UNIT V POWER PLANTS

 Basic ideas about piston, turboprop and jet engines

 use of propeller and jets for thrust production and comparative merits
 principles of operation of rocket, types of rockets and typical
applications
 exploration into space.
AIRPLANE POWERPLNATS
ENGINES

AIR NON-A IR
BREATHING BREATHING /
ROCKETS

PROPELLER
APPLICA TION NUMBE R RANGE
ENERGY OF
RECIPRO CATING STAGES
(PISTON ENGINE)

CHEMICAL SOLAR NUCLEARE LE CTRICAL SPACE SINGLE SHORT

GAS TURBINE
(JET ENGINE) SOLID
PROPELLE NT ELECTRON MILITAR Y MULTIPLE MEDIUM
ION
TURBOJET THRUSTER

HYBRID MAGNE TO - WEATHER LONG

TURBOFAN
PROPELLE NT PLASMA OR
THRUSTER SENSING

TURBOPROP
LIQUID ARC-JET BOSTER
PROPELLE NT THRUSTER

TURBOSHAFT

FEED TYPE SUSTAINER

ATHODHD

PRESSURE RETRO
FEED CRYOGENIC
RAM JET

PUMP AIRCRAFT
FEED BIPROPELLENT
SCRAM JET

PULSE JET
MONO TURBO
PROPELLE NT ROCKET

HYPER GOLIC RAMJET

PROPELLE NT ROCKET

CLASSIFICTION CHART OF AIRPLANE ENGINES

The airplane engine and propeller, often referred to as a powerplant, work in

combination to produce thrust. The powerplant propels the airplane and drives the
various systems that support the operation of an airplane.
AIRPLANE ENGINES
An airplane engine is a propulsion system for an airplane. Airplane engines
are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines. The airplane
engines are generally classified into
1) Reciprocating or piston engines
2) Gas turbine engines
3) Rocket engines
Based on the type of propulsion system
1) Jet propulsion engine
2) Rocket propulsion engine

THE RECIPROCATING ENGINE (PISTON ENGINE)

Most small airplanes are designed with reciprocating engines. The name is
derived from the back- and- forth, or reciprocating, movement of the pistons. It is this
motion that produces the mechanical energy needed to accomplish work. The
reciprocating engine is also known as an internal-combustion engine. This name is
used because the fuel mixture is burned within the engine. A reciprocating engine,
also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more
reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. Two common means
of classifying reciprocating engines are:
1. By cylinder arrangement with respect to the crankshaft radial, in-line, v-type or
opposed, or
2. by the method of cooling liquid or air-cooled.
Radial engines were widely used during World War II, and many are still in
service today. With these engines, a row or rows of cylinders are arranged in a
circular pattern around the crankcase. The main advantage of a radial engine is the
favorable power-to-weight ratio.
In-line engines have a comparatively small frontal area, but their power-to-
weight ratios are relatively low. In addition, the rearmost cylinders of an air-cooled,
in-line engine receive very little cooling air, so these engines are normally limited to
four or six cylinders. V-type engines provide more horsepower than in-line engines
and still retain a small frontal area. Further improvements in engine design led to the
development of the horizontally-opposed engine.
Opposed -type engines are the most popular reciprocating engines used on
small airplanes. These engines always have an even number of cylinders, since a
cylinder on one side cylinderoftheon othercrankcaseside.The “op majority of these
engines are air cooled and usually are mounted in a horizontal position when installed
on fixed-wing airplanes. Opposed-type engines have high power-to weight ratios
because they have a comparatively small, lightweight crankcase. In addition, the
compact cylinder area and allows a streamlined installation that minimizes
aerodynamic drag.

RECIPROCATING-ENGINE OPERATING PRINCIPLES

The main parts of a reciprocating engine include the cylinders, crankcase, and
accessory housing. The intake/exhaust valves, spark plugs, and pistons are located in
the cylinders. The crankshaft and connecting rods are located in the crankcase.
Engine Operation.
The cylinder is closed on one end (the cylinder head), and the piston fits
snugly in the cylinder. The piston wall is grooved to accommodate rings which fit
tightly against the cylinder wall and help seal the cylinder's open end so that gases
cannot escape from the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber is the area
between the top of the piston and the head of the cylinder when the piston is at its
uppermost point of travel.

1. The Intake Stroke

The intake stroke begins as the piston starts its downward travel. When this
happens, the intake valve opens and the fuel/air mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
2. & 3. Compression and Ignition Stroke
The compression stroke begins when the intake valve closes and the piston
starts moving back to the top of the cylinder. This phase of the cycle is used to obtain
a much greater power output from the fuel/air mixture once it is ignited.
4. Power Stroke
The power stroke begins when the fuel/air mixture is ignited. This causes a
tremendous pressure increase in the cylinder, and forces the piston downward away
from the cylinder head, creating the power that turns the crankshaft.
5. Exhaust Stroke
The exhaust stroke is used to purge the cylinder of burned gases. It begins
when the exhaust valve opens and the piston starts to move toward the cylinder head
once again. Even when the engine is operated at a fairly low speed, the four-stroke
cycle takes place several hundred times each minute. In a four-cylinder engine, each
cylinder operates on a different stroke. Continuous rotation of a crankshaft is
maintained by the precise timing of the power strokes in each cylinder. Continuous
operation of the engine depends on the simultaneous function of auxiliary systems,
including the induction, ignition, fuel, oil, cooling, and exhaust systems.

AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES (JET ENGINE)

All modern, powered airplanes that do not use reciprocating engines as their
source of thrust use some type of turbine engine. The word turbine means whirl and
refers to any type of wheel device that has vanes attached to it in a manner that will
cause the wheel to turn as the vanes are struck by the force of a moving air.
Turbine engines found in aircraft use the force of hot, flowing gases striking a
turbine. Some of these engines are geared to propellers which are similar to the types
of propellers used with reciprocating engines. The turbine engine has also found
widespread use as the source of power for military and civilian helicopters. In
helicopters, the turbine is linked by gears to the helicopter's rotors in a manner that
can be compared to the turbine-driven propellers for airplanes.

Introduction
Most of modern passenger and military aircraft are powered by gas turbine
engines, which are also called jet engines. There are several types of jet engines, but
all jet engines have some parts in common. Aircraft gas turbine engines can be
classified according to (1) the type of compressor used and (2) power usage produces
by the engine.
Compressor types are as follows:
1. Centrifugal flow
2. Axial flow
3. Centrifugal-Axial flow.
Power usages produced are as follows:
1. Turbojet engines
2. Turbofan engines.
3. Turboshaft engines.

ROCKET ENGINE
A rocket engine or simply "rocket" is a jet engine that uses only propellant
mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet. Rocket engines are reaction engines
and obtain thrust in accordance with Newton's third law. Since they need no external
material to form their jet, rocket engines can be used for spacecraft propulsion as
well as terrestrial uses, such as missiles. Most rocket engines are internal combustion
engines, although non combusting forms also exist.
Rocket engines as a group, have the highest exhaust velocities, are by far the
lightest, and are the most energy efficient of all types of jet engines. The thrust they
give, due to the high exhaust velocity and relatively low specific energy of rocket
propellant, they consume propellant very rapidly.

JET PROPULSION
The principle of Jet Propulsion is third law of motion by Newton. i.e., “for
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. We know that when a fluid is to
be accelerated, a force is required to produce this acceleration in the fluid. At the same
time, there is an equal and opposite reaction force acting on this fluid. This opposite
reaction force of the fluid on the engine is known as thrust. Hence it may state that the
principle of jet propulsion is based on the reaction principle. Any fluid can be used to
achieve the jet propulsion principle. Thus water, steam, and combustion gases are used
to propel a body in a fluid. But there are limitations imposed upon the choice of the
suitable fluid when it is applied to the propulsion bodies.

HISTROY OF JET ENGINES

Centuries ago in 100 A.D., Hero, a Greek philosopher and mathematician,
demonstrated jet power in a machine called an "aeolipile." A heated, water filled steel
ball with nozzles spun as steam escaped. The principle behind this phenomenon was
not fully understood until 1690 A.D. when Sir Isaac Newton in England formulated
the principle of Hero's jet propulsion "aeolipile" in scientific terms. His Third Law of
Motion stated: "Every action produces a reaction equal in force and opposite in
direction."
The jet engine of today operates according to this same basic principle. Jet
engines contain three common components: the compressor, the combustor, and the
turbine. To this basic engine, other components may be added, including:
A nozzle to recover and direct the gas energy and possibly divert the thrust for
vertical takeoff and landing as well as changing direction of aircraft flight.
An afterburner or augmentor, a long "tailpipe" behind the turbine into
which additional fuel is sprayed and burned to provide additional thrust.
A thrust reverser, which blocks the gas rushing toward the rear of the engine,
thus forcing the gases forward to provide additional braking of aircraft.
A fan in front of the compressor to increase thrust and reduce fuel
consumption.
An additional turbine that can be utilized to drive a propeller or helicopter
rotor.

CLASSIFICATION OF JET PROPULSION

Jet propulsion engines may be classified broadly into two groups.
(a) Air breathing engines - combustion takes place by using atmospheric air
(b) Rocket engines - Combustion takes place by using its own oxygen supply

CLASSIFICATION OF AIR BREATHING ENGINES

Air breathing engines can be further classified as follows:
1. Ramjet Engine
2. Pulse Jet Engine
3. Turbojet Engine
4. Turbo Prop Engine
5. Turbo Fan Engine
RAMJET ENGINE
A ramjet also referred as stovepipe jet, or an athodyd, is a form of jet engine
using the engine's forward motion to compress incoming air, without a rotary
compressor. Ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed and thus cannot move an
aircraft from a standstill. Ramjets require considerable forward speed to operate well,
and as a class work most efficiently at speeds around Mach 3. This type of jet can
operate up to speeds of at least Mach 5.
Construction
The construction of Ramjet Engine is shown in Fig. which is a simplest type
of air breathing engine.
It consists of:
1. Supersonic diffuser (1-2)
2. Subsonic diffuser (2 - 3)
3. Combustion chamber (3 - 4)
4. Discharge nozzle section (4 - 5)
The functions of supersonic and subsonic diffusers are to convert the kinetic
energy of the entering air into pressure energy. This energy transformation is called
ram effect and the pressure rise is called the ram pressure. The function of nozzle is to
convert pressure energy of gas into kinetic energy.
RAMJET ENGINE

Working

Air from the atmosphere enters the engine at a very high speed and its velocity
gets reduced and its static pressure is increased by supersonic diffuser.

Then the air passes through the subsonic diffuser and its velocity further
reduces to subsonic value. Due to this, the pressure of air increases to ignition
pressure.

Then the high pressure air flows into the combustion chamber. In the
combustion chamber, the fuel is injected by suitable injectors and the air fuel
mixture is burnt.


The highly heated products of combustion gases are then allowed to expand in
the exhaust nozzle section.

In the nozzle pressure energy of the gas is converted into kinetic energy so the
gases coming out from the unit with very high velocity.

Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit, a reaction or thrust is
produced in the opposite direction. This thrust propels the air craft.
 
Ramjet produces very high thrust with high efficiency at supersonic speeds.
So, it is best suitable for high speed aircrafts.

The air enters the engine with a supersonic speed must be reduced to subsonic
speed. This is necessary to prevent the blow out of the flame in the
combustion chamber. The velocity must be small enough  to make it possible
to add the required quantity of fuel for stable combustion.

Both theory and experiment indicate that the speed of the air entering the
combustion chamber should not be  higher than that corresponding to a local
mach number of 0.2 approximately.
Advantages
  Ramjet engine is very simple and does not have any moving part.

  Cost is low.

  Less maintenance.


  fuel consumption is better than other gas turbine power plants at high
The specific
speed.
  There is no upper limit to the flight speed.

 
Light weight when compared with turbojet engine.
Disadvantages

 Since the take-off trust is 
zero, it is not possible to start a ramjet engine without an
external launching device.

 
The combustion chamber required flame holder to stabilize the combustion due to
high speed of air.

  a diffuser which will give good pressure recovery over a
It is very difficult to design
wide range of speeds
 
It has low thermal efficiency.
Applications

 It is widely used inhigh speed aircrafts and missiles due to its high thrust and high
operational speed.
 
Subsonic ramjets are used in target weapons.

SCRAMJET ENGINE
Scramjets are an evolution of the ramjet that is able to operate at much
higher speeds than ramjets (or any other kind of air breathing engine) are capable of
reaching. They share a similar structure with ramjets, being a specially-shaped tube
that compresses air with no moving parts through ram-air compression. Scramjets,
however, operate with supersonic airflow through the entire engine. Thus, scramjets
do not have the diffuser required by ramjets to slow the incoming airflow to subsonic
speeds. Scramjets start working at speeds of at least Mach 4, and have a theoretical
maximum speed of Mach 17.

Scramjet is an acronym for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet. The scramjet

differs from the ramjet in that combustion takes place at supersonic air velocities
through the engine. It is mechanically simple, but vastly more complex
aerodynamically than a jet engine. Hydrogen is normally the fuel used.
 SCRAMJET ENGINE

PULSE JET ENGINE (OR) FLYING BOMB

The construction of pulse jet engine is shown in Fig. which is similar to ramjet
engine.It consists of:
(i) A diffuser.
(ii) A valve grid which springs that close on their own spring pressure.
(iii) Combustion chamber.
(iv) Spark plug,
(v) A tail pipe (or discharge nozzle).
The function of diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into
pressure energy. The function of nozzle is to convert pressure energy of gas into
kinetic energy.
Working

Air from the atmosphere enters into pulse jet engine. The air velocity gets
reduced and its static pressure is increased by diffuser. 



When a certain pressure difference exists across the valve grid, the valve will
open and allow the, air to enter into the combustion chamber. 



In the combustion chamber, fuel is mixed with air and combustion starts by
the use of spark plug. 



Once the combustion starts it proceeds at constant volume. So there is a rapid
increase in pressure, which causes the valve to close rapidly. 



The highly heated products of combustion gases are then allowed to expand in
the exhaust nozzle (Tail pipe) section. 



In the nozzle pressure energy of the gas is converted into kinetic energy. So
the gases coming out from the unit with very high velocity. 



Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit, a reaction (or) thrust is
produced in the opposite direction. This thrust propels the air craft. 

 
Since the combustion process causes the pressure to increase, the engine can
operate even at static condition once it gets started. 



When the combustion products accelerate from the chamber, they leave a
slight-vacuum in the combustion chamber. This, in turn, produces sufficient
pressure drop across the valve grid, allowing the valves to open again and new
charge of air enters the combustion chamber. 
Advantages
Pulse jet engine is very simple device next to ramjet engine.
Less maintenance.
Cost is low.
Light weight when compared with turbojet engine.
Unlike the ramjet engine, the pulse jet engine develops thrust at zero speed.

Disadvantages
High rates of fuel consumption.
The maximum flight speed of the pulse jet engine is limited to 750 km/h.
Low propulsive efficiency than turbojet engines.
High degree of vibration leads to noise pollution.
Applications

It is used in subsonic flights. German V-I missiles, Target aircraft missiles,
 etc. 

A factor practically restricting the use of the pulse jetengine to pilotless air
craft is its severe vibrations and high intensity of noise.

PULSEJET ENGINE

TURBOJET ENGINE
The most common type of air-breathing engine is the Turbojet engine.
Construction
It consists of:
(i) Diffuser.
(ii) Rotary compressor,
(iii) Combustion chamber,
(iv) Turbine
(v) Exhaust nozzle.
 The function of the diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air
into pressure energy. The function of the nozzle is to convert the pressure energy of
the combustion gases into kinetic energy.
Working

Air from the atmosphere enters into turbojet engine. The air velocity gets
reduced and its static pressure is increased by diffuser. 



Then the air passes through the rotary compressor in which the air is further
compressed. 



Then the high pressure air flows into the combustion chamber. In the
combustion chamber, the fuel is injected by suitable injectors and the air fuel
mixture is burnt. Heat is supplied at constant pressure. 



The highly heated products of combustion gases are then enter the turbine and
partially expanded. 



The power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor,
fuel pump and other auxiliaries. 



The hot gases from the turbine are then allowed to expand in the exhaust
nozzle section. 


In the nozzle, pressure energy of the gas is converted into kinetic energy. So
the gases coming out from the unit with very high velocity. 



Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit, a reaction or thrust is
produced in the opposite direction. This thrust propels the air craft. 



Like ramjet engine, the turbojet engine is a continuous flow engine. 

Because of turbine material limitations, only a limited amount of fuel can be
burnt in the combustion chamber. 
Advantages
Construction is simple.
Less wear and tear.
Less maintenance cost.
It runs smoothly because continuous thrust is produced by continuous combustion of
fuel.
The speed of a turbojet is not limited by the propeller and it can attain higher flight
speed than turbo propeller aircrafts.
Low grade fuels like kerosene, paraffin, etc., can be used. This reduces the fuel cost.
Reheat is possible to increase the thrust.
Since turbojet engine has a compressor, it -can be operated under static conditions.
Disadvantages
It has low take-off thrust and hence poor starting characteristics.

Fuel consumption is high.

Costly materials are used.

The fuel economy at low operational speed is extremely poor.

Sudden decrease of speed is difficult.

 Propulsive efficiency and thrust are lower at lower speeds.


Applications
 
It is best suited for Piloted air-crafts, Military aircrafts, etc.

| DIFFUSER | COMPRESSOR | COMBUSTOR | TURBINE | NOZZLE |

TURBOJET ENGINE SCHEMATIC

TURBO-PROP ENGINE (OR) TURBO-PROPELLER ENGINE

The turboprop engine is an effort to combine the best features of turbojet and
propeller aircraft. It is very similar to turbojet engine. In this type, the turbine drives
the compressor and propeller. Turboprop engine derives its propulsion by the
conversion of the majority of gas stream energy into mechanical power to drive the
compressor, accessories, and the propeller load. The shaft on which the turbine is
mounted drives the propeller through the propeller reduction gear system.
Approximately 90% of thrust comes from propeller and about only 10% comes from
exhaust gas.
Construction
The construction of Turbo-Prop Engine is shown in Fig.

TURBOPROP ENGINE

It consists of:
(i) Diffuser
(ii) Compressor
(iii) Combustion chamber
(iv) Turbine
(v) Exhaust nozzle
(vi) Propeller
The function of diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into
pressure energy. The function of nozzle is to convert the pressure energy of the
combustion gases into kinetic energy. The angular velocity of the shaft is very high.
But the propeller cannot run at higher angular velocity. So a reduction gear box is
provided before the power is transmitted to the propeller.
Working

Air from the atmosphere enters into turbo prop engine. The air velocity gets
reduced and its static pressure is increased by diffuser. 



Then the air passes through the rotary compressor in which the air is further
compressed. So, the static pressure of the air is further increased. 



Then the high pressure air flows into the combustion chamber. In the
combustion chamber, the fuel is injected by suitable injectors and the air-fuel
mixture is burnt. Heat is supplied at constant pressure. 

The highly heated products of combustion gases are then enters the turbine
and partially (about 80 to 90%) expanded. 



The power produced by the turbine is used to drive the compressor and
propeller. 



Propeller is used to increase the flow rate of air which results in better fuel
economy. 



The hot gases from the turbine are then allowed to expand in the exhaust
nozzle section. 



In the nozzle, pressure energy of the gas is converted into kinetic energy. So
the gases coming out from the unit with very high velocity. 



Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit, a reaction (or) thrust is
produced in the opposite direction. 



The total thrust produced in this engine is the sum of the thrust produced by
the propeller and the thrust produced by the nozzle. This total thrust propels 

the air craft.

Advantages
 
High take-off thrust.


 
Good propeller efficiency at a speed below 800 km / hr.


 
Reduced vibration and noise.


 
Better fuel economy.


 
Easy maintenance.


 
It operates over a wide range of speeds due to multishaft arrangement.


 
The power output is not limited.


 
Sudden decrease of speed is possible by thrust reversal.
Disadvantages

The main disadvantage is, the propeller efficiency is rapidly decreases at high
speeds due to shocks and flow separation. 


 
It requires a reduction gear which increases the cost of the engine.


 
More space needed than turbojet engine.


Engine construction is more complicated.

Applications

The turbo prop engine is best suited for commercial and military aircraft
operation due to its high flexibility of operation and good fuel economy. 
TURBOFAN ENGINE
A turbofan engine is basically a turbojet to which a fan has been added. Large
fans can be placed at either the front or rear of the engine to create high bypass ratios
for subsonic flight. The turbofan engine is a combination of the turbo prop and the
turbojet engines combining the advantages of both.
Working

A schematic drawing of a turbofan engine is shown in figure the turbofan
engine contains all the elements of the turbojet but in addition, some of the
energy in the hot jet exhaust is extracted by a turbine that drives a fan. A
 
portion of the inlet air that enters the fan is bypassed around the engine; the
fan, then, is somewhat like a propeller being driven by the turbo machinery.

Unlike the propeller, however, a single fan stage may contain from 20 to 50
blades, is surrounded by a shroud, and is more like a single-stage compressor
than a propeller. For example, the pressure ratio across a single fan stage is
usually in the range of 1.4 to 1.6; whereas the pressure ratio across the
 propeller discs of the  Lockheed Super Constellation in cruising flight is
somewhat less than 1.02.

The bypass ratio of a turbofan engine is defined as the ratio of the mass of air
that passes through the fan, but not the gas generator, to that which does pass
 through the gas generator. Bypass ratios between I and 2 are typical of the first
turbofan engines introduced in the early 1960's.

The more modern turbofan engines for transport aircraft have bypass ratios
that usually fall between 4 and 6, and the engine employed on the Lockheed
C-5A has a bypass ratio of 8. The larger the bypass ratio, the greater the
amount of energy extracted from the hot exhaust of the gas generator; as much
 as 75percent of the total thrust of a turbofan engine may be attributed to the
fan.

Most modern civil and military aircraft are powered by some form of turbofan
engine because such engines consume less fuel to  produce a given amount of
useful power than do comparable turbojet engines.


The higher efficiency of the turbofan engine can be explained with the use of
Newton's second law of motion. From this well-known law, it may be deduced

that a given level of thrust can be produced at a given flight velocity, either by
the addition of a small increment of velocity to a large mass flow of air or by
the addition of a large increment of velocity to a small mass flow of air. The
required energy addition (fuel), however, is less for the first than for the
second case.
Advantages
 
Thrust developed is higher than turbojet engine.


 
Weight per unit thrust is lower than turbo prop engine.


 
Less noise.



High take-off thrust. 
Disadvantages

Increased frontal area. 


 
Fuel consumption is high compared to turbo prop engine.


 
Construction is complicated compared to turbojet engine.


 
Lower speed limit than turbojet engine.

TURBOSHAFT ENGINE
A turboshaft is similar to a turboprop engine, differing primarily in the
function of the turbine shaft. Instead of driving a propeller, the turbine shaft is
connected to a transmission system that drives helicopter rotor blades; electrical
generators, compressors and pumps; and marine propulsion drives for naval vessels,
cargo ships, high speed passenger ships, hydrofoils and other vessels.
PROPELLERS
Thrust is the force that moves the aircraft through the air. Thrust is generated
by the propulsion system of the aircraft. There are different types of propulsion
systems develop thrust in different ways, although it usually generated through some
application of Newton's Third Law. Propeller is one of the propulsion systems. The
purpose of the propeller is to move the aircraft through the air. The propeller consists
of two or more blades connected together by a hub. The hub serves to attach the
blades to the engine shaft.

The blades are made in the shape of an airfoil like wing of an aircraft. When
the engine rotates the propeller blades, the blades produce lift. This lift is called thrust
and moves the aircraft forward. Most aircraft have propellers that pull the aircraft
through the air. These are called tractor propellers. Some aircraft have propellers that
push the aircraft. These are called pusher propellers.
ROCKET PROPULSION
The thrust required for the propulsion of rocket is produced by the high
velocity of gases leaving from the nozzle which is similar to Jet propulsion. In Jet
propulsion, the oxygen required for combustion is taken from the atmosphere. But in
the case of rocket propulsion, since the altitude of rocket engine is very high, enough
oxygen is not available in the atmosphere. So the oxygen is filled in a tank in the
rocket engine itself and used for combustion purposes.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKET ENGINES

Rocket engines are classified as follows:

1. Chemical rocket engines
2. Nuclear rocket engines
3. Electrical rocket engines
4. Solar rocket engines
Chemical rocket engines can be classified as:
1. Liquid propellant rocket engine
2. Solid propellant rocket engine
3. Hybrid propellant rocket engine

Rocket engines can be further classified as follows:

Based on Application:
(a) Space rockets
(b) Military rockets
(c) Weather forecasting rockets
(d) Booster rockets
Based on Number of Stages:
(a) Single stage rockets
(b) Multistage rockets
Based on Size and Range:
(a) Short range small rocket
(b) Long range large rocket

CHEMICAL ROCKET ENGINES

LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINE

Construction
 
The construction of Liquid Propellant Rocket engine is shown in Fig.



Liquid fuel (refined petrol, liquid hydrogen, hydrazine, etc.) and liquid oxygen
are used in this engine. 



Liquid fuel and liquid oxygen are stored separately in two different tanks as
shown in Fig. 


 
Preheater is used to heat the fuel and oxidizer.



Nozzle is used to increase the velocity and decrease the pressure of the gases.
Working

Liquid fuel and liquid oxygen are pumped separately into a
combustion chamber through control valves. 



Since the liquid fuel and liquid oxygen are stored at very
low temperature, they are preheated in the preheater to a
suitable temperature. 



The preheated fuel-oxidizer mixture is injected into the
combustion chamber through suitable injector and
combustion takes place. 



When the combustion takes place in the combustion
chamber, very high-pressure and very high temperature
gases are produced. 


The highly heated „products of combusti in the nozzle section.

In the nozzle, pressure energy of the gas is converted into

kinetic energy. So the gases coming, out from the unit with
very high velocity.

Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit, a

force (or) thrust is produced in the Opposite direction. This
thrust propels the rocket.

Advantages
 
Liquid propellant engines can be reused after recovery. So it is economical.



Combustion process is controllable i.e., it is easy to stop the
combustion by closing the fuel valve (or) oxidizer valve. 


 
Speed regulation i.e., increase and decrease of speed is possible.


 
High specific impulse.


 
More economical for long range operation.



Malfunctions and accidents can be rectified at any stage. 
Disadvantages

Liquid propellant rocket construction is more complicated
compared to solid propellant rocket. 



Manufacturing cost is high. 

There are additional handling and safety problems if the
propellants are poisonous and corrosive. 


 
The size and weight of the engine is more compared to solid propellant rocket.


 
High vibration



Many liquid propellants can exist in liquid state at very low
temperature. So proper insulation is needed. 
LIQUID PROPELLANTS
Liquid propellants are classified into the following two groups.
(a) Monopropellants
(b) Bipropellants

MONOPROPELLANTS
A liquid propellant which contains both the fuel and oxidizer in a single
chemical is known as a monopropellant. It is stable at normal ambient conditions and
liberates thermo-chemical energy on heating. Monopropellants have been widely
used in solid propellant rockets.
Examples:
1. Nitroglycerine
2. Nitro methane
3. Hydrogen peroxide
4. Hydrazine

BIPROPELLANTS
If the fuel and oxidizer are different from each other in its chemical nature,
then the propellant is called bipropellant. Bipropellants have been widely used in
liquid propellant rocket system. The mostly used bipropellant combinations are listed
below.

Oxidizer Fuel

Liquid oxygen Gasoline, Methane, Ethanol, Hydrazine

Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine
(UDMH)
Red fuming nitric acid Aniline, Ethanol
White filming nitric acid Alcohol
Hydrogen peroxide Hydrazine, Ethanol, Methanol

PROPERTIES OF LIQUID PROPELLANTS

 
Propellant should have high calorific value.



It density should be high. 
 
It should have low values of vapour, pressure and viscosity.


 
It should have higher specific heat and thermal conductivity.



Products of combustion should have low molecular weight to produce high
jet velocity. 


 
It should be non-corrosive and non-reactive with components of the engine.


 
It should not be poisonous and hazardous.

It should be cheap and easily available. 



Energy released during combustion per unit mass of the propellant
combination should be high. 


 
It should be easily ignitable.

LIQUID PROPELLANT FEED SYSTEM

There are two types of liquid feed system. They are:
(i) Gas pressure feed system
(ii) Pump feed system
GAS PRESSURE FEED SYSTEM

An inert gas (Helium or Nitrogen) is stored in a tank at high pressure and it is
passed into pressure-regulator valves. This high pressure inert gas from the
regulator is used to force the propellants (Fuel and Oxidizer). 



The propellants under high pressure are forced to flow into the combustion
chamber through control valves. 



Several regulating and check valves are used for filling, draining and checking
the flow of propellants. 



Moving parts such as pumps and turbines are not used. Therefore, this system
is considerably simpler. 



The pressurization of the propellant tank is comparatively much-heavier. So,
this system is not suitable for large rocket engines and long range missions. 
TURBO PUMP FEED SYSTEM


Fig shows the arrangement of turbo pump feed system. 

In this system, liquid fuel and the liquid oxidizer are stored in a separate tank
at low pressure. 



Liquid fuel and liquid oxidizer are forced into the combustion chamber at high
pressure by the fuel and oxidizer pumps. 


 
Gas turbine is used to operate the fuel and oxidizer pumps.



Liquid hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) from the tank is decomposed by a catalyst
such as calcium or sodium permanganate. Due to this, steam and oxygen are
generated. This steam is used to drive the turbine. 



Because of the third liquid, the gas turbine, the pumps and additional lines are
necessary. So the pump pressurization system is considerably more complex
than gas pressurization system. 


Design of pump is a greatest problem that will handle the liquids safely and
without leaks.



PROPELLANT FEED SYSTEM – LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS
SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:


Solid propellant is the combination of solid fuel (plastic or resin material) and
oxidizer (nitrates, perchlorates, etc) 



Solid fuel and oxidizer are homogeneously mixed and packed inside the shell. 

A liner is provided between the shell and the propellant. The purpose of liner
is to protect the shell because high temperature will be generated during
combustion process. 
Working

The igniter located at the top and ignites the spark. So combustion takes place, 



When the combustion takes place in the combustion chamber, very high
pressure and very high temperature gases are produced. 



The highly heated products of combustion gases are then allowed to expand in
the nozzle section. 



In the nozzle pressure energy of the gas is converted into kinetic energy. So
the gases coming out from the unit with very high velocity. 



Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit, a force (or) thrust is
produced in opposite direction. This thrust propels the rocket. 

Advantages
 
Simple in design and construction.



They do not require feed system. So they are free from the problems of
moving parts such as pumps, valves, etc. 


 
Less vibration due to absence of moving parts.

Less maintenance. 


 
Suitable for short range applications.


 
Problems arising from the sudden emptying of propellant tanks are absent.
Disadvantages

In case of emergency it is difficult to stop the engine in the mid way. 


 
Decrease of speed is not possible.


 
Low specific impulse.



At the end of an operation the burnt up debris cannot be reused. So it is
uneconomical. 



Nozzle cooling is not possible. 

Nozzle erosion is unavoidable due to the presence of solid particles in the high
temperature and high speed gases. 



Transportation and handling of these rockets before firing require greater care
due to the presence of propellants throughout. 

SOLID PROPELLANTS

Solid propellants are classified into the following two groups.

(a) Heterogeneous (or) composite propellants.

(b) Homogeneous propellants

HETEROGENEOUS PROPELLANTS

In heterogeneous solid propellants, plastics, polymers and polyvinyl chlorides

are used as fuels. Nitrates and perchlorates are used as oxidizers.

HOMOGENEOUS PROPELLANTS

In homogeneous solid propellants, nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose are used.

It combines the properties of fuels and oxidizers.
PROPERTIES OF SOLID PROPELLANTS
It should release large amount of heat during combustion.

Physical and chemical properties should not change during processing.

It should have high density.

It should not be poisonous and hazardous.

It should be cheap and easily available.

It should be non-corrosive and non-reactive with components of the engine.

 Storage and handling should be easy.

The hybrid rocket engines combine the advantages of both

solid and liquid propellant rockets.

In this type, solid fuel along with liquid oxidizer is used as a propellant.

Solid fuel is packed in the combustion chamber and the

liquid oxidizer is stored in the separate tank.
Working

The liquid oxidizer which is stored in combustion chamber.

When liquid oxidizer mixes with solid fuel in the

combustion chamber, combustion takes place automatically.

When the combustion takes place in the combustion

chamber, very high pressure and very high temperature
gases are produced.

The highly heated products of combustion gases are then

allowed to expand in the nozzle section.

In the nozzle, pressure energy of the gas is converted into

kinetic energy. So the gases coming out from the unit with
 very high velocity.

Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit, a
force (or) thrust is produced in the opposite direction. This
thrust propels the rocket. 
Advantages


Due to high velocity Speed regulation is possible by
regulating the supply of oxidizer. 


High load capacity.

 SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKET

HYBRID PROPELLANT ROCKET:


Hybrid rockets are lighter when compared to the liquid propellant type
rockets. 

Higher fuel .density. 

Since, the fuel and oxidizer are kept separately; there is no chemical
deterioration between fuel and oxidizer. 

In case of an accident or crash the explosion is less destructive compared to
the liquid propellant rocket engines. 
Disadvantage

Nozzle erosion cannot be avoided.
HYBRID PROPELLANTS
Some fuel - oxidizer combinations for hybrid propellant rockets are given below.
Fuel Oxidizer
Beryllium hydride Fluorine
Lithium hydride Chlorine trifluoride
Lithium hydride Nitrogen tetroxide
Hydrocarbon Nitrogen tetroxide
MULTISTAGE ROCKETS
A two-stage rocket carries a propellant and one or more rocket engines in
each stage. The first stage launches the rocket. After burning its supply of propellant,
the first stage falls away from the rest of the rocket. The second stage then ignites and
carries the payload into earth orbit or even farther into space. A balloon and a rocket
work in much the same way. Gas flowing from the nozzle creates unequal pressure
that lifts the balloon or the rocket off the ground.
Many chemical rockets work by burning propellants in a single combustion
chamber. Engineers refer to these rockets as single-stage rockets. Missions that
require long-distance travel, such as reaching Earth orbit, generally require multiple-
stage or multistage rockets. A multistage rocket uses two or more sets of combustion
chambers and propellant tanks. These sets, called stages, may be stacked end to end or
attached side by side. When a stage runs out of propellant, the rocket discards it.
Discarding the empty stage makes the rocket lighter, allowing the remaining stages to
accelerate it more strongly. Engineers have designed and launched rockets with as
many as five separate stages. The space shuttle uses two stages.
USES OF ROCKETS
People use rockets for high-speed, high-power transportation both within
Earth's atmosphere and in space. Rockets are especially valuable for (1) military use,
(2) atmospheric research, (3) launching probes and satellites, and (4) space travel.
Military use
Rockets used by the military vary in size from small rockets used on the
battlefield to giant guided missiles that can fly across oceans. The bazooka is a small
rocket launcher carried by soldiers for use against armored vehicles. A person using a
bazooka has as much striking power as a small tank. Armies use larger rockets to fire
explosives far behind enemy lines and to shoot down enemy aircraft. Fighter airplanes
carry rocket-powered guided missiles to attack other planes and ground targets. Navy
ships use guided missiles to attack other ships, land targets, and planes.
Powerful rockets propel a type of long-range guided missile called an
intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). Such a missile can travel 3,400 miles (5,500
kilometers) or more to bomb an enemy target with nuclear explosives. An ICBM
generally employs two or three separate stages to propel it during the early part of its
flight. The ICBM coasts the rest of the way to its target.
Atmospheric research
Scientists use rockets to explore Earth's atmosphere. Sounding rockets, also
called meteorological rockets, carry such equipment as barometers, cameras, and
thermometers high into the atmosphere. These instruments collect information about
the atmosphere and send it by radio to receiving equipment on the ground.
Rockets also provide the power for experimental research airplanes. Engineers
use these planes in the development of spacecraft. By studying the flights of such
planes as the rocket-powered X-1 and X-15, engineers learned how to control vehicles
flying many times as fast as the speed of sound.
Launching probes and satellites
Rockets carry crewless spacecraft called space probes on long voyages to
explore the solar system. Probes have explored the sun, the moon, and all the planets
in our solar system except Pluto. They carry scientific instruments that gather
information about the planets and transmit data back to Earth. Probes have landed on
the surface of the moon, Venus, and Mars.
Rockets lift artificial satellites into orbit around Earth. Some orbiting satellites
gather information for scientific research. Others relay telephone conversations and
radio and television broadcasts across the oceans. Weather satellites track climate
patterns and help scientists predict the weather. Navigation satellites, such as those
that make up the Global Positioning System (GPS), enable receivers anywhere on
Earth to determine their locations with great accuracy. The armed forces use satellites
to observe enemy facilities and movements. They also use satellites to communicate,
monitor weather, and watch for missile attacks. Not only are satellites launched by
rockets, but many satellites use small rocket engines to maintain their proper orbits.
Rockets that launch satellites and probes are called launch vehicles. Most of
these rockets have from two to four stages. The stages lift the satellite to its proper
altitude and give it enough speed -- about 17,000 miles (27,000 kilometers) per hour -
- to stay in orbit. A space probe's speed must reach about 25,000 miles (40,000
kilometers) per hour to escape Earth's gravity and continue on its voyage.
Engineers created the first launch vehicles by altering military rockets or
sounding rockets to carry spacecraft. For example, they added stages to some of these
rockets to increase their speed. Today, engineers sometimes attach smaller rockets to
a launch vehicle. These rockets, called boosters, provide additional thrust to launch
heavier spacecraft.
Space travel
Rockets launch spacecraft carrying astronauts that orbit Earth and travel into
space. These rockets, like the ones used to launch probes and satellites, are called
launch vehicles.
The Saturn 5 rocket, which carried astronauts to the moon, was the most
powerful launch vehicle ever built by the United States. Before launch, it weighed
more than 6 million pounds (2.7 million kilograms). It could send a spacecraft
weighing more than 100,000 pounds (45,000 kilograms) to the moon. The Saturn 5
used 11 rocket engines to propel three stages.
Space shuttles are reusable rockets that can fly into space and return to Earth
repeatedly. Engineers have also worked to develop space tugs, smaller rocket-
powered vehicles that could have satellites, boost space probes, and carry astronauts
over short distances in orbit. For more information on rockets used in space travel, see
Space exploration.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE WORKING CYCLE:

GAS TURBINE ENGINE WORKING CYCLE: