Climate Change and Pests: Invasion, Emergence, Outbreak and Management, Pages 153–167

Edited by: Pravin B. Khaire, Chandrakant G. Sawant and Vinodkumar S. Naik

Copyright © 2024, Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, India

CHAPTER 11

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN

DISEASE OUTBREAK OF FRUIT
CROPS
Aradhana Bordoloi*, Niharika Saharia, Jutika Goswami and
Priyam Nandini Boruah
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The effects of climate change on diverse ecological systems and human activities have
become a serious global challenge. Agriculture, particularly fruit crops production, is one
of the sectors that has been significantly impacted by climate change. This chapter
highlights how climate change affects disease outbreaks in fruit crops and affects agricultural
productivity and food security.The chapter looks deeply into the complex interaction
between climate change and disease dynamics in fruit crops. It explores how changes in
temperature and precipitation patterns can foster the growth of plant pathogens, boosting
disease development and escalating the severity of outbreaks. Temperature increases may
encourage the activity and population growth of some pests, including insects, mites, and
nematodes, which can serve as carriers of plant diseases.
The overall health and resilience of fruit crops can be impacted by changes in the
timing of seasonal events like flowering or fruit ripening, which can lead to mismatches
between plants and their pollinators or dispersal agents. The study also covers specific
instances of disease outbreaks in important fruit crops, like powdery mildew in grapevine
vineyards, apple scab in apple orchards, panama and black sigatoka disease in banana
orchard, anthracnose in strawberry, leaf curl in peaches, canker and citrus greening in
citrus groves etc. It studies potential management techniques to lessen their effects and
discusses how climate change factors affect the prevalence, distribution, and severity of
these diseases. The chapter ends with an appeal for further investigation and coordination
between researchers, decision makers, and agricultural stakeholders to improve our
understanding of the intricate relationships between climate change and disease outbreaks
in fruit crops. It highlights the necessity of using integrated and sustainable strategies
to protect fruit crop production systems from the effects of a rapidly changing climate.
154 Climate Change and Pests: Invasion, Emergence, Outbreak and Management

Keywords: Climate change, severity of outbreak, resilience, powdery mildew,

intricate relationship

1. INTRODUCTION
The phrase “climate change” refers to significant and long-lasting changes in
weather patterns; in fact, it is the greatest hazard challenging humanity in the
twenty-first century. It is caused by the acceleration of temperature rise, changes
in rainfall patterns, rising sea levels, intrusion of salt water, and the occurrence
of floods and droughts, among other factors (Bates et al., 2008; Pathak et al.,
2012). It is a phenomenon that has far-reaching implications for various aspects
of our ecosystem, environment, including agriculture. The effects of climate change
on agriculture are becoming more obvious as global temperatures increase and
weather patterns grow more unpredictable. One of the many difficulties brought
on by climate change is its impact on disease outbreaks in fruit crops, which are
essential for maintaining ecological balance, economic stability, and global food
security.
Fruit crops play a crucial role in global agriculture, contributing significantly
to human nutrition, economic growth, and livelihoods. According to Slavin and
Lloyd (2012), these crops have high concentrations of dietary fiber, antioxidants,
vitamins, minerals, notably electrolytes, and phytochemicals. However, the health
and productivity of these crops are threatened by a range of factors, with climate
change emerging as a potent driver of disease outbreaks. Recent climate change
appears to have an impact on the phenology, global distribution, and local abundance
of plants and pollinators (Lal et al., 2018). As global temperatures rise, weather
patterns become more unpredictable, and climatic extremes occur more frequently,
the interactions between plants and their diseases are shifting in complex manners.
The interaction between disease outbreaks in fruit crops and climate change also
demonstrates the intricate and varied nature of environmental influences on
agriculture. It is crucial to understand the complex links between climate and plant
diseases as we traverse the uncharted waters of a changing climate. This
knowledge will guide the development of adaptable strategies that minimize the
effects of climate change on the health of fruit crops and increase the resilience
of agricultural systems. Interdisciplinary collaborations combining plant pathology,
climatology, agronomy, and policy-making are required to address the relationship
between climate change and disease. By combining the knowledge and expertise
of these fields, we can better predict disease outbreaks, develop resilient crop
varieties, implement sustainable agricultural practices, and formulate policies that
mitigate the impacts of climate change on fruit crop production.
 Influence of Climate Change in Disease Outbreak of Fruit Crops 155

2. CLIMATE CHANGE AND PLANT DISEASE INTERACTION

There are many records about the likely impact of changes in climate on pest
population, disease incidence and severity, its spatial distribution in agricultural and
horticultural crops (Skendzic et al., 2021; Velasquez et al., 2018; Ahanger et al.,
2013). Theoretically, climate change may make plants more susceptible to infection
by modifying host-pathogen interactions, host-pathogen evolution, and vector
physiology, as well as by promoting the emergence of new pathogen strains that
can weaken host-plant resistance (Singh et al., 2023).There is a simple concept
of disease triangle wherein host-pathogen interactions in an ecosystem made up
of all biotic and abiotic elements result in intricate interactions between pathogens
and hosts that cause plant diseases. Epidemics can only occur when virulent
diseases, susceptible plant hosts, and favorable circumstances interacts or co-
exists in space and time (Scholthof, 2007). Thus, the dynamic variations in climate
affect not only the host vulnerability and pathogen pathogenicity but also the
environment that supports the interaction, such as modifications in natural enemies,
landscape structure, soil characteristics, and community composition. Given the
intricate and complex interaction between the host plant, pest and environment;
it’s very difficult to accurately predict how climate change may affect plant
disease. Moreover, climate change can also indirectly influence disease incidences;
for instance; change in rainfall patterns or temperature increase can alter the
current land use for crops, resulting in novel plant pathogen or pest problems.
Conversely, climate change may restrict the prevalence of a pest/pathogen or a
crop as well, subsequently restricting the occurrence of disease or pest infestation.
The evolving landscape of climate change and its repercussions on plant diseases
underscores the need for continued research and vigilance in agricultural and
horticultural sectors. The intricate interplay between host plants, pests, and the
environment necessitates ongoing investigation and adaptation to ensure the
resilience of our crops in the face of a changing climate.

3. DISEASE OUTBREAK IN FRUIT CROPS DUE TO CLIMATE

CHANGE
Effect of different climatic factors in different fruit crops
1. Mango: High temperature in combination with low humidity and high winds
affects the growth of the trees adversely. When the temperature exceeds 35-
degree Celsius cause sun burning when fruits are in maturity stage. In both
bearing and on bearing trees the main symptoms of heat stroke are scorching
of leaves and drying of twigs. In mango, the major effects of climate change
were early flowering or delayed flowering, poor fruit set, multiplication of
reproductive flushes, reproductive bud’s transformation into vegetative ones,
156 Climate Change and Pests: Invasion, Emergence, Outbreak and Management

changes in the fruit maturity etc. (Rajan et al., 2011). Spongy tissue is one
of the major ripening disorders with white corky tissue or internal breakdown
mainly Alphonso mango variety. Die back, anthracnose, red rust, sooty mould
are main diseases which occurs due to high humidity and high temperature.
Powdery mildew, Phoma blight, scab occurs during rainy season with high
soil moisture. Black tip, Jhumka or clustering, mango malformation is also
some of the physiological disorders that occurs due to harmful gases such as
carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide etc (Zhang et al., 1995). It has been reported
that fruit fly attack in heavy rainfall regions accelerates yield loss. Leaf
hopper as one of the devastating pests of mango feeds on leaves and transmit
virus. 15 to 35°C but their development declined when the temperature
exceeded 35°C (Ahmed et al., 2023).
2. Banana: In banana outbreaks of sigatoka disease and development of infection
is illustrated as relationship with the temperature rise and increased leaf
wetness duration, where infection raised up by 44.2 per cent across the
banana plantation (Bebber, 2019). Fusarium oxysporum species is highly
active in summer which spreads from the feeder roots, rhizome, and later
from the pseudo stem. Higher rate of black sigatoka leaf spot infection is
found takes place during high rainfall and humidity (Muimba-Kankolongo,
2018). Degreening of banana is one of the major physiological disorders
which occurs at high temperature more than 24 degree Celsius where
Cavendish subgroup fails to degree when ripen. Chock throat is another
physiological disorder which is caused when low temperature period
synchronizes the bunch period as during low winter temperature there is
reduction in the length of leaf inter-node as well as reduced elongation of
bunch stem. In banana, drought stress reduces finger numbers during flower
initiation and after emergence there will be poor filling of fingers. (Holder
and Gumbs, 1983),(Mahouachi, 2007). Banana blood disease which is caused
by Ralstonia syzygii subsp.Celebesensi is one of the devastating diseases
of Indonesia and Malaysia with significant yield loss of more than 35% on
average (Blomme et al., 2017).
3. Pineapple: Prolonged drought and elevated temperature are the main reasons
for disease outbreaks in pineapple. Fluctuations in rainfall pattern exhibit a
greater impact in pineapple productivity by increasing the growth phases,
increasing production costs, changing the number and quality of pineapples
produced and specifically influencing the vegetative and yield formation stages
of pineapple (Williams et al., 2017). Sunscald of pineapple is one of the major
physiological disorders which occurs due to high temperature where the cells
of exposed part of the fruits becomes dry, brownish to black colour and
cracks appear in between the fruit lets. Phytopthora root rot caused by the
 Influence of Climate Change in Disease Outbreak of Fruit Crops 157

fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi which occurs in poorly drained areas but

may also be heavily attacked after prolonged rainfall and humid weather
(Anderson et al.,2012). Pink disease of pineapple was first observed in
Hawaii, 1900 caused by Pantoea citrea, Acetobacter aceti, and
Gluconobacterexydan gram negative bacteria that spreads through open
flowers during cool weather, reaches peak in dry conditions before the
flowering time, followed by a rainfall during flowering period (Joy and Sindhu,
2012)
4. Jackfruit: In jackfruit Rhizopus fruit rot caused by the fungus Rhizopus
stolonifer, Rhizopus artocarpi, and Rhizopus oryzae is a severe dangerous
disease to jackfruit plantation which occurs frequently in areas with high
rainfall or after stormy periods when flowering and fruiting season coincides
with warm, humid, and wet weather.
5. Papaya: Under very high temperature and humid condition Papaya leaf curl
disease occur caused by Papaya leaf curl virus transmitted by white fly
(Bemisiatobaci) which gives rise to Curling, crinkling and distorted leaves,
reduction of leaf lamina, rolling of leaf margins inward and downward,
thickening of veins. Leaves become leathery, brittle and distorted, higher
temperatures in papaya have a greater impact in flower drops in both female
and hermaphrodite plants and sex changes as well in hermaphrodite and male
plants. Stigma and stamen sterility in papaya is mainly because of higher
temperatures. But on the other hand, low temperature has an adverse impact
on flower drop, stunted growth (Reddy et al., 2017).
Some of the physiological disorders of papaya such as skin freckle occur
when exposed to higher solar radiation. Hard lumps in papaya plant are
reported to be another physiological disorder caused by the inactivation of the
degrading enzymes in the cell wall in response to stress due high temperatures.
These same enzymes inhibit the emission of ethylene and change the color
of the papaya skin and pulp.
6. Citrus: Granulation is one of the serious physiological disorders of citrus
commonly in Northern plains of India which is more prevalent in large size
fruits and young trees. Late maturity and persistent cold weather throughout
the period of maturity have been found to increase the incidence of granulation.
Fruit drop is another problem which occurs in 3 pronounced stages (i) first
fruit drop immediately after fruit set at pea stage which lasts for one month
after full bloom, referred as post-set drop, (ii) the second fruit drop occurs
at the onset of hot summer weather during May-June, known as June drop,
and (iii) pre harvest drop occurs during ripening period, which lasts from
August to December-January (Jaykumar. P, 2011)
158 Climate Change and Pests: Invasion, Emergence, Outbreak and Management

7. Apple: Apple generally requires chilling hours for 1000 -1500 hours at 7
degrees Celsius but due to increase in earth’s surface temperature resulted
by climate change at present this requirement is not fulfilled (IPPC, 2007).
According to meteorological data gathered from RHRS meteorological data
gathered from RHRS for the period 2001-2015, showed a much lesser yield
of Royal Delicious variety due to the warmer climate (Sharma et al., 2013).
Chand et al. 2016 reported that during the analysis of last five years of Kullu
valley indicated that apple cultivation is shifting towards higher elevation
because of unsuitable climatic condition which is becoming unfavorable in
coming years due to reduced chilling hours in the mid-hill sub-humid zone of
valley as a result of the increase in surface air temperature. In the mid hill’s
apple scab, scale root and canker disease infection were found to be profound
one and at low hills pest attack on apple crops are considered as the indicators
of climate change.
8. Litchi: Kumar et al. 2012 reported that in a survey of litchi orchards due
to fluctuations in temperature ten insect pests viz., red weevil
(Apoderusblandus), semilooper (Anisodesillepidaria) and bagworm
(Eumetacrameri) and one disease viz., leaf and twig blight (Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides and Gloeosporium sp.) were identified as new threats to
litchi crop. Red weevils were prevalent around the year except extreme cool
and hot weather months, while semiloopers were prevalent from September
to February and bagworms from November to February. Whereas, semilooper
and bagworm were reported for the first time in India. Leaf and twig blight
disease begins from August and continues to the end of February.
9. Grapes: Downy mildew is found worldwide disease of grapes occurring
primarily where warm, humid conditions exist during the growing season.
Higher temperature may advance the ripening of berries and alter the berry
composition in both table and wine grapes, thereby affecting the quality of
the produce (Sharma et al., 2013). Changes in temperatures and humidity
may increase the presence of insects and insect-borne diseases. It was found
that Glassy-winged Sharpshooter insect vector has brought Pierce’s disease
to California. With the increase in temperature this disease might move to
northward. Pierce’s disease (Xylella fastidiosa) is highly temperature
dependent with ample of moisture in the atmosphere is more convenient for
its spread (Tate, 2001). Caffarra et al. 2012 reported that an increase in
temperature may increase vineyard’s susceptibility to the European Grapevine
Moth and powdery mildew.
 Influence of Climate Change in Disease Outbreak of Fruit Crops 159

4. LOCATION SPECIFIC SPREAD OF FRUIT TREE DISEASES

DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
1. Occurrence of arecanut blast in Maharashtra due to unusual weather:
Unusual rainfall and irregular weather patterns have had serious negative
effects on Karnataka, causing significant crop loss and destruction. Climate
change has not only resulted in erratic and heavy rains but has also brought
with it harmful pathogens. Over a lakh of areca nut growers in the state in
12 districts face problems of blast diseases. This diseasehas the potential to
wipe off over 70 % of standing plantations in the state in all 12 districts
particularly in Chikkamgaluru district. (Shreyas, 2022)
2. Outbreak of Fire blight in apple in Virginia: Fire blight is a contagious
and often deadly disease that affects apples and other pome fruits, such as
Asian pears. In the past 15 years, frequent warm and rainy weather during
spring has ignited fire blight outbreaks in Virginia, resulting in losses of up to
182 crore rupees per year in apple and pear crop production. The mid-
Atlantic, northeast, and Pacific Northwest are the areas that are particularly
affected as reported in Vtnews, 2023.

Fig. 1. A few diseases prevalent in fruit crops (1. Leaf anthracnose in mango; 2. Sigatoka
Leaf Spot of Banana; 3. Phytophthora Root Rot in Pineapple;4. Jackfruit Rhizopus
Fruit Rot; 5. Papaya Leaf Curl Disease; 6. Granulation of Citrus; 7. Apple Scab; 8.
Leaf and Twig Blight of Litch)
Table 1: Important diseases of fruits emerging due to climate change

Crop Diseases Causes Yield loss Reference

Arecanut Blast(Phytopthoraarecae) Unusual rainfall and irregular weather 70 % Shreyas, 2022
Apple Fire blight(Erwinia amylovora) Frequent warm and rainy weather during spring Rs. 182 crore per year Vtnews, 2023
Canker (Neonectriaditissima) Extreme summer heat 70% Horton, 2023
Pear Canker (pear blister canker viroid
(PBCVd) Extreme summer heat 65% Horton, 2023
Banana Fusarium wilt(Fusarium oxysporum) Under high temperature and high humidity 70 % Jamil et al., 2019
Banana blood disease Excess temperature and alternate rainfall 35 % Blomme et al.,
(Ralstonia syzygii subsp. Celebesensi) 2012
Black sigatoka (Cercospora musae High rainfall and humidity 40 % (Muimba-
Zimm, Mycosphaerella musicola) Kankolongo, 2018
Grapes Downy mildew (Plasmoparaviticola) Wet and humid 40 to 60% Sharma et al., 1993
Powdery mildew (Uncinulanecator) Early summer temperature followed by rainfall 60 to 70 % Liyanage et al.,
2016
Botrytis Bunch Rot (B. cinerea) High humidity and increased temperature 50 % Shen et al., 2012
Papaya Papaya ring spot disease High temperature and humidity 70 % Thirugnanavel
et al., 2015
Pineapple Pierce’s disease (Xylella fastidiosa) highly temperature dependent with ample of 55% Tate, 2001
moisture
Durian Patch canker(P. palmivora) High rainfall 20-25 % Drenth and Guest,
2004
Jackfruit Rhizopus fruit rot (Rhizopus stolonifer, High rainfall or after stormy periods,fruiting 15-32 % Sidhu, 2012
Rhizopus artocarp) season coincides with warm, humid, and wet
weather
160 Climate Change and Pests: Invasion, Emergence, Outbreak and Management

Mango Bloosom blight(C. gloeosporioides) Continuous wet weather with relative 30-40% Prakash, 1996
humidity 95 %
Bacterial canker(Xanthomonas citripv. High relative humidity (above 90%) and 30-32 % Kishun and Sohi,
mangiferaeidicae) temperatures between 25-30°C 1983
 Influence of Climate Change in Disease Outbreak of Fruit Crops 161

3. Spread of fruit tree diseases in UK due to warm weather: As per the

Royal Horticulture Society (RHS) report, extreme summer heat in UK causes
many plants to become stressed and more susceptible to some diseases like
apple and pear canker etc. And during autumn, rain coupled with mild
temperature provided the perfect breeding ground for the diseases to spread
as majority of fungal spores require warm, humid weather for dissemination.
(Horton, 2023)
4. Unusual weather and heat wave in mango growing areas of Uttar
Pradesh: Jafri (2022) reported that problems of fruit borers and semi loopers
has been increased in the mango producing areas of Malihabad, Lucknow
due to increased temperature resulting from climate change. Infestation by
these pests begins during fruiting period and the fruits lost its market value.
Again, a maximum temperature of 30 to 35 degrees Celsius is required during
the flowering season, but in 2022, the temperature jumped to 40 degrees
Celsius in March, damaging mango flowers. The All-India Mango Growers
Association (AIMGA) reported that the extreme heat wave and unusual
weather have severely reduced mango production in UP by about 80%. The
loss of the crop has caused thousands of Uttar Pradesh mango growers to
go through hardship.

5. PREVENTION, MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION:

Prevention, mitigation, and adaptation are three key strategies to address outbreaks
of diseases in fruit crops dueto climate change. Each strategy focuses on different
aspects of managing the risks associated with changing environmental conditions
and disease dynamics.
1. Prevention
● Quarantine Measures: Prevent the introduction and spread of diseases
by implementing strict quarantine measures. This involves monitoring and
regulating the movement of plants, plant products, and equipment to
minimize the transmission of pathogens across regions.
● Sanitation Practices: Implement rigorous sanitation practices on farms
to reduce the buildup and spread of disease-causing pathogens. This
includes cleaning equipment, removing diseased plant material, and
practicing proper waste disposal.
● Certified Plant Material: Use disease-free and certified planting material
to reduce the initial introduction of pathogens into orchards and fields.
● Biosecurity Protocols: Develop and enforce biosecurity protocols to
control access to orchards and farms, minimizing the risk of disease
introduction by humans, animals, or equipment.
162 Climate Change and Pests: Invasion, Emergence, Outbreak and Management

● Crop Rotation: Rotate crops to disrupt the life cycles of pathogens and
reduce disease pressure. Planting non-host crops in between fruit crops
can help break disease cycles.
● Resistant Varieties: Plant fruit varieties that are naturally resistant or
tolerant to prevalent diseases. Breeding programs can focus on developing
and promoting such resistant varieties.
2. Mitigation
● Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPM): Implement IPM
strategies that integrate various control methods, including biological control,
cultural practices, and judicious pesticide use. This approach helps manage
disease populations while minimizing environmental impacts.
● Monitoring and Early Detection: Regularly monitor fruit crops for
signs of disease. Early detection allows for timely intervention, reducing
the spread of pathogens.
● Fungicides and Pesticides: When necessary, use fungicides and
pesticides following recommended guidelines. Employ these chemicals
judiciously to minimize environmental harm and the development of
resistance.
● Soil Health Management: Improve soil health through practices such
as cover cropping, organic matter incorporation, and reduced tillage.
Healthy soils promote vigorous plant growth and disease resistance.
● Water Management: Implement efficient irrigation practices to maintain
optimal moisture levels and reduce the risk of fungal diseases caused by
excess moisture.
● Biological Control: Utilize beneficial microorganisms, predators, and
parasites to control disease-causing pathogens naturally. Biocontrol agents
can be eco-friendly alternative to chemical interventions.
● Shade and Microclimate Control: Use shade nets or row covers to
regulate temperature and humidity, creating less favorable conditions for
disease development.
3. Adaptation
● Climate-Resilient Varieties: Select fruit crop varieties that are adapted
to changing climate conditions and are less susceptible to prevalent diseases.
Breeding programs can focus on developing climate-resilient cultivars.
● Adjusted Planting Practices: Modify planting schedules, spacing, and
orchard layouts to align with changing climate conditions. This can help
reduce disease risk and optimize fruit quality.
 Influence of Climate Change in Disease Outbreak of Fruit Crops 163

● Weather Data and Predictive Models: Utilize weather data and disease
modeling to predict disease outbreaks and make informed decisions about
disease management practices.
● Research and Innovation: Invest in research and innovation to better
understand the interaction between climate change and disease dynamics
in fruit crops. Develop and adopt new technologies and practices that
enhance resilience.
● Education and Training: Provide training and education to farmers
about climate change adaptation strategies and best practices for disease
management in the context of a changing climate.
● Policy Support: Governments and agricultural organizations can provide
policy support, financial incentives, and subsidies to encourage the adoption
of climate-adaptive practices.
● Collaboration and Information Sharing: Foster collaboration among
farmers, researchers, and extension services to share knowledge and
experiences in mitigating disease outbreaks and adapting to climate change.
By combining these prevention, mitigation, and adaptation strategies, fruit
growers can effectively manage disease outbreaks in the face of climate change
while maintaining the long-term sustainability of their crops and livelihoods.

6. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the management of disease outbreaks in fruit crops in the face of
climate change requires a multifaceted and forward-thinking approach. Combining
prevention, mitigation, and adaptation strategies is essential to safeguard fruit crop
production and ensure food security in a changing world. The future strategies
outlined above provide a roadmap for researchers, growers, and policymakers to
tackle this pressing challenge effectively. Addressing climate change-induced
disease outbreaks in fruit crops is not only critical for agricultural sustainability but
also for the well-being of communities reliant on these essential food sources.

7. FUTURE STRATEGIES
Looking ahead, several key strategies and areas of research need to be emphasized
to further enhance the management of disease outbreaks in fruit crops in the
context of climate change:
● Advanced Breeding Programs: Continued investment in breeding programs
is essential to develop fruit crop varieties with enhanced resistance to emerging
pathogens. These programs should prioritize the incorporation of genetic
traits that confer tolerance to a broader range of climate-related stresses.
164 Climate Change and Pests: Invasion, Emergence, Outbreak and Management

● Data-Driven Decision-Making: Integration of data analytics, machine

learning, and remote sensing technologies should be expanded to provide
real-time disease monitoring and prediction. Developing user-friendly decision
support systems that enable growers to make informed choices based on
evolving climate and disease dynamics is crucial.
● Global Collaboration: Disease outbreaks can transcend borders, and global
collaboration in monitoring, sharing information, and managing outbreaks is
vital. International organizations and governments should facilitate cooperation
among nations to mitigate the spread of diseases and pests.
● Climate-Resilient Practices: Research should focus on identifying and
promoting climate-resilient agricultural practices that go beyond disease
management. These practices should encompass sustainable water
management, soil health improvement, and integrated land-use planning to
enhance overall farm resilience.
● Policy and Financial Support: Governments and policymakers should enact
policies that incentivize the adoption of climate-resilient agricultural practices
and provide financial support to growers for implementing these strategies.
Tax incentives, subsidies, and insurance schemes can encourage growers to
invest in adaptation measures.
● Climate Education and Training: Disseminating knowledge about climate
change impacts and adaptive strategies is crucial. Training programs and
educational initiatives should target growers, extension agents, and agricultural
students to ensure the widespread adoption of climate-smart practices.
● Monitoring and Surveillance: Enhanced disease monitoring and surveillance
networks should be established to detect and respond rapidly to disease
outbreaks. This includes early warning systems that integrate climate and
disease data to provide timely alerts.

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