UNIT 10

BASIC TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION

Main points:

10.1. The notion of transformations in translation

10.2. Classification of transformations in translation
10.3. Lexical transformations in translation
10.4. Grammatical transformations in translation
10.5. Lexical and grammatical transformations in translation
10.6. Buzzwords, weasel words and textspeak items as translation challenges

10.1. The notion of transformations in translation

Text analysis is an important first step in translator’s activity because it

determines the tools, which translator is going to use to perform an equivalent (faithful)
text rendering. Therefore translators, who work professionally, have to know basics of
linguistic methodology of text analysis as the macro-sign of the relevant discourse,
which includes structural, semantic, social, cultural and communicative (pragmatic)
aspects.
Broadly speaking it is possible to speak about three stages in analyzing and
translating texts: pre-translation text analysis (доперекладацький аналіз тексту),
translation proper (or rather the process of translating in which transformations are
analytically applied to textual items) and post-translation analysis (editing the
translated text, comparing it with the original and proofreading it in order to get rid of
mistakes) [Алексеева 2004; Комиссаров 2002]. However professional translators do
not spend much time for the pre-translation stage (establishing the type of discourse the
text belongs to, searching for unknown terminology or other peculiar lexical items). In
fact, the most important and time-consuming stage is the process of translating, which
by itself presupposes a good deal of analysis (choosing the transformation required by
the context, looking for the best translation option, i.e. applying all possible strategies of
translating). Editing the translated text is also important and time-consuming stage. It
allows to get rid of mistakes, to minimize translation deformations and ensures that the
translated text properly “fits” in the target language and culture. This stage is a kind of
feedback and is essential for the “translation product” to be equivalent, adequate or
faithful – whatever term is preferred by different schools off translation.
Thus, three stages of text analysis in translation or translation-oriented text
analysis [Nord 2006] overlap to a great extent, which gives us all grounds to use
Ukrainian term перекладацький аналіз тексту (Rus. переводческий анализ
текста) as the one that covers all three stages [Цатурова, Каширина 2008; Каширина
2005].
Having analysed the text, a translator starts to transform the source
language text, changing it so that it performs the same communicative function in the
target language and culture. Therefore the overall aim of translation as a specific kind of
interlingual and intercultural communication is in transforming the text so that the
message produced by translator has the same effect upon the target language reader
(listener) as it has upon the source language reader (listener). Translation is an
informational process, which means that translator should transmit information as fully
as possible. However, this can be achieved only if certain structural and semantic
changes are introduced. These changes, which are caused by lexical and grammatical
differences between languages, as well as by the differences between the respective
cultures, are called transformations in translation.
The process of translation as means of transmitting information may be in the
most general terms presented by the following scheme:

CULTURE 1 CULTURE 2

LANGUAGE 1 (SL) LANGUAGE 2 (TL)

TEXT 1 TEXT 2

TRANSLATION
(transformations)

For the sake of explaining this scheme, we may summarize that translation is a
two-stage process of interlingual and intercultural communication when on the
basis of analysed and transformed text in the SL a translator creates another text
in the TL which substitutes the source text in the target language and culture. We
may even argue that translating is an analytical process of inevitable applying
translation transformations which is predetermined by the very nature of translation.

10.2. Classification of transformations in translation

The term “transformations” was first used by Zellig Sabbetai Harris (1909-1992)
in his paper “Co-occurrence and transformations in linguistic structure” [Harris 1957],
which put formal syntax on an entirely new, generative basis.
So far there exists no universal approach to the typology of transformations in
translation. Thus, L.S. Barkhudarov [Бархударов 1975] believed that all
transformations in translation may be confined to four types: transpositions,
replacements, additions and omissions. Ya. I. Retsker [Рецкер 2004: 45-129]
distinguished between two broad types of transformations – lexical and grammatical
ones. V.N. Komissarov [1990] singled out lexical, grammatical and “lexico-
grammatical” transformations. A.D. Shveitser considered translation transformations
primarily at the “referential level of semantic equivalence” [Швейцер 1988 :123-144].
L.K. Latyshev [1981: 131-137] subdivides all translation transformations into
morphological, syntactic, stylistic, semantic and mixed (“lexico-semantic”, syntactic
and morphological).
Translation transformations should be separated from translation deformations,
which concern, first of all, the form of text and presume that there occur certain losses
in translation, however certain semantic deformations cannot be excluded [Гарбовский
2004: 507]. Obvious translation mistakes caused by the lack of linguistic and cultural
competence of a translator should be also considered separately [Гарбовский 2004:
514-536].
Translation transformations are analytical changes of the textual items and are
performed by translators in the process of translation (not at the pre-translation stage).
The overview of the traditional approach to the basic types of translation
transformations [Селіванова 2011: 545] is given below.

10.3. Lexical transformations in translation.

Lexical transformations are divided into formal and lexical and semantic
ones.

10.3.1. Formal lexical transformations provide for changing the form of the
source language unit by using devices of the target language. Here belong
transformations at the phonetic and graphic levels (sometimes called “transcoding”)
such as:
1. Practical transcription – reproduction of the SL lexical item phonemes by the
TL graphemes (letters), e.g., file – файл; interface – інтерфейс; Jack –
Джек; Russel – Рассел, etc.
2. Transliteration – reproduction of the letters of the SL lexical item by the TL
graphemes (letters), e.g., broker – брокер; London – Лондон; Disney –
Дисней, etc.
3. Traditional phonetic and graphical reproduction, e.g., Texas – Техас; Walter –
Вальтер, etc.
4. Combination of the three ways of reproduction described above, e.g.
Shakespeare – Шекспір; Москва – Moscow, etc.
5. Loan translation (калькування), e.g., skyscraper – хмарочос; Merry Monarch
– Веселий Король (nickname of Charles II), Верховний Суд – Supreme
Court; вотум недовіри – non-confidence vote, etc

10.3.2. Lexical and semantic transformations:

1. Generalization of meaning, which is substitution of the SL words (phrases) of

a narrow meaning by the TL words (phrases) of a general (broader) meaning.
E.g.: My baby is 18 months – Моїй дитині півтора року; This car costs
seventeen hundred pounds – Ця машина коштує тисячу сімсот фунтів;
The soldiers walked in the ankle-deep dust – Солдати йшли по коліно у
пилюці; wrist watch – наручний годинник, etc.
2. Differentiation of meaning, which is caused by the fact that many English
words with broad meaning do not have direct equivalents in Ukrainian. In
 such cases dictionaries give a number of meanings that only partially cover
the meaning of the SL word and translators have to choose one of the options,
which suits the context best of all. Thus affection may be rendered as
щиросердя but not obligatory as любов, прихильність, симпатія; challenge
– as проблема, нагальне завдання (питання) but not only as виклик;
sustainable – as безперервний, непохитний, придатний, обґрунтований,
остаточно визначений but not only as сталий, усталений, стійкий, etc.
3. Substantiation of meaning is substitution of the source language words
(phrases) with a generic meaning by the target language words (phrases) with
a more specific (narrow) meaning. Substantiation is often combined with
differentiation. E.g.: Run for the presidency – Змагання за посаду
президента. Have you had your meal? – Ви вже поснідали? Networking –
спілкування. Student – not only студент but also учень, слухач (depending
upon the context).
4. Modulation (also called sense or logical development) is replacement of the
SL word of phrase by TL item, which is logically connected with the original
item, e.g., Then this girl gets killed, because she’s always speeding – А потім
ця дівчина гине, оскільки постійно порушує правила дорожнього руху.
It’s worth mentioning that modulation provides for various metaphoric and
metonymic changes performed on the basis of the notion of intersection, i.e. when a part
of the content of one notion is included into the content of another notion and vice
versa. In conveying the same sense by means of another language there is often no
difference what forms of the word express this content. Thus the object may be replaced
by its feature, the process – by the object, the feature – by the object or a process, etc.
Ya.I. Retsker [Рецкер 2004: 52] gives the following example of modulation (logical
development): The Liverpool by-election was an acid test for the Labour candidate
which can be hardly translated as Довибори у Ліверпулі були випробуванням на
кислотність для кандидата від лейбористів. Evidently it is necessary to substitute
the process by its nominal equivalent – були лакмусовим папірцем. This presumes
substitution of the process by the object and occurs within the framework of intersection
because лакмусовий папірець is only a part of випробування на кислотність.
When modulation is applied to translation of verb combinations there can be
established clear interrelationships between processes (actions or states), causes and
effects (consequences). Thus the theory of permutations allows singling out six possible
variants of modulation (logical development) [see ibid.]: a) substitution of the process
by its cause, b) substitution of the process by its effect, c) substitution of the cause by
the process, d) substitution of the cause by its effect, e) substitution of the effect be its
cause, f) substitution of the effect by the process.
As an illustration, Ya.I. Retsker [Рецкер 2004: 53] gives quite a straightforward
example from A.Christie’s book: “I don’t think she’s living here at the moment. Her bed
wasn’t slept in”. It is quite appropriate in translation to substitute the process by its
effect: instead of вона не спала у своєму ліжку to use її ліжко не зім’яте.

10.4. Grammatical translation transformations.

 1. Word for word reproduction of syntactic structures, which is regarded as a
“zero transformation”.
2. Transposition is a change in the order of words in phrases and sentences, which
is often caused by the structural differences in expressing the theme and the
rheme in different languages. E.g.: A girl entered the room – У кімнату
увійшла дівчина; An old man was sitting by the side of the road – Біля краю
дороги сидів старий; A column 185 feet high with a statue of Admiral Nelson
on top was erected in Trafalgar Square in 1867 – У 1867 році на
Трафальгарській площі була споруджена колона 185 футів заввишки, на
верхівці якої була встановлена статуя адмірала Нельсона.
3. Replacement is substitution of a word belonging to one part of speech by a word
belonging to another part of speech (morphological replacement) or substitution
of one syntactical construction by another one (syntactical replacement). E.g.: He
is a good runner – Він гарно бігає; I saw her standing there – Я бачив, що вона
там стояла; The Times wrote editorially (...) – У передовій статті газета
Таймс писала (…).
4. Addition is used to compensate for semantic or grammatical losses and often
goes along with transposition and grammatical replacement. E.g.: His wife
had been beautiful – Його дружина колись (або у молодості) була красунею.
Workers of all industries – робітники всіх галузей промисловості. Candidates
will purchase a logbook listing all the modules – Бажаючі прийняти участь у
програмі купують облікову книжку учасника курсів, яка містить перелік
всіх навчальних модулів.
5. Omission is a transformation opposite to addition and is used with the aim to
avoid redundant information. E.g.: the right to rest and leisure – право на
відпочинок. Equality in trade and commerce – рівні права у галузі торгівлі.
(...) regardless of age, education, experience or background – незалежно від
віку, освіти та досвіду роботи.

10.5. Lexical and grammatical transformations in translation

The transformations listed below have been labelled as lexical and grammatical
because lexical changes often are caused by the need to adapt the meaning to the
grammatical peculiarities of the target culture. Most of the scholars single out the
following transformations of this kind:

1. Antonymic translation is the substitution of the source language notion by its

opposite in translation with the relevant restructuring of the utterance aimed at
faithful rendering of its content. Here belong such techniques as the use of an
affirmative construction instead of a negative one or the use of semantic
antonyms. E.g.: Let a sleeping dog lie – Не чіпай лиха, коли воно спить. The
woman on the other end asked him to hang on – Жінка на іншому кінці проводу
сказала, щоб він не вішав трубку. Keep foreign goods out – Не допускати
імпорту іноземних товарів or підтримувати вітчизняного виробника.
2. Total reorganization of the text segment (Rus. целостное преобразование)
[Рецкер 2004: 59-68]. This transformation rearranges the inner form of any
 segment of the text: starting with a word, a phrase and ending up with a complete
sentence. Such reorganization is of an integral nature, so that visible structural
relationships between the inner form of the source and target languages segments
cannot be traced any more. However, total reorganization does not mean that
logical and semantic relationships between the two segments disappear. If it were
so, translation would not be equivalent. On the contrary – total reorganization
presumes that equivalence of the content is retained in translation, though it is
achieved by different means. Total reorganization is very often used in rendering
colloquial set expressions and idioms. Examples are: be my guest – ласкаво
прошу; bottleneck – вузьке (слабке) місце; don’t move!, freeze! – ані руш!; I’ll
be damned! – провалитися мені на цьому місці, хай йому чорт!; out of the
blue – несподівано, раптом, як грім серед ясного неба, як сніг на голову; shut
up! – заткни рота!; to sort things out – ставити все на свої місця.
3. Compensation for the losses in translating. According to A.V.Fedorov [Федоров
2002: 169-170] in the practice of translation there are instances when a word or
another element of the source text is not rendered at all or is substituted by a
formally different one. However this omission does not contradict the principle of
translatability because such elements belong to the text as a whole unit of
language. These elements are essential for understanding of the text fragments as
parts of a system, which are formed by their interrelationships and links, thus
ensuring cohesion of the text. Within this coherent system there is a room for
replacements and compensations. Therefore if a separate element, which doesn’t
play a key role in text organization, is lost in translating, it may be of no
importance for the text as a whole because this element is dissolved in the general
context or substituted by other elements, which sometimes do not exist in the
source text.
1. Therefore compensation for losses in translation should be understood as
substitution of the “untranslatable” source element by a different target
language element in compliance with the general contents of the source text
and in the place, which is in line with the rules of the target text.
2. Compensation is often applied to rendering of such “untranslatable” elements
as culture-specific units of the source language culture and specific national
idioms but not only to them. Mona Baker [1992: 78] writes that the strategy of
compensation “means that one may either omit or play down a feature such as
idiomaticity at the point where it occurs in the source text and introduce it
elsewhere in the target text. This strategy is not restricted to idiomaticity or
fixed expressions and may be used to make up for any loss of meaning,
emotional force, or stylistic effect which may not be possible to reproduce
directly at a given point in the target text”.
3. If it is necessary to sacrifice either stylistic colouring or expressiveness of the
text element in translation, it is worthwhile to retain at least its expressive
characteristics. However, if stylistic colouring is essential for the source text, it
should be by all means rendered in translation at least in some other “place” of
the target text, which the technique of compensation is aimed at. The
following example from “Life and adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit” by Ch.
Dickens illustrates an attempt to compensate for certain losses in translation:
 The education of Mr. Jonas had been conducted on the strictest principles of
the main chance. The very first word he learned to spell was gain, and the
second (when he got into two syllables), money Виховання пана Джонаса
було саме суворе та із народження мало на увазі передусім користь.
Перше слово, яке він навчився складати, було «гроші», а друге (коли він
дійшов до трискладових слів) – «нажива».
In the original text Ch. Dickens writes not about the strictness of education
as such but about “the strictest principles of the main chance”, i.e. about “чіткі
принципи не втратити свій шанс” or “чіткі принципи отримати наживу”.
Unfortunately this hypocritical idiomaticity has not been rendered in translation.
However, the translator tries to compensate for this loss by increasing the level of
irony further on in translation. Translation of the words gain and money also
illustrates the technique of compensation: in the source text the first word Mr.
Jonas learned to spell is gain and the second – money. In the Ukrainian translation
гроші appears to be the first and нажива – the second due to the different
number of syllables in the target language. Correspondingly the translator
substitutes the phrase when he got into two syllables by коли він дійшов до
трискладових слів [Контекстуальні заміни при перекладі].

10.6. Buzzwords, weasel words and textspeak items as translation challenges

Further on it seems worthwhile to discuss briefly the problem of rendering the so-
called “buzzwords” in translation. Ways of rendering buzzwords can be in the most
general terms viewed as specific kinds of lexical and semantic transformations. A
buzzword (also a vogue word, catch phrase or «словo сьогодення») is a vague
idiom, usually a neologism (often an abbreviation or acronym), that is common to the
mass media, managerial, technical and administrative discourse. Although meant to
impress the listener with the speaker’s pretence to knowledge, buzzwords often make
speech messages difficult to understand, translate or interpret [Палажченко 2006: 255;
Buzzword].
Traditional linguistics uses the term neologism (from Greek neo “new” + logos
“word”) with reference to a “newly coined word that may be in the process of entering
common use, but has not yet been accepted into the mainstream language. Neologisms
are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary the term neologism was first used in print
in 1772” [Neologism]. Quite a lot of academic literature deals with neologisms,
however the focus is being made mainly on the structural and semantic models of
coining (building up) new words [see, e.g., Английские неологизмы 1983], though
lately some new English-Ukrainian dictionaries of neologisms and buzzwords started to
come to the agenda [Зацний, Янков 2008].
It is obvious that the fast-changing world of today due to globalisation processes
turns into a single (or rather “common” for most developed and emerging economies)
social and economic environment. However, it is also obvious that the so-called
mainstream (standard or generally understood language) language makes up only the
core section of any language system, while a great variety of subject field (professional)
sublanguages appear in various fields of the mass media, politics, science, technology,
advertising, etc. due to social, scientific and technological progress [Максимов 2001;
2002]. These factors require looking at the newly coined words from somewhat
different perspective.
Translation practice gives grounds to introduce a new notion of the buzzwords,
which seems to be broader than the traditional notion of neologisms. Thus, buzzwords
include neologisms, coined according to traditional models (affixation, conversion,
blending, abbreviation, borrowing from other languages, etc.), and new words (phrases)
coined according to the most productive patterns of today, such as, for instance,
“semantic pattern” and “idiomatic pattern”. Needless to say, that buzzwords include
“usual” lexical units (those that have already become customary due to their frequent
usage in speech and are registered by most dictionaries, e.g., collateral damage,
cyberspace, defamation, deforestation, globalization, marginalization, etc.) and
“occasional” lexical items, which may be absorbed by the language and thus become
“usual” or denied by the language speakers and fade away. In this case such units may
be regarded as “fly-by-night” ones or nonce words, i.e. words coined and used only for
particular occasion, e.g., glocialization, sexretary (compare with Ukr. секретутка),
xenocide, etc.
Another challenge of the contemporary translation studies concerns weasel
words – lexical items which are described as informal term for equivocating words and
phrases aimed at creating an impression that something specific and meaningful has
been said, when in fact only a vague or ambiguous claim, or even a refutation has been
communicated. Take, for instance a letter of recommendation where the letter writer
states “I cannot recommend this person highly enough”, which would ordinarily be
taken to mean that no amount of recommendation is sufficient to communicate the high
stature of recommendation, while at the same time it could literally mean that there is
no recommendation at all. In other cases, words with a particular subjective effect are
chosen. For example, one person may speak of “resistance fighters” or “freedom
fighters”, while another may call the same subjects “terrorists”. The underlying facts
are the same, but a quite different impression is given [Weasel word].
Lynn Visson [2010] gives quite a subtle analysis of weasel words in her book and
their usage in the mass media, political, business and colloquial discourse giving
examples like fuzzy (meaning unclear), huge (meaning cool or very nice), terrific and
awesome (meaning excellent), slam dunk (meaning easily achieved success),
nonjudgmental (meaning correct, good), etc. [Visson 2010:10-21].
Quick emergence of the buzzwords and weasel words is a common process
practically in all languages. In the most general terms the word stock of any language
may be graphically presented as follows:
 3

2
1

where 1 is the generally used (mainstream) lexicon, 2 represents subject field lexical
units or terms (understandable for all members of a particular subject field community,
such as specialists in policy making, computer science, linguistics, medicine, etc.), 3
represents jargon or slang (understandable only by a narrow professional community or
social and age groups).
Translation practice shows that buzzwords and weasel words first appear in section 3
and then they may be “absorbed” by section 2 and further on – by section 1, or,
alternatively, they may be “denied” by section 2 and 1 and fade away or rather become
elements of the “passive” or “historical” vocabulary of the language.
Here one may observe a kind of a two-way traffic: the words may move from the
centre of the circle until they become obsolete (perhaps, due their inappropriateness or
redundancy) and enter the passive historical vocabulary. On the other hand, old
“forgotten” words and phrases may move from the historical linguistic past and become
a part of the mainstream lexicon. Examples of the first case may be English words
pupil, scientist and sportsman, which are gradually replaced by student, academic and
athlete. The second group may be represented by the words coach (м’який автобус)
and challenge (проблема, актуальне завдання),
This two-way movement of words can be explained by the following main
reasons:
1. A new notion (object, phenomenon) should be given a name (e.g., web-site, to
browse, computer mouse).
2. There is a need to differentiate names between two objects (e.g., coach
technically differs from the bus).
3. The denotatum acquires some new shade of meaning (e.g. challenge differs
from problem in terms that a challenge must be met as soon as possible and in
the most constructive way, while problem does not require such urgent
response).
 4. Influence of sociolinguistic aspects and, in particular, gender factors (thus,
masculine-biased sportsman, chairman and fireman are replaced by gender
neutral athlete, chair (chairperson) and fire-fighter.
5. Disappearance of the denotata with the relevant lexical items entering the
group of obsolete words (e.g., wireless, typewriter, punched card, or калоші,
примус, лікнеп, колгосп, радгосп, госпрозрахунок).
A.I. Cherdnychenko [Чередниченко 2007: 66-69] gives such examples of
Ukrainian buzzword neologisms that have appeared in the Ukrainian media space
within the latest decades and were registered by most dictionaries as appropriate:
б’ютівець, піарити, регіонал, бізнес-план, бізнесовець, VIP-жінка, глобальне
павутиння, імпічмент, хіт, комп’ютеризація, маржа, транш, to which we may
add such lexical items of today as: потяг, вогнеборець, перемовини, верхогони,
гвинтокрил, etc. However, some of the foreign borrowings and Ukrainian buzzwords
really do not enrich the Ukrainian language and easily can be avoided because there are
genuine Ukrainian equivalents for the notions and objects they denote, e.g.,
перформанс, ньюзмейкер, месидж, лайв (прямий ефір, наживо) [ibid.: 70-71], to
which we may add such obscure words as кава-брейк, іншуренс, бізнес-лаундж,
педалювати питання, хостес (господиня), міжповерховий дротохід (ліфт),
жінкознавець (лікар-гінеколог), розчепірка (парасолька), штрикавка (шприц), etc.
Translation practice also shows that alongside with the traditional ways of
coining up buzzword neologisms (such as for example affixation: defamation,
globalilization, deglobalization, marginalization, to reinvent, subsidiarity, answerable,
etc.), the most productive way in the 21 st century is a wide spread of semantic buzzword
neologisms [Зацний, Янков 2008:58] – that is lexical items, which are created by way
of acquiring new senses by the existing words of the mainstream vocabulary. That
means that the translator often has to render the contextual sense of the new lexeme but
not always its traditional meaning recorded in the dictionary. Thus, to be in the pipeline
is understood by the business circles community as бути «в роботі», бути на
«підході» with reference to a project; coherent response means відповідна, адекватна
реакція; emerging economies – країни, що економічно розвиваються; to fashion the
strategy – формулювати, розробляти стратегію; grassroots movement – народна
ініціатива; reality check – перевірка експертом даних в реальних умовах; to sit
easily with somebody – легко налагоджувати гарні стосунки, не втручатися, etc.
Another tendency in English is an extensive usage of the word-building models of
N+N type (instead of preposition + N model): black spots, board member, crisis
management, the Interior Ministry, the Justice Department, prison escaper, stimulus
package, trouble spots, etc., which require certain syntactic transformations while
translating them into Ukrainian.
There is also one more reason for the domination of semantic pattern in coining
up buzzword neologisms linked up to the tendency of creating euphemisms to avoid
unwanted social, political, ethnic, ethical, gender, cultural and religious connotations
[Селіванова 2011: 144] or, in other words, to ensure political correctness 1. Examples
are: collateral damage (супровідні ушкодження; супутня шкода – тобто
1
We believe that the term “political correctness” in the 21 st century should be treated in broader terms – as “communicative
correctness” because it applies not only to verbal and linguistic correctness in politics but practically to all spheres of
human life. Thus one may speak of “cultural correctness”, “racial correctness”, “religious correctness”, “gender
correctness” and other instances when people have to observe certain ethical rules of communication.
«ненавмисно заподіяна шкода населенню або випадкове знищення майна під час
бойових дій, боротьби з тероризмом або ліквідації техногенних катастроф»); СSW
(commercial sex worker – instead of a prostitute); IDU – intravenous (injecting) drug
user – instead of a drug addict; MSM – men who have sex with men – instead of a male
homosexual, etc.).
The latest (quite specific, though) tendency is to use buzzword neologisms
without translation (that is in the letters of the source language). This method started to
be widely used in the latest decade with the expansion of various brand names
(especially computer software, the Internet and other high-tech products, names of
songs and other peaces of art, fashion, automobile and pharmaceutical industries
products, etc.) and is usually labelled as “incrustation” («інкрустація» or «пряме
включення» ). One can find practically at every page of computer, high-tech literature
or in adverts examples like the following: Перевірте правильність установки
системи електронної пошти на Microsoft Word; Ця операційна система не
підтримує встановлення драйвера через Setup; Цей браузер не підтримує пошук
API CSO.
To summarize ways of rendering (transforming) buzzword neologisms and weasel
words from English into Ukrainian and back we may conclude that in the end of the
first decade of the 21-st century the following ways of rendering are commonly used:
1. Wide use of practical transcription and transliteration (transcoding): actuary –
актуарій; diversification – диверсифікація; upgrade – апгрейд; web-site –
веб-сайт; browser – браузер.
2. Rendering based upon finding analogies: bottlenecks – «вузькі місця»;
households – домогосподарства; good governance – належне
у(в)рядування; roundabout – транспортна розв’язка («клумба»).
3. Rendering based upon translation loans: delivery versus payment – доставка
проти платежу; task manager – диспетчер завдань; underwriter –
надписувач цінних паперів; безготівковий розрахунок – non-cash payment.
4. Finding Ukrainian correspondences built by adding a transcoded or loan
element to the Ukrainian element: web-page – веб-сторінка; frame analysis –
фреймовий аналіз.
5. Combined method of rendering with the use of Latin, Cyrillic letters and
digits: USB-port – USB-порт; X-modem – X-модем.
6. Incrustation (leaving the lexeme in the SL, usually Latin, letters): Microsoft
Word; Internet Explorer; ASUS; LEXUS; BMW; Toyota.
7. Descriptive translation (explication): absentee voter – виборець, який голосує
за відкріпним талоном; stakeholder – зацікавлена сторона, учасник
соціальної або ділової програми (проекту); резонансна справа – a high
profile case; кишенькова опозиція – easy-to-manipulate opposition.
8. Coining of Ukrainian equivalents on the foreign language basis: emoticon –
смайлi(и)к; генделик (from a German word Handel – торгівля).
It is also worthwhile mentioning quite a new way of coining buzzwords in the so-
called textspeak (txtng, textese, chatspeak, SMS language, txt talk), which is a term
for abbreviations and slang most commonly used due to the necessary brevity of
mobile text messaging, though its use is common on the Internet, including e-mail and
instant messaging. It can be linked to a rebus, which uses pictures and single letters, or
numbers to represent whole words. For words which have no common abbreviation,
users most commonly remove the vowels from a word, and the reader (translator) is
forced to interpret a string of consonants and sometimes numerals by re-adding the
vowels (e.g., dictionary becomes dctnry, or keyboard becomes kybrd). The reader must
interpret the abbreviated words depending on the context in which it is used, as there are
many examples of words or phrases which use the same abbreviations (e.g. lol could
mean “laugh out loud” or “lots of love”. So if someone writes ttyl, lol they probably
mean “talk to you later, lots of love” but not “talk to you later, laugh out loud”; and if
someone writes omg, lol they probably mean “oh my god, laugh out loud” but not “oh
my god, lots of love”. Context is key when interpreting textspeak, and precisely this is a
shortfall which critics cite as a reason not to use it. The words of textspeak usually are
not recorded by standard dictionaries and language academies are reluctant to recognize
them.
The objective of textspeak is to use the fewest number of characters needed to
convey a comprehensible message, also as many telecommunication companies have an
SMS character limit, another benefit of textspeak is to reduce the character count of a
message, hence, punctuation, grammar, and capitalization are largely ignored [Сrystal
2008; Textspeak]. Here are some typical examples of textspeak lexical units: atm (at the
moment); brb (be right back); btw (by the way); g2g (got to go); gr8 (great); idk (I don’t
know); t2yl (talk to you later); 4u (for you); cul8r (see you later), 2b or not 2b (to be or
not to be).
Such textspeak lexical items are usually translated into Ukrainian in a descriptive
way (by way of explication), however, nowadays there are instances when textspeak
lexical items may be encountered in the Ukrainian Internet chats and mobile
telecommunication messages, for example: язов71 (я зовсім один).
All that has been mentioned above give reasons to consider the way of giving a
name to these lexical, semantic and cultural transformations of the buzzword
neologisms that are observed nowadays. Some writers on the subject traditionally
attribute these transformations to “different ways of translating”, some write of
“implantation” [Денисова 2006], however, one of the most acceptable terms seems to
be “language localisation”.
Language localisation can be defined as the second phase of a larger process
(internationalisation and localisation) of product translation and linguistic and cultural
adaptation (for specific countries, regions, social groups) to account for differences in
distinct communities. Thus, it is important not to reduce it to a mere translation activity
because it involves a comprehensive study of the target culture in order to correctly
adapt the product [Language localisation].
The language localisation process was first most generally related to cultural
adaptation and translation of computer software, websites and video games [Онищенко
2008]. Several examples (some quite appropriate but some ridiculous) to localise the
English software terms to the Ukrainian target users are: application – прикладна
програма; to click – клацнути, виконати щиглик; bold – грубий, погрублений
(шрифт); default – усталений; Internet explorer – проводир павутиння; wizard –
майстеp, etc2.
2
For more examples see: Microsoft Community Glossary Project for Ukrainian [Електронний ресурс] – Режим доступу:
http://members.microsoft.com/wincg/home aspx?langid=1058 .
 Nowadays the language localisation process is widely applied to rendering various
brand names (especially in the computer, car-making, pharmaceutical and food industry,
fashion and other sectors). There is no doubt that the principle of appropriateness
(доречність вживання) [Максімов 2004] should be strictly observed in doing this.
Below there are some examples of inappropriate language localisation instances,
which create unwanted reactions among the target customers/users: Glister (toothpaste
for children) – зубна паста Глістер; Zhiguli (VAZ 2101 car that was soon renamed as
Lada for the foreign market); KIA – the South Korean car brand, which would be
inappropriate in the English speaking countries, as one of the meanings of this acronym
is killed in action (загиблий під час бойових дій), Ukrainian abbreviation ЗАТ
(закрите акціонерне товариство) is today most commonly replaced by АТЗТ
(акціонерне товариство закритого типу) due to certain inappropriateness of the
sounding of the first variant.
In principle, it is highly recommended that translators and interpreters compile
their own (preferably electronic) subject field glossaries of buzzwords, weasel words
neologisms, acronyms and abbreviations, textspeak items, where the principles of their
translation or localisation (whatever term may be chosen) with due respect to the
principles of communicative correctness and appropriateness are considered.
Having completed translation of a text, it is quite appropriate to leave it for some
time and to look at it later on “with a fresh look” so that all mistakes and defects of
translation can be clearly seen. Then the process of editing (correcting and amending)
translated text begins until translator considers the results of the job to be satisfactory.
Technological advances and globalisation processes that rapidly progress in the
st
21 century provide unlimited opportunities for translators to facilitate and improve
results of their professional work. Numerous web sites on translation are available on
the Internet, general and special dictionaries, which are rapidly improved and updated,
special computer software is being constantly designed to assist translators. On the one
hand cultures and languages become closer to each other, but on the other – greater
separation of professional subcultures and sublanguages becomes obvious. All these
factors make the mission of translators and interpreters, who serve as mediators and
facilitators of human progress, even more important in the fast-changing world of today.

PRACTICE SECTION 10

Questions for discussion and practical assignments

1. Comment upon the main lexical transformations used in translation. Suggest
examples of your own.
2. Comment upon the main grammatical transformations used in translation Suggest
examples of your own.
3. Comment upon the main lexical and grammatical transformations used in
translation. Suggest examples of your own.
4. Comment upon the notion of the buzzwords and weasel words and ways of their
translation.
5. Comment upon the notion of textspeak and suggest some examples from your own
experience.
6. Comment upon the notion of language localisation and suggest some examples of
the localised language units (buzzwords, proper names, brand-names, etc.) of your
own.
7. Study the Ukrainian versions of the following texts and compare them with their
officially published versions in English [Panorama, № 5, 2001] commenting upon
translation transformations in the two versions. Suggest your arguments to consider
which versions of these texts are originals and which are translations:
Успіх Raise
“Шеф, мені вдалося досягти певного “Boss, I’ve got to have a raise”, the
успіху”, – сказав торговець своєму salesman said to his sales manager. “There
торговому менеджеру, – за мною are three other companies after me.”
слідують три інші компанії”. “Is that a fact?” the manager asked.
“Дійсно?”, – перепитав менеджер, “а “What other companies are after you?”
які ж компанії слідують за Вами?” “The electricity company, the phone
– “Компанії, що надають company and the gas company.”
електроенергію, газ, телефонні послуги
та ще дещо...” Sleeping disorder
For John, getting up early had always
Розлад сну been a problem. He had tried everything –
Джон страждав тим, що пізно going to bed early, setting three alarm
прокидався вранці (мав надзвичайно clocks, but nothing seemed to work. After
міцний сон), і тому завжди years of consistent tardiness, his boss gave
запізнювався на роботу. Його шеф дуже him an ultimatum, either get to work on
розгнівався на нього та пригрозив, що time, or get out! As a last resort, John went
звільнить, якщо Джон не позбавиться to see the doctor.
цього недоліку. Тож Джон негайно The doctor listened carefully, took
звернувся до лікаря, який дав йому notes, examined John, and then prescribed
пігулку та порадив прийняти її перед a pill for him to take before bedtime.
сном. John slept well, and in the morning
Джон добре спав і вранці його actually woke up before the alarm. Very
справді розбудив дзвінок будильника. pleased by himself, he went for a jog,
Джон неквапно поснідав і задоволений showered, had a leisurely breakfast and
приїхав на роботу. “Шеф”, – вигукнув drove cheerfully to work.
він, – “пігулка дійсно спрацювала!” “Це “Boss”, he said excitedly, “it worked! I
дуже добре”, сказав шеф, – “але де Ви woke up before the alarm, and I’m ready
були вчора?” to face the day!”
“That’s all very well,” replied the boss,
На догоду шефу “but where were you yesterday?”
Одного вечора молодий працівник
пізно залишав свій офіс і зустрів Pleasing the boss
генерального директора, що стояв біля A young executive was leaving the
паперорізальної машини з аркушем office late one evening, when he found the
паперу в руці. CEO standing in front of a shredder with a
“Послухай”, – сказав директор, – це piece of paper in his hand.
дуже важливий документ, а моя “Listen,” said the CEO, “this is a very
секретарка вже пішла додому. Чи вмієш sensitive and important document, and my
ти користуватися цією машиною?” secretary has gone for the night. Can you
“Звичайно”, – сказав молодий make this machine work?”
працівник. Він увімкнув машину, вклав “Certainly”, said the young executive.
цей документ і натиснув кнопку. He turned the machine on, inserted the
“Чудово, чудово!” – сказав директор, paper, and pressed the start button.
коли документ зник в машині, – “мені “Excellent, excellent!” said the CEO as
потрібна лише одна копія і не більше”. his paper disappeared inside the machine.
 “I just need one copy”.
Один вихідний день
Містер Сміт йде до свого керівника, One day off
що знаходиться у кабінеті напроти. Mr. Smith goes to see his supervisor in
“Пане директоре”, – говорить він, – the front office. “Boss”, he says, “we’re
“завтра вдома ми збираємося провести doing some heavy housecleaning at home
генеральне прибирання, тож моїй tomorrow, and my wife needs me to help
дружині потрібна допомога при her with the attic and the garage, moving
наведенні порядку на горищі та в and hauling stuff”.
гаражі, адже там необхідно пересувати “We’re shorthanded, Smith,” the boss
речі”. replies. “I can’t give you the day off”.
“Сміт, зараз у нас нестача “Thanks, boss,” says Smith. “I knew I
працівників”, – відповів директор, – “я could count on you”.
не можу надати Вам вихідний день”.
“Дякую, пане директоре”, – сказав The new employee
Сміт, – “я знав, що на Вас можна Several weeks after a young man was
розраховувати”. hired, he was called into the personnel
manager’s office.
Новий співробітник “What is the meaning of this?” the
Через декілька тижнів після прийому manager asked. “When you applied for the
на роботу молодого чоловіка запросив у job, you told us you had 5 year’s
свій кабінет начальник відділу кадрів. experience. Now we discover this is the
“Що це значить?” – запитав начальник. first job you’ve ever had.”
“Коли Ви влаштовувалися на роботу, то “Well,” the young man said, “in your
сказали нам, що маєте 5-річний досвід. ad you said you wanted somebody with
Тепер виявляється, що це Ваша перша imagination.”
робота в житті”.
“Так”, – відповів молодий чоловік, – Free of charge
“але у вашому оголошенні було The boss came in early one morning
зазначено, що вам потрібна людина з and found one of his managers kissing his
фантазією, один недолік перевершила secretary.
моя позитивна риса...” “Is this what I pay you for?” the boss
shouted.
Безкоштовно “No, sir,” the manager replied. “This I
Одного дня шеф рано прийшов на do free of charge”.
роботу і побачив, що його менеджер
цілує його секретарку.
“І це те, за що я плачу Вам гроші?”, –
закричав шеф на менеджера.
Менеджер відповів: “Ні, сер, це я
роблю безкоштовно, платите Ви мені за
інше...”
8. Match the lexical units in the left column with the translation options in the right
column and suggest your reasons whether these lexical units can be regarded as
buzzwords. Comment upon the ways of rendering these items in translation.

the rule of law сталий, усталений

targeted контрабанда наркотиків
intravenous drug user (IDU) show business
pilot project pop star
sustainable громадянська усвідомлення; обізнаність
drug trafficking high profile case; front page story
grass roots movement політична коректність
public awareness tranche
credit crunch impeachment
synergy парадигма
collateral damage рушійні сили; динаміка змін (напр., змін
клімату, громадської думки тощо)
leverage остання крапля; переломний (зламний)
момент
paradigm emoticon
tipping point download
reality checker розкриття, оприлюднення інформації
(напр., фінансової звітності)
proactive спільна діяльність, ефект синергії
high flier система важелів державного
регулювання (бізнес, політика)
cyberspace пілотний проект
smartphone upload
stakeholder супровідна шкода; супровідні
ушкодження; додаткові збитки
asset management адресний (напр., адресна допомога)
cast aspersions (on, upon smb.) ініціативни; із випередженням подій
diversification перспективний працівник; людина, яка
досягла великих успіхів
disclosure людина, яка перевіряє інформацію на
реальних фактах; незалежний експерт
civil society кіберпростір; віртуальний простір,
створений комп’ютерною системою
commitments cмартфон; інтелектуальний мобільний
телефон
compliance bottlenecks
enforce legislation nomination
political correctness зацікавлена особа, сторона (у бізнесі,
політиці тощо); партнер
dynamics народний, масовий) рух; ініціатива
простих людей
резонансна справа управління активами
транш кидати тінь на кого-небудь; зводити
наклеп
імпічмент громадянське суспільство
завантажити з інтернету; скачати зобов’язання
завантажити (на веб-сайт); закачати; дотримання законодавства
викласти на сайті
кандидатура споживач внутрішньовенних наркотиків
вузькі місця (проблемні місця, ситуації) верховенство права
шоу-бізнес кредитна криза
поп-зірка диверсифікація
смайл(і)ик впровадження законодавства в життя та
здійснення контролю щодо його
виконання

8. Analyse and translate into Ukrainian the following text (Text 1) paying special
attention to obvious translation transformations and ways of rendering buzzwords.

Text 1.
Structural and Behavioral Factors Affecting the Epidemic

Structural factors increase the vulnerability of groups of people to HIV infection.

Behavioral factors determine the chances that individuals will become infected. Risk is
defined in this context as a probability, not a moral judgment.
Groups of people at the higher risk of transmitting or becoming infected with the
virus are known as “high-risk core transmitters”. In Eastern Europe and Central Asia,
these are mostly injecting drug users (IDUs), mobile populations, and commercial sex
workers (CSWs). These people in turn interact with other subgroups, known as “bridge
populations” – typically the sex partners of injecting drug users and the clients of
commercial sex workers. Eventually, the epidemic may spill into the greater population.
Everyone is thus at some risk, but certain subgroups are at much higher risk than others.
There is therefore a compelling case for reducing vulnerability and supporting targeted,
nonstigmatizing prevention programs on a scale that is larger than most current pilot
projects. Interrupting HIV transmission among high-risk core transmitters and bridge
population is crucial if the countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia are to avert
generalized epidemics.
Structural factors that influence HIV transmission are deep-seated and complex.
In the medium or long term, they can be addressed through sustained, pro-poor
economic growth; poverty-reduction policies, and programs; control of drug trafficking;
effective judicial reforms to reduce overcrowding in prisons; improvement of
employment opportunities for young adults; curtailment of human trafficking; and
improvement of the public health infrastructure to support testing, counselling,
tuberculosis control, and other population-based approaches to HIV/AIDS and
tuberculosis.
 Behavioral (risk) factors are more amenable to short- and medium-term actions.
These include policy support for effective interventions aimed at reducing the risk of
becoming infected, improved surveillance as a basis for effective interventions against
HIV/AIDS, mass communication efforts to improve awareness of HIV/AIDS among the
general population, and large-scale prevention programs. Treatment programs that are
carefully designed to prevent or minimize the emergence of drug-resistant forms of the
tuberculosis bacteria and HIV are also needed.
Averting AIDS Crises in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. A Regional Support
Strategy. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World
Bank.– Washington, 2003

9. Analyse and translate into English the following text (Text 2) paying special attention
to obvious translation transformations and ways of rendering buzzwords.

Text 2.

ЛЮДИНА І БРЕНД
Кайлі Міноуг визнали найвідомішою австралійкою

З найменшого континенту вийшло чимало знаменитостей, які прославляють

рідну Австралію на весь світ. Але найбільше на батьківщині пишаються поп-
дівою Кайлі Міноуг. З результатами опитування, в якому взяли участь близько
400 представників шоу-бізнесу і рекламної індустрії Зеленого континенту, Кайлі
назвали найвідомішою людиною – брендом Австралії.
Учасники опитування відзначили, що ім’я Міноуг асоціюється у них з
музикою, кіно, жіночою білизною LoveKylie та парфумами, які вона випускає. До
того ж Кайлі – красуня, але при всьому цьому залишається милою та простою.
Завдяки цим якостям вона подобається дуже різним людям, тому й посіла перше
місце. Як повідомляє агенція «Ассошіейтед пресс», окрім 41-річної співачки, у
десятку «людей-брендів» увійшли також голлівудські кінозірки Ніколь Кідман і
Х’ю Джекман, гольфіст Грег Норман, супермодель Елль Макферсон та прем’єр-
міністр Австралії Кевін Радд.
Це вже не перше звання, яким Кайлі вшановують цього року. У липні
журнал «Гламур» назвав її «Жінкою року» та «Артисткою року».
Наразі поп-зірка, яка минулого року поборола рак молочної залози, працює
над своїм 11-м альбомом, який вийде у 2010-му. А 13 вересня виступить на
концерті, присвяченому шведській групі АББА, що пройде в лондонському Гайд-
парку. Кайлі заспіває хіт SuperTrouper, а композицію When All Is Said And Done
виконає в дуеті з Бенні Андерсоном.
«Музика гурту АББА відігравала дуже велику роль в моєму житті,
починаючи з дитинства, тому я дуже схвильована можливістю виконати їхні
класичні пісні на сцені, де стоятимуть мої кумири, і поділитися своїми почуттями
особисто з ними!» – тішиться Міноуг.
Після єдиного виступу у Великій Британії Кайлі вирушить у концертний тур
Північною Америкою, який стартує 30 вересня.
Гаврило Степанюк. Україна молода, 1 вересня 2009 p.
 LITERATURE

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языке. – М.: Р. Валент, 2010. – 160 с.
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проблеми перекладознавства та навчання перекладу в мовному вузі: Зб.
наук. праць. – К.: Видав. центр КНЛУ, 2006. – С. 57-59.
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початку ХХІ століття: англо-український словник. – Вінниця: Нова Книга,
2008. – 360 с. [На обкладинці: Словник неологізмів. Англо-український].
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ту. Сер. Філологічні науки, № 5 (26), 2001. – С. 100-104.
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переводчикам научно-технического и общественно-политического
дискурса. // Университетское переводоведение. Вып. 3. /Материалы III
Международной научной конференции по переводоведению “Федоровские
чтения” 26-28 октября 2001 г. – СПб: Филологический факультет Санкт-
Петербургского госуд. ун-та, 2002. – С. 301-307.
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«Практикум по культуре речевого общения»: дисс. … канд. пед. наук:
13.00.02. Таганрог, 2005. – 211 с.
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школа, 1990. – 253 с.
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перекладі: дис. … канд. філол. наук: 10.02.16. – К., 2008. – 260 с.
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переводчика). – М.: Р. Валент, 2006. – 304 с.
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лингвистической теории перевода. – М.: Р. Валент, 2004. – 240 с.
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 18.Федоров А.В. Основы общей теории перевода (лингвистические проблемы).
– СПб.: Филологический факультет СпбГУ; – М.: ООО Издательский дом
«ФИЛОЛОГИЯ ТРИ», 2002. – 416 с.
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Перспектива. Изд-во «Союз», 2008. – 304 c.
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Routledge, 1994. – 304 p.
24.Контекстуальні заміни при перекладі [Електронний ресурс] – Режим
доступу до ресурсу:
http://www.franko.lviv.ua/faculty/intrel/tpp/lecture_14.htm.
25.Crystal David. Txtng. The gr8 db8. – Oxford, N.Y.: Oxford Univ. Press, 2008. –
239 p.
26.Buzzword. Wikipedia [Електронний ресурс] / – Режим доступу до ресурсу:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzzword.
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Language. – Vol. 33. №3, 1957. – P. 283-340.
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ресурсу: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_localisation.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologism.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textspeak.

BASIC LINGUISTIC TERMS USED IN UNIT 10

addition додавання
antonymic translation антонімічний переклад
appropriateness доречність вживання
buzzword (vogue word, fashion word, «словo сьогодення» (модне, часто
catch phrase ) вживане слово або фраза)
compensation for losses in translating компенсація втрат при перекладі
concretization (substantiation) of meanings конкретизація понять
differentiation of meanings диференціація понять
generalization of meanings узагальнення (генералізація) понять
grammatical replacement граматична заміна
localisation (localization) локалізіція
logical (sense) development логічний (змістовий) розвиток
modulation модуляція
omission випущення
textspeak; textese; SMS language, txtng мова текстових повідомлень; мова SMS-
повідомлень, текстомова
total reorganization цілісне перетворення (рос. целостное
преобразование)
transformations in translation; translation перекладацькі трансформації
transformations
transposition транспозиція, перестановка
weasel words слова-хамелеони та метаморфози
 ANNEX 1

THE SCHEME OF TEXT ANALYSIS AT THE STATE EXAMINATION IN

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION

1. Discourse parameters of the text:

1) establishing extralinguistic factors that determine the type of discourse the text
belongs to (pictures, photographs, schemes, formulas, etc.);
2) determining the type of discourse the text belongs to (legal, administrative,
business, military, scientific discourse; discourse of the mass media; political
discourse; fictional (aesthetic) discourse; colloquial discourse, etc.).

2. Communicative characteristics of the text:

1) constituents of the communicative situation of the text belonging to a certain type

of discourse and in particular: deictic parameters of the text – by whom, to whom,
where, when and with what aim textual information is transmitted;
2) identification of the communicative intention of the text.

3. Pragmalinguistic characteristics of the text:

Defining the categorical hierarchy of the text at the following levels:

1) structural level: means of ensuring lexical and semantic cohesion in the text:
repetition links used in the text (simple and complex lexical repetition, simple
and complex paraphrase, co-reference, substitution, etc.); grammatical and
syntactical structure of the text (patterns of the sequence of tenses, the use of
articles, compound and complex sentences, etc,);
2) semantic level: establishing the macroproposition of the text and its referential
relationships with the text segments.

4. Stylistic characteristics of the text:

1) analysis of the lingual means of transmitting information in the text:

a) establishing “strong” positions in the text: the author of the text,
the title of the text, absolute beginning and end of the text,
composition of paragraphs, which contain central textual
information, etc.;
b) establishing “weak” positions in the text, i.e. positions, which
provide arguments to the “strong positions”.
 2) analysis of tropes and figures of speech (stylistic devices and expressive means)
used in the text: metaphors, epithets, idioms, cases of metonymy, irony,
hyperbole, litotes, zeugma, pun, simile, oxymoron, etc.;
3) analysis of special literary and colloquial vocabularies used in the text (proper
names, asyndetic combination of nouns, subject field terms, quotations, poetic
and highly literary words, obsolete words, neologisms, barbarisms,
internationalisms, acronyms, items of the national lexicon, buzzwords, weasel
words, textspeak items, items of slang, jargon, dialectal, vulgar words, etc).

5. Basic transformations in text translation:

1) lexical transformations: formal lexical transformations (practical transcription,

transliteration, traditional reproduction, loan translation); lexical and semantic
transformations (generalization, differentiation, substantiation, modulation);
identification of gender markers in the text and selecting appropriate options of
their rendering in translation;
2) grammatical transformations (transposition, replacement, addition, omission);
3) lexical and grammatical transformations (antonymic translation, total
reorganization, compensation, transformations of idioms in translation).