Chapter

Factors Affecting Yield of Crops

Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles

Abstract

A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for

the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in
crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in
a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three
basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial deci-
sion, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic
condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for
yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will
discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations
for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart
agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop
production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world
formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture.

Keywords: crop, yield, production, food, agriculture, environment

1. Introduction

Agriculture is a key activity of human being since it provides basic needs such as
food, clothing and shelter. It has been demonstrated that every 1% increase in agricul-
tural yield translates into a 0.6–1.2% decrease in the numbers of absolute poor house-
holds in the world [1]. Meanwhile, population growth was predicted to be 9.7 billion
by 2050 and this will require an increase of about 70% in food production to meet
the demand [2]. Rainfed agriculture is projected to produce one-third or more of the
food increase in global food output for the coming decades. Unfortunately, agricul-
tural productivity depends on increasingly extreme weather phenomena. Thus, water
availability, air pollution, and temperature have a large impact in agriculture [3].
Several factors pose significant risk to farms leading to yield reduction when
they are not correctly monitored and well managed. These factors can be grouped
into three categories which are technological, biological and environmental [4]. The
pressure to increase crop production in many countries, has resulted in the expan-
sion of land area dedicated to agriculture and the intensification of cropland man-
agement through practices such as irrigation, use of large quantities of inputs like
inorganic fertilizers and synthetic chemicals for pest and weed control [5]. These
practices have resulted in degradation of soil properties and water quality, accelera-
tion of soil erosion, contamination of groundwater and decline of food quality. This
has prompted sustainable intensification initiatives to increase yields on existing
farmland while decreasing the environmental impact of agriculture [6–10].

1
Agronomy - Climate Change and Food Security

Organic crop production is one of the alternative agricultural practices pro-

moted for the reduction of environmental pollution. As a result, several countries
have introduced organic farming practices to replace the chemical-dependent ones
[11]. To conserve and regenerate soil properties, the maintenance of soil organic
matter (SOM) has received considerable attention. Although SOM is considered
key to soil health, its relationship with yield is contested because of local-scale
differences in soils, climate, and farming systems. The relationship between these
factors should be quantified and proper soil management strategies set up to ensure
sustainable crop production [5].
The impact of climate change in our agricultural systems is undoubtable. For
example, drought followed by intense rain can increase the flooding potential,
thereby creating conditions that favor fungal infestations of leaves, roots and tuber
crops. In addition, reduction of bees’ density due to global climate change has led
to local extinction of several plant species [12]. The production of enough food
to match population growth while preserving the environment is a key challenge,
especially in the face of climate change. This chapter will review factors affecting
yields of crops and provide some strategies to overcome yield loss while preserving
the environment.

2. Environmental factors affecting crop yields

The environmental factors affecting crop yields can be classified into abiotic and
biotic constraints. Actually, these factors are more intensified with global warming
which leads to climate change. Abiotic stresses adversely affect growth, productiv-
ity and trigger a series of morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular
changes in plants. The abiotic constraints include soil properties (soil components,
pH, physicochemical and biological properties), and climatic stresses (drought,
cold, flood, heat stress, etc.). On the other hand, biotic factors include beneficial
organisms (pollinators, decomposers and natural enemies), pests (arthropods,
pathogens, weeds, vertebrate pests) and anthropogenic evolution.

2.1 Abiotic constraints

2.1.1 Effects of climatic conditions on crops

Variations in annual rainfall, average temperature, global increase of atmo-

spheric CO2, and fluctuations in sea levels are some of the major manifestations of
climate change, which negatively impact crop yields [13]. Temperature and rainfall
changes are expected to significantly have negative impact on wide range of agricul-
tural activities for the next few decades. With the changing of climate, agriculture
faces increasing problems with extreme weather events leading to considerable
yield losses of crops. Most often, crop plants are sensitive to stresses since they were
mostly selected for high yield, and not for stress tolerance. Climate change is the
result of global warming. It has devastating effects on plant growth and crop yield
which can affects directly, indirectly, and socio-economically reduce crop yields by
up to 70% [14] (Figure 1a). Weather variations present positive and negative effects
in the environment with very high expression of negative effects (Figure 1b).
The regression analysis model between historical climatic data and yield data
for food crops over the last 30 years in Nepal showed an increase in temperature
of approximately 0.02–0.07°C per year in different seasons and a mixed trend in
precipitation [15]. Additionally, no significant impact of climate variables on yields
of all crops was observed and the regression analysis revealed negative relationships

2
Factors Affecting Yield of Crops
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90672

Figure 1.
General effects of climate change in agricultural production (a), the positive and negative impacts in the
environment (b) [13].

between maize yield and summer precipitation, between wheat yield and winter
minimum temperature, and finally positive relationship was observed between
millet yield and summer maximum temperature.

2.1.1.1 Drought

Drought refers to a situation in which the amount of available water through

rainfall and/or irrigation is insufficient to meet the evapotranspiration needs of the
crop [16]. Climate change is driven by changes in water availability (volumes and
seasonal distribution), and in water demand for agriculture and other competing
sectors. The impending climate change adversities are known to alter the abiotic
stresses like variable temperature regimes and their associated impacts on water

3
Agronomy - Climate Change and Food Security

availability leading to drought, increased diseases and pest’s incidence and extreme
weather events at local to regional scale [16]. Moisture or drought stress accounts
for about 30–70% loss of productivity of field crops during crop growth period
[16]. Drought stress can induce abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation in guard cells to
trigger stomatal closure [17]. Drought also results in abnormal metabolism that may
reduce plant growth, and/or cause the death of entire plant. Drought has different
effects at different stages of plant growth with the most sensitive growth stage
being flowering period.

2.1.1.2 Heat stress

Heat stress is the rise in temperature beyond a threshold level for a period
sufficient to cause permanent damage to plant growth and development [18].
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projected rise of the
temperature by 3–4° by 2050 [19, 20]. High temperature regimes due to climate
change affect the percentage of seed germination, photosynthetic efficiency, crop
phenology, reproductive biology, flowering times, pollen viability and pollinator
populations [16, 21]. Under heat stress at reproductive growth stage, the increase of
temperature prevents the swelling of pollen grains, which results in poor release of
pollen from the anther at dehiscence. Heat stress is deleterious to plant developmen-
tal stages, including generation and function of reproductive organs. Furthermore,
variable temperature regimes may result in unpredictable disease epidemics across
geographic regions in the world. Heat stress contributed about 40% to overall yield
loss of wheat [22], 1.0–1.7% yield loss per day in maize for every raise in tempera-
ture above 30°C [23].

2.1.1.3 Cold stress

Cold or chilling stress experiences by plants from 0 to 15°C [24], leads to major
crop losses. Various types of crops in tropical or subtropical origin are injured or
killed by non-freezing low temperatures, and exhibit different symptoms such as
poor germination, stunted seedlings, chlorosis, or growth retardation, reduced leaf
expansion and wilting and necrosis. In general, plants respond with changes in their
pattern of gene expression and protein synthesis when exposed to low temperatures
[25]. In general, plants from temperate climatic regions are considered to be chilling
tolerant with variable degree compare to tropical and sub-tropical crops, and can
increase their freezing tolerance by cold acclimation [26].

2.1.1.4 Soil properties

Soils are the uppermost part of the earth’s crust, formed mainly by the weath-
ering of rocks, formation of humus and material transfer. They vary in terms of
origin, appearance, characteristics and production capacity. Soil fertility is the
ability of a soil to deliver nutrients needed for the optimum growth of a specified
crop. Soil fertility is one of the most important factors in crop production [10]. It
has the ability to support crop production determined by the entire spectrum of its
physical, chemical and biological attributes. Soil fertility is one important aspect of
soil productivity since it is a major source of micronutrients (Fe, B, Cl, Mn, Zn, Cu,
Mo, Ni) and macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg, C, O, H) that are needed for plant
growth. The lack of these nutrients in the soil causes deficiencies in plants, and their
excess leads to toxicities, which have negative impacts on crop yields.

4
Factors Affecting Yield of Crops
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90672

Several parameters can be used to determine the fertility status of a soil. Among
them, the soil fertility index was found to be the most useful indicator that helps
to improve sustainable land use management and achieve economical yield in crop
production [27]. In several regions in the world, some croplands have undergone
human-induced soil degradation resulting in poor yield production per unit area
of crop harvest. Around 40% of agricultural lands are affected by human induced
land degradation. Intensive agricultural production characterized by overuse of
fertilizers and chemicals without adherence to agricultural sustainability leads to a
decline of soil health, land degradation and severe environmental problems [28]. It
is important to note that the deterioration of soil fertility normally takes pace over
several years.

2.1.1.5 Soil salinity and acidity stress

Salinity stress affects crop production in over 30% of irrigated crops and 7%
of dry land agriculture worldwide [29]. It is one of the major problems affecting
crop production all over the world since around 20% of cultivated land and 33% of
irrigated land are salt-affected in the world [30]. Salt causes osmotic stress and ionic
toxicity in crop plants. Under normal conditions, the higher osmotic pressure in
plant cells permits the absorption of water and essential nutrients from a soil solu-
tion into the root cells. However, under salt stress conditions, the high concentra-
tion of salts in the soil solution prevents absorption of water and essential minerals
but will facilitate the entry of Na+ and Cl− ions into the cells, which will have direct
toxic effects on cell membranes as well as on metabolic activities in the cytosol [31].
Low soil pH increases as a result of release of acidifying aluminum, iron and
manganese ions, leaching of base ions such as calcium, magnesium, potassium and
sodium, decomposition of soil organic matter and regeneration of organic acids,
nitrification of ammonia-based fertilizers [32, 33] as well as land management prac-
tices. Low soil pH significantly affects crop growth and therefore decreases yield. In
maize for instance, soil acidity causes yield loss of up to 69% [34].

2.1.1.6 Floods

Floods entail different stressful conditions to plants, mainly depending on water

depth and its duration. Soil waterlogging damages most crops, with the exception
of rice, which like other wetland species thrives when plants are not completely
submerged. In view of the changing climate, flooding has become frequent in many
lowlands and cultivated areas every year and causes a lot of damage to human
beings including losses in crop yields and food stuffs.
Flooding usually occurs with heavy rainfall, poor soil drainage and poor irriga-
tion practices. Soil waterlogging has negative impacts on crop production especially
for dryland species (such as most cereals, legumes, tubers, etc.) which include
several crops. The excess water results in complex changes in plant physiology for
non-adapted crops. This leads to restriction of gas diffusion between the plant and
its surroundings (accumulation of high CO2 and ethylene in the root zone with very
low O2), hypoxia (oxygen levels limit mitochondrial respiration) and anoxia (respi-
ration is completely inhibited), often accompanied by increased of mobilization of
‘phytotoxins’ in reduced soils, leading to poor root metabolism (inability to absorb
nutrients), lack of energy within plant cells, restriction of photosynthetic activities
and therefore poor growth or death of plant roots and shoots.
The first constraint for plant growth under flooding conditions is the immediate
lack of oxygen necessary to sustain aerobic respiration of submerged tissues [35–37].

5
Agronomy - Climate Change and Food Security

Figure 2.
Different levels of excess of water in crop environment [38].

As the duration of flooding increases, there is progressive decrease in soil reduction-

oxidation potential (redox potential) [38] (Figure 2). Flooding events can be clas-
sified by two categories: waterlogging where only the root system inside the soil is
affected [39]; and submergence, where also parts or the whole shoot are under water
[40]. In tree species with different flooding sensitivity, the importance of root-to-
shoot transport of metabolites to ‘use rather than lose’ is a relevant criterion used to
identify the tolerant species [41]. Only non-wetland plants can survive flooding for
a short period of time. The two survival strategies to flooding are plant avoidance of
oxygen deficiency in tissues and the adaptation to oxygen deficiency [42].

3. Biotic factors affecting crop yields

3.1 Diseases and pests

Plant diseases are caused by different micro-organisms such as viruses, bacteria

and fungi. In addition, various soil-borne and above ground insect pests also affect
crop production. Variation in climatic conditions often favors the multiplication
of pathogens while negatively affecting plant productivity and soil fertility. It
causes the reduction of available resources for plants, which fail to produce enough
biomass, seeds, and thus yield. Climate-driven migration allows the movement
of pathogens and pests from one region to another. Thus, the locally adapted
crop genotypes confront new biotic stress factors. The interaction of plants with
microbes or microbe-associated molecular patterns can induce resistance to second-
ary infections by pathogens. This involves the production and systemic signal of a
complex of low-molecular-weight plant metabolites, which are well described for
dicotyledonous plants, but poorly understood for monocotyledonous plants such
as cereal crops [43]. Because of climate variability and change, it is anticipated that
new diseases and pests might appear, or that the virulence of the current types may
increase.
The changing of the climate is bringing new types of diseases and pests that do
not have any control methods yet. For example, maize lethal necrosis (MLN) is one
of the most devastating diseases found in maize in Eastern and Central African
countries. It is caused by the synergistic interaction between Sugarcane Mosaic
Virus (SCMV) and Maize Chlorotic Mottle Virus (MCMV). It causes yield reduction
ranging from 30 to 100% in farmers’ fields depending on the time of infestation
[44]. MLN is transmitted by beetles, rootworms, thrips, stem borers, several species
of aphids in non-persistent manner, infected soil, infected seeds and any tools or
materials used in the infected field [45]. Moreover, Russian Wheat Aphid (RWA)

6
Factors Affecting Yield of Crops
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90672

is one of the world’s invasive pests of wheat, barley and other cereal grains. It is
widespread in cereal growing regions of Africa, Asia, Europe, Middle East, North
and South America, recently in Australasia [46]. The visual symptoms of infesta-
tion in plants are chlorosis, necrosis, wilting, stunting, leaf streaking with whitish,
yellow and purple longitudinal leaf markings, trapped awns, rolled leaves and
heads that fail to flower [46]. These pests have high resistance to extreme weathers
events. RWA caused yield losses up to 80% in wheat and 100% in barley. The main
challenge associated with the RWA is that new biotopes that are tolerant to avail-
able insecticides continue to appear. Some of the biotopes also overcome resistance
of some crop varieties. Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide has also been found
to alter the efficacy of some biotopes. They are therefore constant threat to crop
production.

4. Technological factors affecting crop yield

A wide range of technological innovations in agriculture like genetic improve-

ment of varieties, fertilizer technology, adaptive microbial technology, pesticides,
farm machinery, agronomic and management practices (integrated management of
nutrients and pests) have been achieved through research programs to understand
their implications in enhancing crop productivity [16]. It has been reported that
1 kg of nutrient fertilizer produces 8 kg of grain [47]. In addition, fertilizers are
commonly believed to be very important in crop production since they contribute
up to 50% of the crop harvest product [48]. The doubled increase of food produc-
tion worldwide was partially attributed to a 6.9-fold increase in nitrogen fertiliza-
tion and a 3.5-fold increase in phosphorous fertilization in the 1990s [49].
Different factors have negative influence in agricultural practices. In Bangladesh,
farmers were given chemical fertilizers and pesticides at a subsidized price and
therefore increased fertilizer application to enhance crop yield. In the Philippines,
because of the huge amount of lime and urea used by farmers over years, the
sugarcane farms developed lime layer in the subsoil, which caused phosphorous
deficiency while banana farms have excessive potash, which created an imbalanced
ratio of potassium and magnesium. The average yield production of sesame in
Jigawa State was reported to be 0.6 t/ha instead of 1.25 t/ha under well-managed
farms [50]. In general, the application of inappropriate agronomic practices such as
untimely planting, incorrect plant spacing, wrong method of planting, poor sowing
depth, delayed weeding, ineffective pest and disease control, inappropriate use of
fertilizers, untimely harvesting and use of low yielding varieties, will always signifi-
cantly reduce crop yields.

5. Strategies to overcome crop yield reduction

Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is now widely accepted as the best approach for
addressing the effects of climate change in agriculture. It is defined as agriculture
that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes
greenhouse gases (mitigation), and enhances the achievement of national food
security and development goals. CSA promotes the transformation of agricultural
systems and requires the transformation of agricultural policies to increase food
production, to enhance food security, to ensure that food is affordable (low input-
cost) while ensuring sustainable natural resource management and resilience to a
changing climate.

7
Agronomy - Climate Change and Food Security

5.1 Management of the environment

Climate influences all components of crop production including crop area and
crop intensity. Weather forecasting and crop yield prediction or simulations are
relevant tools that provide a warning to farmers in preparation of the upcoming
season. From the simulation results, farmers can change the crop planting date, use
appropriate genotypes, adjust the fertilization and the irrigation cycles to obtain
reasonable yields, thus reducing the risk of unexpected events [51]. Several stud-
ies have been successfully conducted in crop yield simulation models and were
reviewed by Tandzi and Mutengwa [51]. In a general view, the reduction of chemi-
cals’ usage such as fertilizers and pesticides, associated with the improvement of
crop input use efficiency will minimize greenhouse gases emissions while protect-
ing the environment. It has been reported that any programs that are working to
minimize the adverse impact of climate change on food crops production should
first consider the type of crop grown, the production area as well as the geographi-
cal and climatic conditions [15]. The knowledge of appropriate planting methods
is important because climate events influence the selection of planting method and
thus yield even though the total planted area remains unchanged [52]. There is a
possibility of producing more yields in sustainable agriculture while generating less
environmental pressure (Figure 3).

5.2 Management of agricultural inputs

Improvement of irrigation performance and water management are critical to

ensure the availability of water both for food production and for competing human
and environmental needs. To improve crop productivity and sustainability, it is very
important to evaluate the effects of human activities in soil fertility through the
use of appropriate agricultural systems such as tillage, use of recommended rates
and types of fertilizer, incorporation of farmyard manure and/or crop residues into
the soil (increase supply of N, P, K and other nutrients) and avoid sewage sludge
irrigation. The application of these inputs improves physical properties of soil or
soil organic matter in the long term and ensures sustainable agriculture. Shang et al.
[28] found that high crop yields and low production variability can be achieved by
increasing integrated soil fertility quality index in intensive cropping systems.
Climate-smart agriculture is the best way to lower the negative impact of
climatic variations on crop adaptation. The type of inputs utilized during produc-
tion combined with adapted high-yielding genotypes will determine the quality and
quantity of harvest products to obtain (Figure 4). In addition, cover crops provide
weed and pathogen control, decreased soil erosion, reduced loss of soil nitrogen,
phosphorus and carbon. On the other hand, plant-beneficial microbes provided
disease control and phosphorus availability [53]. The application of integrated
pests and diseases management in farmers’ fields will consistently reduce yield loss.
Alternative agricultural practices such as organic production is promoted as being
environmentally friendly with reduce agricultural impacts on water quality. Several
countries have introduced organic farming practices to produce good quality food.
The application of compost with chemical fertilizers not only results in high yields
but also improves soil organic matter accumulation and soil fertility. In addition,
the application of chicken manure compost enhanced soil quality and increased
the accumulation of soil organic matter, available phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) content in Botswana [54]. Microbial fertilizers
are distinctly environment-friendly, non-bulky, cost-effective and play a significant
role in plant nutrition [55]. Policymakers in different countries should formulate
policy on sustainable fertilizer and pesticide management in crop production with

8
Factors Affecting Yield of Crops
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90672

Figure 3.
Strategy of moving towards higher crop productivity and less environmental impacts [28].

Figure 4.
Nutrient budgets between inputs and outputs [28, 56, 57].

different placement methods to reduce the overuse of those chemicals while pre-
serving the environment. Guan et al. [58] identified RCF3, a KH domain-containing
RNA-binding protein localized in the nucleus, as an upstream negative regulator
of thermo-tolerance by modulating the expression of genes encoding heat-shock
proteins (HSPs) in Arabidopsis. In South Africa, the maintenance of yield quality
and quantity under actual prevailing environmental conditions have been largely
achieved through the change in water and fertilizer management as well as new crop
management practices (such as appropriate use of rotation system, lower seeding
and fertilizer application).

9
Agronomy - Climate Change and Food Security

5.3 Development of new adapted crop genotypes

Breeding is routinely conducted to increase levels of durable resistance to

specific pests, diseases and different abiotic stresses using conventional crop
improvement methods. However, there is now an increased use of modern biotech-
nology techniques such as marker-assisted selection, and transgenic approaches
that involve genetic modification and high-throughput sequencing of both plant
and pathogenic micro- organisms. Attempts have also been made to utilize trans-
genic technologies to build intrinsic tolerance mechanisms by the plants through
alteration of functional genes [16]. Sustainable technologies like classical breeding
approaches and integrated farming principles are also being considered to develop
crops adaptation and/or enhance the adaptive mechanisms.
Under stress conditions, crop plants have evolved a set of perception and signal
mechanisms to respond or adapt to adverse environmental conditions via regula-
tion, transcription, gene expression, protein translation, modification, degrada-
tion, and metabolic regulation [17]. For example, strong associations were observed
between the Na+ content and some metabolites, including several sugars, suggesting
that metabolic regulation is important for plant responses to salinity stress [59].
It has been demonstrated that manipulation of auxin biosynthesis pathway may
improve crop plants tolerance to drought [60]. Physiological plant responses of
crops to drought and heat stresses involve mechanisms to prevent membrane,
regulate photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration. For instance, developing
crop genotypes with improved water used efficiency is one of the solutions to over-
come drought stress. The most promising traits that might enhance crop flooding
tolerance and facilitate longitudinal oxygen transport to sustain root aeration and
water absorption in anaerobic soils, are anatomical adaptations such as formation
of aerenchyma, a barrier against radial oxygen loss, and the growth of adventitious
roots [39, 42]. The CBF/DREB1 genes are thought to be activators that integrate
several components of the cold acclimation response by which plants increase
their tolerance to low temperatures after exposure to non-freezing conditions. The
DREB1/CBF genes have been successfully used to improve abiotic stress tolerance in
a number of different crop plants [25].
The combination of genomics approaches such as marker-assisted selection
(MAS) and genome wide associated studies (GWAS) can be efficiently used to
develop biotic and abiotic stress tolerant cultivars (Figure 5). Future bio-computa-
tional integration of multiple omics and meta-omics with innovative research tools
(reference genomes, proteomes, metabolomes with comprehensive annotations and
structure–function relationships) will improve the understanding of the complex-
ity of plant stress physiology [43] which will gather the development of the high-
yielding and most adapted crop cultivars.
In definitive, there is a need to improve research activities into water quality and
water use efficiency, nutrient and soil conservation technologies and techniques,
climate-resistant crops and livestock, as well as agricultural productivity in line
with the national development policy of each country, to promote the development
of climate-smart agriculture which lower agricultural emissions and boosts agricul-
tural production.

5.4 Climate: smart agriculture and food security

One of the most difficult and important tasks is to ensure the protection of the
planet from the degradation through sustainable consumption and production, sus-
tainable management of natural resources and urgent action to take towards climate
change at national, regional and global level. Climate change is one of the leading

10
Factors Affecting Yield of Crops
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90672

Figure 5.
Different steps of applying combined biotechnological tools in the breeding for biotic and abiotic stress tolerant
crop genotype [13].

risks affecting the four dimensions of food security which are food availability, food
accessibility, food utilization and food system stability [61]. Climate-smart agricul-
ture (CSM) is an approach for transforming and reorienting agricultural systems
to support food security under the new realities of climate change [62]. It promotes
multidisciplinary actions to be taken by farmers, researchers, private sectors, civil
society and policymakers towards climate-resilient pathways. In addition, CSM is
based on three principles which are production (sustainable increase of the level of
agricultural production and income), adaptation (development of resilient produc-
tion systems adapted to climate change) and mitigation (reduction or elimination
of greenhouse gas emission where possible) [63]. It is therefore a response to the
challenges faced to satisfy the food needs of an increasing population in a changing
climate.

6. Conclusion and recommendations

Climate smart agriculture sustainably increased crop yields while facilitating

achievement of adaptation and mitigation goals in crop production. The develop-
ment of new climate resilient crop tolerant and adapted to biotic and abiotic stresses
will require the propagation of novel cultural methods, the implementation of vari-
ous cropping schemes, and the combination of different conventional and non-con-
ventional approaches. The development of integrated soil-crop system management
and integrated diseases and pests’ management with existing crop varieties and
the increase of new improved and adapted high-yielding varieties under water and
nutrient limited environment should be the new target for the coming generations.
The application of genetically engineered crop plants by the introduction and/or
overexpression of selected genes seem to be a viable option to hasten the breeding
of improved adapted and high-yielding crop genotypes. Trans and interdisciplinary

11
Agronomy - Climate Change and Food Security

researches are needed to find relevant solutions for all the environmental challenges
reducing crop yields while ensuring food security.

Acknowledgements

We appreciate the funding provided by the Govan Mbeki Research and

Development Centre (GMRDC) at the University of Fort Hare and by the National
Research Foundation (NRF) in South Africa.

Author details

Tandzi Ngoune Liliane1,2* and Mutengwa Shelton Charles1

1 Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Fort

Hare, Alice, South Africa

2 Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Yaounde, Cameroon

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

12
Factors Affecting Yield of Crops
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90672

References

[1] Thirtle C, Irz X, Lin L, Mckenzie- [9] Mueller ND, Gerber JS, Johnston M,
Hill V, Wiggins S. Relationship between Ray DK, Ramankutty N, Foley JA. Closing
changes in agricultural productivity and yield gaps through nutrient and water
the incidence of poverty in developing management. Nature. 2012;490:254-257.
countries. In: DFID Report No. 7946. DOI: 10.1038/nature11420
2001
[10] Wang C-H. Farming methods
[2] Leung H. Stressed genomics— effects on the soil fertility and crop
Bringing relief to rice fields. Curr. productionn under a rice—Vegetables
Opion. Plant Biol. 2008:201-208 cropping sequences. Journal of Plant
Nutrition. 2014;37:1498-1513. DOI:
[3] Noya I, González-García S, 10.1080/01904167.2014.881876
Bacenetti J, Fiala M, Moreira MT.
Environmental impacts of the [11] Oquist KA, Strock JS, Mulla DJ.
cultivation-phase associated with Influence of alternative and
agricultural crops for feed production. conventional farming practices on
Journal of Cleaner Production. subsurface drainage and water quality.
2018;172:3721-3733 Journal of Environmental Quality.
2007;36:1194-1204
[4] Metclfe DS, Elkins DM. Crop
Production: Principles and Practices. [12] Ajetomobi J. Effects of weather
New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., extremes on crop yields in Nigeria.
Inc.; 1980 African Journal of Food, Agriculture,
Nutrition and Development.
[5] Oldfield EE, Bradford MA, 2016;16(4):11168-11184. DOI:
Wood SA. Global meta-analysis 10.18697/a jfand.76.15685
of the relationship between soil,
organic matter and crop yields. The [13] Raza A, Razzaq A, Mehmood SS,
Soil. 2019;5:15-32. DOI: 10.5194/ Zou X, Zhang X, Lv Y, et al. Impact
soil-5-15-2019 of climate change on crop adaptation
and strategies to tackle its outcome: A
[6] Allen P, Van Dusen D. Sustainable review. Plants. 2019;8(34):1-29. DOI:
agriculture: Choosing the future. In: 10.3390/plants8020034
Appen P, Van Dusen D, editors. Global
Perspectives on Agro-Ecology and [14] Boyer JS. Plant productivity
Sustainable Agricultural Systems. Santa and environment. Science.
Cruz, CA: University of California; 1982;218:443-448
1988. pp. 1-14
[15] Poudel S, Shaw R. The relationships
[7] Godfray HCJ, Beddington JR, between climate variability and crop
Crute IR, Haddad L, Lawrence D, yield in a mountainous environment: A
Muir JF, et al. Food security: The case study in Lamjung District, Nepal.
challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Climate. 2016;4(13):1-19. DOI: 10.3390/
Science. 2010;327:812-818. DOI: cli4010013
10.1126/science.1185383
[16] Kumaraswamy S, Shetty PK. Critical
[8] Foley JA, Ramankutty N, abiotic factors affecting implementation
Brauman KA, Cassidy ES, Gerber JS, of technological innovations in rice
Johnston M, et al. Solutions for a and wheat production: A review.
cultivated planet. Nature. 2011;478: Agricultural Reviews. 2016;37(4):
337-342. DOI: 10.1038/nature10452 268-278. DOI: 10.18805/ag.v37i4.6457

13
Agronomy - Climate Change and Food Security

[17] Li W, Cui X. A special issue on plant Freezing, and High Temperature Stress.
stress biology: From model species to New York: Academic Press; 1980
crops. Molecular Plant. 2014;7:755-757
[27] Shang Q , Ling N, Feng X, Yang X,
[18] Hasanuzzaman M, Nahar K, Wu P, Zou J, et al. Soil fertility and its
Alam MM, Roychowdhury R, Fujita M. significance to crop productivity and
Physiological, biochemical and molecular sustainability in typical agroecosystem:
mechanisms of heat stress tolerance in A summary of lon-term fertilizer
plants. International Journal of Molecular experiments in China. Plant and
Sciences. 2013;14:9643-9684 Soil. 2014;381:13-23. DOI: 10.1007/
s11104-014-2089-6
[19] IPCC. Climate change and
biodiversity. In: IPCC Technical Paper V. [28] Shah F, Wu W. Soil and crop
2002. pp. 1-86 management strategies to ensure higher
crop productivity within sustainable
[20] Meeh GA, Stocker TF, Collins WD. environments. Sustainability.
Climate change 2007: The physical 2019;11(1485):1-19. DOI: 10.3390/
science basis. In: Fourth Assessment su11051485
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: [29] Schroeder JI, Delhaize E,
University Press; 2007 frommer WB, Guerinot ML,
Harrison MJ, Herrera-Estrella L,
[21] Antle JM, McGuckin T. et al. Using membrane transporters
Technological innovations, agricultural to improve crops for sustainable food
productivity and environmental production. Nature. 2013;497:60-66
quality. In: Carlson GA, Zilberman D,
Miranowski J, editors. Agric. Environ. [30] Machado RMA, Serralheido RP.
Resour. Econ. 1993. pp. 175-220 Soil salinity: Effect on vegetable crop
growth. Management practices to
[22] Elbasyoni IS. Performance and
prevent and mitigate soil salinization.
stability of commercial wheat cultivars Horticulturae. 2017;3(30):1-13. DOI:
under terminal heat stress. Agronomy. 10.3390/horticulturae3020030
2018;8:37
[31] Kumar M. Crop plants and abiotic
[23] Lobell DB, Banziger M,
Magorokosho C, Vivek B. Nonlinear stresses. Biomolecular Research &
Therapeutics. 2013;3(1):1000e125
heat effects on African maize as
evidenced by historical yield trials.
Nature Climate Change. 2011;1:42-45 [32] Heggeenstaller A. Managing soil
pH for crop production. Crop Insight.
[24] Yadav SK. Old stress tolerance 2012;22(15):1-4
mechanisms in plants. A review.
Agronomy for Sustainable [33] Johnson SL, Lincoln DE. Allocation
Development. 2010;30:515-527. DOI: responses in CO2 enrichment and
10.1051/agro/2009050 defoliation by a native annual plant
Heterothea subaxllaris. Global Change
[25] Sanghera GS, Wani SH, Hussain W, Biology. 2000;6:767-778
Singh NB. Engineering cold stress
tolerance in crop planrs. Current [34] Tandzi NL, Mutengwa CS,
Genomics. 2011;12:30-43 Ngonkeu ELM, Gracen V. Breeding
maize for tolerance to acidic soils: A
[26] Levitt J. Responses of plants to review. Agronomy. 2018;8(84):2-21.
environmental stress. In: Chilling, DOI: 10.3390/agronomy8060084

14
Factors Affecting Yield of Crops
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90672

[35] Armstrong W. Aeration in higher viruses (sugarcane mosaic virus

plants. Advances in Botanical Research. and maize chlorotic mottle virus)
1979;7:225-332 in Kenya. The Open Agriculture
Journal. 2018;12:2015-2226. DOI:
[36] Vartapetian BB, Jackson M. Plant 10.2174/1874331501812010215
adaptations to anaerobic stress. Annals
of Botany. 1997;79:3-20 [45] Mekureyaw MF. Maize lethal
necrosis desease: And emerging
[37] Voesenek LACJ, Rijnders J, problem for maize production in eastern
Peeters AJM, Van de Steeg HMV, De Africa. Journal of Plant Physiology
Kroon H. Plant hormones regulate & Pathology. 2017;5(4). DOI:
fast shoot elongation under water: 10.4172/2329-955X.1000170
From genes to communities. Ecology.
2004;85:16-27 [46] Umina P, Baker G, Edwards O.
Russian Wheat Aphid: Tactics for Future
[38] Striker GG. Flooding stress on Control. Grains Research and
plants: Anatomical, morphological and Development Corporation; 2017. 40 p.
physiological responses. In: Botany. Project code: ACO00020-B
2012. pp. 1-27
[47] Rehman A, Chandio AA,
[39] Bailey-Serres J, Colmer TD. Plant Hussain I, Jingdong L. Fertilizer
tolerance of flooding stress—Recent consumption, water availability and
advances. Plant, Cell and Environment. credit distribution: Major factors
2014;37:2211-2215. DOI: 10.1111/ affecting agricultural productivity
pce.12420 in Pakistan. Journal of the Saudi
Society of Agricultural Sciences.
[40] Sasidharan R, Bailey-Serres J, 2017;18:269-274
Ashikari M, Atwell BJ, Colmer TD,
Fagerstedt K, et al. Community [48] Tomich TP, Kilby, Johnson B.
recommendations on terminology Transforming Agrarian Economies:
and procedures used in flooding and Opportunities Seized. Ithaca, NY:
low oxygen stress research. The New Cornell University Press; 1995.
Phytologist. 2017;214:1403-1407 Opportunities missed

[41] Kreuzwieser J, Rennenberg H. [49] Tilman D, Reich PB, Knops J,

Molecular and physiological responses Wedin D, Mielke T, Lehman C. Diversity
of trees to waterlogging stress. Plant, and productivity in a long-term
Cell & Environment. 2014;37:2245-2259 grassland experiment. Science.
2001;294:843-845
[42] Mustroph A. Improving flooding
tolerance of crop plants. Agronomy. [50] OLAM. Sesame production in
2018;8(160):1-25. DOI: 10.3390/ Nigeria. In: Out Growers Training
agronomy8090160. Manual for Jigawa State. 2007. pp. 3-6

[43] Dresselhaus T, Hückelhoven R. [51] Tandzi NL, Mutengwa CS.

Biotic and abiotic responses in crop Estimation of maize (Zea mays L.) yield
plants. Agronomy. 2017;8(267):1-6. per harvest area: Appropriate method.
DOI: 10.3390/agronomy8110267 Agronomy MDPI. 2019

[44] Karanja J, Derera J, Gubba A, [52] Lizumi T, Ramankutty N. How do

Mugo S, Wangai A. Response of selected weather and climate influence cropping
maize inbred germplasm to maize area and intensity? Global Food
lethal necrosis disease and its causative Security. 2014;4:46-50

15
Agronomy - Climate Change and Food Security

[53] Robert DP, Matto AK. Sustainable [61] FAO. Climate Change and Food
agriculture enhancing environmental Security: A Framework Document. Food
benefits, food nutritional quality and and Agricultural Organization of the
building crop resilience to abiotic and United Nations; 2008. 107 p. Available
biotic stresses. Agriculture. 2018;8(8): at: www.fao.org/forestry/15538-079b31d
1-24. DOI: 10.3390/agriculture80100008 45081fe9c3dbc6ff34de4807e4.pdf

[54] Dikinya O, Mutwanzala N. Chicken [62] Lipper L, Thornton PK,

manure-enhanced soil fertility and Campbell BM, Baedeker T, Braimoh A,
productivity: Effects of application Bwalya M, et al. Climate-smart
rates. Journal of Soil Science and agriculture for food security. Nature
Environmental Management. Climate Change. 2014;4:1068-1072.
2014;1(3):46-54 DOI: 10.1038/nclimate2437

[55] Aboudrare A. Agronomie Durable. [63] Muller C, Salgado R, Duran M, Le

In: Principes ET Pratiques. Rapport de Coq JF, de Varax M, Gamba-Trimiño C,
Formation Continue. FAO; 2009. 49 p et al. Innovation platform for climate-
smart agriculture in Honduras. In:
[56] Gruhn P, Goletti F, Yudelman M. CCAFS Policy Brief. Wageningen, the
Integrated nutrient management, soil Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program
fertility and sustainable agriculture: on Climate Change, Agriculture and
Current issues and future challenges. In: Food Security (CCAFS); 2018
IFRPI 2020 Vision Brief. Washington,
DC, USA: IFRPI; 2000

[57] Wu W, Ma BL. Integrated nutrient

management (INM) for sustaining
crop productivity and reducing
environmental impact: A review.
Science of the Total Environment.
2015;512:415-427

[58] Guan Q , Lu X, Zeng H, Zhang Y,

Zhu J. Heat stress induction of miE398
triggers a regulatory loop that is critical
for thermotolerance in Arabidopsis. The
Plant Journal. 2013;74(5). DOI: 10.1111/
tpj.12169

[59] Hill cB, Jha D, Bacic A, Tester M,

Roessner U. Characterization of ion
contents and metabolic responses to
salt stress of different Arabidopsis
AtHKT1;1 genotype and their parental
strains. Molecular Plant. 2013;6:350-368

[60] Kim J, Baek D, Park HC, Chun HJ,

Oh D-H, Lee MK, et al. Overexpression
of Arabidopsis YUCCA6 in potato
results in high-auxin developmental
phenotypes and enhanced resistance
to water deficit. Molecular Plant.
2013;6:337-349

16