AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

 GAIN KNOWLEDGE : CLASSIFICATION AND APPLICATION OF
TURBOMACHINES

: THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF AXIAL AND

RADIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AND TURBINES

: PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS INFLUENCING

OPERATION OF TURBOMACHINES

: UNDERTSAND INSTABILITIES OF
COMPRESSOR OPERATION AND METHODS TO
ARREST INSTABILITIES
 REFERENCE BOOKS LECT-1

Name of Book Author

Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion Hill and Peterson

Gas Turbine Engine H Cohen, GFC Rogers , HIH Saravanamuttoo

Turbines, Compressors and Fans S M Yahya, Fourth Edition

Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of S L Dixon, Pergamon Press, 1996

Turbomachinery
Principles of Turbomachinery Seppo A. Korpela, Wiley Publications

Fundamentals of Turbomachinery BK Venkanna

Aircraft Propulsion : Science of making thrust to fly : Bhaskar Roy

 AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

SYLLABUS
 Introduction to Turbomachinery
 Thermodynamics
 Nozzles
 Diffuser
 Compressor
 Turbine
 Dimensional Analysis
 Incompressible Machines
 Comprehensible Machine
 Cascade Aerodynamics
 Axial Flow Compressors - Aerodynamics
 AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

SYLLABUS

 Axial Flow Turbines – Aerodynamics

 Introduction
Velocity Diagrams
 Single and Multiple stages
 Problems Solving
 Turbine Blade Cooling
 Turbine Blade Cooling
 Methods of Cooling
 Appreciation and Understanding of Heat
Exchange
 Materials : Type and Why
 AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

SYLLABUS

 Centrifugal Compressor
 Construction
 Advantages / Disadvantages
 Velocity Diagrams
 Applications
 Questions and Problems
 Radial Turbines
 Construction
 Types of Radial Turbines
 Velocity Diagrams
 Instabilities of Compressors
 VIRTUAL LECTURE -1

 In this lecture, we will study

 Engine and Heat Engine
Classification of Heat Engine and Engine
 PDM and Turbomachine
Classification of Turbo machine
 Vector Analysis of gas flow in Rotor & Stator : Axial Flow
Compressor
INTRODUCTION
 AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

 Engine
 An engine is a device which transforms one form of
energy into another form.
 Efficiency of conversion plays important role.
 Heat Engine
 Heat Engine is a device which transforms the
chemical energy of fuel into thermal energy and
utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work.
 Thus, thermal energy is converted to mechanical
energy in a heat engines.
 Work can be easily converted into heat, but reverse
is not easy and requires special device called heat
engines
AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1
BASIC AIRCRAFT JET ENGINE TYPES
AIRCRAFT TURBOFAN
ENGINES
TURBOSHAFT JET ENGINE
RAMJET

SCRAMJET
 AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

 Turbomachine
 Is a power or head generating machine which
employs the dynamic action of a rotating element,
the rotor.
 The action of the rotor changes the energy level of
the continuously flowing fluid through the
turbomachine.
 Examples : Turbines, compressors/pumps,
Fans/Blowers
 Types of machines
 Positive Displacement Machine
 Turbomachine
Positive Displacement Machine LECT-1
• Reciprocating Type
- Low speed due mechanical and volumetric efficiency
considerations
- Volumetric Efficiency is 80-85% (SI) and 85-90% (CI)
- Due to low speeds, reciprocating compressors can
theoretically can be made work isothermally (intercooling
with multistage compression, jacket cooling)
- If engine stops, gas trapped remains in same state
provided cylinder is perfectly insulated from surrounding
- Handles smaller flow rate of fluids due to limited
displacement
• Turbomachine
- Higher speed
- Without mechanical problems
- Volumetric Efficiency is close to 100%
- High speed turbo compressor is an adiabatic machine
- State of gas changes depending upon surroundings
- Important feature which distinguishes turbo machines from
positive displacement machines
- Handles larger flow rates due to high rotor speed and fluid
velocities
Positive Displacement Machine LECT-1

• Rotary PDM (two-lobe Roots blower)

- Tow symmetrical lobes rotate in opposite directions

- Two lobes do not drive one another like toothed wheels

- Small clearance between tow lobes ensure Contactless

conjugate motion. Therefore, the rotors are driven by the
timing gears located outside the casing

- Rotation of lobes provides suction, compression and

discharge process at both the ends of the casing.

- Compression process is not continuous adiabatic process

- Cross between Reciprocating and Turbocompressor :

combines advantages of both reciprocating and
turbomachine
Positive Displacement Machine LECT-1

• Positive Rotary Displacement Device

- Wankel Engine
- Combines advantages of both i.e.
reciprocating internal combustion engine and
the gas turbine
- Rotor is an equilateral triangle rotating inside
an epitrochoidal casing
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Power or Energy Flow

 Power Generating machine

 Turbines (Steam, Gas, Hydro, Wind, Solar) : Decreases the head or

energy level of the working fluids passing through them. They are
coupled with power absorbing machine.
 Power Absorbing Machine
 Compressors/Pumps/Fan/Blowers : Increases the energy level
(pressure or head) of the fluids passing through them
 Driven by turbines and electric motor for supplying the power
required to increase the energy level.
 Fans and Blowers
 Fan : Slight increase in gas pressure. Pressure developed by
Fan is – few millimeters of water gauge
 Blowers : Pressure rise is more than fan, because to overcome
pressure losses of the gas during its flow through various
passages. Pressure developed is more than 1600 mm W.G
 Pressure developed by compressors is high, therefore the pressure
rise through compressors is expressed in terms of pressure ratio
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Fluid Flow Direction

 Axial Stages

 Radial component of the fluid velocity is negligible

 Change in radius between the entry and exit of the stage is small
 Flow is mainly in axial direction i.e. parallel to shaft axis, hence
termed “axial stage”
 Can be easily coupled with other components- this configuration
offers resulting in better mechanically & aerodynamically a
convenient connection between the compressor, C.C and turbine
 Employed in multistage as suited for high flow rates and to achieve
required pressure ratio.
 In aircraft propulsion, such configuration offers low frontal area and
hence to aircraft drag
 Turning of flow is not too severe and length of the blade passages
is short – leads to lower aerodynamic losses and higher stage
efficiencies
 Blade root fixtures – provide limited mechanical strength and
restricts maximum permissible peripheral speed of the rotor
CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Fluid Flow Direction

 Radial Stage

 Flow of the fluid occurs mainly in radial direction

 Change of radius between the entry and exit of the stage is finite –
as a result finite change in energy level of fluid due to the
centrifugal energy
 Radial turbomachine are of two types :-
 Inward Flow type
 Radial Gas Turbines – the fluid transfer its centrifugal
energy to the rotor in flowing from a larger to a small
radius
 Outward Flow Type
 Compressors, blowers, fan and pumps – as there
purpose is to increase the energy level of the fluid

 Ljungstrom Steam Turbine is a double rotation

outward radial turbine
AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

 Inlet area Ai = π/4 (d2t - d2h ) = πdh

A1 = πd1b1 and A2 = πd2b2
 Both for inward and outward radial stages, at the entry,
a compressible fluid has the largest volume requiring a
correspondingly large area – not suitable for
aeroengines of aircrafts– large frontal area – large drag
 Radial flow stage do not offer the best geometrical
configuration for high flow rates.
 Leads to higher losses and lower efficiencies – as flow
invariably turns through 90° traversing through a much
longer blade passage as compared to that in axial types.
 Situation becomes complicated in multi-stage radial
machine – continuous change of direction. Undesirable
feature both mechanically and aerodynamically.
Therefore-single stage radial machines or very few
restricted to 3 stages.
 Power is directly proportional to mass flow rate –
number of stages are limited in radial type as compared
to axial type – therefore not suited for large power
requirements.
 Radial rotor mechanically stronger – employs higher
peripheral speeds – resulting in Higher Pr. Ratio
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

Outward Flow Radial Turbine (Ljungstrom Turbine)

 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Fluid Flow

Direction
 Mixed Flow Stages
 Flow in a turbine , pump or
blower stage is partly radial
and partly axial – combines
advantages of both the axial
and radial types
 Flow at exit – components in
both axial and radial
directions
 Widely used in hydraulic
pumps and turbines, and in
some blowers

 No success story yet in turbo-

machines
Mixed Flow Stage Machine
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Fluid Used

 Air (aircraft engines, fans)
 Water (Pumps, hydro turbine)
 Steam (Steam turbine , boilers)
 Gases (combustion gases)
* Compressor (Rotor-Stator), Turbine (Stator-Rotor)
 Based on Number of Stages
 Single Stage (consists of rotor and stator)
 Multiple stages
 Large change in energy level required
 Flow in compressors/blowers are decelerating and demands gentle
compression over a small pressure rise. This becomes necessary to
prevent high losses associated with boundary layer separation in a
adverse pressure gradient. Thus a high pressure producing
turbomachine has a much larger number of stages compared to an
equivalent power producing machine
 Employ only impulse or reaction stage or combination
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Method of Energy Transfer

 Impulse Stages
- No Change of static or pressure head in rotor
-Rotor blades only transfer energy without energy
transformation
-Energy transformation from pressure or static head to
kinetic energy or vice versa takes place only in fixed
blades (stator)
-For e.g.: Transfer of K.E of a high velocity fluid to the
rotor in an impulse turbine occurs only due to the
impulsive action of the fluid on the rotor. Rotor
passages
do not cause any acceleration of the fluid, chances of its
separation due to boundary layer growth on the blade
surface are greater.
-As a result, the rotor blade passages of the impulse
m/c suffer greater losses –lower stage efficiencies
Impulse Turbine Stage
- Examples of Impulse m/c are – Paddle Wheel, Pelton
Wheel and Curtis Steam turbine
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Method of Energy Transfer

 Reaction Stages
- Changes in static or pressure head occurs both in the rotor
and stator
-Energy transformation occurs both in fixed as well as moving
blades
-Rotor experiences both energy transfer and transformation
-Therefore, reaction turbines are expected to be more
efficient on account of the continuously accelerating flow and
lower losses.
- Degree of Reaction = Change in Static or Pr. Head in rotor
------------------------------------------------
Total Change in Static or Pr. Head in stage

- Examples : Lawn sprinkler and Parson’s steam turbine

Reaction Turbine Stage

 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

- Axial
flow turbines and compressors
have symmetrical blades in their rotors
and stators.
- Velocity triangle at the entry and exit
of a 50% stage are also symmetrical
A : Area of cross-section
b : Blade width
c : Absolute velocity of the fluid
d : Rotor diameter
h : Blade height
u : Peripheral/tangential velocity of rotor blades
w : Relative velocity of the fluid
α : direction of the absolute velocity vector
β : direction of the relative velocity vector
x : Axial
t : tip
h : hub 50% Reaction Turbine Stage
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

- Axial
flow turbines and compressors
have symmetrical blades in their rotors
and stators.
- Velocity triangle at the entry and exit
of a 50% stage are also symmetrical
A : Area of cross-section
b : Blade width
c : Absolute velocity of the fluid
d : Rotor diameter
h : Blade height
u : Peripheral/tangential velocity of rotor blades
w : Relative velocity of the fluid
α : direction of the absolute velocity vector
β : direction of the relative velocity vector
x : Axial
t : tip
h : hub 50% Reaction Compressor Stage
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Method of Energy Transfer

 Variable Reaction Stages or why twisted blades are used ?
- In large axial machine, blade length are considerable resulting in large change in
peripheral speeds from hub to tip of the rotor.
- Flow parameters in such stages experiences appreciable variation along the blade height
- Under this conditions it is difficult to maintain degree of reaction constant throughout
the blade height
- For example : in blade section, Root of the rotor blade may be purely impulse while at
other sections (higher radii) may exhibit progressively increasing degree of reaction
-Therefore, in a long blade of an axial flow turbine, compressors, fan, Degree of Reaction
is variable from hub to tip.
- To avoid or to ensure Degree of Reaction
remains constant from hub to tip :
twisted blades are employed
 STAGE VELOCITY TRIANGLES LECT-1

 Flow geometry at the entry and exit at stage is described by velocity triangles

 All types of turbo-machines have a finite cross section at the entry and exit.
Therefore, the magnitude of velocity vectors and their directions vary over the
sections – resulting requirement of infinite number of velocity triangles to fully
describe the flow. This is not possible

 Single pair of velocity triangles will only represent one dimensional flow through
the stage

 Mean velocity vectors and their directions are taken for blade rows of given
geometries and flow conditions – as a result it is possible to draw the mean
velocity triangles for the stage
c=u+w
Absolute velocity vector = peripheral velocity vector + relative velocity vector

 For axial machine u1 = u2 = u3

 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Compressibility
- Fluids are a subcategory of the matter which includes gases and
liquids. Gases and liquids called fluids because of their ability to
flow, ability to deform when a force is applied, and high fluidity.
- At the atomic level, fluids are composed of atoms or
molecules which flow easily; they are not tightly packed and fluid
obtains the shape of the container which it occupies.
- The main difference between compressible and incompressible
fluid is that a force applied to a compressible fluid changes
the density of a fluid whereas a force applied to an
incompressible fluid does not change the density to a
considerable degree. 
- Although almost all fluids are compressible, liquids are known as
incompressible fluids and gases are called compressible fluids.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

• What is Compressible Fluid?

– In general, gases (and plasma=ionized gas)
are called compressible fluid.
– In normal temperature and pressure 
conditions, the volume or the density of a fluid
does not change. But gases show variation in
volume (hence in density) in the presence of
even small variations in temperature or pressure.
To name a particular fluid compressible, it should show a considerable change
of density when a pressure or a force is applied.
– At the molecular level, when a pressure is applied on a gas, the pressure
affects the gas in all directions, causing the molecules of the gas to result in
a high degree of collisions. These collisions give more time for the gas
molecules to interact with each other and more attraction forces between
molecules may occur. These attraction forces reduce the motion of gas
molecules. This results in the compression of the gas.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

• What is Incompressible Fluid?

– Liquids are called incompressible fluid. The volume or
the density of liquids is not changed easily when a
pressure is applied on it. According to fluid dynamics,
the ratio between flow velocity and the velocity of
sound in the medium should be less than 0.3 for a fluid
to be incompressible.  
- Hence, this ratio is less than 0.3 for liquids, making it an
incompressible fluid.
– Unlike in gases, the molecules or atoms of the liquids are more closely
packed (not tightly packed as in solids). Thus, a pressure applied on liquid
does not change the density to a considerable degree. In other words, the
volume of the liquid is not reduced with an applied pressure on the liquid.
– Although liquids are considered as incompressible according to the fluid
dynamics, liquids are also compressible when a pressure is applied but the
change of the density or volume is too small to be calculated. Hence, it is
considered as an incompressible fluid.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Compressibility
 Compressible Flow Machines

 Finite change in the temperature of the working fluid is a typical

characteristic of this class of machines which distinguishes them from other
turbo machines

 This class of machines with predominantly compressible flows are referred

to as “Compressible Flow or Thermal Turbomachines”

 They are characterized by higher temperature and peripheral speed of the

rotor

 Therefore, their design and operation are influenced by compressible flows,

high temp. and speed problems

 Basically P1 (Inlet pr) not equal to P2 (final outlet pr)

 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

 Based on Compressibility
 Incompressible Flow Machines
 Fluid or water is incompressible giving a constant volume flow rate for a
given mass flow rate in a steady operation
 Density of water is about 800 times that of compressible air. Force required
to accelerate a given qty of water is much larger compared to that required
for air – resulting in lower fluid and rotor velocity
 Turbomachines dealing with gases over a small pressure difference also
behave as incompressible flow machines. This is because of negligible
changes in the temperature and density of the fluid across the machine
 Examples : Fans, low pressure blowers, airscrews, windmill etc
 Majority of incompressible flow machines work near ambient conditions
and are comparatively low speed and low temp. machines. This makes
running and maintenance much easier compared to thermal
turbomachines
 AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

 Why use of turbo machines ?

 What are the drawbacks of PDM ?
 Difference between PDM and Turbomachines

Positive Displacement Machine (PDM) Turbomachine

Slow speed machine due to mechanical High speed machine since no mechanical
constraints limitations exist

Volumetric Efficiency is low Volumetric Efficiency is close to 100%

Mass Flow rate is limited Mass Flow rate is very high

Thermodynamic process is close to Thermodynamic process is adiabatic

isothermal process
Fluid property is unaffected by surrounding Fluid property is affected by surrounding

Closed System Open System

 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINE LECT-1

Extended Turbomachines
 Most of the turbomachines are closed in casing which guide a finite flow
through them.
 For examples : steam and gas turbines, compressors and fans
 In contrast to these enclosed machines, aircraft propellers and windmills are
open and interact with an “ infinite sea” of air – these machines are called
Extended Turbomachines
 The airscrew (propeller) accelerates the atmospheric air rearward thus moving
the aircraft forward
 The windmill or wind turbines are also examples of extended turbo machines
which transfers the wind energy to the aero generator
 AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-1

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
of Axial Compressor
  Length of arrows(vectors) Inlet air and B 1
are same-indicates that no change in
velocity. Inlet guide vanes only deflect the
air to a predetermined angle toward the
direction of the rotation of rotor.

B1 and B2 – vectors are different length.

Showing diffusion is occurring in the form of
a velocity loss and a pressure gain.

 C2(stator entrance) is longer than

C3(stator discharge) because of addition of
energy to the air by the rotor rotation. This
shows another velocity loss and pressure
gain exactly like that occurring through the
rotor.
 Discharge of rotor B2 seems to be at
incorrect angle to enter the first stage
stator, but due to presence of rotary air
motion caused by the turning compressor ,
the resultant C2 and B3 are produced, which
shows true air flow through compressor.
Vector Analysis of Airflow through Axial Flow Compressor
  Thus in stage (rotor and stator)- rotor
and stator causes a pressure rise to occur at
the expenses of its discharge velocity, the
air’s rotary motion restores the velocity
energy at each blade’s entrance, for it, in
turn, to convert to pressure energy.
 Both the rotor and stator blades are
diffusing the airflow.
 It is more difficult to obtain an efficient
deceleration of airflow than it is to get
efficient acceleration, because there is a
natural tendency in a diffusion process for
the air to break away from the walls of the
diverging passage, reverse its direction , and
flow back in the direction of pressure
gradient of lower pressure.
 A pressure ratio of approx. 1.2 is all that
can be handled by a single stage, since
higher rates of diffusion and excessive
turning angles on the blades result in
excessive air instability, hence low efficiency
—thus multistage axial compresor
Vector Analysis of Airflow through Axial Flow Compressor
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION LECT-1

• Rotor
– Adds swirl to flow
– Adds kinetic energy to flow
with ½v2
– Increases total energy
carried in flow by increasing
angular momentum

• Stator
– Removes swirl from flow
– Not a moving blade →
cannot add any net energy
to flow
– Converts kinetic energy
associated with swirl to
internal energy by raising
static pressure of flow.
46
 MULTISTAGING LECT-1

WHY MULTI-STAGING?

 A pressure ratio of approx. 1.2 is all that can be handled by a single stage, since higher rates
of diffusion and excessive turning angles on the blades result in excessive air instability, hence
low efficiency—thus multistage axial compressor

 For a given rotor speed only a limited change in the energy level of the fluid can occur in a
turbomachine stage. This hold equally for turbines, compressors, pumps and blowers.
Therefore, in applications where a large change in the energy level is required, more stages
are employed.

 Flow in a multi-stage arrangement is decelerating and demands a gentle compression over a

small pressure rise. This becomes necessary to prevent high losses associated with boundary
layer separation in a adverse pressure gradient. Thus a high pressure producing turbomachine
has a much larger number of stages compared to an equivalent power producing machine.

 Multistage machine may employ only impulse or reaction stages or a combination of these.
 NEXT VIRTUAL LECTURE

 Next lecture, we will study

 Thermodynamics
 Basic Definitions and Laws
 Energy Equation
 Adiabatic Flow through Nozzle and Diffuser
 Work and Efficiencies : Compressors & Turbines