LT INGLESE – TRANSLATION STUDIES

The English term ‘’translation’’ derives from old French or more directly from the Latin
‘’translatio’’ – The process of translation involves the changing od an original written text
( ST) in the original verbal language ( SL) , into a written text ( TT) in a different verbal
language ( TL)

JAKOBSON :

He is one of the most important structuralist of translation and he make a distinction

between three different categories of translation :

1- Intralingual : interpretation of verbal signs of the same language ( paraphrasis)

2- Interlingual : interpretation of verbal signs of an another language ( trans. Proper)
3- Intersemiotic : interpretation of verbals signs in a non verbal sign system

Something important to say is that there is a difference between meaning and sense :

- Meaning : related to something that is general, it means that everyone can

understand and in this case we have a denotative definition , such as the
vocabulary definition of a word ;
- Sense : it is the meaning of something that is associated to an individual
experience and so we have a connotative definition , for example there are different
interpretation of the context if we take into account a poem , it means that we have
different interpretation of an author’s emotions.

THE HOLMES \ TOURY ‘’MAP’’

For Holmes, if we take into account the concept of translation we have to consider different
elements :

1- Product : the description of a single ST-TT . These kind of studies could be

diachronic ( following the developing over time) and synchronic ( a single period of
time) ;
2- Function : the description of the sociocultural situation ( study of the context) ;
3- Process : the psychological phase in translation , it means to understand what
happens in the translator’s mind
THE VAN DOORSLAER MAP

He established a difference between translation and translation studies :

In the first case we take into account different points :

1- Lingual mode ( interlingual , monolingual)

2- Media ( audio-visual, electronic )
3- Mode ( couvert\ ouvert , direct\ indirect )
4- Field ( political, journalistic, literary)

In the second case we talk about :

1- Strategies : principle that guides the translation ( equivalence, word for word,
sense for sense ) ;
2- Procedures : specific technique ( borrowing, calque)

An important characteristic of translation is the interdisciplinarity : this kind of discipline

links between different types of techniques, it means that translation is linked to other
branches, for example is always related to linguistics, so it is considered to be a
multidiscipline.

DRYDEN

He stablished three different kind of approaches :

1- Metaphrase .: word for word and line by line translation , which corresponds to a
literal translation ( no sense TT) ;
2- Paraphrase : sense for sense
3- Imitation : very free translation , like a sort of adaptation

Dryden criticises translators like Ben Jonson, who adopted metaphrase such as a ‘’verbal
copier’’ and he states that ‘’is like dancing on ropes with fettered legs , a foolish task’’, so
we can say that Dryden prefers to paraphrase
DOLET

In his manuscript ‘’ La manière de bien traduire d’une langue en autre’’ he sets out five
principles :

1- Understand the sense and the emotions of the original author ;

2- Perfect knowledge of SL and TL ;
3- Avoid a word for word translation ;
4- Avoid latinate and unusual forms ;
5- Avoid clumsiness

YAN FU

He states three translation principles :

1- Fidelity
2- Fluency
3- Elegance

SCHLEIERMACHER

Schleiermacher finds out different methods in translation :

- Dolmetscher : translation of commercial texts ( interprete) ;

- Ubersetzer : who works on scholar and artistic texts ( traduttore)

He wanted to underline the fact that languages are culturally bounded , so the TL text can
never fully correspond to the original text , so the main objective is to bring into account
the ST writer and the TT reader, because there is a contextual and a cultural change. That
could be similar to Dryden’s formula , that is a sort of ‘’naturalizing’’ method , it means that
the translator should give to the reader the impression that he would receive the work in
the original language - we can talk about a domestication of translation ( couvert
trans) ,because it is based on the fact that the TT is considered to be an authentical and
original text and follows the idea of fidelity .

FLORA AMOS

She states that there are different elements to take into account :

- Fidelity : be faithfulness to the original meaning of the ST

- Spirit : the Latin word ‘’spiritus’’ denotes creative energy or inspiration , it means
that the same force of the ST should be present even in the TT
- Truth : from the Latin ‘’veritas’’ , it means that the content should represent the truth
NIDA

He applied Chomsky’s theory of structuralism in order to understand how people are able
to verbalize : all human being share the same genetic code , this is why they use the same
universal grammar . People are able to communicate thanks to the ability of acquisition
and they use the karnel sentence : there is a finite number of words, but if a person is
able to combine them it is possible to create an infinitive number of sentences.

Nida analyses even the nature of meaning :

- Linguistic : relationship between different linguistic structures ;

- Referential : denotative meaning ( vocabulary) ;
- Connotative : something related to the emotion of a person

Nida makes a distinction between :

- Formal equivalence : superficial meaning

- Dynamic equivalence : the closest natural equivalent to the ST ( sense)

NEWMARK

He considers the concept of equivalence like an approximation because he feels that the
success of an equivalence is illusory . Following the idea of Nida, he established two
different kind of translation :

- Communicative : attempts to reproduce on the TR an effect as close as possible to

the OR ( to the reader – dynamic equivalence)
- Semantic : something that regards the semantic and the syntactic structure of the
original text in order to create the same impression ( formal)

VINAY AND DERBLENET

They carried out a difference between :

1- strategy ( approaches) : overall orientation of the translator ( free or literal) ;

2- procedure ( individual act in translation) : specific technique or methos that is used
in a certain point

There are two possible strategies that are direct and oblique translation.

Direct :

1- borrowing – the SL word is directly transferred into the TL ;

 2- Calque – special kind of borrowing , where the SL expression or structure is
transferred in a literal way
3- Literal translation

Oblique

1- Transposition – change on the grammatical part of speech without changing the

sense ;
2- Modulation – changing in the semantic point of view ( abstract\concrete ; effect\
cause ; particular\general ; whole\part ; active\passive)
3- Equivalence – cases where language describe the same situation using different
stylistics or structural means ( idioms and proverbs )
4- Adaptation – changing in cultural elements

Other procedures :

- Amplification – when are used more words in the TT ( opposite : economy )

- Loss, gain and compensation – it is possible to have a loss in translation, this is why
it is possible to compensate this loss in a different part of the text
- Explicitation – some implicit information in the ST could be not the same in the TT
- Generalization – the use of a more general word in the TT

THEMATIC STRUCURE

- Theme : what we know, put at the begging of a sentence , main focus ;

- Rheme : additional information related to the theme
- Connectors : it is important to underline the importance of cohesion and coherence
in order to make sense , it means that the text should not be contradictive and
between the different topics there should be a clear link that correctly connects the
different parts of the text

An additional difference is :

- Servitude : it is an obligatory modulation that occurs between two different

language systems. For instance , the Spanish noun-adjective combination ‘’agua
fria’’ in a literal translation in english could be ‘’water cold’’ , but the correct one is
‘’cold water’’
- Option : non-obbligatory change , but it is possible to make personal choices . For
example the decision of amplify or explicate a general term ( ‘’this’’ – ‘’this
problem’’)
CATFORD

He makes an analysis on translation shifts :

- Level : something that is expressed iìby grammar in a language and lexis in

another
- Category : grammatical structure, part of speech , unit , intra-system
-

SELENSKOVITCH

Selenskovitch and Lederer decided to focuses on how a researcher goes through aa translator
mind, and we have four process :

1. Reading and understanding : something that goes deeper in the process of decoding a
text, it is not only related to the meaning , but even to the sense (denotative) . It is
established a relationship between the translator as a reader and the text and his aim is to
interpretate the real sense of the text and in order to do that is important to have a
knowledge of the topic
2. Deverbalization : comparing the surface of the written text ;
3. Re-expression : after these two steps, it is important then to getting an idea of the
message in order to make a reconstruction of it
4. Verification : review of the translation in order to correct possible errors

WAYS OF INVESTIGATION COGNITIVE PROCESSING

Was established the TAPs ( think-aloud-protocols) ( protocollo del parlare ad alta voce). It is
even known as retrospective protocol because it is based on asking to a translator the way he\she
uses strategies and procedures in order to make a translation ( verbalization , thanks to which a
translator became more aware of his\her own mental process

REISS

In this period we have a change in the approach , because sturdiest like Reiss started to analyse
the whole text ( text as a dialogue + pragmatic function , it means the aim) , otherwise before the
analysis was related to the single word or sentence

Reiss makes a distinction between different typologies of texts, according to the three fundamental
functions of language established by Bulher :

- Informative : communication of facts, the language is used to transmit the information

according to a referential way , the main focus is the communication

- Expressive : creative composition, the author uses the aesthetic dimension of language ,
the main focus is the form
 - Appellative or operative : inducing a response of the receivers , persuade the reader for
example to buy a product or to agree to an argument , the form of language is dialogic and
the focus is appellative

- Audio-medial : it is even called ‘’ supplementary method’’ , because we have written words

and visual images and music

MARY SNELL- HORNBY ‘’INTEGREATED APPROACH’’

From this moment , there is not only the importance of the equivalent correspondence , but even a
pragmatical correspondence between texts.

With the term ‘’integrated’’ she wants to say that it is an approach based on the possibility to
translate different kind of texts integrating the different features of that text, to find out a sort of
hybrid text because one text is based on different features.

Hornby established e series of prototypes in order to make a categorization of text types

according to the function and to the pragmatic ( like Reiss does – we ca see even if two women
belongs to different areas of study, they give the same ideas of text type , using a different
terminology ) . She makes a ‘stratificational model’’ departing from the most general (A) to the most
specialized ( F) , according to the stylistic features , content and function : dynamic classification
( continuum between texts) , because Snell wanted to present all the variabilities of a text.

HOLZ- MANTTARI : TRANSLATIROIAL ACTION

Holz made a study related to the communication theory : interlingual translation is described as a
‘’translatorial action from a ST ‘’ and as a communicative process involving a series of roles and
players , which are :

1. Initiator : the company who needs the translation ( beginning of the translation process)
2. Commissioner : agency who contacts the translator
3. ST producer : the company who writes the ST, and who are not necessarily involved in the
TT production
4. TT producer : the translator and the translation agency
5. TT user : the person who uses the TT , for example a teacher using a translated book
6. TT receiver : the final recipient of the TT , for example the students using the textbook
Translatorial action focuses on producing a TT that is functionally communicative for the
receiver , so we have an orientation towards the TT readership and the TT function in order to
create a new text, that is independent from the ST , this is why the ST is analysed only for its
‘’construction and function profile’’ ( independence from the ST) . Furthermore, there is the
importance of the intercultural transfer : has to do with the cultural background of the ST and of the
TT : the aim is to adapt the original lingua-cultural background to that of the TT , according to the
adaptation procedure

VARMEER : SKOPOS THEORY

The word ‘’skopos’’ derives from the Greek word for ‘’aim’’ or ‘’purpose’’ ( related to the aim of the
TT ) and was introduced by Varmeer . Traditionally ( like the Bible’s translation ) the ST was
untouchable , but now the ST should be dethronized by the TT, but there are some thing take into
account related to the functional adequacy ( of TT) :

1- Intratextual coherence
2- Intertextual fidelity
3- Functionality and loyalty to the original intentions of the ST ( Nord)

The concept of equivalence is seen as a relationship according to the function, no more related to
the form

TRANSLATION-ORIENTATED TEXT ANALYSIS

We have to consider two different definitions :

1- Documentary translation : a document of a source culture communication between the

author and the ST recipient
2- Instrumental translation : independent message in a new communicative action in the
target culture , being conscious that a text was used before in a different communicative
situation

According to Nord’s theory we have to consider different element according to the ST role :

- Subject matter : argument of ST ;

- Content : the meaning of the text
- Presupposition : what a translator may be aware of before making the translation
( knowledge of the background)
- Text composition : microstructure and macrostructure
- Non- verbal elements : illustrations , font ( contextual elements in general)
- Lexis : specific or non-specific terminology
- Sentence structure : parenthesis , ellipsis
- Suprasegmental features : including stress, intonation , rhythm , punctuation
AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION

It is important the definition of ‘’ diagonal translation’’ : in the audio-visual field, most of the time
we find texts that are written originally to be performed orally. So , it is important to consider even
how the dialogue will be performed during the translational act.
Delabastita talks about a ‘’constrained translation ‘’ ( with limits) , focusing on the non-verbal
elements that marked the audiovisual translation. These limitations are :

1- Verbal ( with various stylistic and dialectal features )

2- Literary and theatrical ( plot, dialogue)
3- Proxemic ( position in space between interlocutors) and kinetic ( movement in space)
4- Cinematic ( filming – cameras technique)

HALLIDAY’S MODEL OF LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE

In this case we have a new area of study called ‘’ critical discourse analysis’’ and it is important
what is that makes sense in order to communicate, this is why he’s studies are based on the
concept of performance and pragmatic ( of course he analyses the dimension in which a text make
sense in a specific context).

Language does not carry a meaning itself , this is why it is important to add the communicative
level of a discourse . He made a triangle scheme based on 6 different element, from the most
important to the less important :

1. Sociocultural environment : it is huge because it include a lot of elements like :

geographical place, people in that place, why they are in that place ( for a series of
motivations) , for example a university class, located in the south of Rome, with a number
of students that are in that place in order to study something.

2. Discourse : use of language in a specific sociocultural environment . It is characterised by

the union of : language, meaning and power in society . In this last case it is important to
analyse even the role in a communication , that could be : symmetrical ( the same role of
people in a situation) and complementar ( different roles , it means that different people has
different position in society )
 3. Genre : ( Hymes and Reiss) . How to read a text, according to the function ( newspaper,
scientific , poem)

4. Register : there is not only a difference between a formal or informal register , but we have

- Field : topic
- Tenor : interlocutors
- Mode and medium : spoken or written , common talk or formal speech

5. Discourse semantics : semantics means sense , a text could have different meaning
according to the context :
- Ideational : concepts that are expressed
- Interpersonal : negotiation of the meaning between the interlocutors ( linguistic mediation)
- Textual : coherence

6. Lexico-grammar : it is the combination of phonology , vocabulary and grammar , all based

on a series of rules. But, there are even different features on the way a person use the
same language , for example there are different uses of the Italian , so language became
just a component of all the system

HOUSE’S MODEL OF TRANSLATION QUALITY ASSESSMENT

It is based on discourse and pragmatic analysis in order to evaluate if a translation is correct or

wrong.

We have a critical view of models like the skopos theory and Manttari theory, because their
approaches neglect the ST ( independent TT , where the ST became less fundamental) . For
House is important to take into account the ST to make sense ( ST like a guide) , so we have the
importance of a comparison between the two texts ( House does not dethronized the ST)

The comparative model is based on register and genre. The register ( importance pf the social
action ) is based on :

1. Field : subject
2. Tenor : participant relationship – author’s provenance , social relationship ( to the text) ,
social attitude ( point of view) , participation
3. Mode and medium

The genre is based on the corpus studies

She makes a distinction between two different kind of translation :

 1. Ouvert translation : the TT does not pretend to be an original and is clearly not directed to
the TT audience. It is important to underline that is an adaptation of the original. For
example, a political speech of Churchill after the SWW

2. Couvert translation : is a translation which enjoys the status of the original ST in the target
culture . The ST is not particularly linked to the ST culture or audience , both ST and TT
address their respective receivers. The text seems to be an original , it means that the
reader does not think that is a translation , like a sort of illusion.

Another important thing is the cultural filter , that needs to be applied by the translator, modifying
cultural elements giving the impression that the TT is an original. This may involve changes in
language and register.

In conclusion, more than an equivalence , is it important the concept of version : a translation is a

sort of a new version of the original version of a text ( approximation)