carefully submerged, if the density of the brass
is 8g/cm3, what is the new reading of the level
of water in the cylinder in m3.
8) A Eureka can of mass 60g and cross sectional
area of 60cm2 is filled with water of density
1g/cm3. Apiece of steel of mass 20g and
density 8g/cm3 is lowered carefully into the
can as shown
.
Calculate;
a) The total mass of water and the Eureka
can before the metal was lowered.
b) The volume of water that over flowered.

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c) The final mass of the eureka can and its
contents
d) In finding the density of liquid, why is
the method of using density bottle more
accurate than the one of using a
measuring cylinder.
9) 25cm3 of a liquid x of density 1.2g/cm 3 is mixed
with liquid of volume 30 cm 3 and 0.9g/cm3
without change in volume. Calculate the
density of the mixture.
10) The mass of an empty density bottle is 25.0g.

Its mass when filled with water is 50.0g and
when filled formalin its mass is 60.0g.
Calculate.
a) Mass of water
b) Volume of water.
c) Volume of bottle.
d) Mass of formalin.
e) Volume of formalin.
f) Density of formalin.
11) A butcher has a beam balance and masses 0.5

kg and 2 kg. How would he measure 1.5 kg of
meat on the balance at once?
12) Determine the density in kg/m3 of a solid
whose mass is 40g and whose dimensions in
cm are 30 x 4 x 3
13) Figure below shows the reading on a burette
after 55 drops of a liquid have been used.
Chapter Three
Definition of Force c) The figure below shows two objects of mass m 1and m2
 Force refers to a push or a pull that result from interaction of acted upon by a force F
bodies.
 It is that which changes the state of motion of a body.
 The SI unit of force is the newton (N).
 Force is a vector quantity i.e has both magnitude and
direction and is represented by a straight line with an arrow Identify force F
as shown below. Gravitational force
2. Centripetal Force
 This is a force which maintains a body to move in a circular
 The length of the line shows the magnitude of the force orbit or path.
while the arrow head shows the direction of the force.  It is directed towards the centre of the circular orbit /
Effects of Force track.
i. Force can make stationary object move. Examples of situations in which centripetal force acts include:
ii. It can increase speed of moving object.  Whirling a stone tied to a string.
iii. It can stop a moving object.
iv. It can decrease speed of moving object.
v. It can change shape of an object (i.e. can deform an
object).
vi. It can make an object turn about a fixed point (pivot).
This is called turning effect of force.
vii. It can change the direction of a moving object.
Exercise

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Which of the effects above can be caused by:
a) A push only?
b) A pull only?
c) A push or a pull?
Types of force
1. Gravitational Force
 It refers to the force of attraction between any two bodies
e.g. force of attraction between the earth and the moon.
 Gravitational force is a non-contact force.
Gravitational Force of the Earth  The earth revolving around the sun along it is orbit.
 It is the force of attraction on bodies toward the centre of  Centrifuge used to separate ghee from milk.
the earth.  A car moving round a circular track or road (corner).
Factors affecting gravitational force 3. Magnetic force
I. Masses of the objects - The larger the masses the stronger  Magnetic force is the force of attraction or repulsion due
the gravitational force. to a magnet.
II. Distance of separation between the two objects. The longer  It is non-contact force.
the distance of separation the weaker gravitational force.  Magnetic attraction occurs between a magnet and a
magnetic material or between unlike poles of a magnet
Examples while repulsion occurs between like poles of magnet.
a) What are non-contact forces?
 There are forces which act even if objects are not in contact with
one another.
b) Explain why a ball thrown upwards returns back to the
ground
 It is due to attraction by earth’s gravitational force
4. Upthrust force
 Upthrust is an upward force acting on objects immersed in
fluids (liquids or gases).
 Upthrust can also be defined as the apparent loss in
weight of a body immersed in a liquid or gas.
f) Smoothening surfaces.
g) Using ball bearings.
 Upthrust is a contact force. h) Air cushioning
6. Electrostatic Force
 Electrostatic force is the force of attraction or repulsion
between electrically charged bodies.
 It is non-contact force. There are two types of electrical
charges (positive and negative).
 Attraction occurs between unlike charges i.e. positive and
Examples of situations in which upthrust force acts include: negative while repulsion occurs between like charges.
 Balloons to rising
 Swimmers and boats floating
 Bodies immersed in liquids weighing less than their weight in
air.
Numerical Example
A body weighs 100 N in air and 80 N when submerged in water. Examples of situations in which electrostatic force acts
Calculate the upthrust acting on it. include:
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a) A plastic ruler or pen rubbed with piece of dry cloth or

hair attracts pieces of paper.
b) A wiped glass window rapidly attracts dust due to
5. Frictional Force charges left on them during wiping.
 This is a force that opposes motion between two surfaces c) Polished shoes rapidly attract dust due to charges left on
that are in contact. them during brushing.
 Frictional force in fluids (liquid and gases) is called viscous d) A nylon cloth produces crackling sound and sticks on the
drag (viscosity). body when being removed etc.
 Frictional force is a contact force and it acts in the direction
opposite to that of motion of the body. 7. Action and Reaction Forces
 Action and reaction are two equal forces acting in opposite
directions.
 They are contact forces.
 When a block of wood is placed on a table, its weight
(action) acts on the table. The reaction of the table
(opposite force) acts on the block.
Advantages of Frictional Force
Frictional force helps in:
a) Writing.
b) Braking.
c) Walking.
d) Erasing.
e) Lighting a match stick etc
Disadvantages of Frictional Force

a) Causes wear and tear.
b) Hinders motion.
c) Produces unwanted heat.
d) Produces unwanted sound. 8. Nuclear Force
Methods of Reducing Frictional Force  This is a force that binds protons and neutrons in atomic
i) Oiling and greasing. nuclei.
j) Using rollers.  Nuclear force is a contact force.
k) Streamlining bodies.

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9. Tension Force iii) Bristles of a brush spread in water but cling together
 It is a force which acts on stretched bodies. when the brush is retrieved out of water. The clinging
 Tension is as a result of two opposing forces applied one at together of bristles is due to surface tension of water
each end of a body. on the surface of bristles.
 It is a contact force.
iv) A drop of water from a burette or water tap grows

and stretches out before it falls off due to surface
tension on the surface of the drop.
Note: Surface tension acts along the surface of a liquid so as to

reduce surface area. This can be illustrated by the following
observations:
i) When bubble of soap is blown to the wide end of the
10. Surface Tension funnel and the left with the upper end, the bubble
 Surface tension is defined as the force per unit length in the recedes slowly until it flattens to a film. It therefore
plane of a liquid surface acting at right angles on either side makes its surface as small as possible.
of an imaginary line drawn in that surface.
Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension

 A molecule deep in the liquid is surrounded by liquid on all
sides so that the net force on it is zero. A molecule on the
surface has fewer molecules on the vapour side and
therefore will experience a resultant inward force, causing
the surface of the liquid to be in tension.
ii) When a film of a soap contained in a wire loop is
Examples of situations in which surface tension force acts punctured or pierced at point X as shown below, the
include: remaining part of the film acquires a minimum area.
i) A steel razor blade or needle floats when carefully The thread is therefore pulled from one side making a
placed on water although steel is denser than water. perfect curve. This is because of forces of surface
tension from one side only.
ii) A glass of water can be filled with water above the brim
without water pouring out. This is due to surface tension
on the surface of water. Factors Affecting Surface Tension
i) Impurities
 Impurities reduce surface tension of a liquid. Soap
(detergent) weakens the cohesive forces between surface
liquid molecules and therefore reducing surface tension.
ii) Temperature
 Temperature reduces surface tension of the liquid because
it weakens cohesive force of attraction between liquid
molecules.

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Exercise  The level of mercury in capillary tubes is lower than that of
Explain the following observations: mercury in the basin. Being lowest in the narrow tube.
a) A steel needle placed carefully on the surface of water does not  In both capillary tubes mercury curves downwards at the
sink. edge (does not wet glass). This is due to stronger cohesive
b) When a small drop of detergents is placed on water, the floating
force between mercury molecules than adhesive forces
needle moves rapidly away from it and sinks when more
detergent is added
between mercury and glass molecules.
c) A match stick wrapped at one end with soap starts moving  The downward curve is called convex meniscus
immediately in one direction when placed on the surface of
water. Water on Clean and Waxed glass surfaces
11. Adhesion (adhesive force)
 Adhesion refers to the force of attraction between molecules
of different kind e.g. force of attraction between water and
glass molecules.  When water is dropped on a clean piece of glass, it
Examples of situations in which adhesive force acts include: spreads because adhesive forces between glass and water
1) Liquid wetting glass. molecules are stronger than cohesive forces between
2) Paint sticking on wall. water molecules.
3) Ink sticking on paper.  When water is dropped on waxed glass surface, it rolls into
4) Chalk mark sticking on the board. small droplets. This is because waxing reduces adhesive
force between water and glass molecules. Cohesive force
12. Cohesion (Cohesive Force) becomes greater than adhesive force.
 Cohesion refers to the force of attraction between molecules
of same kind e.g. force of attraction between water Mass and Weight
molecules.  Mass is defined as the quantity of matter in a body.
Some Effects of Adhesive and Cohesive Forces  Weight is the gravitational pull on a body. It is a force and
a) Capillary Tubes Dipped in Water therefore its SI unit is Newton (N).
 The direction of action of weight on earth is towards the
centre of the earth
Relationship between Mass and Weight
 Mass and weight are related as follows:
 In both capillary tubes water curves upwards at the edge Definition of acceleration due to gravity (g)
(wets glass).The rise of water up the tube is due to adhesive  It is defined as the gravitational force acting on a unit mass
forces between glass and water molecules being stronger at a place.
than cohesive force of attraction between water molecules.  The SI unit of g (gravitational field strength) is the newton
 The upward curve is called concave meniscus. per kilogram (N/kg)
 Note: A graph of weight versus mass is a straight line
b) Capillary Tubes Dipped in Mercury through the origin and the slope of the graph gives
acceleration due to gravity, g i.e.

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Differences between Mass and Weight a) Time

b) Temperature
Mass weight c) Energy
d) Speed
The quantity of matter in It is the pull of gravity pull on
e) Area
a body a body
f) Volume
The SI unit kilogram SI unit is the newton
g) Length
Is same/Constant Changes/Varies from place
h) Mass
everywhere to place
i) Distance.
A scalar quantity A vector quantity
1)
2) Vector Quantity
Measured using a beam Measured using a spring
A vector quantity is one with both magnitude and direction
balance balance
e.g.
i) Weight
ii) Force
iii) Velocity
Examples
iv) Momentum
1. State a reason as to why weight of a body varies from place to v) Acceleration
place on the earth’s surface. vi) Displacement
Gravitational field strength varies from one place to another on the
 If the weight of a car is 8000 N, 8000 gives magnitude of
earth’s surface being strong at the poles and weak at the equator.
the weight, N is the SI unit and direction is towards the
2. An object weighs 1000N on earth’s surface ( centre of the earth.
a) Calculate its mass.
Resultant vector
 This is the sum of two or more vectors taking into
account the direction of the vectors.
b) If the same object weighs 160N on the moon surface, find the Example

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gravitational field strength of the moon. Find the resultant force of the forces acting on a point
3. A mass of 7.5kg has a weight of 30N on a certain planet. Calculate object shown below.
the acceleration due to gravity on this planet.
(a)
4. A man has a mass of 70kg. calculate :
a) His weight on earth where the gravitational field strength Solution
is 10N/kg.
b) His weight on moon where the gravitational field strength

is 1.7N/kg.
(b)
Scalar and Vector Quantities Solution

1) Scalar Quantity
 A scalar quantity is one with magnitude only but no
direction e.g.
Examples 11) Define the terms.

1) The figure below shows two glass tubes of different diameter a) Mass
dipped in water. b) Weight.
12) The mass of a lump of gold is constant
everywhere, but its weight is not. Explain this.
13) A man has a mass of 70kg. Calculate:
a) His weight on earth, where the
gravitational field strength is 10N/kg.
b) His weight on the moon, where the
gravitational field strength is 1.7N/kg.
Explain why h2 is greater than h1 14) A mass of 7.5kg has weight of 30N on a certain
i) Adhesive force in narrow tube is greater than adhesive force planet. Calculate the acceleration due to
in wider tube. gravity on this planet.
ii) Volume of water in both tubes is the same hence the column 15) Define the following terms, giving examples.
a) Vector quantity
of water in narrow tube h2 is greater.
b) Scalar quantity
2) Name two forces that determine the shape of liquid drop on the
16) (a) Define a resultant vector.
solid surface
(a) Find the resultant of a force of 4N and
Cohesive and adhesive forces
a force of 8N acting at the same point
3) Give a reason why weight of the body varies from place to place. on an object if:
The gravitational field strength varies from place to place. i) The force act in the same direction in the
4) A metal bin was observed to float on the surface of pure water. same straight line.
However the pin sank when a few drops of soap solution were ii) The force act in the opposite directions but
added to the water. Explain this observation. in the same straight line.
Soap solution is an impurity. When added to water, it lowers the 17) Show diagrammatically how forces of 7N and
surface tension (by dissolving) of water making the needle to sink. 9N can be combined to give a resultant to give
a resultant force of:
(a) 16N (b) 2N
Revision Exercise
1) By considering action-reaction forces, identify
why water rises up a thin capillary tube.
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contact force.
3) Sketch how a vector quantity is represented on
a diagram.
4) Define force and give SI unit.
5) Name all the forces acting on the following
bodies:
(a) A box placed on a table
(b) A mass suspended from a spring balance.
(c) A moving car negotiating a bend.
6) Define cohesive force and adhesive force.
7) Explain why a man using a parachute falls
through air slowly while a stone fall through air
very fast.
8) A spring stretches by 6cm when supporting a
load of 15N.
(b) By how much would it stretch when
supporting a load of 5kg?
(c) What load would make the spring extend
by 25mm?
9) Explain each of the following, using the
behaviour of molecules where possible:
(a) A steel needle placed carefully on the
surface of water does not sink.
(b) When a small drop of detergent is placed on
water, the needle moves rapidly away from it
and sinks when more detergent is added.
( assume that detergent does not affect the
density of water)
(c) A match –stick rubbed at one end with soap
starts moving immediately in one direction
when placed on the surface of water.
10) Define surface tension.
a) How does temperature rise and impurities
affect the surface tension of water?
b) How would the surface tension of water be
increased?
4.

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Chapter Four
Definition of Pressure
 Pressure refers to force acting perpendicularly per unit area.

 Since force is measured in newtons and area in square meter,
then the SI unit of pressure is the newton per square meter
(N/m2) or the pascal (Pa). 1 newton per square meter b)
(N/m2) = 1 pascal (Pa)
6. An object whose area of contact with the floor is 5m 2 exerts a

pressure of 900 pascal. Calculate its mass
Pressure in Solids
Force exerted by a solid resting on a surface is equal to the weight

the object. 7. Tracks which carry heavy loads have many wheels. Explain.
Many wheels increase the area of contact with the ground thereby
reducing pressure exerted on the road. This prevents damage of the
roads by tracks.
8. A block of copper of density 9g/cm3 measures 5cm by 3cm by 2cm.
Given that g is 10N/kg, determine:
Factors Affecting Pressure in Solids a) The maximum pressure
1. Weight of the solid (force)

 If the area of contact between solid and surface is constant,
pressure increases with weight.
2. Area of contact of the solid with surface.
 The smaller the area, the higher the pressure if same force is
applied. Therefore pressure can be reduced by increasing the
area of contact. b) The minimum pressure that it can exert on a horizontal
surface.
9. It is painful if one tries to lift a heavy load by a thin string.

There is a small area of contact with the fingers when a thin string
Examples is used. As a result, more pressure is generated and this is painful.

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1. A block of a soap stone of dimension 4m by 2m by 3m is 48kg and is
made to rest on a smooth horizontal surface
2. Calculate the minimum pressure it exerts on the surface.
3. Calculate the maximum pressure it will exert on the surface
Exercise 2. Density of the Liquid

 Pressure in liquids increases with density of the liquid.
1. A pick up carrying stones weighs 40,000N. The weight is evenly  Consider two identical cylinders filled with water (of density
spread across the 4 types. The area of contact of each tire with the
1000kg/m3) and glycerine (of density 1260kg/m 3)
ground is 0.05m2. Calculate the pressure exerted by each tire on the
ground.
respectively.
2. A thumb is used to push a thumb pin into a piece of wood. Explain  Pressure at point B is greater than pressure at point A
in terms of pressure why the pressure on wood is greater than the because glycerine is denser than water and therefore exerts
pressure on the thumb. more pressure than water.
3. An elephant of mass 2800kg has feet of average area of 200 cm 2. A
vulture of mass 12 kg walks beside the elephant on a muddy area,
the average area of the feet of the vulture is 2.0 cm 2. Which one is
likely to sink? Explain your answer showing any necessary
calculations.
4. A girl standing upright exerts a pressure of 15000 N/m 2 on the floor.
Given that the total area of contact of shoes and the floor is 0.02m 2.
a) Determine the mass of the girl.
b) Determine the pressure she would exert on the floor if she
stood on one foot.
5. A block of copper of density 8.9 g/cm3 measures Given that the
force of gravity is 10Nkg-1, determine:
a) The maximum pressure.
b) The minimum pressure that it can exert on a horizontal
surface. To Demonstrate Variation of Pressure with Depth of Liquids
 Consider a tall tin with holes A, B and C equally spaced on

one side along a vertical line as shown below.
Pressure in Liquids  When the tin is filled with water, the water jets out of the
holes with that from hole A thrown farthest followed by that
Factors Affecting Pressure in Liquids from hole B and lastly from hole C.
 This means that pressure of water at A is greater than
1. Depth of the Liquid pressure at B and pressure at B is greater than pressure at C.
 Pressure in liquids increases with depth. Hence, Pressure in liquids increases with depth.
 This is the reason as to why walls of a dam are thicker at the
bottom than at the top as shown below. Thick walls at the
bottom of the dam withstand high pressure due to water at
the bottom.
 Pressure increasing with depth of liquid explains why a diver at
the bottom of the sea experiences more pressure due to more
weight of water above him than a diver near the top/ surface
of the sea.
To Demonstrate Variation of Pressure with Depth and Density

of Liquids
 Consider a transparent glass vessel filled with water and a

thistle funnel connected to a u-tube filled with colored water
to some level dipped into it.

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 It is observed that the deeper the funnel goes below the

surface of water, the greater the difference in levels of water
in the two limbs of the u- tube, h. This is due to increase in
pressure with depth.
 When glycerine is used in place of water it is observed that at  The pressure p, exerted at the bottom (base) of the
the same depth the difference in levels, h is greater than when container by the weight of the liquid above it is given by:
water is used. This is because glycerin is denser than water
and therefore it is pressure at same depth is higher than that
of water.
 From the formula it is clear that pressure in fluids does not

depend on cross- section area of the container holding the
liquid.
Examples
1.) A diver working under water is 15 m below the surface of the sea.
Calculate the pressure due to water experienced by the diver (take
g=10N/kg) and density of sea water to be equal to 1.03g/cm3.
To Demonstrate that Pressure at Equal Depth, Acts Equally in All 2.) The figure below shows a liquid in a pail.
Directions
 Consider a tin with two similar holes on its side at same height
as shown alongside.
 When the tin is filled with water, it is observed that water
travels out of the holes equal horizontal distances from the
can. Therefore pressure exerted at equal depth is same in all
directions.
If the liquid has a density of 0.79 g/cm3, determine the pressure

exerted at the bottom of the pail by the liquid.
b) Suggest a reason why pail manufactures prefer the shape

shown to other shapes
Fluid Pressure Formula
To reduce the height of the pail but maintain the capacity.
 Consider a container with cross- section area, A, filled with a This reduces the pressure exerted by the liquid at the bottom
liquid of density, ρ, to the height, h, as shown alongside. of the pail.
3.) Calculate the pressure exerted by 76 mm column of mercury given

that its density is 13.6g/cm3
o

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o
o
4.) A column of glycerin 8.20m high, a column of sea water 10.08m
high, a column of mercury 0.76m high and column of fresh water
10.34 m high exert the same pressure at the bottom of a
container. Arrange these substances in decreasing order of their
densities.
Mercury, glycerine, sea water, fresh water
Pascal’s Principle (The Principle of Transmission of Pressure in  Pressure exerted on the liquid by piston, S due to force, F S, is
Liquids) PS.
 Pascal’s principle states that pressure applied at one part in a

liquid is transmitted equally to all other parts of the enlarged
liquid.  By Pascal’s principle this pressure PS is equal to pressure PL
Demonstrating Pascal’s Principle exerted by liquid on piston, L.
 Consider a liquid under pressure due to force, F, acting on the
plunger as shown below.
 Note: The holes are of equal diameter.
Examples

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1. The figure below shows two masses placed on light pistons. The
pistons are held stationary by the liquid whose density 0.8g/cm 3.
Determine the force F .
 When the plunger is pushed in, water squirts out of the holes
with equal force. This shows that pressure generated by the
piston on the water is transmitted equally to all other parts of
the liquid.
Applications of Pascal’s Principle
 Pascal’s Principle is applied in the working of the hydraulic o

machines. These machines include: o
a) Hydraulic press used to compress textile products like o
blankets for packing. o
b) Hydraulic lift used to hoist cars in garages.
c) Hydraulic brake system used for braking in cars.
2. The area of the large syringe in an experiment is 18cm 2 and that
Pressure Transmission in Hydraulic Machines of the smaller one is 3.0cm 2. A force of 2N is applied on the
smaller piston. Find the force produced on the larger piston.
 Note that pressure at same level in the liquid is the same as
seen earlier.
 Consider the hydraulic machine below consisting of a small
piston, S, and a large piston, L, of cross- section as shown
alongside.
o Properties of the Hydraulic Brake Fluid

o
(a) It should not corrode parts of the system
(b) It should be highly incompressible
(c) It should have a low freezing point and high boiling
4. The diagram below shows a u- tube filled two liquids, x and y. If the point.
density of liquid y is 1.00 g/cm3, determine the density of liquid x.
Atmospheric Pressure
 This is the pressure exerted on the earth’s surface by the

column of air around it.
To Demonstrate Existence of Atmospheric Pressure(Crushing

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Can Experiment)
 Consider a tin container with some water in it. The container

is heated for some time while open and closed after
withdrawing heating. Cold water is then poured on it
immediately.
o
o
o
o
Hydraulic Brake System
 The hydraulic brake system uses the principle of transmission

of pressure in liquids (Pascal’s principle) in its operation.
 It is observed that the container crushes inwards when cold

water is poured on it. This is because steam from boiling
water drives out the air inside the container and a partial
vacuum is created when the container is cooled. The higher
atmospheric pressure from the outside crushes the
container inwards.
Mode of Operation of Hydraulic Brake System
Example
 When a small force is applied on the brake pedal, it pushes
the piston of the master cylinder inwards. This produces a A sea diver is 18 m below the surface of sea water. If the density of sea
water is 1.03g/cm3 and g is 10N/ kg, determine the total pressure on
pressure that is equally transmitted to the pistons in the slave
him. (Take atmospheric pressure pa = 103 000N/m2).
cylinders. The pressure generates a force which pushes the
pistons of the slave cylinder outwards. The pistons then push
the brake shoes and therefore the brake lining outwards. The
brake lining touches and stops rotating wheel drum.
 The return spring returns the brake shoes into their original
position after force on brake pedal has been removed.
Measurement of Pressure 2) The diagram below show a mercury manometer. Some dry gas is
present in the closed space. If the atmospheric pressure is
1) U- Tube Monometer 105000N/m2 and density of mercury 13600kg/m3, determine
 It is used to measure gas pressure. pressure of the gas (take g=10N/kg).
 It consists of u- tube filled with suitable liquid to some level.
 Consider u-tube manometer below in which one limb is
connected to gas supply.

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o
o
o
o
o
2) Mercury Barometer
 It is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
 It employs the fact that atmospheric pressure supports a
column of liquid in a tube.
Construction of Mercury Barometer

 A and B are at the same horizontal level and therefore  It is made of a thick- walled glass tube of about 1m long
pressure at A is equal to pressure at B. sealed at one end.
 Pressure at A is due to the gas, pg while pressure at B is due to  The tube is then filled carefully with mercury to the top.
the column of liquid and atmospheric pressure.  Any bubbles of air in the tube are removed by closing the
open end and inverting the tube severally.
 The tube is then inverted into a dish filled with mercury.
 Where ρ is the density of liquid in the u- tube.  Mercury is preferred in the construction of barometer to
other liquids because its very high density.
Examples
1) The height, h of a water manometer is 20 cm when used to measure
pressure of a gas.
a) Determine the pressure due to gas, If atmospheric pressure is

103000N/m2.
o
o
o
b) What would be the height if the liquid used is glycerin of density
1.26g/cm3
o
o
o
o
Using Mercury Barometer
 The height h, of the mercury column is the measure of

atmospheric pressure.
 The column of mercury h, at sea level is 76cmHg.In SI unit it is:
 The atmospheric pressure at sea level is called one

atmosphere or standard atmospheric pressure (76cmHg or
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103360N/m2) Siphon
Examples  Siphon is used to transfer liquid from one container to

another.
1) A student in a place where the mercury barometer reads 75cm  The use of siphon to transfer liquid due to pressure
wanted to make an alcohol barometer. If alcohol has a density of
difference is called siphoning. Consider the siphoning
800 kg/m3, what is the minimum length of the tube that could be
used? arrangement shown below.
2) The barometric height in a town is 70cm mercury. Given that the

standard atmospheric pressure is 76cm mercury and the density of
mercury is 13600kg/m3, determine the altitude of the town.
(Density of air is 1.25kg/m3).
(Note: Standard pressure refers to the atmospheric pressure at sea
level).
 Pressure at A is equal to pressure at B and it is the

3) The figure below shows a person sucking water using a straw. atmospheric pressure, Pa
Explain how sucking is made possible.  Pressure at c is equal to pressure at B plus pressure due to
water column , h, i.e.
 Pressure difference between B and C (i.e. is what makes the
liquid to flow from the upper container to the lower one.
Conditions under which Siphon Works
When one sucks pressure inside the straw reduces below the atmospheric a) The tube must be filled with the liquid first. This creates a
pressure. The pressure difference causes water to go into the straw and pressure difference.
rise up to the mouth. b) There must be a difference in levels of liquid in the two
containers.
Testing the Vacuum in the Barometer
c) The end of the tube must remain below the liquid surface of
 The vacuum is tested by tilting the tube. If the tube is fully the upper container.
filled then the space is a vacuum but if the tube is not fully
Example
filled then the space is not a vacuum; it has some air
occupying it and therefore, the barometer is faulty. The figure below shows how to empty water from a large tank into a
low lying tank using rubber tubing.
2) The Bicycle Pump
 The leather washer acts as both a valve and piston inside

the pump barrel.
 When the pump handle is drawn out as shown, air in the
barrel expands and its pressure reduces below the
atmospheric pressure. Air from outside the pump then flows
a) Explain why the tube must be filled with water before the emptying past the leather washer into the barrel. At the same time,
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process starts. the higher air pressure in the tyre closes the tyre valve.
 When the pump handle is pushed in, the air is forced into the
To create pressure difference between C and D this will lead to continuous tyre through the tyre valve which now opens.
flow of water from the upper tank to the lower tank.
Note: There is an increase in temperature of the pump barrel
b) Soon after the tank begins to empty the lower end is momentarily during pumping this is because of the work done in
blocked by placing a finger at end D. compressing air.
I. Determine pressure difference between point A and D.
o 3) The Lift Pump
o
o
II. what will be the pressure experienced by the finger at point D.
(take density of water= 1000kg/m3 and pa= 100,000N/m2
o
o
o
Applications of Pressure in Liquids and Gases
1) A Syringe
 To start the pump, water is poured on top of the piston so

that good air tight seal is made round the piston and in valve
P the pump is operated by means of a lever
Upstroke
 When the plunger moves up during the upstroke, valve R
closes due to its weight and pressure of water above it. At
 When the piston is pulled upwards (during upstroke), space is the same time, air above valve expands and its pressure
created in the barrel thus lowering the pressure inside below reduces below atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
atmospheric pressure. The higher atmospheric pressure acting pressure on the water in the well below thus pushes water
on the liquid pushes the liquid into the barrel. up to past valve into the barrel.
 During a down stroke, the pressure inside increases above  The plunger is moved up and downhill the space between R
atmospheric pressure and the liquid is expelled from the and S is filled with water.
barrel. Down stroke
 During down stroke, valve S closes due to its weight and
pressure of water above it.

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Limitations of the Lift Pump Exercise on applications of pressure

 In practical, the possible height of water that can be raised by (a) The figure below shows a lift pump
this pump is less than 10m because of
i) Low atmospheric pressure in places high above
sea level,
ii) Leakage at the valves and pistons
4) The Force Pump
This pump is used to raise water to heights of more than 10m.
Explain why, when the piston is;
(b) Pulled upwards, valve A opens while valve B closes.

(c) Pushed downwards, valve A closes while valve B opens
(d) After several strokes, water rises above the piston as shown
below.
State how water is removed from the cylinder through the spout.
(e) A lift pump can lift water up to a maximum height of 10m.

determine the maximum height to which the pump can raise
Upstroke paraffin.(take density of paraffin as 800kgm -3and density of water
 During upstroke, air above the valve F expands and its as 1000kgm-3)
pressure reduces below atmospheric pressure. The (f) State one factor that determines the height to which a force pump
atmospheric pressure on water in the well pushes water up can lift water.
past valve F into the barrel. Pressure above valve G is
atmospheric. Hence, this valve does not open in this stroke.
Down stroke
 During the down stroke, the valve F closes. Increase in
pressure due to water in the barrel opens valve G and forces
water into chamber S so that as water fills the chamber, air is
trapped and compressed at the upper part. During the next
upstroke, valve G closes and the compressed air expands
ensuring a continuous flow.
Advantage of Force Pump over the lift pump
a) It enables a continuous flow of water.
b) The height to which it can raise does not depend on
atmospheric.
Factors Affecting Working of the Force Pump
a) Amount of force applied during the down stroke.
 Ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand
pressure of the column of water in chamber c.

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Revision Exercise 15. The figure below shows a hydraulic press
1. A piston whose diameter is 1.4m is pushed into a cylinder
containing a fluid, If the pressure produced in the cylinder is 4.0 x
105 pa, Calculate the force applied on the piston.
2. An octopus is resting in the ocean. If the octopus is at a depth of
47m in sea whose water has a density of 1200 kg/m 3, calculate the
pressure experienced by the octopus (Take atmospheric pressure =
1.0125 x 105 Pa)
3. Explain why if air gets in the brake system would reduce the
efficiency of the brakes. (2marks)
4. A concrete block of mass 50kg rests on the surface of the table as
shown below.
The two pistons are of areas10mm2 and 20mm2 respectively. A force of

100N is applied on the smaller piston, find the load that can be lifted
on the larger piston if:
a. The piston has negligible weight and no frictional forces exist.

What is the maximum pressure that can be exerted on the b. The pistons have negligible weight and frictional10N and 40N
bench by the block? respectively.
5. A hole of area 4.0cm² at the bottom of a tank 5m deep is closed The smaller piston has the weight 5N the larger piston has a
with a cork. Determine the force on the cork when the tank is filled weight of 10N and the frictional forces are negligible.
with water. (Take g = 10msˉ² and density of water = 1000kgmˉ³).
6. A measuring cylinder of height 25cm is filled to a height of 15cm

with water and the rest is occupied by kerosene. Determine the
pressure acting on its base (density of water = 1gcmˉ³ density of
kerosene = 0.8gcmˉ³ and atmospheric pressure = 103,000pa).
7. State one advantage of hydraulic brakes over mechanical brakes.
8. Explain why a lady wearing sharp heeled shoes is not likely to skid
on a slippery muddy road.
9. Why does atmospheric pressure decrease towards higher altitude?
10. Show that Pressure in fluids is given by P= hρg
11. Give a reason why nose bleeding is likely to occur at the top of a
mountain.
12. A block of glass of density 2.5g/cm3 has dimensions 8 cm by 10cm
by 15cm. It is placed on one of its faces on a horizontal surface.
Calculate:-
a) The weight of the block
b) The greatest pressure it can exert on the horizontal
surface.
c) The least pressure it can exert on the horizontal surface.
13. The reading of a mercury barometer is 75.58 cm at the base of a
mountain and 66.37cm at the summit. Calculate the height of the
mountain (Density of mercury = 13.6g/m 3 and density of air=
1.25kg/m3
14. In a hydraulic brake, the master piston has an area of4mm 2 and the
wheel piston each has an area of 4 cm 2. Find the forces applied to
the wheel when a force of 10N is applied on the master piston.

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Chapter Five
Introduction
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

 Matter is not continuous but it is made up of every tiny particles
hence participate nature of matter.
 Particulate nature of matter therefore refers to the existence of
matter in very tiny particles.
Experiment to demonstrate that Matter is made up of Tiny Particles
i) Use of a Piece of Paper  The chalk dust is observed to be in constant random

 A piece of paper can be cut continuously until when the small motion. This is due to the continuous collision of chalk dust
pieces cannot be cut into pieces any further. This suggests that particles with the water molecules which are in continuous
the sheet of paper is made of tiny pieces of paper. Hence matter random motion.
is made up of tiny particles.
To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Gases (The Smoke Cell
Experiment)
 Consider the set up below for the smoke cell experiment.
ii) Diluting Potassium Permanganate Solution

 The process of diluting purple potassium manganese (VII) can
continue until the solution appears colorless.
 This suggests that the particles of potassium permanganate are
spread evenly in water and each dilution process spread them
further. This is a proof that matter is made up of tiny particles
which can be separated.
 Note: The smoke is introduced into the smoke cell by
Explain why it is possible to dissolve sugar in water without any noticeable burning the straw and letting the smoke fill the smoke cell
increases in volume of water. The sugar particles occupy the small
from the other end. Smoke is used here because smoke
intermolecular spaces of water molecules. This behaviour of sugar suggests
particles are light and bright.
that matter is made up of very tiny particles.
 The converging lens is used to focus/ concentrate converge
Brownian motion the light to the smoke cell thereby illuminating the smoke.
The microscope assists the observer see the illuminated
 Brownian motion refers to the random movement of liquid and smoke particles clearly.
gas particles.  The bright specks are observed moving randomly in the
smoke cell. The bright specks are the smoke particles
To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Liquids which scatter / reflect light shining on them. They move
randomly due to continuous collision with invisible air
 Consider the set- up alongside in which chalk dust is sprinkled on particles which are in continuous random motion.
the surface of water in the beaker and the beaker covered using
a transparent lid. The behaviour of chalk dust is then observed
with the help of a hand lens as shown below.
The Kinetic Theory of Matter Example

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 The above experiments on Brownian motion constitute the Using a block diagram and correct terminology show how one state
kinetic theory of matter which states that matter is made up of of matter changes to the other when the temperature is changed.
tiny particles which are in continuous random motion. Define all terminologies used.
i) Melting- is the process by which a solid changes to a liquid

Arrangement of Particles in Matter
at fixed temperature.
ii) Evaporation - is the process by which a liquid changes to a
Solids gas at any temperature.
iii) Condensation - is the process by which a gas changes to a
 Particles are closely packed together in an organized manner liquid at fixed temperature.
and in fixed position. iv) Freezing - is the process by which a liquid changes to a
 Particles in solid do not move randomly but instead vibrate solid at fixed temperature.
about their fixed positions (vibratory motion) because of very v) Sublimation - is the process by which a solid changes to
strong intermolecular force (cohesive force).This explains why gas directly without passing the liquid state.
solids have fixed volume and definite shape. vi) Deposition - is the process by which a gas changes to
solid directly without passing the liquid state.
Diffusion
 Diffusion refers to the process by which particles spread

from region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration. Noticeable diffusion takes place in liquids
and gases due to their continuous random motion.
Liquids
Demonstrating Diffusion in Liquids
 Particles in liquids are not closely fixed as in solids but move
about randomly (Brownian motion). This is because the  Consider the set up below used to investigate diffusion in
intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than those in solids. liquids. Concentrated copper (II) sulphate (blue in colour) is
 The same reason explains why liquids have no fixed shape but carefully and slowly introduced into the beaker through a
assume the shape of the container. funnel to obtain two layers.
 The intermolecular force in liquids is stronger than in gases a
reason as to why liquids have fixed volume but gases don’t.
Gases
 Particles in gases are further apart and have an increased  After some time, it is observed that the boundary between
random motion compared to liquid particles. the two liquids disappears and a homogenous pale blue
 This is because of very weak intermolecular forces in gases mixture is obtained. This is because there is a greater rate
particles as compared to liquids and solids. The same reason of movement of water particles from the water layer to
explains why gases have no definite shape and volume. copper (II) sulphate layer. At the same time there is greater
movement of copper (II) sulphate particles from the
copper (II) sulphate layer to the water layer.
 Note: If hot liquids are used, formation of the mixture will
be faster because the particles move faster due to
increased kinetic energy.

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Demonstrating Diffusion in Gases (b) On the diagram, show the observation

(c) If the experiment was performed at a high temperature will you
 Consider the set up below used to demonstrate diffusion in expect it to take longer or shorter time to form white deposit?
gases Explain.
Shorter time. This is because an increase in temperature increases
the kinetic energy of the particles of the gases and hence
increased rate of diffusion of the gases.
Diffusion through Porous Materials
 When the cardboard is removed and the two jars pressed

together, it is observed that a homogenous pale brown mixture
forms in the two jars. This is because bromine gas spreads into
gas jar containing air at a greater rate. At the same time air
spreads into gas jar containing bromine at a greater rate.
 Note: Diffusion in gases is faster than in liquids because:
(a) Gases have low density.
(b) Gases have high kinetic energy.
(c) Gases very weak cohesive forces.
Rates of Diffusion of Gases  Initially, hydrogen gas diffuses into the porous pots at a
faster rate than air diffusing out. As a result, air bubbles
 Different gases have different rates of diffusion depending on out of water as shown in figure i).
their density or relative masses.  When the gas supply is stopped hydrogen gas diffuse out
 A gas with a higher density has heavier particles and therefore of the pot through the fine holes at a faster rate than air
its rate of diffusion is lower than the gas with lower density. gets back into the pot. This decreases the gas pressure in
the pot and as a result the higher atmospheric pressure
Example acting on the water surface in the beaker to pushes water
up the tube as in figure ii).
 In the figure below, ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gas diffuse and Note: The beaker is used to confine the hydrogen gas
react.
around the porous pot. It is obvious that air is denser than
hydrogen gas.
(a) State and explain the observation made after sometime.

 A white deposit is formed near the cotton wool soaked in concentrated in
hydrochloric acid. The ammonia gas is less dense and has light particles
thus it will diffuse faster than the hydrochloric gas which is dense.

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Revision Exercise
1. What is matter?
2. With the aid of a diagram, describe an experiment that you would use
to show that matter is made up of tiny particles.
3. During a class discussion, Emmanuel observed that Brownian motion
was only exhibited by small particles.
(a) Is this observation correct?
(b) Explain your answer in (a) above.
4. State the kinetic theory of matter.
5. Distinguish between the three states of matter in terms of the
intermolecular forces.
6. What factor determines the state of matter?
7. Explain why solids are not compressible while gases are.
8. Define Brownian motion.
9. During Brownian motion experiment, the smoke particles must be
small and light. Explain why it is necessary that the particles be light.
10. Smoke is introduced into smoke cell which is then viewed under a
microscope.
(a) What do you observe through the microscope?
(b) What conclusion can be drawn from this observation?
11. Temperature affects Brownian motion. Explain.
12. Lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on a clean water surface in a
large tray. A red hot needle is plunged into the centre of the water
surface. State and explain what is observed.
13. Define diffusion.
14. Describe an experiment to demonstrate the process of diffusion in;
(i) Liquids
(ii) Gases.
15. Name and explain the factors that affect the rate of diffusion in gases.

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Chapter Six
Definition Thermometric Liquids
 Thermal expansion refers to increase in volume of a body when  They include:

heated. a) Mercury
b) Alcohol
c) Oil of creosote
Temperature
Properties of a Good Thermometric Liquid
 Temperature is the degree (extent) of hotness or coldness of a
body on some chosen scale. a) It should not wet glass.
 Temperature is measured using a thermometer and it is a basic b) It should expand uniformly (regularly).
quantity whose SI unit is the Kelvin. c) It should be a good conductor of heat.
 Degree Celsius (0C) is another unit in which temperatures can be d) It should be visible.
measured. e) It should have high boiling point.
 Temperature is a scalar quantity. f) It should have low freezing point.
 Note: Water cannot be used as a thermometer liquid
Thermometers because:
(a) It wets glass,
 A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature. (b) It expands irregularly (anomalously),
There are many types of thermometers, each designed for a (c) It is a bad conductor of heat,
specific use. (d) It is invisible (colourless),
(e) It has a relatively high freezing point.
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer (Common Thermometer)
Comparison between Mercury and Alcohol as Thermometric
 The liquid commonly used in a liquid – in – glass thermometer is
Liquids
mercury. Alcohol can also be used.
 Note: A liquid used in thermometer is commonly known as Mercury Alcohol
thermometric liquid.
It has a high boiling point It has a low boiling point
Features of a Liquid –In – Glass Thermometer (3570C). (780C).
It has a relatively higher It has a low melting point
(a) melting point (– 390C). (-1150C).
It is a good thermal It is a poor thermal
conductor. conductor.
It expands regularly. Its expansion is slightly
irregular.
It does not wet glass. It wets glass.
A Bulb It is opaque and silvery. It is transparent and
 Contains the thermometric liquid. It is thin walled to increase therefore has to be
sensitivity of the thermometer (i.e. allow quick transfer of heat). coloured to make it visible.
(b) Capillary Bore  Notes
 It allows the liquid in the bulb to rise and fall when temperature I. Alcohol thermometer is the best for use in very cold
changes. conditions because its freezing point is very low (-115 0c)
 It has a small diameter to increase its accuracy so that a small but cannot be used in a very high temperature because
change in temperature can easily be measured. its boiling point is relatively low (78 0C).
(c) Glass Stem II. Mercury thermometers is best for use in high
 It is made up of thick glass to strengthen the thermometer and temperature because of its high boiling points (357 0c)
therefore protect the liquid inside. but cannot be used in very low temperature because it
 Thick glass also acts as a magnifying glass to magnify the liquid has a relatively high freezing point (-390c).
thread.

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Calibrating Liquid-in –Glass Thermometer 1) An uncalibrated mercury thermometer is attached to a cm scale

which reads 14 cm in pure melting ice and 30cm in steam. If it
 A thermometer has two main fixed points: reads 10 cm in freezing mixture, what is the temperature of the
I. The upper fixed point (1000c) freezing mixture?
II. The lower fixed point (0c) o
o
 The upper fixed point is marked by putting the bulb of the
o
thermometer in steam of water boiling at standard atmospheric
o
pressure of 76 cmHg. o
 The lower fixed point is marked by putting the bulb of the o
thermometer in pure melting ice.
 The range between upper fixed point and lower fixed point is
sub divided into equal divisions of 10C each. 2) A faulty thermometer reads at ice point and at steam point.
Determine the correct temperature when it reads.
The Celsius (Centigrade) and Kelvin (Thermodynamic Temperature) o
Scale o
o
 The Celsius scale has fixed points at 0 0C and 1000C while the o
Kelvin scale has fixed points at 273 K for pure melting ice and o
373 K for steam or pure boiling water at standard atmospheric o
pressure.
 Temperature on Celsius scale and Kelvin scale are related by:
Absolute Zero Temperature Exercise
 This is the lowest temperature on Kelvin scale in which the 1) A faulty mercury thermometer reads when dipped into melting
energy of the particles in a material is zero. ice and when in steam at normal atmospheric pressure. What
 Its value is zero Kelvin (-2730C). would this thermometer read when dipped into a liquid at
2) When marking the fixed points on a thermometer it is observed
that at the mercury thread is of length 2cm and 9 cm at. What
temperature would correspond to a length of 4cm?
Examples
Clinical Thermometer
4) Convert each of the following from Celsius to Kelvin
a) -200C  It is a special type of thermometer used for measuring
human body temperature whose temperature range is
b) 00C
about 350C- 430C.
c) 100C
d) -2730C
 The tube has a constriction which breaks the mercury

5) Convert each of the following from Kelvin to 0C
a) 0K thread for temperature reading to be taken.
 After the thermometer has been read the mercury is
b) 167K returned to bulb by a lightly shaking the thermometer.
 Methylated spirit is used to sterilize the thermometer after
c) 283K use.
 Note: clinical thermometer cannot be sterilized by boiling
d) 3450K water because it will break since the boiling point of water
is far above the temperature range of the thermometer.

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Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

 This thermometer records the maximum and minimum
temperature reached in a place during a specified period of
time, say a day.
Observation: When the ball is heated, it does not pass

through the ring but when it is left on the ring for
sometimes it passes through. Explanation: When heated,
the ball expands and so cannot go through the ring. When
it is left on the ring for some time the temperature of the
ball decreases and the ball contracts. At the same time the
ring absorbs some heat from the ball its temperature
increases and so it expands allowing the ball to pass
through.
2. The Bar and Gauge Experiment
Question
In the figure below, at room temperature, the bar fits into the gauge.
Mode of Operation of the Six’s Thermometer
 When temperature rises, the alcohol in bulb R expands and

pushes the mercury up the right limb of the u- tube. The
mercury pushes index Y upwards. The lower end of this index
indicates the maximum temperature reached during the
specified period.
 When temperature falls, the alcohol in bulb R contracts and
mercury is pulled back, rising up in the left limb. The index X is
therefore pushed upwards. During contraction of alcohol, the
index Y is left behind in the alcohol by the falling mercury. The
minimum temperature is read from the lower end of index X. (a) Explain what would happen when the bar is heated and you
try to fit it in the gauge.
To reset the thermometer, a magnet is used to return the steel
The bar does not fit into the gauge because it expands when
indices to the mercury surfaces. heated.
(b) Consider a case where the bar is slightly bigger than the gauge
Expansion and Contraction of Solids
at room temperature. Explain what you will do to make the
bar fit into the gauge.
 When solids are heated they expand (increase in size/ volume) Heat the gauge so that it expands and the bar will fit.
and when cooled they contract (decrease in size/ volume).
Mass of the solid does not change when it contracts or expands.
 Density of the solid increases when the body is cooled (because Comparing Expansion and Contraction of Different Metals
volume decreases) and it decreases when the body is heated
(because volume increases). Question
Experiments to Demonstrate Expansion and Contraction of Solids An experiment was set to compare the expansion of different metals
as shown below.
1. The Ball and Ring Experiment
 The ball and ring experiment apparatus are as shown in the
figure below. The ball just passes through the ring at room
temperature and pressure.

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Example
The figure below shows a bimetallic strip at a room temperature

(250C)
(a) Explain how the experiment works

o When the metal bar is heated it expands and pushes the pivoted
pointer and the reading is taken on the scale. Metal bars of the same
size made of different materials are attached to the clamp one at a
time and heated for the same length of time. The readings on the i) Draw the same bimetallic strip when at 90 0c. Explain the
scale are recorded and compared. observation.
(b) What precautions should be taken to ensure fair result
i) The metals should be of same length and diameter.
ii) The metals should be heated using same burner.
The metal should be heated for same length of time.
Linear Expansivity
When temperature increases above room temperature aluminum
 Linear expansivity is the tendency of a material to expand when expands at a faster rate than copper.
heated. Different materials have different linear expansivities
meaning that their rates of expansion or contraction are not the ii) Draw the bimetallic strip when at -25 0C. Explain the
same except a few materials. observation.
 The unit of linear expansivity is measured in per Kelvin. The
following are some examples;
Material Linear Expansivity (K-1)

Aluminum 26 x10-6
Brass 19x10-6 When temperature decreases below room temperature aluminum
Copper 16.8x10-6 contracts at a faster rate than copper.
Iron 12x10-6
Concrete 11x10-6 Applications of Expansion and Contraction of Solids
Steel 11x10-6
1) Expansion joints in Steam Pipes
The Bimetallic Strip  Pipes carrying steam are fitted with loops or expansion
joints to allow for expansion when steam is passing
 Bimetallic strip is made by riveting together two metals of through them and contraction when they are cooled.
different linear expansivities. The metal which expands at a Without the loop the force of expansion and contraction
higher rate when heated contracts faster when cooled. will cause breakage of the pipes.
 Consider a bimetallic strip made of iron and brass at room
temperature and pressure in figure (a) below. Brass has a higher
linear expansivity than iron and therefore expands at a faster
rate than iron. When the strip is heated to a temperature greater
than room temperature it bends towards iron as shown in figure
(b) and when the strip is cooled, it bends towards brass as shown
in figure (c) below.
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2. Fixing of Railway Line 5. Installation of Telephone/ Electric Wires

 Railway lines are constructed in sections with expansion gaps  They are loosely fixed to allow for contraction. Telephone
and the sections held together by fishplates. The bolt holes in or electric wires appear to be shorter and taut in the
the rails are oval to allow free expansion and contraction of rails morning. When it is hot, the wires appear longer and
as the bolts move freely in the holes. slackened.
 A modern method of allowing for expansion and contraction in
railways is to plane slant the rails so that they overlap.
6. The Bimetallic Metal Application

 One of the most common application of a bimetallic strip is
3. Fixing of Steel Bridges
in the in the thermostat. A thermostat is a device for
 In bridges made of steel girders, one end is fixed and the other
maintaining a steady temperature. The thermostat shown
end placed on rollers to allow for expansion and contraction.
below is used for controlling the temperature of an iron
box. A heater circuit is connected through the electrical
terminals.
4. Rivets
 Thick metal plates in ships and other structures are joined
together by means of rivets. A rivet is fitted when hot and then  If the iron box becomes too hot the bimetallic strip bends
hammered flat. On cooling it contracts pulling the two plates curving away from the lower contact. This breaks the
firmly together. contacts and switches off the heater. When it cools, the
bimetallic strip bends closing up the gap between the
contacts and the heater is switched on again.
 If the iron box is required to be very hot (i.e. high
temperature), the setting knob is adjusted to push the
metal K such that the contacts are tight together. For low
temperature range the adjusting knob is released so that
the position K is lowered.
 Thermostat is also used to control the temperature of
electric cookers, electric heaters for warming rooms, and
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fridges.
Expansion and Contraction of Liquids
To Demonstrate Expansion of Liquids
 Consider the flask below filled with colored water as shown

below.
Effects of Anomalous Expansion of Water
1) Support Aquatic Life in Polar Countries During Winter

 During winter water freezers into ice. Ice being less dense
than water floats on water. Since ice is a poor conductor of
heat, it insulates the water below against heat loss to air
above it.
 When the flask is heated it is observed that water in the glass

tube falls slightly and then starts rising.
 The initial fall of the water level in the tube is due to expansion
of the flask which gets heated first. The water starts expanding 2) Anomalous expansion of water leads to formation of ice
when heat finally reaches it and it rises up the tube since liquids bags which pose a great danger to ships.
expand faster than solids. 3) It causes weathering of rocks since when water trapped in
 Note: Different liquids expand differently (i.e. they have freezes; it expands thus breaking rocks into small pieces.
different rates of expansion) 4) It causes bursting of water pipes when water freezers in
 If the above experiment was repeated using alcohol and then them.
methylated spirit for the same length of time and using same
heater, it would have been noted that methylated spirit expands Expansion of Gases
most followed by alcohol and finally water.
Experiment to Demonstrate Expansion and Contraction of
Anomalous Expansion of Water Gases
 Anomalous expansion of water is defined as the unusual  Consider the set up below which can be used to
behavior of water in which it contracts when heated and demonstrate expansion and contraction of gases.
expands when cooled between 0 and 40C.
 Consider heating ice from -8 0C until it changes to water and its
temperature increases to 80C. A plot of volume verses
temperature for the water is as in figure (a) while density verses
temperature is as in figure (b) below.

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 When the flask is warmed, it is observed that the level of water 7) The figure below represents a bimetallic strip of metals X and Y
column inside the glass tube drops indicating that the air has at room temperature
expanded. When the flask is warmed further, some bubbles are
seen at the end of the tube in water as air escapes from the
flask.
 When the flask is cooled , water level is observed to rise up the
glass tube because the air inside the flask contracts to create The figure below shows its shape when dipped into crushed ice
space.
Examples
1) The figure below shows a beam balance made out of concrete and
reinforced with steel
Sketch a diagram in the space given below to show the shape when
the strip is heated to a temperature above the room temperature
Use a diagram to explain the behaviour of the shape of the beam when
heated up.
8) Give a reason why a concrete beam reinforced with steel does

not crack when subjected to Changes in temperature.
Both concrete and steel have same rates of expansion. Their
The beam expands linearly. The beam remains straight but longer than value of linear expansivity is 11x10-6K
before heating. Both concrete and steel have same rates of expansion. Their
value of linear expansivity is 11x10-6K 9) Aquatic animals and plants are observed to survive in frozen
ponds. Explain this observation.
2) State two liquids which are used in thermometer. Alcohol and Water freezes and the ice formed floats in water because its
Mercury. density is less than that of water, insulating water below it.
3) With a reason, state which of the two liquids in 3 (a) above is used to Temperatures increases down the pond because of anomalous
measure temperature in areas where temperatures are: expansion of water.
(i) Below -400C alcohol, because it has a low freezing point of –115 oC.
(ii) 1500C, mercury, because it has a high boiling point of 357 oC,
4) What do you understand by the statement ‘lower fixed point’ on a

temperature scale?
This is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard/normal
atmospheric pressure;
5) Name two adaptations that can be made to a mercury thermometer

to make it more sensitive.
Using a thin walled bulb Using a narrower capillary
tube
6) The figure below shows a bimetallic strip made of brass and iron. A
marble is placed at end A of the bimetallic strip as shown below:-
State and explain what will be observed when the bimetallic strip is
strongly cooled
On cooling, the brass contracts more than iron, hence become shorter than
iron and forms upwards curve, making the marble to roll and settle at the
centre of the curve.
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Revision Exercise Explain how rise in temperature causes the pointer to move
in the direction shown.
1. One property of a liquid that is considered while constructing a liquid 9. In the set up shown in figure below, it is observed that the level
in glass thermometer is that the liquid expands more than the glass of water initially drops before starting to rise. Explain.
for the same temperature change. State any other two properties of
the liquids that are considered.
2. Give a reason why a concrete beam reinforced with steel does not
crack when subjected to change in temperature
3. Explain why a glass container with thick walls is more likely to crack
than one with a thin wall when a very hot liquid is poured into it.
4. Figure below shows a circuit diagram for controlling the temperature
of a room.
i) State and explain the purpose of the bimetallic strip.

ii) Describe how the circuit controls the temperature when 10. Give a reason why water is not suitable liquid for use in a
the switch S is closed. thermometer.
5. Figure below shows a fire alarm circuit. 11. The temperature of water in a measuring cylinder is lowered
from about 200c to 00c. Sketch a graph of volume against
temperature assuming that water does not freeze.
12. Figure below shows a flask filled with water. The flask is fitted
with a cork through which a tube is inserted. When the flask is
cooled the water level rises slightly and then falls steadily.
Explain.
Explain how the alarm functions
6. Figure below shows a bimetallic strip at room temperature. Brass
expands more than invar when heated equally.
Sketch the bimetallic strip after being cooled several degrees

below room temperature
7. Figure below shows a bimetallic thermometer.
13. A clinical thermometer has a constriction in the bore just above

the bulb. State the use of this constriction.
14. Figure below shows an aluminum tube tightly stuck in a steel
tube.
8. Figure below shows a flat bottomed flask containing some water. It is

heated directly with a very hot flame. Explain why the flask is likely to
crack.
Explain how the two tubes can be separated by applying a

temperature change at the same junction given that
aluminum expands more than steel for the same
temperature rise.
15. In an experiment to investigate the unusual expansion of water
a fixed mass of water at 00C was heated until its temperature
reached 200C. On the axis provided, sketch a graph of density
against temperature of the water from 00c to 200C.

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Chapter Seven
Definition of Heat Good conductors Poor conductors
 Copper  Wood
 Heat is a form of energy which flows from a point of higher  Silver  Air
temperature to another point of low temperature.  Aluminium  Water
 If two bodies at the same temperature are in contact, there is no  Brass  Rubber
net heat flow from one body to another. Condition known as  Mercury  Plastic
thermal equilibrium  Iron  Glass
 Zinc  Concrete
Differences between Heat and Temperature
 Tin  Brick
 Lead .  Asbestos paper
HEAT TEMPERATURE
Form of energy that flows Degree of hotness or
Examples of conductors:-
due to temperature coldness of a body in some Example
difference. chosen scale. The figure below shows pieces of wood and iron of equal length and
The flow of heat cannot be Can be measured accurately diameter maintained in contact by a sheet of paper. A flame is then
measured precisely. using a thermometer. passed over the paper several times.
SI unit and joules (J). SI unit is Kelvin (k).
Modes of Heat Transfer

State and explain the observation made:
 There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection
The paper gets blacked on the region covering the wooden rod. This is
and radiation. because wood is a poor conductor of heat and therefore does not
conduct heat from the paper and therefore the paper burns. Iron is a
Conduction good conductor of heat and conducts heat away from the paper.
 Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred through Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity
solids as a result of vibration of particles.
 Conduction is the transfer of heat within an object without the 1. Nature of Materials
movement of the object as a whole.  Nature of material means what the material is made of.
 Consider the set up below.
Mechanisms of Heat Conduction
(a) Vibration of molecules:- when heat introduced at one end of a

solid, it increases the vibrations of the atoms of the solid at
that end. These atoms in turn collide with the neighbouring
atoms, increasing their vibrations and hence passing heat
energy along.
(b) Through free electrons:- Heat energy injected at one end of a
solid kinetic energy of the free electron and because they are
free to move, spread heat energy to the other parts of the
solid.
Classification of Materials In Terms of Conduction  It is observed that the wax attached to copper drops first
 Materials can be classified as good or poor conductors in terms followed by that on aluminum, iron lead and that of wood
of heat conduction. did not drop since wood is a poor conductor.
(a) Good Conductors Precautions

Good conductors are materials that can allow heat to pass through
them (a) Rods of same diameter to be used.
(b) Poor Conductors (b) Rods equal length to be used.
 These are materials which do not readily allow heat to pass (c) Wax of the same size to be used.
through them

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2. The Thickness/ Diameter/ Cross Section Area of the Conductor  It is observed that wax on rod B dropped first. Therefore,
 Consider the set up below; thermal conductivity increases with decrease in length of
the conductor.
Precautions
(a) Rods placed at equal distance from heat source.
 It is observed that the wax on the thicker iron rod drops first. (b) Rods of same material used.
This is because more heat flows through a thicker conductor per (c) Wax of the same size used.
unit time. (d) Rods of same thickness used.
 Therefore, conductivity of conductors increases with thickness
Lagging
of the conductor.
Precautions  Lagging refers to the covering of a good conductor of heat
(a) Equal time of exposure of the rods to heat. with an insulating material to reduce heat loss through
(b) Equal length and type of rods used. surface effects.
(c) Same size of wax used.  Consider the set up below;
(d) Rods placed at equal distances from the heat source.
3. Temperature Difference
 Consider the set ups A and B below.
 Plots of temperature variation from the hot end to the cold

end with lagging and without lagging on same axes will be
as follows;
 It is observed that wax in set up B dropped first because of

greater temperature different than in A. Therefore, heat is
transferred faster when temperature difference is greater.
Precautions
(a) The rods of equal diameter used.
(b) Rods of equal length used.
(c) Wax of same size used.
Applications of Lagging
(d) Wax placed at equal distance from one end of the rod in each
case.  Iron pipes carrying steam from boilers or steam wells are
(e) Rods of same material used. covered with thick asbestos material which is an insulator
to reduce heat loss from steam.
5. Length of the Conductor
 Consider the set up below; Thermal conductivity In Liquids

 Liquids are generally poor conductors of heat.

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To Demonstrate that Water is a Poor Conductor Applications of Good and Poor Conductors of Heat
Experiment 1 (a) Cooking utensils and boilers are made of metals that
 Consider the set up below for demonstrating that water is a conduct heat rapidly while their handles are made of
poor conductor of heat. insulators (poor conductors).
 (b) Modern buildings are made of double walls with an
insulator between the walls to minimize heat loss from the
house and therefore maintain stable temperature.
(c) Fire fighters put on suits made of asbestos which is a poor
conductor of heat to keep them safe while putting off fire.
(d) Birds flap their wings after getting wet to introduce air
pockets within their feathers this helps to minimize heat
loss from their bodies.
 After sometimes it is observed that water at the top of the tube (e) In experiments involving heating liquids in glass vessel. The
boils while the ice remained unmelted. Water is a poor vessel is placed on a wire gauge because the gauge is a
conductor of heat. Glass used for making test tube is also a poor good conductor of heat it therefore spreads the heat to a
conductor of heat. large area of the vessel.
Convection
Experiment 2
 Another experiment than can be used to show that water is a  Convection is the process by which heat is transferred
poor conductor of heat is as shown below. through fluids.
To Demonstrate Convection in Liquids
Experiment 1
 Consider the diagram below in which potassium

permanganate crystal is put at one corner in a beaker
containing water and the beaker heated at that point.
 It is observed that the wax coating on beaker containing mercury

melted while that on beaker containing water did not melt. This
is because mercury is a good conductor of heat while water is a
poor conductor heat.
Thermal Conductivity in Gases
 Gases are poor conductors of heat. The set up below can be  After sometime, it is observed that a purple coloration rises
used to support this fact. up from potassium permanganate forming a circular loop.
This is due to creation of convection currents in water.
Experiment 2
Consider the set up below
 It is observed that the match stick held within the unburnt gas
region does not get ignited because gas is a poor conductor of
heat.

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 It is observed that the purple colouration of potassium 2. Engine Cooling System

permanganate moves in the anticlockwise direction in the  Engine cooling is enhanced by both conduction and
tube. This is due to creation of convection current by heat convection processes.
whose direction is anti-clockwise
Convection in Gases
 Consider the set up shown below.
 The metal surface conducts away heat from engine. This

heats up the water setting up convection currents which
circulates as shown in the diagram.
 The hot water is pumped into the radiator which has thin
 It is observed that the smoke is sucked into the box through copper fins that conduct away heat from the water.
chimney P and exits through chimney Q. This is due to  The fins are made of copper because it is the best
convection currents which are set up when the air in the box is conductor of heat. They are painted black because a black
heated. surface is a good absorber of heat.
 Fast flowing air past fins speeds up the cooling process.
APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTION IN FLUIDS
3. Domestic Hot Water System
1. Ventilation
 Ventilation refers to the supply of fresh air to the room.
 Warm air exhaled by the occupants of the room rises and gets
out through ventilators since it is less dense. Fresh cold air flows
into the room through windows and doors. This way convection
current is set up and there is always supply of fresh air.

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 Hot water rises up because of the lowering of its density when Application of Thermal Radiation
heated.
 Cold water move down from the cold water tank to the boiler 1. Solar Heater
because it is relatively heavier.
 The expansion pipe has an outlet for excess water that could
have resulted from overheating
 The pipe that conveys the hot water and the cylinder are lagged
to minimize heat losses.
Thermal Radiation
 Thermal radiation is the process by which heat is transferred

through vacuum. In thermal radiation therefore matter is not
involved in transfer of heat
 It is through this process of radiation that radiant heat reaches
the earth’s surface from the sun.
 The higher the temperature of a body the more the amount of
thermal radiation.
Absorption and Emission of Radiant Heat
 A good absorber of radiant heat is also a good emitter of radiant

heat while a poor absorber of radiant heat is also a poor emitter
of the heat.
 Consider the set up below.
 Copper pipe is used because it is a good conductor of heat

and will conduct heat into the water inside the pipe. It is
painted black colour is a good absorber of heat.
 The glass cover allow radiant heat from the sun to pass
through and prevents the weaker energy emitted after.
 The black copper collector absorbs heat energy and
conducts it to copper pipes which transmit it to the water.
 The insulating material prevents heat from being lost from
the pipe.
 It is observed that water level in limb A rises up while that in  The copper pipe is coiled severally to increase surface area
limb B falls. This is because boiling tube B receives more heat for absorption of heat.
than boiling tube A warming the air inside it more. The air
expands and therefore pushes down the water in limb B. As a
result water level in limb A rises.

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2. Thermos Flask 6. Houses in hot areas have their walls and roofs painted
with bright colours to reflect away heat while those in cold
areas have walls and roofs painted silvery bright to reflect
as much heat as possible back to the house.
7. Kettle, cooking pans and iron boxes have polished surfaces
to reduce heat loss through thermal radiation
Revision Exercise
1. Two similar open tins with equal amounts of water at

800c were left to cool. If tin A is shiny and tin B is
blackened, sketch on the same axes the graphs of
temperature against time for the two tins.
2. The figure below shows a box with two glass tubes A and
B projecting from the top of a rectangular wooden box
 The stopper rubber pad and rubber ring pad prevent heat loss with removable glass front.
through conduction since rubber is a poor conductor of heat
 Silvered wall prevents heat loss through radiation since the
shinny surface is a poor radiator and emitter of heat.
 Vacuum prevent heat loss through conduction and convection
since the two modes of heat transfer require material medium
for transfer of heat.
 Shock absorber prevents breaking of the glass walls due to
pressure from the outside.
 Vacuum seal prevents air from reoccupying the vacuum. It is
through the vacuum seal that air was sucked out.
(i) What will be the direction of the smoke through
3. Green House Effect (Heat Trap) the box?
 Green house effect is a phenomenon in which heat is allowed to (ii) What conclusion can be made from the
pass through a transparent material but does not penetrate to observation?
the outside. This way heat accumulates in the green house (iii) Why are the ventilations for a room made high up
continuously. the roof?
 Green houses are used to provide appropriate conditions in 3. Study the set up below and use it to answer the questions
plants especially in cold areas. that follows:
4. Solar Concentrators
 Concave reflector is used to reflect radiant heat from the sun (a) What does the experiment illustrates?
into a common point (focus). Temperature at this point is very (b) What two factors should one consider when selecting
high therefore the concentrated heat can be used for purposes the rod to be used?
like heating water. (c) State the observations made in this experiment.
4. Explain the Greenhouse effect.

5. Name two examples of greenhouse gases.

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1. The diagram below shows the essential features of a solar

heating panel. A small electric pump circulates the liquid
through the pipes.
State briefly why:
i. The pipes and metal plates are blackened.

ii. There is a material fibre glass on the panel.
2. The figure below shows an electric iron.
Two metal plates A and B are riveted to form a bimetal strip as

used above.
(i) Which metal expands more
(ii) Explain how the electric iron works when the power is
on

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Chapter Eight
Introduction Exercise
 Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with static 1. Two balloons inflated with air are tied with strings and
electricity which is a non-moving electric charge on the surface held 1 metre apart. Both balloons are rubbed with fur.
of an object. Why do the balloons move apart when brought close
 A gain of electrons produces negative static charges while a together?
loss of electrons produces positive charges. 2. For each situation below state whether the force between
 All substances are made of atoms .Three kinds of sub atomic them is repulsive or attractive.
particles are:
 Protons
 Neutrons
 Electrons
 Protons have a positive charge. Electrons have a negative
charge. Neutrons do not have any charge (i.e. they are
neutral).
Types of Charges
 Positive charges
 Negative charges
 The SI unit of charge is the coulomb, C.
 A body that has neither a negative charge nor a positive a) Conductors and Insulators in Terms of
charge contains an equal number of protons and electrons  Substances which do not allow electrons to pass through
(Neutral atom). When these charges are equal in number, a them are called insulators.
body is electrically neutral.  Substances which allow electrons to pass easily through
them are called conductors. The reasons why they (metals)
Electrostatic Charges of a Material conduct easily is because within any metal some electrons
 A hard rubber rod gains millions of electrons when it is rubbed are not attached to specific atoms but are free to wander
with a wool cloth. The cloth loses electrons to the rod and about.
becomes positively charged. The rubber becomes negatively  If you were to hold a metal rod and rub it with wool would
charged. it be charged? NO However if you fit polythene handle
 When glass rod is rubbed with fur, the fur loses electrons to onto the metal rod it can be charged by rubbing it. We
the glass rod. Glass rod becomes negatively charged and fur explain this by saying that the polythene is an insulator and
becomes positively charged. will not allow electrons to move through it on along its
 A body is said to be positively charged if it has an excess of surface. When an insulator is rubbed, the electrons which
positive charges or it has lost some electrons. are transferred come from atoms on the surface. The
 A body is said to be negatively charged if it has an excess of metals become charged by electrons from the wool. But if
electrons i.e. If it has gained some electrons. the metal is directly held, these electrons immediately
 The following materials becomes negatively charged by friction ‘leak’ away to the earth through the hand on the body
when rubbed: whereas when the handle is insulated they remain on the
 Polythene metal because they cannot pass through the insulating
 Most plastics handle.
 Ebonite
 The following on the other hand becomes positively charged Charging Materials
when rubbed: The following methods are used to charge materials:
 Acetate (a) Induction
 Perspex (b) Contact
 Glass (c) Separation
 Fur
The Basic Law of Electrostatics
 It states that like charges repel while unlike charges attract.

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(a) Induction (b) Contact method

Charging polystyrene ball negatively by induction  Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with aluminium using
 Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with aluminium using dry dry silk thread.
silk thread.  Bring a charged glass rod close to but not touching the
 Bring a charged glass rod close to but not touching the suspended ball.
suspended ball.
 Bring a charged glass rod in contact with the ball, rolling it

Note: The positive charges are repelled while the negative charges over the surface.
are attracted to the rod.
 Touch the side of the ball away from the glass rod with the
finger.
 Withdraw the charged rod.
Note: Electrons flow from the earth to neutralize the positive charge
on the ball.
 While holding the glass rod near the ball, withdraw the finger
and then the glass rod.
Notes
a) When a positive rod is rolled on the ball, some of the
negative charges induced in the ball are neutralized by
some positive charges on the rod.
b) When the rod is withdrawn, the positive charges
redistribute themselves all over the surface of the rod.
c) When a body is charged by contact method, it acquires
Note: The remaining negative charges redistribute themselves charges that are similar to the ones on the charging rod.
Question: Explain how a material is charged negatively by
uniformly on the ball.
contact method
 When a body is charged by induction, it acquires the charges
that are opposite to the inducing charge.
(c) Separation Method
 Place two spheres A and B together so that they form s
Question:
single conductor.
Explain by use of diagrams how the above material can be charged
 Bring a charged polythene rod close to but not touching
positively by induction method.
sphere A.

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 Move sphere B away so as to break the contact, while holding  It consists essentially of a metal cap (brass) and rod (boast)
the charged rod in position. at which is connected a piece of very thin metal foil called
the leaf (sometimes gold foil, aluminum) supported with a
piece of insulating material (could be cork, cellulose
acetate) which forms part of a box with glass slides.
 The metal casing protects the leaf from the effect of the
draught.
 The glass window is transparent for observation.
 The rod is supported by a plug of good insulators which
stops charges given to the cap from spreading to the case
 Withdraw the charged rod and test the two spheres using a and leaking away.
negatively charged rod for the presence and type of charge in  The cap is circular to ensure uniform distribution of
each sphere. charges on it.
 Earthing-Process of losing charges to or gaining charges

from the earth through a conductor. Represented by the
symbol:
Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope by Contact

 An electroscope is charged negatively by bringing a
charged polythene strip up to the electroscope and
Exercise rubbing it along the edge of the cap. In this way electrons
When a charged rod is held close to a metal sphere placed on an are transferred from the polythene strip to the metal cap.
insulated stand, the charge distribution on the sphere is as shown These electrons are now on a conductor because of their
below. mutual repulsion immediately spread them as far as
possible.
 The metal cap, leaf and rod will therefore remain diverged.
 In damp weather, this process may be difficult. It is helped
if a razor blade is cello taped on to the cap so that it
projects over the edge. The razor edge will then be found
to gather the charge more readily than the cap alone.
 To charge an electroscope positively, a charge cellulose
acetate strip is rubbed along the edge of the cap. Electrons
(a) What is the sign of charge on the rod? are accepted from the cap to the strip which means that
(b) Describe a simple method to charge the rod. the cap and leaf gain a net positive charge.
(c) Explain why the far side of the metal sphere has a positive  The leaf therefore diverges again.
charge.
(d) What happens to the charges on the metal sphere, if the
Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope Positively by Induction
charged rod is moved away from the sphere?  Touch the cap of the electroscope with your finger to
ensure that it is fully discharged.
The Gold Leaf Electroscope  Bring a charged rod (-) close to the cap of the uncharged
electroscope.
 While the rod remains in its position, touch the cap.
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 Withdraw the finger and subsequently remove the rod.

Observations
 When the charged rod (-) is brought close to the cap, the
leaf rises.
 When the cap is touched while the rod is in position, the
leaf divergence decreases.

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 When the finger is withdrawn and the then the rod, the leaf Charge on Charge Effect on leaf
diverges. electroscope brought near divergence
Explanation the cap
 When the rod is brought close to the cap, electrons are repelled + + Increase
to the plate and the leaf making the leaf to diverge. - - Increase
 When the cap is touched, electrons flow to the earth through + - Decrease
the body. - + Decrease
 When the earth connection is broken by removing the finger +or- Uncharged Decrease
and the rod, the positive charges redistributes onto the leaf and body
the plate. The leaf as a result diverges and the electroscope
becomes positively charged.
Uses of Electroscope
1. Detecting charge Charges on Air
 Charged bodies brought near the cap will cause the leaf to Air can be charged by:
rise (diverge).  Heating
2. Measuring the insulating properties of an object  Radiations
 Charge the electroscope and bring the object to the top of Applications of Electrostatic Charges
the electroscope and earth the electroscope. The rate at  Electrostatics precipitators
which the leaf fall is the measure of the conducting ability  Finger printing
of the object.  Spray painting
3. Measurement of voltages.
 The electroscope can be used as an electrostatic voltmeter. Danger of Electrostatics
4. Measurement of ionization current caused by radioactivity  Rubbing liquid molecules can be charged. If the liquid is
 An electroscope slowly loses its charge in ionized air and the inflammable, it can spark and explode. It is advisable to
rate of charges or ionization current is the measure of the store fuels in metal cans so that any charges generated
activity of whatever caused the ionization. continually leak out. This is the reason behind the presence
of loose chain in tankers carrying inflammable liquids.
Testing for charges
a) Charge an electroscope negatively. Bring a negatively charged
polythene strip close to the cap. Notice that the leaf diverges
further.
b) Bring up a positive charge cellulose acetate strip close to the
same negatively charged electroscope. Notice that this time the
leaf collapses (decrease in divergence.)
c) Place your hand on any uncharged metal close to the charged
electroscope. Notice again that the leaf collapses.
 Note that the results in experiments ( b) and (c) were the same
hence the collapsing of the leaf is not evidence for the presence
of a charged body. We can therefore state the rule for testing a
charge as follows :
1) If the leaf of charge electroscope diverges further when a body
brought close to the cap then that body is charged.
2) The sign of the charge on the body is the same as that on the
electroscope.
 Increase in divergence is the only sure way of testing the sign of

charge on a body. Note that charging by contact is not a sure
way but induction is.

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Chapter Nine
Introduction Notes
 Electrical energy is used for lighting, Heating and operating a) A circuit that allows charges to move in a complete path
electronic devices such as T.V, computers etc. This energy is when the switch is closed is said to be a closed circuit.
carried through conductors like wires. b) A circuit that does not allow charges to move in a complete
path when the switch is closed is said to be a open (broken
Electric Current circuit)
c) For clarity and neatness, symbols are used in representing
 Electric current is the rate of flow of charge (flow of charge per an electrical circuit.
unit time). SI unit is the ampere (A)
 From the definition above,
Example
Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 360

Direction of the Flow of Electric Current
coulombs of charge flows through it in 3.5 minutes.
 Conventionally, it is from the positive terminal to the
Solution
negative terminal of the cell. It is opposite to the direction
of flow of electrons.
 The instrument for measuring electric current is called an
ammeter while electric current flow is controlled by a
variable resistor.
Device Symbol
Cell
Types of Electric Current
Battery
a) Direct current(d.c) – which flows in one direction only
Switch
b) Alternating current(a.c) – which reverses direction with a given
frequency
Bulb/filament lamp
Simple Electric Circuits
 A simple electric circuit consist of a cell, a bulb and connecting Wires crossing with
wires. no connection
Wires crossing with
connection
Fixed resistor
Potential divider

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The table below shows Cells in Parallel

some of the electrical
symbols used in drawing  Two or more cells are placed side by side, the positive
circuits. Fuse terminals joined together and the negative terminals also
Capacitor connected together.
 Current is supplied for a longer time in parallel connection
of cells.
Rheostat
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Bulbs in Series and Parallel Connection
Bubs in Parallel
Galvanometer
 Each bulb is controlled by its own switch. If one goes off,
others continue lighting.
 There’s decreased resistance as the current has many
alternative loops (complete paths) through which to flow.
Bulbs in Series
 If one bulb goes off, others also go off.

 There’s increased resistance thus the bulbs might not be as
bright as those in parallel connection.
Electromotive Force (E.m.f) and Potential Difference
 Potential difference (Pd) refers to the voltage across the

terminals of a battery in a closed circuit.
 Electromotive force (E.m.f) refers to voltage across the terminals
of a battery in an open circuit (when no current flows in the
circuit)
 Pd and E.m.f are measured in volts by an instrument called
voltmeter.
 The difference between Pd and E.m.f is known as lost voltage

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 This voltage is lost because of the opposition to the flow of

charges within the cell (internal resistance)
Connecting Cells in Series and Parallel
Cells in Series
 Two or more cells are connected such that the positive terminal
of one is joined to the negative terminal of another one.
 Two or more cells connected in series make a battery
Example Note:

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An electrician installed electric wiring in a house and connected the 1) Materials whose electrical properties fall between those of
bulbs and the switches as shown in the below.C conductors and insulators are referred to as semi-
conductors e.g. silicon and germanium.
2) Some liquids such as dilute sulphuric acid, sodium chloride
solution and potassium hydroxide conduct electricity. They
are referred to as electrolytes.
Sources of Electricity
 Main sources:
 Chemical cells
 Generators
 Solar cells
(a) Explain what happens when switch:  Others include:
(i) S1 is closed.  Thermocouples
Only bulb B1 will light;  Piezo electricity
(ii) S2 is closed.
Bulb B1 and B2 lights but with less brightness Chemical Cells
because of increase in resistance.
(iii) S3 is closed. These are cells that produce an E.m.f as a result of a chemical
Bulb B1B2 and B3 will all light but with much less brightness reaction. They are categorized into two:
compared to a (ii)
I. Primary cells
 These are cells which cannot be recharged for use again
(b) (i) Using a redrawn diagram show the best position the
e.g. simple cell.
bulbs should be installed.
Simple Cell
(ii) Explain why you consider the arrangement in (b) (i)

above to be the best.
When the bulbs are connected such that they are in parallel, the
circuit résistance is significantly reduced; and hence more current
flow, the bulb lights with equal brightness since the operation Defects of a simple cell
voltage is the same;
 Polarization – accumulation of bubbles around the copper
plate (positive plate). This defect provides insulation to the
flow of current and also sets up some “local” cells with
Conductors and Insulators
copper whose electron flow tends to oppose the flow of
 Conductors are materials that allow electric current to flow electrons from the zinc plate. The overall effect is increase
through them e.g. copper, silver, graphite and aluminium. in the internal resistance of the cell, which reduces the
 Insulators are materials that do not allow flow of electric flow of current.
current through them e.g. plastic, paper and rubber.  Local action – the zinc plate is depleted as it reacts with
dilute sulphuric acid. Impurities in zinc promote local
action.

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Ways of correcting Polarization defect: The Dry Cell
 Addition of potassium dichromate (depolarizer). Oxygen from

the depolarizer combines with the hydrogen atoms to produce
water.
 Removing copper plate and brushing off the gas bubbles.
Ways of correcting Local action defect:
 Use of pure zinc.

 Coating zinc with mercury (amalgamation).
The Leclanche’ cell
Local action and Polarization have been minimized
 It is referred to as dry cell because it has no liquid.

 The ammonium chloride solution in the Leclanche’ cell is
replaced with the ammonium chloride jelly or paste which
is used as the electrolyte.
 Manganese (IV) oxide act as the depolarizer.
 carbon powder increases the surface area of the positive
electrode (carbon Rod)
 The zinc case acting as the negative electrode gets
depleted by the ammonium chloride and changes to zinc
chloride. Local action is still a defect in this cell.
 The cell cannot be renewed once the chemical action
stops. A new dry cell has an e.m.f of about 1.5 V.
Care for the dry cell
 Large currents should not be drawn from the dry cell

within a short time.
 The terminals should not be shorted.
 The cells must be stored in dry places.
 The carbon rod (positive terminal) is surrounded with
manganese (IV) oxide mixed with carbon powder. Uses of the dry cells
 Carbon powder increases the effective area of the plates hence
reduced resistance.  Dry cells are used in torches, calculators and radios.
 The manganese (IV) oxide acts as a depolarizer (depolarization is
slow thus large currents cannot be drawn out of this cell steadily II. Secondary Cells:
for a long time).  These are rechargeable cells.
 Local action is still a defect in this cell.  They are also called storage cells as they can store
 The cell is used for purposes where current is not drawn from it electrical energy as chemical energy.
for a very long time, like operating bells and telephone boxes. It  Examples are the Lead-acid accumulator and the Nickel-
has a longer life span than the simple cell. alkaline accumulator.

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Lead – acid accumulator Maintenance of the Accumulators
 Consist of positive and negative plates which are made of lead- 1) The level of the electrolyte should be checked regularly
antimony alloy. and maintained above the plates. Topping should be done
 The plates are dipped in sulphuric acid solution which is an by distilled water; NOT ACID!
electrolyte. 2) The accumulator should be charged when the e.m.f of the
 The caps have small vent holes which allow gases to escape(0 2 cell drops below 1.8 V and when the relative density of the
and H2) acid is falls below 1.12 (using a hydrometer).
 If the density of the acid becomes too low the accumulator is 3) Large currents should not be drawn from the battery for a
said to be discharged. long time.
 It is charged by connecting a d.c source as shown below. 4) Should not be left in a discharged condition for a long
period as sulphation may take place. (the lead (II) sulphate
deposits on the plates harden up and cannot be converted
back to lead (II) oxide and lead.)
5) Shorting/ overcharging of the accumulator should be
avoided.
6) The terminals should always be kept clean and greased.
7) The accumulator should not be directly placed on the
ground during storage. It should be rested on some
insulator like a wooden block.
Alkaline Accumulators:
 This is the most reliable, long lasting and cost-effective of the  The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline solution, such as
secondary cells. A 12 V lead-acid accumulator has six cells potassium hydroxide.
connected in series.  The common types are nickel-cadnium and nickel-iron
accumulators.
Capacity of an Accumulator
 This is the amount of current that can be drawn in a given time

from the battery.
 It is expressed in ampere-hours (Ah).
Examples
1. A battery is rated 120 AH. How long will it work if it steadily

supplies a current of 4A?
Advantages of Alkaline Accumulators over Lead – Acid

Accumulators
1. Large currents can be drawn from them over a short period

2. The current capacity of an accumulator is 40Ah. Find the amount of time.
of current flowing if the accumulator is used for 600 minutes. 2. They require very little attention to maintain.
3. They are lighter (more portable) than the Lead – acid
accumulators.
4. They can be kept in a discharged condition for a very long
time before the cells are ruined.

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Disadvantages 1. You are provided with a car battery, a switch and two
headlights of a car. Draw a possible circuit diagram for
1. They are very expensive. the arrangement that will allow the driver to switch on
2. They have a lower e.m.f per cell. the two lights simultaneously.
2. (a) Draw a well-labelled diagram of a dry cell and explain
Uses of Accumulators how it works.
They are used in ships, hospitals and buildings where large currents (b) What are the defects and the remedies in the working
might be needed for emergency. of a dry cell?
Differences between primary and secondary cells (c) How are dry cells maintained?
Primary cells Secondary cells 3. Eight dry cells can be arranged to produce a total e.m.f of
Cannot be recharged after Are rechargeable 12V, just like a car battery.
use a. What is e.m.f of an individual cell?
Small current can be drawn Large current can be drawn b. Why is it possible to start the car with the lead-acid
from them from them accumulator, but not with eight dry cells in series?
4. (a) Draw two separate diagrams showing a lead-acid
accumulator when it is:
Differences between lead-acid accumulators and alkaline a) Charging
accumulators b) Discharging.
Lead acid accumulator Alkaline accumulators (b) Describe the changes that can observed during the two
Electrolyte used is Acid such The electrolyte in this case is an processes above.
as sulphuric acid solution alkaline solution, such as
potassium hydroxide. (c) Why is it dangerous to light a cigarette near a charging car
battery?
Small current can be drawn Large current can be drawn
from them for along time from them for a short time 5. (a) What do you understand by the term capacity of a
Very heavy Portable lead-acid accumulator?
Cannot left uncharged for They can be left uncharged for
(b)Why is it effective to charge a car battery over a long time
long period as sulphation long period
with a very small current rather than a big current within a
will take place
short time?
Cost effective; cheap Very expensive
Requires much maintenance Little maintenance (c) A car battery is rated 40Ah and it is expected to supply a
constant current for 120 minutes. What is the strength of
current delivered?
6. State at least five precautions that you would take to

Revision Exercise maintain accumulators in your laboratory.

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10. In terms of electrons, distinguish between good conductors, 7. State the advantage and disadvantage of lead-acid
poor conductors of electricity and insulators. accumulators over the alkaline accumulators.
11. (a) Define current and state its SI unit. 8. The figure below shows the set up for a simple cell.
(b)(i) A charge of 180 coulombs flow through a lamp every

minute. Calculate the current flowing through the lamp.
(ii) Calculate the number of electrons involved (charge

of electron is 1.6x10-19 C)
12. A battery circulates charge round a circuit for 1.5 minutes. If

the current is held at 2.5A, what quantity of charge passes the
wire?
13. Define electromotive force and distinguish it from potential
difference of a cell.
14. (a) Draw a circuit diagram of three-cell torch.
(b) What do you understand by?
(i) Open circuit?
(ii) Closed circuit?
15. Explain why lights in a house are wired in parallel and not in
series.
16. (a) Give three differences between primary and secondary
cells.
(b) In making a simple cell, the two electrodes used are
not of the same kind. Explain.

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a) Name the Electrode A and the solution B
b) State two reasons why the bulb goes off after a short time
18. State one advantage of a lead-acid accumulator over a dry cell

19. State one defect of a simple cell and explain how it can be
corrected.
20. The diagram below shows a simple cell:-
a. Name z and solution y

b. Name and explain the defect that occurs at plate z
c. Give one method of preventing the defect that occurs at
the copper plate
21. Explain why eight 1.5V cells arranged in series to give a total
of 12V cannot be used to start a car. But car battery of 12V
starts a car
22. Define the term topping as used in simple cells and circuits.
23. I) A girl opened up a used up dry cell and found the following:
a. The zinc casing was depleted
b. The cell was watery
II) Name the cell defect
III) Three identical bulbs are connected in series with a battery of

dry cells. At first the bulbs shine brightly but gradually become
dimmer. Using the same cells, explain how you would increase the
brilliance of the bulbs
24. A car battery requires topping up with distilled water

occasionally. Explain why this is necessary and why distilled
water is used
25. State one advantage of:
a. A lead-acid accumulative over a dry cell
b. A dry cell over lead-acid accumulator

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Chapter Ten
Introduction  Make a small hole in each of the three card boards

ensuring that all the holes are at the same height.
 Optics is a branch of physics which studies the behaviour of light  The lamps positioned in such a way that a ray of light
as it traverses various media. passes through all the holes.
 Optical instruments such as cameras, microscopes, periscopes  When the cardboard is displaced by moving it slightly to
and laws governing their working form a major part of this the one side, the eye will not see the lamp. This shows that
branch of physics. light travels in a straight line.
 Light is an invisible form of energy that causes sense of vision in
us through our eyes. Rays of Light and Beam of Light
 A ray is the single path along which light energy travels. or
Sources of Light is a narrow stream of light of negligible thickness while
 There are two : luminous (incandescent) and non-luminous beam of light is a collection of rays of light. Is the bundles of
 Luminous objects are those which produce their own light e.g. rays of light.
sun, candles, electric lamps, glowing worms etc. Types of beams
 Non-luminous objects are those which don’t give their own light  A beam in which rays are parallel to each other is called
but reflect light that comes from a luminous object. Examples parallel beam.
are: the moon, planets, paper, books, people etc.
 You can see an object clearly if light from it enters your eyes.
Transparent, Translucent and Opaque Objects

 Transparent objects are those which allow light to pass through
them and we see clearly through them e.g. a glass window, clear  A beam in which the rays converge at a point is called a
water, the air around you car windscreen. convergent beam.
 Opaque objects are those materials which cannot allow light to
pass through them and we can’t see through them e.g. wool,
steel, Brick wood and stone.
 Translucent bodies are those which let light pass through them
but we can’t see through them and scatter in all directions e.g.
lamp shades, frosted glass, some plastic glass panes and toilet
window etc.
Rectilinear Propagation of Light  A beam in which the rays spreads out from a point is a
 This is the property of light to travel in a straight line in a divergent beam
medium of homogeneous propagation density.
 Light does not travel around corners. The formation of shadows
shows that light travels in a straight line. When an opaque body
is placed in a beam of light, a shadow is formed.
Demonstrating Rectilinear Propagation of Light

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The Pinhole Camera
 A pin-hole camera is made using a small rectangular box with a

pin hole at one end, a large rectangular hole at one end, a large
rectangular hole at the other end.
 The rectangular hole at the back is covered with a screen of
special paper like grease proof paper which lets some light pass
through it (i.e. it is translucent). ho=object height
hi=image height
Advantage u=object distance
 It is able to form focused images on the film of objects both v=image distance from pinhole
near and far from the camera. Given that magnification is m, then
or and so =
Image Formation by a Pinhole Camera
Examples
1. A pinhole camera of length 15 cm forms an image 3cm
high of a man standing 9m in front of the camera what is
the height of the man?
2. Lamp A of height 6cm stands in front of a pinhole camera

at a distance of 24 cm. The camera screen is 8cm from the
pinhole. What is the height of the image?
The Length (Size) Of Image
 The length of the image formed depends on:
a) The distance of the object from the pinhole
b) The length of the camera box
MAGNIFICATION
 This is the ratio of the image size to the object size or the ratio
of the image distance to the object distance.
Exercise Shadow Formed by a Point Source

1. An image 100mm long of a man 2m tall is pinned on top of a
 Translucent screen to be replaced by light-tight lid with
photographic film fitted on the inside.
 Should be covered with a thin black card which acts as a shutter.
The exposure time of a pin-hole camera depends on:
 Size of the pin-hole
 Lighting conditions
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 Sensitivity of the film

 Length of the camera
Advantage of the Pinhole Camera over the Lens Camera

 The pinhole camera is preferred to the lens camera because it
does not produce distortion.
The disadvantages of using a pin hole camera:
a) It takes a long time for image to be formed since the amount of
light passing through the hole is small.
b) It cannot be used to take photographs of moving objects.
 A point source of light is one which is small enough for all
the rays of light to come effectively from a single point.
Shadows
 The shadow is uniformly and totally dark all over and is
 A shadow is a shade cast by an object blocking direct rays of
called umbra. The umbrella shape edges on the shadow
light. The formation of shadows depends on the fact that light
shows that light travels on a straight line.
travels in a straight line
The size of the shadow formed depends on:
Shadows Formed by an Extended Source of Light.
a) Size of sources of light.
b) Size of opaque object.
c) Distance between the object and source of light.
 An extended source of light is large enough for rays to be

seen to come from many points.
 The shadow is larger and has a central dark region called
umbra surrounded a ring of partial shadow called
penumbra.
Application of extended light sources

a) Lampshades are used at home to provide a more
pleasant kind of lightning.
b) Fluorescent tubes are usually surrounded by a frosted
diffuse to scatter the light & reduce shadow sharpness.
Eclipses
An eclipse is the total or partial disappearance of sun rays as
seen from the earth.
The Solar Eclipse or Eclipse of the Sun
 The ray from the source AO is called the incident ray. The
 The solar eclipse occurs when the moon comes between the ray that bounces off from the Mirror O is called the

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sun and the earth reflected ray. ON is the normal.

 The angle between incident ray and the normal is called
The Annular Eclipse of the Sun Angle of incident angle, I between the normal and the
Reflected ray is called angle of reflection.
The Laws of Reflection

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, normal and reflected ray at the point of
incidence all lie on the same plane.
Types of Reflection
 It occurs when the distance of separation between the earth a) Regular or Specular Reflection
and the moon is great. The umbra of the moon does not totally It occurs when parallel incident rays are reflected parallel to
cover the sun edge of the dark disk of the moon. each other when reflecting surface is smooth.
Lunar Eclipse or Eclipse of the Moon
b) Irregular or Diffuse Reflection

Parallel incident rays are reflected in different directions for
 The eclipse of the moon occurs when the earth comes between
the sun and the moon.
 When the lunar eclipse occurs, it lasts longer (about 1hr) than
the solar eclipse because the moon is much smaller than the
earth.
 During a total lunar eclipse some light reaches the moon due to Image Formation by a Plane Mirror.
refraction by the earth’s atmosphere& make it look a coppery  The image of an object seen in a plane mirror is formed by
colour. rays of light travelling in straight lines which are reflected
according to the laws of reflection.
REFLECTION BY PLANE MIRRORS.
 When a ray of light meets a plane mirror it is reflection.
 An ordinary mirror is made by depositing a thin layer of metal,
often silver paint at the back of the glass which acts as the
reflecting surface.
Exercise

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1. Find the number of images formed when mirrors are

inclined at 20o
2. Find the angle between two mirrors if 35 images are
formed
3. At what angle would two mirrors be inclined if the
number of images formed are (i) 17 (ii) 29?
Rotation of a Mirror
 When a mirror is rotated through an angle the reflected

ray turns through .
 Hence, the reflected ray always turns through twice the
angle through which the mirror is rotated.
From the above diagram one can see that the image formed in a Exercise
plane mirror is always:
a) Erect (Upright) 1. A mirror is rotated through an angle of 15 o through what
b) As far behind the mirror as object is in front of it. angle does the reflected ray turn?
c) Virtual. 2. A mirror is rotated through a certain angle and the
A virtual image is one: reflected ray turned through 40 o what angle had the
 which cannot be received on the screen mirror been turned?
 which is formed by the intersection of virtual rays. 3. An incident ray makes an angle of 25 o with the normal. If
c) Laterally inverted i.e. left appears on the right & vice versa the mirror is turned through 9o in the anticlockwise
d) The same size as the object. direction from the horizontal, through what angle is the
reflected ray rotated?
Image Formation in Parallel in Mirrors
Application of Plane Mirrors
(a) The Periscope
 When an object is placed between two parallel mirrors as

shown above an infinite number of images are formed.
 Each image seen in one mirror acts as a virtual object which in
turn forms an image in the other mirror.
 The image becomes fainter because light energy is absorbed by
the mirror at each successive reflection.
 The number of images formed by two mirrors inclined at an
angle is given by the formula.
 A periscope consists of a plane mirrors parallel to one
another and inclined at angle of 45o to the horizontal.
 They are used to help one see over an obstacle.

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 Periscopes in submarines use prisms instead of plane mirrors b) The length of the camera is made longer.
because. c) The single hole is replaced by four pinholes close
1. The silver part of the mirror easily gets damaged together.
2. Thick mirrors produce multiple refractions 5. Define the term reflection of light.
3. There is no lateral inversion with prisms. 6. State the Laws of reflection of light.
7. The mirror AB and CD are at right angles to each other.
(b) Use of plane mirrors in instrument scales
 Plane mirrors are often used behind pointers as instruments to
improve the reading accuracy.
 When the pointer is viewed at an angle its image will be seen
through the plane mirror.
 The image seen will enable the reader to know that reading
being taken will have an error due to parallax. The reader will
therefore position the eye vertically so that the image of the
pointer is not seen and hence a correct reading will be taken.
 The sports galvanometer uses a ray of light as a pointer instead.
(c) The kaleidoscope
 It applies the principle of mirrors inclined at an angle.
 It consists of two mirrors M1 and M2 placed to each other at 600 a) What is the value of the angle of incidence of
to each other inside a tube. the ray PQ on the mirror AB?
 The instrument is used by designers to obtain ideas on b) Complete the diagram to show the path taken
systematic patterns. by the ray PQ after reflection at both mirrors.
c) Determine:
Revision Exercise I. Angle of reflection on AB.
II. Angle incidence on CD.
1. (a) Sally went to Mary salon to have her hair dressed. The III. Angle of reflection on CD.
salon had two parallel mirrors placed on the walls which are 3 8. If a girl walks away from a plane mirror at a speed of 2m
meters apart. While waiting to be attended to, she sat at a per second,
distance of 1 meter from one of the walls and noticed that I. In what direction does her image move?
there were multiple of her in each mirror. Determine the II. With what speed does her image move?
distance between the two nearest images formed in the two
mirrors. 9. The figure below shows mirrors AB and CD inclined at
right angles. A ray PO makes an angle of 30 o with mirror
(b) Two plane mirrors are placed at an angle of 60 0 as shown AB has as shown.
below. A ray of light makes an angle of 40 0 with mirror m1 and
goes to strike mirror M2. Find the angle of reflection of Mirror M2
(i) Show the path of the ray after reflection from both
mirrors.
2. What is rectilinear propagation of light? (ii) What is the angle of incidence on the mirror CD?
3. Draw a ray diagram to show how a pinhole camera forms an
image.
4. State the changes that would occur in the size and brightness
of the image formed if
a) The object distance is made large.

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FORM ONE Physics Handbook

Computer Architecture (Mount Kenya University)

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The figure below shows a

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effects such as reflection, diffraction of light and sound

Examples of courses offered at university level (degrees) First Aid Measures

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Factors Considered When Choosing an Instrument for

The Meter rule

Measuring Curved Surfaces

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2. Mark with ink the beginning and end of the turns.

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Measurement of Area Example

Volume of Regular – Shaped Solids

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II. The mass of one sheet of paper.

IV. The volume of one sheet of paper

4) Find the volume of a triangular prism if base = 6.0cm, height

4. Sphere e.g. foot ball

5) Find the volume of a sphere whose radius is 3.0cm

6) A sphere of diameter 6.0 mm is molded into a uniform wire of

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Measurement of Volume of Liquids Solution

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Method 2: Using Eureka can Example

(Remember that accuracy of the scale shown above is )

2) If a stone of volume 6cm3is inserted to sink in water in the above

Advantages of Electrical Balance (Top Pan Balance) Over the

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1. The density of a substance is 15g/cm3. Express this in SI units

2. The figure alongside shows a measuring cylinder which contains

 Since mass is measured in kg and volume in m 3

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Precautions When Using a Density Bottle

vi) Mass of solid D in d).

viii) Volume of water in d) (take density of water be

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Multiples and sub- multiples of second

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