CT Unit I

EE8251 – CIRCUIT THEORY – Mr. S.
MANIMARAN, AP/EEE
UNIT-I
Resistive elements – ohms law Resistors in series and parallel circuits – Kirchhoff’s laws
– mesh current and node voltage – methods of analysis.
Resistive element:
 Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric
charge.
 This physical property or ability to resist current is known as resistance and is
represented by the symbol R.
 The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A
and its length (l).
Figure 1.1: (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for resistance.

ρl
R=
a
Where,
Ρ – Resistivity of the material in ohm-meters
Good conductor with low Resistivities: Example: Copper and aluminum.
Insulators with high Resistivities: Example: mica and paper,
 The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the
resistor.
 The resistors are usually made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds.
2
EE8251 – CIRCUIT THEORY – Mr. S. MANIMARAN, AP/EEE
Resistivities of common materials.
Material Resistivity (Ωm) Usage
Silver 1.64 ×10-8 Conductor
Copper 1.72×10-8 Conductor
Aluminum 2.8×10-8 Conductor
Gold 2.45×10-8 Conductor
Carbon 4×10-5 Semiconductor
Germanium 47×10-2 Semiconductor
Silicon 6.4×102 Semiconductor
Paper 1010 Insulator
Mica 5×1011 Insulator
Glass 1012 Insulator
Teflon 3×1012 Insulator
Ohms law:
Statement: The current (I) flowing though the electric circuit is directly proportional to
the potential difference across the circuit (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance
(R) of the circuit, provided the temperature remains constant.
(Or)
Ohm’s law states that the voltage V across a resistor is directly proportional to the current I
flowing through the resistor.

V∝I
V = RI
Figure 1.2: Ohms law
3
𝐕
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐈) =
𝐑
Voltage (V) = I × R
V
Resistance (R) =
I
Where,
V - Voltage in volts (V);
R - Resistance in ohm (Ω);
I - Current in Amps (A)
Limitations:
 It is not applicable to the nonlinear devices such as diodes, zener diodes, voltage
regulators etc.,
 It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon carbide.
Direction of current (I) and the polarity of voltage (V):
 The current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in order for V = IR.
 If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential V = IR.
Open and short circuit:
 An element with R=0 is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.3 (a).
V= IR = 0
Figure 1.3: (a) Short circuit (b) Open circuit
 Similarly, an element with R = ∞ is known as an open circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.3 (b).
Conductance:
 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current.
 It is measured in mhos (ʊ) or siemens (S).
4
Power dissipation:
 The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.
2
v2
p = vi = i R =
R
 The power dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G as
i2
p = vi = v 2 G =
R
Example 1: An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
Solution:
From Ohm’s law,

V 120
R= = = 60Ω
I 2
Example 2: In the circuit shown in Fig. , calculate the current i, the conductance G, and the
power p.
Solution:
v 30
Current (i) = = = 6mA
R 5 × 103
The conductance is
1 1
G= = = 0.2mS
R 5 × 103
To calculate the power,
p = vi = 30 × 6 × 10−3 = 180mW
(Or)
p = i2 R = (6 × 10−3 )2 × 5 × 103 = 180mW
(Or)
p = v 2 G = (6 × 10−3 )2 × 0.2 × 10−3 = 180mW
5
ENERGY SOURCES:
There are two types of energy sources: Voltage source and current source.
They are classified as
 Ideal source
 Practical source
Voltage source:
Ideal voltage source:
 It is the energy source whose output voltage remains constant whatever be the value
of the output current.
 It has zero internal resistance so that voltage drop in the source is zero.
(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics
Figure 1.4: Ideal voltage source
Practical voltage source:
 Practically, every voltage source has small internal resistance in series with voltage
source and is represented by Rse.
 In this source, the voltage does not remain constant, but falls slightly with addition of
load.
(a) Circuit (b) Characteristics
Figure 1.5: Practical voltage source
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Voltage sources are further classified as follows,
Time invariant sources:
Figure 1.6: D.C Source
 The sources in which voltage is not varying with time.
Time variant sources
Figure 1.7: A.C Source
 The sources in which voltage is varying with time.
Current source:
Ideal current source:
(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics
Figure 1.8: Ideal current source
 It produces a constant current irrespective of the value of the voltage across it.
7
Practical current source:
(a) Circuit (b) Characteristics
Figure 1.9: Practical current source
 Practically, every current source has high internal resistance in parallel with current
source.
 It is represented by Rsh.
 In practical current source, the current does not remain constant, but falls slightly.
Current sources are further classified as follows,
Time invariant sources:
 The sources in which voltage is not varying with
time.
Figure 1.10: D.C Source
Time variant sources
 The sources in which voltage is varying with time.
Figure 1.11: A.C Source

Dependent Sources:
 An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source
quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.
 Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols.
 There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
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 A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
 A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
 A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
 A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS):
 It produces a voltage as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit (Figure a).
Current-controlled current source (CCCS):
 It produces a current as a function of current elsewhere in the given circuit (Figure b).
Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS):
 It produces a voltage as a function of current elsewhere in the given circuit (Figure c).
Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS):
 It produces a current as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit (Figure d).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 1.12: Dependent Sources
Independent Sources:
 An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or
current that is completely independent of other circuit elements.
Figure 1.13: Independent Sources
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Behaviour of circuit elements:
Element Voltage across element if Current through element if

current is known voltage is known
v
R (Resistance) v = iR i=
R
di 1
L (Inductance) v=L i = ∫ v dt
dt L
1 dv
C (Capacitance) v= ∫ i dt i=C
C dt
Series Resistors and Voltage Division:
 The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flows in both of them.
 Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain

v1 = R1 i v2 = R 2 i
 Applying KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have
Figure 1.14: A single-loop circuit with two resistors in series.

v − v1 − v2 = 0
v = v1 + v2
v = R1 i + R 2 i = i(R1 + R 2 ) … … … . . (1)
v
i=
(R1 + R 2 )
Notice that Eq. (1) can be written as
v = i(R1 + R 2 ) = iR eq
The two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor

R eq = R1 + R 2
10
Figure 1.15: Equivalent circuit of the Figure 1.4 circuit.
 The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of
the individual resistances.
 For N resistors in series then,

N
R eq = R1 + R 2 … … … . +R N = ∑ R n
n=1
 To determine the voltage across each resistor in Figure.1.4,

v v
v1 = R1 i = R1 v2 = R 2 i = R 2
(R1 + R 2 ) (R1 + R 2 )
Parallel Resistors and Current Division:
 Consider the circuit in Figure. 1.6, where two resistors are connected in parallel and
therefore have the same voltage across them.
 From Ohm’s law,

v = R1 i1 = R 2 i2
v
i1 = … … … … … … . . (1)
R1
v
i2 = … … … … … … . . (2)
R2
Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
i = i1 + i2 … … … … … … . . (3)
Substituting Eq. (1) and (2) into Eq. (3),
v v 1 1 1 1 v
i = i1 + i2 = + = v( + ) = v( + ) =
R1 R 2 R1 R 2 R1 R 2 R eq
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Figure 1.16: Two resistors in parallel.
Where,
Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:

1 1 1 R 2 + R1
= + ==
R eq R1 R 2 R1 R 2
R1 R 2
R eq =
R 2 + R1
 The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistances divided by their sum.
 If circuit with N resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance is

1 1 1 1
= + ……..
R eq R1 R 2 RN
 If R1 = R2 =……..= RN = R
1 N
=
R eq R
R
R eq =
N
Figure 1.17: Equivalent circuit to Fig. 1.6.
Given the total current entering node (a) in Fig. 1.6, to find i1 and i2
R1 R 2
v = iR eq = i ( )
R 2 + R1
12
v i R1 R 2 R2
i1 = = ( ) = i( )
R1 R1 R 2 + R1 R 2 + R1
v i R1 R 2 R1
i2 = = ( )=i ( )
R2 R 2 R 2 + R1 R 2 + R1
R2
i1 = i ( )
R 2 + R1
R1
i2 = i ( )
R 2 + R1
 Which shows that the total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to
their resistances.
Example 3: Find Req for the circuit shown in Fig. May – 14.
Solution:
The 6Ω and 3Ω resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent resistance is

6 × 3 18
6Ω ∥ 3Ω = = = 2Ω
6+3 9
(The symbol II is used to indicate a parallel combination.)
Also, the 1Ω and 5Ω resistors are in series

= 1Ω + 5Ω = 6Ω
The two 2Ω resistors are in series, so the equivalent resistance is

= 2Ω + 2Ω = 4Ω
This 4Ω resistor is now in parallel with the 6Ωresistor.
6 × 4 24
6Ω ∥ 4Ω = = = 2.4Ω
6 + 4 10
13
The three resistors are in series.

R eq = 4Ω + 2.4Ω + 8Ω = 14.4Ω
Example 4: Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit in Fig.
Solution:
The 3Ω and 6Ω resistors are in parallel because they are connected to the same two nodes c
and b.
Their combined resistance is

6 × 3 18
6Ω ∥ 3Ω = = = 2Ω
6+3 9
Similarly, the 12Ω and 4Ω resistors are in parallel since they are connected to the same two
nodes d and b.
12 × 4 48
12Ω ∥ 4Ω = = = 3Ω
12 + 4 16
Also the 1Ω and 5Ω resistors are in series
= 1Ω + 5Ω = 6Ω
14
3Ω in parallel with 6Ω
6 × 3 18
6Ω ∥ 3Ω = = = 2Ω
6+3 9
This 2Ω equivalent resistance is now in series with the 1Ω resistance
= 1Ω + 2Ω = 3Ω
2Ω and 3Ω resistors in parallel

2×3 6
2Ω ∥ 3Ω = = = 1.2Ω
2+3 5
This 1.2Ω resistor is in series with the 10Ω resistor, so that
= 10Ω + 1.2Ω = 11.2Ω
Example 5: By combining the resistors in Fig. 2.36, find Req.
Answer: 6 Ω
Example 6: Find Rab for the circuit in Fig.
Answer: 11Ω.
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Nodes, Branches, and Loops:
Branches:
 A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
Node:
 A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
Loop:
 A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
Figure 1.18: Nodes, branches, and loops.
Kirchhoff’s Laws:
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):
 It states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero.
Figure 1.19: Currents at a node illustrating KCL.
Consider the node in Fig.1.9. Applying KCL gives

i1 − i2 + i3 + i4 − i5 = 0 … … … … … . . (1)
i1 + i3 + i4 − i5 = i2 + i5 … … … … … … . . (2)
Equation (2) is an alternative form of KCL:
 The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the
node.
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Application:
 The combined current is the algebraic sum of the current supplied by the individual
sources.
 The combined or equivalent current source can be found by applying KCL to node a.
IT + I2 = I1 + I3
IT = I1 + I3 − I2
Figure 1.20: Current sources in parallel: (a) original circuit (b) equivalent circuit.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL):
 It states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Figure 1.21: A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

v1 − v2 − v3 + v4 − v5 = 0 … … … … … … (3)
v1 + v4 = v2 + v3 + v5 … … … … … … (4)
 Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises
 When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied to obtain the total
voltage.
 The combined voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltages of the individual sources.
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Figure 1.22: Voltage sources in series: (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.
Vab − V1 − V2 + V3 = 0
Vab = V1 + V2 − V3
Sign conventions to be followed while applying KVL:
Polarity of Resistor based on current direction
Polarity of Source is not changed with respect to current direction

𝐈𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 + 𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐨 − 𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐮𝐬𝐭 𝐛𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐬 − 𝐯𝐞
𝐈𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 − 𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐨 + 𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐮𝐬𝐭 𝐛𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐬 + 𝐯𝐞
Application of KVL to a closed path:
(a) (b)
Figure 1.23: Closed loop of a complex network
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Let us trace this closed path in clockwise direction i.e. A-B-C-D-A

E2 − R1 I1 + E1 − R 2 I2 − R 3 I3 − R 4 I4 = 0
E2 + E1 = R1 I1 + R 2 I2 + R 3 I3 + R 4 I4 … … … … … (1)
If trace the closed loop in opposite direction i.e. along A-D-C-B-A
−E2 + R 4 I4 + R 3 I3 + R 2 I2 − E1 + R1 I1 = 0
E2 + E1 = R1 I1 + R 2 I2 + R 3 I3 + R 4 I4 … … … … … (2)
COMBINATION OF SOURCES:
Voltage sources in series:
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Voltage sources in parallel:
(a) (b)
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Current sources in series:
(a) (b)
Current sources in parallel:
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Example 7: Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig.
20
Solution:
Applying Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws.
By Ohm’s law,
V1 = 8i1 ; V2 = 3i2 ; V3 = 6i3 … … … … … (1)
At node a, KCL gives
i1 = i2 + i3 … … … … … . (2)
Applying KVL to loop 1,
30 − V1 − V2 = 0
30 − 8i1 − 3i2 = 0
30 = 8i1 + 3i2
30 = 8i1 + 3i2
8i1 = 30 − 3i2
30 − 3i2
i1 = … … … … … (3)
8
Applying KVL to loop 2,
V2 − V3 = 0
3i2 − 6i3 = 0
3i2 = 6i3
3i2 i2
i3 = = … … … … … (4)
6 2
From equation (2),
i1 = i2 + i3
30 − 3i2 i2
( ) = i2 +
8 2
30 − 3i2 2i2 + i2
( )=
8 2
10 − i2 3i2
3( )=
8 2
21
10 − i2
( ) = i2
4
10 − i2
( ) − i2 = 0
4
10 − i2 − 4i2
=0
4
10 − i2 − 4i2 = 0
10 − 5i2 = 0
10 = 5i2
10
i2 == 2A
5
i2 2
i3 = = = 1A
2 2
30 − 3i2 30 − (3 × 2) 30 − 6 24
i1 = = = = = 3A (or)
8 8 8 8
i1 = i2 + i3 = 2 + 1 = 3A
Substitute current i1, i2 and i3 in equation (1)
V1 = 8i1 = 8 × 3 = 24V V2 = 3i2 = 3 × 2 = 6V V3 = 6i3 = 6 × 1 = 6V
Answer:
𝐢𝟐 = 𝟐𝐀 ; 𝐢𝟑 = 𝟏𝐀 ; 𝐢𝟏 = 𝟑𝐀 ; 𝐕𝟏 = 𝟐𝟒𝐕 ; 𝐕𝟐 = 𝟔𝐕 ; 𝐕𝟑 = 𝟔𝐕
Example 8: Determine vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig.
Solution:
Apply KVL around the loop
22
12 − 4i − 2V0 + 4 − 6i = 0 … … … … . . (1)
Applying Ohm’s law to the 6Ω resistor gives
𝑉0 = −6𝑖 … … … … . . (2)
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1)
12 − 4i − 2(−6𝑖) + 4 − 6i = 0
12 − 4i + 12i + 4 − 6i = 0
16 − 2i = 0
2i = 16
𝟏𝟔
𝐢= = 𝟖𝑨
𝟐
Substituting (i) into Eq. (2)
𝐕𝟎 = 𝟔𝐢 = 𝟔 × 𝟖 = 𝟒𝟖𝐕
Example 9: Find i0 and v0 in the circuit shown in Fig. Calculate the power dissipated in the
3Ω resistor.
Solution:
The 6Ω and 3Ω resistors are in parallel,

6 × 3 18
6Ω ∥ 3Ω = = = 2Ω
6+3 9
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To find v0:
One way is to apply Ohm’s law to get

v 12 12
i= = = = 2A
R 4+2 6
V0 = 2i = 2 × 2 = 4V
Another way is to apply voltage division,
12 × 2 24
V0 = = = 4V
4+2 6
Similarly, i0 can be obtained in two ways.
One approach is to apply Ohm’s law to the 3- resistor in Fig.

V0 = 3i0 = 4
4
i0 = A
3
Another approach is to apply current division to the circuit in Fig.
6i 6 × 2 12 4
i0 = = = = A
6+3 6+3 9 3
The power dissipated in the 3Ω resistor is
4 16
P0 = V0 i0 = 4 × ( ) = = 5.333W
3 3
Example 10: Find v1and v2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Also calculate i1and i2 and the power
dissipated in the 12Ω and 40Ωresistors.
Answer: V1 = 5V, i1 =416.7 mA, P1 = 2.083W, V2 = 10V, i2 = 250mA, P2 = 2.5W,
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Example 11: For the circuit shown in Fig., determine: (a) the voltage v0 (b) the power
supplied by the current source, (c) the power absorbed by each resistor.
Solution:
(a) The voltage V0
The 6Ωk and 12Ωk resistors are in series

= 6Ω + 12Ω = 18Ω
Apply the current division technique to find i1 and i2

18000i0 18000 × 30 540000
i1 = = = = 20mA
18000 + 9000 27000 27000
9000i0 9000 × 30 270000
i2 = = = = 10mA
18000 + 9000 27000 27000
Notice that the voltage across the 9kΩ and 18kΩ resistors is the same, and
V0 = 9000i1 = 9000 × 20 × 10−3 = 180V
V0 = 18000i2 = 18000 × 10 × 10−3 = 180V
(b) Power supplied by the source is
P0 = V0 i0 = 180 × 30 × 10−3 = 5.4W
(c) Power absorbed by the 12kΩ resistor is
P = Vi2 = (i2 R)i2 = i2 2 R = (10 × 10−3 )2 × 12000 = 1.2W

Power absorbed by the 6kΩ resistor is
P = Vi2 = (i2 R)i2 = i2 2 R = (10 × 10−3 )2 × 6000 = 0.6W

Power absorbed by the 9kΩ resistor is
P = V0 i1 = 180 × 20 × 10−3 = 3.6W
(or)
25
V0 V0 2 (180)2
P = V0 i1 = V0 ( ) = = = 3.6W
R R 9000
Power supplied = Power absorbed
5.4W = 1.2W + 0.6W + 3.6W = 5.4W
Example 12: For the circuit shown in Fig., find: (a) V1 and V2 (b) the power dissipated in
the 3kΩ and 20kΩ resistors, and (c) the power supplied by the current source.
Answer: (a) 15 V, 20 V, (b) 75 mW, 20 mW, (c) 200 mW.
NODAL EQUATIONS:
 This method of circuit solution, also known as the Node Voltage method.
 It is based on the application of Kirchhoff’s Current Law at each junction (node) of the
circuit, to find the node voltages.
Procedure:
 Select a node as the reference node.
 Assign voltages V1, V2 …..Vn-1 to the remaining n-1 nodes. The voltages are referenced
with respect to the reference node.
 Apply KCL to each of the n -1 non-reference nodes. Use ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
 Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltage.
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General matrix equation:

1 1 1 1 VA
+ + −
R1 R 2 R 3 R3 V R
[ 1] = 1
1 1 1 1 V2 VB
− + +
[ R3 R3 R4 R5] [R 5 ]
VA
G + GC + GB −GC V R
[ A ] [ 1] = A
−GC GC + GD + GE V2 VB
[R E ]
[G] × [V] = [I]
The resistance matrix and its formation is shown below:
G + GC + GB −GC
[G] = [ A ]
−GC GC + GD + GE
Where,
Diagonal elements (Top to bottom) = Conductance of resistors of Node 1 & 2
Other diagonal (Bottom left to top right) = Conductance of resistor common to Nodes 1 & 2
Note: For nodal analysis, the number of equations required to solve a network is less than
other methods.
At node 1,
I1 = I2 + i1 + i2
V1 V1 − V2
I1 = I2 + +
R1 R2
V1 V1 − V2
I1 − I2 = +
R1 R2
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V1 V1 V2 1 1 V2
I1 − I2 = + − = ( + ) v1 −
R1 R 2 R 2 R1 R 2 R2
1 1 V2
I1 − I2 = ( + ) V1 − … … … … … . . (1)
R1 R 2 R2
At node 2,
I 2 + i2 = i3
V1 − V2 V2
I2 + =
R2 R3
V2 V1 − V2
I2 = −
R3 R2
V2 V1 V2 V1 1 1
I2 = − + =− + ( + ) V2
R2 R2 R3 R2 R2 R3
V1 1 1
I2 = − + ( + ) V2 … … … … … . . (2)
R2 R2 R3
1 1 1
+ −
R1 R 2 R2 V I − I2
[ 1] = [ 1 ]
1 1 1 V2 I2
− +
[ R2 R2 R3]
G1 + G2 −G2 V I − I2
[ ] [ 1] = [ 1 ]
−G2 G2 + G3 V2 I2
Example 13: Find by nodal analysis, the current IA and IC in the circuit shown.
Given Data: To Find:
Number of Node = 3 i) Current I1 =?
Number of equation = 3-1 =2 ii) Current I3 =?
By applying KCL at Node 1:
Sum of Incoming Current = Sum of Outgoing Current

i1 + i3 = i2
V
V = IR ; I =
R
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10 − V1 V2 − V1 V1 − 0
+ =
2 10 8
10 V1 V2 V1 V1
− + − =
2 2 10 10 8
10 V1 V2 V1 V1
− + − − =0
2 2 10 10 8
1 1 1 10 V2
−( + + ) V1 + + =0
2 10 8 2 10
10 1 1 1 V2
=( + + ) V1 −
2 2 10 8 10
1 1 1 V2 10
( + + ) V1 − = … … … … … … … (1)
2 10 8 10 2
By applying KCL at Node 2:
Sum of Incoming Current = Sum of Outgoing Current

i5 = i3 + i4
15 − V2 V2 − V1 V2 − 0
= +
4 10 6
15 V2 V2 V1 V2
− = − +
4 4 10 10 6
V2 V1 V2 15 V2
− + − + =0
10 10 6 4 4
V1 1 1 1 15
− + ( + + ) V2 − =0
10 10 6 4 4
V1 1 1 1 15
− + ( + + ) V2 = … … … … … … (2)
10 10 6 4 4
Equation (1) & (2) can be put in matric form as follows:
1 1 1 1 10
( + + ) V1 − V2 = … … … … … … … (1)
2 10 8 10 2
1 1 1 1 15
− V1 + ( + + ) V2 = … … … … … … (2)
10 10 6 4 4
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟎
+ + −
[𝟐 𝟏𝟎 𝟖 𝟏𝟎 ] [𝐕𝟏 ] = [ 𝟐 ]
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝟏𝟓
− + +
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝟒 𝟒
0.5 + 0.1 + 0.125 −0.1 V 5
[ ] [ 1] = [ ]
−0.1 0.1 + 0.167 + 0.25 V2 3.75
0.725 −0.1 V1 5
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−0.1 0.517 V2 3.75
29
To fine ∆
0.725 −0.1
∆= [ ] = [(0.725 × 0.517) − (−0.1 × −0.1)] = 0.375 − (0.01) = 0.365
−0.1 0.517
To find V1& V2
∆V1 ∆V2
V1 = &V2 =
∆ ∆
5 −0.1
∆V1 = [ ] = [(5 × 0.517) − (−0.1 × 3.75)] = 2.585 − (−0.375) = 2.96
3.75 0.517
∆V1 2.96
V1 = = = 8.1V
∆ 0.365
0.725 5
∆V2 = [ ] = [(0.725 × 3.75) − (−0.1 × 5)] = 2.719 − (−0.5) = 3.219
−0.1 3.75
∆V2 3.219
V2 = = = 8.8V
∆ 0.365
To find IA , IB& IC
10 − V1 10 − 8.1 1.9
I1 = = = = 0.95A
2 2 2
V1 − 0 8.1
IB = = = 1.01A
8 8
V2 − V1 8.8 − 8.1 0.7
I3 = = = = 0.07A
10 10 10
Answer:
Current through 8Ω Resistor = IA = 0.95 Amps
Current through 6Ω Resistor = IC = 0.07 Amps
Example 14: Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. Dec -16.
30
Solution:
At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives

i1 = i2 + i3
V1 − V2 V1
5= +
4 2
V1 V2 V1
5= − +
4 4 2
Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we obtain
20 = (V1 − V2 ) + 2V1
20 = 3V1 − V2 … … … … … . . (1)
At node 2, we do the same thing and get
i2 + i4 = i1 + i5
V1 − 𝑉2 V2
+ 10 = 5 +
4 6
V2 V1 − V2
10 − 5 = − ( )
6 4
V2 V1 − V2
5= −( )
6 4
Multiplying each term by 12 results in
60 = 2V2 − 3(V1 − V2 )
60 = 2V2 − 3V1 + 3V2
60 = −3V1 + 5V2 … … … … … . . (2)
In matrix form
3 −1 𝑉1 20
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−3 5 V2 60
To fine ∆
31
3 −1
∆= [ ] = [(15) − (3)] = 12
−3 5
To find V1& V2
∆V1 ∆V2
V1 = &V2 =
∆ ∆
3
−1 20 −1
∆V1 = [ ]=[ ] = [(100) − (−60)] = 160
−3
5 60 5
∆𝐕𝟏 𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝐕𝟏 = = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝐕
∆ 𝟏𝟐
3 −1 3 20
∆V2 = [ ]=[ ] = [(180) − (−60)] = 240
−3 5 −3 60
∆𝐕𝟐 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐕𝟐 = = = 𝟐𝟎𝐕
∆ 𝟏𝟐
Example 15: Obtain the node voltages in the circuit of Fig.
Answer: V1=-2V V2=-14V
Example 16: Determine the voltages at the nodes in Fig..
Solution:
At node 1,
3 = i1 + ix
V1 − V3 V1 − V2
3= +
4 2
32
Multiplying by 4 and rearranging terms, we get

12 = V1 − V3 + 2(V1 − V2 )
12 = V1 − V3 + 2V1 − 2V2
12 = 3V1 − 2V2 − V3
At node 2,
ix = i2 + i3
V1 − V2 V2 − V3 V2
= +
2 8 4
V2 − V3 V2 V1 − V2
+ −( )=0
8 4 2
Multiplying by 8 and rearranging terms, we get
V2 − V3 + 2V2 − 4(𝑉1 − V2 ) = 0
V2 − V3 + 2𝑉2 − 4V1 + 4V2 = 0
−4V1 + 7V2 − V3 = 0
At node 3,
i1 + i2 = 2ix
V1 − V3 V2 − V3 V1 − V2
+ = 2( )
4 8 2
Multiplying by 8, rearranging terms, and dividing by 3, we get
2(V1 − V3 ) + (V2 − V3 ) − 8(V1 − V2 ) = 0
2V1 − 2V3 + V2 − V3 − 8V1 + 8V2 = 0
−6V1 + 9V2 − 3V3 = 0
−2V1 + 3V2 − V3 = 0
In matrix form
3 −2 −1 V1 12
[−4 7 ] [ V
−1 2 = 0 ]
] [
−2 3 −1 V3 0
33
To fine ∆
3 −2 −1
∆= [−4 7 −1] = 3[(−7) − (−3)] − (−2)[(4) − (2)] + (−1)[(−12) − (−14)]
−2 3 −1
= 3[−7 + 3] + 2[2] − [−12 + 14] = 3[−4] + 2[2] − [2]
= −12 + 4 − 2 = −10
To find V1& V2
12 −2
−1
∆V1 = [ 0 −1] = 12[(−7) − (−3)] − 0 + 0 = 12[−7 + 3] = 12[−4] = −48
7
0 3
−1
∆V1 −48
V1 = = = 4.8V
∆ −10
3 12 −1
∆V2 = [−4 0 −1] = 0 − (12)[(4) − (2)] + 0 = −(12)[2] = −24
−2 0 −1
∆V2 −24
V2 = = = 2.4V
∆ −10
3 −2 12
∆V3 = [−4 7 0 ] = 0 − 0 + (12)[(−12) − (−14)] = (12)[(−12) + 14] = (12)[2] = 24
−2 3 0
∆V3 24
V3 = = = 2.4V
∆ −10
Example 17: Find the voltages at the three non-reference nodes in the circuit of Fig.
Answer: V1 = 80V ; V2 = −64V ; V3 = 156V
34
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources:
CASE 1 If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a non-reference
node, so
V1 = 10V … … … … … … … (1)
CASE 2 If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two non-
reference nodes, the two non-reference nodes form a generalized node or super-
node.
Figure 1.24: A circuit with a super-node.
To apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.
To apply both KCL:

i1 + i4 = i2 + i3
V1 − V2 V1 − V3 𝑉2 V3
+ = + … … … … … … … (2)
2 4 8 6
To apply both KVL:
Figure 1.25: Applying KVL to a super-node.

V2 − 5 − V3 = 0
V2 − V3 = 5 … … … … … … … (3)
From Eqs. (1), (2), and (3), obtain the node voltages.
35
Note the following properties of a super-node:
 The voltage source inside the super-node provides a constraint equation needed to
solve for the node voltages.
 A super-node has no voltage of its own.
 A super-node requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
Example 18: For the circuit shown in Fig., find the node voltages.
Solution:
Figure 1.26: Applying: (a) KCL to the super-node, (b) KVL to the loop.
Applying KCL:
The super-node contains the 2-V source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10Ω resistor.
Applying KCL to the super-node as shown in Fig. 1.26 (a) gives
36
2 = i1 + i2 + 7
𝑉1 V2
2= + +7
2 4
Multiplying by 4,
8 = 2V1 + V2 + 28
2V1 + V2 = 8 − 28
V2 = −2V1 − 20 … … … … … … … (1)
Apply KVL to the circuit in Fig. 3.10(b)
V1 + 2 − V2 = 0
V2 = V1 + 2 … … … … … … … (2)
Equating equation (1) and (2)
V1 + 2 = −2V1 − 20
V1 + 2V1 = −2 − 20
3V1 = −22
−22
V1 = = −7.333V
3
V1 = −7.333V
V2 = V1 + 2 = −7.333 + 2 = −5.333V
Note that the 10Ω resistor does not make any difference because it is connected across the
super-node.
Example 19: Find v and i in the circuit of Fig.
Solution:
Apply KCL:
i1 = i2 + i + i3
21 − V V V3 V3
= + +
4 3 2 6
37
21 − V V 6V3 + 2V3
= +
4 3 12
21 − V V 8V3
= +
4 3 12
21 − V V 2V3
= +
4 3 3
Multiplying by 3,
63 3V
− = V + 2V3
4 4
63 3V
− − V = 2V3
4 4
63 (3V + 4V)
− = 2V3
4 4
63 7V
− = 2V3
4 4
Multiplying by 4,
63 − 7V = 8V3
7V = −8V3 + 63
−8V3 + 63
V= … … … … … … … (1)
7
Apply KVL to the circuit in Fig. 3.10(b)
V + 9 − V3 = 0
V = 𝑉3 − 9 … … … … … … … (2)
Equating equation (1) and (2)
−8V3 + 63
= V3 − 9
7
−8V3 + 63 = 7V3 − 63
63 + 63 = 8V3 + 7V3
126 = 15𝑉3
126
V3 = = 8.4V
15
V3 = 8.4V
V = V3 − 9 = 8.4 − 9 = −0.6
V3 8.4
i= = = 4.2A
2 2
i = 4.2A
38
Example 20: Find the node voltages in the circuit of Fig.
Solution:
Nodes 1 and 2 form a super-node; so do nodes 3 and 4.
Apply KCL to the two super-nodes as in Fig. At super-node 1-2,
i3 + 10 = i1 + i2
V3 − V2 V1 − V4 V1
+ 10 = +
6 3 2
Multiplying by 6,
(V3 − V2 ) + 60 = 2(V1 − V4 ) + 3V1
60 = 2V1 − 2V4 + 3V1
60 = 2V1 − 2V4 + 3V1 − V3 + V2
5V1 + V2 − V3 − 2V4 = 60 … … … … … . (1)
At super-node 3-4,
i1 = i3 + i4 + i5
V1 − V4 V3 − V2 V4 V3
= + +
3 6 1 4
Multiplying by 6,
3V3
2(V1 − V4 ) = (V3 − V2 ) + 6V4 +
2
39
Multiplying by 2,
4(V1 − V4 ) = 2(V3 − V2 ) + 12V4 + 3V3
4V1 − 4V4 = 2V3 − 2V2 + 12V4 + 3V3
4V1 − 4V4 − 2V3 + 2V2 − 12V4 − 3V3 = 0
4V1 + 2𝑉2 − 5V3 − 16V4 = 0 … … … … … . (2)
For loop 1,
V1 − 20 − V2 = 0
V2 = V1 − 20 … … … … … . (3)
For loop 2,
V3 − 3Vx − V4 = 0
𝑉x = V1 − V4
V3 − 3(V1 − V4 ) − V4 = 0
V3 − 3V1 + 3𝑉4 − V4 = 0
−3V1 + V3 + 2V4 = 0
3V1 − V3 − 2V4 = 0 … … … … … . (4)
For loop 3,
20 − Vx + 3Vx − 6i3 = 0 … … … … … . (5)
Sub equation (3) in equation (1) & (2)
5𝑉1 + V2 − V3 − 2V4 = 60 … … … … … . (1)
5V1 + V1 − 20 − V3 − 2V4 = 60
6V1 − V3 − 2V4 = 60 + 20
6V1 − V3 − 2V4 = 80 … … … … … … . . (6)
4V1 + 2V2 − 5V3 − 16V4 = 0 … … … … … . (2)
4V1 + 2(V1 − 20) − 5V3 − 16𝑉4 = 0
40
4V1 + 2V1 − 40 − 5V3 − 16V4 = 0

6V1 − 5V3 − 16V4 = 40 … … … … … … . . (7)
Form matrix using equation (4), (6) and (7),
3 −1 −2 V1 0
[6 −1 −2 ] [V3 ] = [80]
6 −5 −16 V4 40
3 −1 −2
∆= [6 −1 −2 ] = 3[16 − 10] + 1[−96 + 12] − 2[−30 + 6] = 3[6] + 1[−84] − 2[−24]
6 −5 −16
= 18 − 84 + 48 = −18
0 −1 −2
∆V1 = [80 −1 −2 ] = 0 + 1[−1280 + 80] − 2[−400 + 40] = 1[−1200] − 2[−360]
40 −5 −16
= −1200 + 720 = −480
3 0 −2
∆V3 = [6 80 −2 ] = 3[−1280 + 80] − 0 − 2[240 − 480] = 3[−1200] − 2[−240]
6 40 −16
= −3600 + 480 = +48 = −3120
3 −1 0
∆V4 = [6 −1 80] = 3[−40 + 400] + 1[240 − 480] + 0 = 3[360] + 1[−240] = 1080 − 240
6 −5 40
= 840
∆V1 −480
V1 = = = 26.67V
∆ −18
∆V2 −3120
V3 = = = 173.33V
∆ −18
∆V4 840
V4 = = = −46.67V
∆ −18
V2 = V1 − 20 = 26.67 − 20 = 6.67V
Example 21: Find V1, V2 and V3 in the circuit of Fig. using nodal analysis.
Answer: V1= 3.043 V, V2 =- 6.956 V, V3 =0.6522 V.
41
Mesh Equation:
A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
 Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
 Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …….,in to the n meshes.
 Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms
of the mesh currents.
 Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
Procedure:
 Circulating currents are allocated to closed loops or meshes in the circuit.
 An equation for each loop of the circuit is then obtained by Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
 Branch currents are found thereafter by taking the algebraic sum of the loop currents
common to individual branches.
By applying KVL in Loop 1 (ABCD):

VA − I1 R1 − (I1 − I2 )R 2 = 0
VA = I1 R1 + (I1 − I2 )R 2
VA = I1 R1 + R 2 I1 − R 2 I2
VA = (R1 + R 2 )I1 − R 2 I2
(R1 + R 2 )I1 − R 2 I2 = VA … … … … … … (1)
By applying KVL in Loop 2 (BEHC):
−I2 R 3 − (I2 − I3 )R 4 − (I2 − I1 )R 2 = 0
I2 R 3 + (I2 − I3 )R 4 + (I2 − I1 )R 2 = 0
I2 R 3 + R 4 I2 − R 4 I3 + R 2 I2 − R 2 I1 = 0
−R 2 I1 + (R 2 + R 3 + R 4 )I2 − R 4 I3 = 0 … … … … … . (2)
By applying KVL in Loop 3 (EFGH):
−VB − I3 R 5 − (I3 − I2 )R 4 = 0
−VB = I3 R 5 + (I3 − I2 )R 4
42
I3 R 5 + R 4 I3 − R 4 I2 = −VB
−R 4 I2 + (R 5 + R 4 )I3 = −VB … … … … … . (3)
The equation (1), (2) and (3) can be arranged in matrix form:
(R1 + R 2 )I1 − R 2 I2 = VA … … … … … … (1)
−R 2 I1 + (R 2 + R 3 + R 4 )I2 − R 4 I3 = 0 … … … … … . (2)
−R 4 I2 + (R 5 + R 4 )I3 = −VB … … … … … . (3)
R1 + R 2 −R 2 0 I1 VA
[ −R 2 R2 + R3 + R4 −R 4 ] [I2 ] = [ 0 ]
0 −R 4 R 5 + R 4 I3 −VB
[R] × [I] = [V]
The resistance matrix and its formation is shown below:
R1 + R 2 −R 2 0 R11 −R12 −R13
[R] = [ −R 2 R2 + R3 + R4 −R 4 ] = [−R12 R 22 −R 23 ]
0 −R 4 R5 + R4 −R13 −R 23 R 33
Where,
R11 = Self-Resistance of Loop 1
R12 = R21 = Common Resistance between Loop 1 & 2
Example 22: By mesh current method determine the current through 5Ω, 4Ω and 8Ω
Resistor.
Solution:
43
By applying KVL in Loop 1 (ABCD):

20 − 5I1 − 3(I1 − I2 ) − 5 = 0
20 − 5 = 5I1 + 3(I1 − I2 )
15 = 5I1 + 3I1 − 3I2
15 = (5 + 3)I1 − 3I2
8I1 − 3I2 = 15 … … … … … … (1)
By applying KVL in Loop 2 (BEHC):
−4I2 + 5 − 2(I2 − I3 ) + 5 + 5 − 3(I2 − I1 ) = 0
5 + 5 + 5 = 4I2 + 2(I2 − I3 ) + 3(I2 − I1 )
4I2 + 2(I2 − I3 ) + 3(I2 − I1 ) = 15
4I2 + 2I2 − 2I3 + 3I2 − 3I1 = 15
−3I1 + 9I2 − 2I3 = 15 … … … … … . (2)
By applying KVL in Loop 3 (EFGH):
−5 − 20 − 8I3 − 2(I3 − I2 ) = 0
−5 − 20 = 8I3 + 2(I3 − I2 )
8I3 + 2I3 − 2I2 = −25
−2I2 + 10I3 = −25 … … … … … . (3)
The equation (1), (2) and (3) can be arranged in matrix form:
8 −3 0 I1 15
[−3 9 −2] [I2 ] = [ 15 ]
0 −2 10 I3 −25
To fine ∆
8 −3 0
∆= [−3 9 −2]
0 −2 10
= 8[(9 × 10) − (−2 × −2)] − (−3)[(−3 × 10) − (0 × −2)]
+ 0[(−3 × −2) − (0 × 9)]
= 8[(90) − (4)] + 3[(−30) − 0] + 0 = 8[86] + 3[−30] = 688 − 90 = 598
44
To find I1 , I2 & I3
15 −3 0
∆I1 = [ 15 9 −2] = 15[(9 × 10) − (−2 × −2)] − (−3)[(15 × 10) − (−25 × −2)] + 0
−25 −2 10
= 15[90 − (4)] + 3[(150) − (50)] = 15[86] + 3[100] = 1290 + 300 = 1590
∆𝐈𝟏 𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟎
𝐈𝟏 = = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓𝐀
∆ 𝟓𝟗𝟖
8 15 0
∆I2 = [−3 15 −2] = 8[(15 × 10) − (−25 × −2)] − (15)[(−3 × 10) − (0 × −2)] + 0
0 −25 10
= 8[150 − (50)] − 15[(−30) − (0)] = 8[100] − 15[−30] = 800 + 450 = 1250
∆𝐈𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐈𝟐 = = = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝐀
∆ 𝟓𝟗𝟖
8 −3 15
∆I3 = [−3 9 15 ]
0 −2 −25
= 8[(9 × −25) − (−2 × 15)] − (−3)[(−3 × −25) − (0 × −15)]
+ (15)[(−3 × −2) − (0 × 9)]
= 8[(−225) − (−30)] + 3[(75) − (0)] + (15)[(6) − 0] = 8[−225 + 30] + 3[75] + (15)[6]
= 8[−195] + 3[75] + 15[6] = −1560 + 225 + 90 = −1245
∆𝐈𝟑 −𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟓
𝐈𝟑 = = = −𝟐. 𝟎𝟖𝐀
∆ 𝟓𝟗𝟖
Answer:
Current through 5Ω Resistor = 2.65 Amps
Current through 4Ω Resistor = 2.09 Amps
Current through 8Ω Resistor = -2.08 Amps
Example 23: Find the current through 10Ω load resistor using mesh current analysis.
45
Solution:
By inspection Method:
R11 −R12 −R13 I1 V1
[−R12 R 22 −R 23 ] [I2 ] = [V2 ]
−R13 −R 23 R 33 I3 V3
15 −10 −4 I1 0
[−10 18 −3] [I2 ] = [ 0 ]
−4 −3 7 I3 10
To fine ∆
15 −10 −4
∆= [−10 18 −3]
−4 −3 7
= 15[(18 × 7) − (−3 × −3)] − (−10)[(−10 × 7) − (−4 × −3)]
+ (−4)[(−10 × −3) − (−4 × 18)]
= 15[(126) − (9)] + 10[(−70) − (12)] − 4[(30) − (−72)]
= 15[117] + 10[−82] − 4[30 + 72] = 1755 − 820 − 4[102]
= 1755 − 820 − 408 = 527
To find I1& I2
0 −10 −4
∆I1 = [ 0 18 −3] = 0 − (−10)[0 − (10 × −3)] + (−4)[0 − (10 × 18)]
10 −3 7
= 10[−(−30)] − 4[−180] = 10[30] − 4[−180] = 300 + 720 = 1020
∆𝐈𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝐈𝟏 = = = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟒𝐀
∆ 𝟓𝟐𝟕
15 0 −4
∆I2 = [−10 0 −3] = 15[0 − (10 × −3)] − 0 + (−4)[(−10 × 10) − 0]
−4 10 7
= 15[−(−30)] − 0 − 4[−100] = 15[30] − 4[−100] = 450 + 400 = 850
∆𝐈𝟐 𝟖𝟓𝟎
𝐈𝟐 = = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝐀
∆ 𝟓𝟐𝟕
46
Current through 10Ω Resistor = I1 – I2 = 1.94 – 1.61 = 0.33 Amps
Answer: Current through 10Ω Resistor = 0.33 Amps
Example 24: For the circuit in Fig., find the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis.
Solution:
To obtain the mesh currents using KVL.
For mesh 1,
15 − 5I1 − 10(I1 − I2 ) − 10 = 0
15 − 5I1 − 10I1 + 10I2 − 10 = 0
−15I1 + 10I2 + 5 = 0
Divided by 5,
−3I1 + 2I2 + 1 = 0
−3I1 + 2I2 = −1 … … … … … (1)
For mesh 1,
10 − 10(I2 − I1 ) − 6I2 − 4I2 = 0
10 − 10I2 + 10I1 − 6I2 − 4I2 = 0
10 − 20I2 + 10I1 = 0
Divided by 10,
I1 − 2I2 + 1 = 0
I1 − 2I2 = −1 … … … … … (2)
METHOD 1: From equation (1) and (2)
−3I1 + 2I2 = −1 … … … … … (1)
I1 − 2I2 = −1 … … … … … (2)
I1 = −1 + 2I2
−3(−1 + 2I2 ) + 2I2 = −1
47
3 − 6I2 + 2I2 = −1
−4I2 = −1 − 3
−4I2 = −4
I2 = 1A
I1 = −1 + 2I2 = −1 + 2(1) = −1 + 2 = 1
I1 = 1A
I3 = I1 − I2 = 1 − 1 = 0
METHOD 2: Cramer’s rule
−3I1 + 2I2 = −1 … … … … … (1)
3I1 − 2I2 = 1
I1 − 2I2 = −1 … … … … … (2)
−I1 + 2I2 = 1
3 −2 I1 1
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−1 2 I2 1
3 −2
∆= [ ] = (6 − 2) = 4
−1 2
1 −2
∆1 = [ ] = (2 + 2) = 4
1 2
3 1
∆2 = [ ] = (3 + 1) = 4
−1 1
∆1 4
I1 = = = 1A
∆ 4
∆2 4
I2 = = = 1A
∆ 4
Example 25: Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 of the circuit of Fig.
Answer: i1 = 2 A, i2 = 0 A.
48
Example 26: Use mesh analysis to find the current I0 in the circuit of Fig.
Solution:
Apply KVL to the three meshes in turn. For mesh 1,

24 − 10(i1 − i2 ) − 12(i1 − i3 ) = 0
−10i1 + 10i2 − 12i1 + 12i3 = −24
−22i1 + 10I2 + 12i3 = −24
22i1 − 10i2 − 12i3 = 24
11i1 − 5i2 − 6i3 = 12 … … … … … … . . (1)
For mesh 2,
−10(i3 − i1 ) − 24i2 − 4(i2 − i3 ) = 0
−10i2 + 10i1 − 24i2 − 4i2 + 4i3 = 0
10i1 − 38i2 + 4i3 = 0
−10i1 + 38i2 − 4i3 = 0
−5i1 + 19i2 − 2i3 = 0 … … … … … … . . (2)
For mesh 3,
−12(i3 − i1 ) − 4(i3 − i2 ) − 4I0 = 0
−12i3 + 12i1 − 4i3 + 4i2 − 4I0 = 0
12i1 + 4i2 − 16i3 − 4I0 = 0
i0 = i1 − i2
12i1 + 4i2 − 16i3 − 4(i1 − i2 ) = 0
12i1 + 4i2 − 16i3 − 4i1 + 4i2 = 0
8i1 + 8i2 − 16i3 = 0
−8i1 − 8i2 + 16i3 = 0
−2i1 − 2i2 + 4i3 = 0 … … … … … … . . (3)
49
In matrix form,
11 −5 −6 i1 12
[−5 19 −2] [i2 ] = [ 0 ]
−2 −2 4 i3 0
11 −5 −6
∆= [−5 19 −2] = 11[76 − 4] + 5[−20 − 4] − 6[10 + 38] = 11[72] + 5[−24] − 6[48]
−2 −2 4
= 792 − 120 − 288 = 384
12 −5 −6
∆1 = [ 0 19 −2] = 12[76 − 4] + 0 − 0 = 12[72] = 864
0 −2 4
11 12 −6
∆2 = [−5 0 −2] = 0 − 12[−20 − 4] − 0 = −12[−24] = 288
−2 0 4
11 −5 12
∆3 = [−5 19 0 ] = 0 + 0 + 12[10 + 38] = 12[48] = 576
−2 −2 0
∆1 864
i1 = = = 2.25A
∆ 384
∆2 288
i2 = = = 0.75A
∆ 384
∆3 576
i3 = = = 1.5A
∆ 384
i0 = i1 − i2 = 2.25 − 0.75 = 1.5A
Example 27: Using mesh analysis, find I0 in the circuit of Fig.
Answer: -5A.
50
Mesh Analysis with Current Sources:
Figure 1.27: A circuit with a current source.
CASE 1: When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider the circuit in Fig.1.27, for
example.
Set i2 = −5A
Applying KVL, loop-1:
10 − 4i1 − 6(i1 − i2 ) = 0
10 − 4i1 − 6i1 + 6i2 = 0
10 − 10i1 + 6(−5) = 0
10 − 10i1 − 30 = 0
−10i1 − 20 = 0
−10i1 = 20
i1 = −2A
CASE 2: A super-mesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent)
current source in common.
51
Figure 1.28
(a) Two meshes having a current source in common, (b) a super-mesh, created by
excluding the current source.
Applying KVL to the super-mesh in Fig. 1.28 gives

20 − 6i1 − 10i2 − 4i2 = 0
−6i1 − 14i2 = −20
6i1 + 14i2 = 20 … … … … … . (1)
Applying KCL to node 0 in Fig. 1.28 (a) gives
i2 = 6 + i1 … … … … … . (2)
Sub (2) in (1)
6i1 + 14(6 + i1 ) = 20
6i1 + 84 + 14i1 = 20
20i1 = 20 − 84
20i1 = −64
𝐢𝟏 = −𝟑. 𝟐𝐀
𝐢𝟐 = 𝟔 + 𝐢𝟏 = 𝟔 − 𝟑. 𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝐀
Example 28: Use mesh analysis to determine i1, i2 and i3 in Fig.
52
Solution:
Applying KVL to the larger super-mesh,

6 − 2(i1 − i3 ) − 4(i2 − i3 ) − 8i2 = 0
−2i1 + 2i3 − 4i2 + 4i3 − 8i2 = −6
−2i1 − 12i2 + 6i3 = −6
2i1 + 12i2 − 6i3 = 6
i1 + 6i2 − 3i3 = 3 … … … … (1)
Applying KVL to the mesh 3,
−2(i3 − i1 ) − 2i3 − 4(i3 − i2 ) = 0
−2i3 + 2i1 − 2i3 − 4i3 + 4i2 = 0
2i1 + 4i2 − 8i3 = 0
i1 + 2i2 − 4i3 = 0 … … … … (2)
For the independent current source, we apply KCL to node P:
i2 + 3 = i1
i1 − i2 = 3
i1 = 3 + i2 … … … … … . (3)
Sub (3) in (1)
i1 + 6i2 − 3i3 = 3 … … … … (1)
3 + i2 + 6i2 − 3i3 = 3
7i2 − 3i3 = 0
Sub (3) in (2)
i1 + 2i2 − 4i3 = 0 … … … … (2)
3 + i2 + 2i2 − 4i3 = 0
3i2 − 4i3 = −3
In matrix form,
7 −3 i2 0
[ ][ ] = [ ]
3 −4 i3 −3
7 −3
∆= [ ] = −28 + 9 = −19
3 −4
0 −3
∆i2 = [ ] = 0 − 9 = −9
−3 −4
7 0
∆i3 = [ ] = −21
3 −3
53
∆2 −9
i2 = = = 0.473A
∆ −19
∆3 −21
i3 = = = 1.102A
∆ −19
i1 = 3 + i2 = 3 + 0.473 = 3.473A
i1 = 3.473A
Example 29: Apply mesh analysis to the circuit shown in fig. a) Find voltage across the
dependent source. April/May 2018
Solution:
From fig,
i1 = 15𝐴
Applying KCL to node P,
𝑉𝑥
i3 = i1 +
9
3(i3 − i2 ) i3 − i2
i3 = i1 + = i1 +
9 3
3i1 + i3 − i2
i3 =
3
3i3 = 3i1 + i3 − i2
3i3 − i3 = 3i1 − i2
2i3 = 3i1 − i2 = 3(15) − i2 = 45 − i2
2i3 = 45 − i2
i2 + 2i3 = 45 … … … … … … … (1)
Apply KVL (Loop-2):
−1(i2 − i1 ) − 2i1 − 3(i2 − i3 ) = 0
1(i2 − i1 ) + 2i1 + 3(i2 − i3 ) = 0
i2 − i1 + 2i1 + 3i2 − 3i3 = 0
54
6i2 − 3i3 − 15 = 0
6i2 − 3i3 = 15
2i2 − i3 = 5 … … … … (2)
In matrix form,
1 2 i2 45
[ ][ ] = [ ]
2 −1 3i 5
1 2
∆= [ ] = −1 − 4 = −5
2 −1
45 2
∆𝑖2 = [ ] = −45 − 10 = −55
5 −1
1 45
∆𝑖3 = [ ] = 5 − 90 = 85
2 5
∆2 −55
i2 = = = 11A
∆ −5
∆3 −85
i3 = = = 17A
∆ −5
Find voltage across the dependent source.
𝑉𝑥
i3 − i1 =
9
𝑉𝑥 = 9(i3 − i1 ) = 9(17 − 15) = 9(2)
𝑉𝑥 = 18𝑉
Example 30: Apply nodal analysis to the circuit shown in fig. Find a) the voltage at each
node of the circuit. B) State and explain kirchoff’s laws. April/May 2018
Solution:
Apply KCL at node-1:

𝐢𝟏 = 𝐢𝟐 + 𝐢𝟑
55
100 − 𝑉1 V1 V1 − V2
= +
5 30 10
6(100 − 𝑉1 ) = V1 + 3(V1 − V2 )
600 − 6𝑉1 = V1 + 3V1 − 3V2
600 − 6𝑉1 − 4V1 + 3V2 = 0
−10V1 + 3V2 = −600
10V1 − 3V2 = 600 … … … … . . (1)
Apply KCL at node-2:
𝐢𝟑 = 𝐢𝟒 + 𝐢𝟓
V1 − V2 V2 V2
= +
10 10 20
2(𝑉1 − V2 ) = 2V2 + V2
2V1 − 2V2 − 2𝑉2 − 𝑉2 = 0
2V1 − 5V2 = 0 … … … … . . (2)
10 −3 V1 600
[ ][ ] = [ ]
2 −5 2V 0
10 −3
∆= [ ] = −50 + 6 = −44
2 −5
600 −3
𝑉∆1 = [ ] = −3000 = −3000
0 −5
10 600
𝑉∆2 = [ ] = −1200 = −1200
2 0
∆V1 −3000
𝑉1 = = = 68.18V
∆ −44
∆V2 −1200
V2 = = = 27.27V
∆ −44
Example 31: In the circuit shown, determine the current through the 2Ω resistor and also
the total current delivered by battery. Use kirchoff laws. (May-2004, Dec-10, 12)
56
Solution:
Assume loops and loop currents.
Total current delivered by battery = I1
Current through 2Ω resistor = I2-I3
Apply KVL on loop 1:

−1I1 − 5(I1 − I2 ) − 3(I1 − I3 ) + 10 = 0
10 = 1I1 + 5(I1 − I2 ) + 3(I1 − I3 )
I1 + 5I1 − 5I2 + 3I1 − 3I3 = 10
9I1 − 5I2 − 3I3 = 10 … … … … … . . (1)
−5(I2 − I1 ) − 4I2 − 2(I2 − I3 ) = 0
−5I2 + 5I1 − 4I2 − 2I2 + 2I3 = 0
−11I2 + 5I1 + 2I3 = 0

−5I1 + 11I2 − 2I3 = 0 … … … … … . . (2)
−1I3 − 3(I3 − I1 ) − 2(I3 − I2 ) = 0
−1I3 − 3I3 + 3I1 − 2I3 + 2I2 = 0
−6I3 + 3I1 + 2I2 = 0
−3I1 − 2I2 + 6I3 = 0 … … … … … . . (3)
57
In matrix form,
9 −5 −3 I1 10
[−5 11 −2] [I2 ] = [ 0 ]
−3 −2 6 I3 0
9 −5 −3
∆= [−5 11 −2] = 9[66 − 4] + 5[−30 − 6] − 3[10 + 33] = 249
−3 −2 6
10 −5 −3
∆I1 = [ 0 11 −2] = 10[66 − 4] + 0 + 0 = 620
0 −2 6
9 10 −3
∆I2 = [−5 0 −2] == 0 + 5(60) − 3(−20) = 300 + 60 = 360
−3 0 6
9 −5 10
∆I3 = [−5 11 0 ] = 0 + 0 + 10[10 + 33] = 430
−3 −2 0
∆I1 620
I1 = = = 2.489A
∆ 249
∆I2 360
I2 = = = 1.446A
∆ 249
∆I3 430
I3 = = = 1.727A
∆ 249
Total current delivered by battery = I1=2.489A
Current through 2Ω resistor = I2-I3 = 1.446-1.727=-0.281A
Assumed current direction clockwise, but original current direction is anti-clockwise. So
Current through 2Ω resistor = 0.281A
Example 32: Calculate the total resistance across the terminals P and Q.
Solution:
2Ω and 3Ω are in parallel

2×3 6
2Ω ∥ 3Ω = = = 1.2Ω
2+3 5
58
1.22Ω and 2Ω are in parallel

1.2 × 2
2Ω ∥ 3Ω = = 0.75Ω
1.2 + 2
Now 1Ω and 0.75Ω are in series

= 1 + 0.75 = 1.75Ω
1.75Ω and 5Ω are in parallel

1.75 × 5
1.75Ω ∥ 5Ω = = 1.296Ω
1.75 + 5
R PQ = 1.296Ω
Total resistance across the terminals P and Q = 1.296Ω
Example 33: For the given circuit, find the different mesh currents, power delivered by
each source and the current through RL. (May-04, 06, 10, 11) (Dec-07, 11, 2015)
Solution:
59

10 − 1I1 − 1(I1 − I2 ) − 2I1 = 10
10 = 1I1 + 1(I1 − I2 ) + 2I1
I1 + 1I1 − 1I2 + 2I1 = 10
4I1 − I2 = 10 … … … … … . . (1)
−1(I2 − I1 ) − 2I2 − 2(I2 − I3 ) − 1I2 = 0
1(I2 − I1 ) + 2I2 + 2(I2 − I3 ) + 1I2 = 0
1I2 − 1I1 + 2I2 + 2I2 − 2I3 + 1I2 = 0
−1I2 + 6I2 − 2I3 = 0 … … … … … . . (2)
−2(I3 − I2 ) − 1I3 − I3 − 12 = 0
−2(I3 − I2 ) − 1I3 − I3 = 12
2(I3 − I2 ) + 1I3 + I3 = −12
2I3 − 2I2 + 1I3 + I3 = −12
−2I2 + 4I3 = −12 … … … … … . . (3)
In matrix form,
4 −1 0 I1 10
[−1 6 −2] [I2 ] = [ 0 ]
0 −2 4 I3 −12
4 −1 0
∆= [−1 6 −2] = 4[24 − 4] − (−1)[−4 − 0] + 0 = 4(20) + 1(−4) = 76
0 −2 4
10 −1 0
[
∆I1 = 0 6 −2] = 10[24 − 4] − (−1)[0 − 24] + 0 = 10(20) + 1(−24) = 176
−12 −2 4
4 10 0
∆I2 = [−1 0 −2] = 4[0 − 24] − (−10)[−4 − 0] + 0 = −96 + 40 = −56
0 −12 4
4 −1 10
∆I3 = [−1 6 0 ] = 4[−72 + 0] − (−1)[12 − 0] + 10[2 − 0] = −288 + 20 = −268
0 −2 −12
∆I1 176
I1 = = = 2.316A
∆ 76
∆I2 −56
I2 = = = −0.7368A
∆ 76
60
∆I3 −268
I3 = = = −3.526A
∆ 76
I2 and I3 are in negative so the original direction is anti-clockwise direction
I1 = 2.316A
I2 = 0.7368A
i3 = 3.526A
Power delivered by 10V source = VI1 = 10×2.316 = 23.16Watts
Power delivered by 12V source = VI3 = 12×3.526 = 42.312Watts
Current through RL = IL =2.7892A
Example 34: Using mesh analysis determine the current through 1Ω resistor in the circuit.
May -2013, 2017
Solution:

50 − 10I1 − 5(I1 − I2 ) − 3(I1 − I3 ) = 0
50 = 10I1 + 5(I1 − I2 ) + 3(I1 − I3 )
10I1 + 5I1 − 5I2 + 3I1 − 3I3 = 50
18I1 − 5I2 − 3I3 = 50 … … … … … . . (1)
61

−5(I2 − I1 ) − 2I2 − 1(I2 − I3 ) − 10 = 0
−5(I2 − I1 ) − 2I2 − 1(I2 − I3 ) = 10
−5I2 + 5I1 − 2I2 − I2 + I3 = 10
−8I2 + 5I1 + I3 = 10
−5I1 + 8I2 − I3 = −10 … … … … … . . (2)
−3(I3 − I1 ) − 1(I3 − I2 ) − 5 = 0
−3(I3 − I1 ) − 1(I3 − I2 ) = 5
−3I3 + 3I1 − I3 + I2 = 5
−4I3 + 3I1 + I2 = 5
−3I1 − 1I2 + 4I3 = −5 … … … … … . . (3)
In matrix form,
18 −5 −3 I1 50
[−5 8 −1] [I2 ] = [−10]
−3 −1 4 I3 −5
18 −5 −3
∆= [−5 8 −1] = 18[32 − 1] − (−5)[−20 − 3] − 3[5 + 24] = 356
−3 −1 4
50 −5 −3
∆I1 = [−10 8 −1] = 50[32 − 1] − (−5)[−40 − 5] − 3[10 + 40] = 1175
−5 −1 4
18 50 −3
∆I2 = [−5 −10 −1] = 18[40 − 5] − (50)[−20 − 3] − 3[25 − 30] = 355
−3 −5 4
18 −5 50
∆I3 = [−5 8 −10] = 18[−40 − 10] − (−5)[−20 − 30] + 50[5 + 24] = 525
−3 −1 −5
∆I1 1175
I1 = = = 3.300A
∆ 356
∆I2 355
I2 = = = 0.9972A
∆ 356
∆I3 525
I3 = = = 1.474A
∆ 356
Current through 1Ω resistor I1 = I3- I2 = 1.474 – 0.9972 = 0.4775A
62
Example 35: Find the current through the source and capacitance in the network using
mesh current analysis. Dec-10, 11
Solution:
𝑟∟𝜃 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
10∟0° = 10 + 𝑗0
−96I1 − [(104 + j200)(I1 − I2 )] + 10 + 𝑗0 = 0
10 + 𝑗0 = 96I1 + [(104 + j200)(I1 − I2 )]

96I1 + (104I1 + j200)I1 − (104 + j200)I2 = 10 + 𝑗0
(200 + j200)I1 − (104 + j200)I2 = 10 … … … … . . (1)
−[(104 + j200)(I2 − I1 )] − 1I2 − (100 − 𝑗50)I2 = 0
[(104 + j200)(I2 − I1 )] + 1I2 + (100 − 𝑗50)I2 = 0
(104 + j200)I2 − (104 + j200)I1 + 1I2 + (100 − 𝑗50)I2 = 0
−(104 + j200)I1 + (205 + j150)I2 = 0
−(104 + j200)I1 + (205 + j150)I2 = 0 … … … … … . . (2)
In matrix form,
200 + j200 −104 − j200 I1 10
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−104 − j200 205 + j150 I2 0
63
200 + j200 −104 − j200

∆= [ ]
−104 − j200 205 + j150
= (200 + j200)(205 + j150) − (−104 − j200)(−104 − j200)
= 11000 + j71000 − (−29184 + j41600) = 40184 + j29400
10 −104 − j200
∆1 = [ ] = (10)(205 + j150) − 0 = 2050 + j1500
0 205 + j150
200 + j200 10
∆2 = [ ] = 0 − (−10)(−104 − j200) = 1040 + j2000
−104 − j200 0
∆1 2050 + j1500
i1 = = = 0.051 + j0.000002 = 0.051∟2.71° A
∆ 40184 + j29400
∆2 1040 + j2000
i2 = = = 0.0405 + j0.02 = 0.045∟26.33° A
∆ 40184 + j29400
Current produced by source = I1 = 0.051∟2.71° A
Current produced by source = I2 = 0.045∟26.33° A
Example 36: Find the loop currents and the current through a-b using mesh analysis. May
– 2014
Solution:
In the circuit, super node branch is present. So this analysis is called as super mesh
analysis.
I2 − I1 = 5A
I2 − 5 = I1 … … … … … … … . . (1)
64
For this analysis, consider only two loops by removing 5A source.
Apply KVL on loop (cdafghc):

60 − 5I1 − 2I2 − 6(I2 − I3 ) = 0
60 = 5I1 + 2I2 + 6(I2 − I3 )
5I1 + 2I2 + 6I2 − 6I3 = 60
5I1 + 8I2 − 6I3 = 60 … … … … … . . (2)
Substitute equation (1) in (2)
5(I2 − 5) + 8I2 − 6I3 = 60
−25 + 13I2 − 6I3 = 60
13I2 − 6I3 = 85 … … … … … . . (3)
Apply KVL on loop (abefa):
−6(I3 − I2 ) − 3I3 − 50 = 0
−50 = 6(I3 − I2 ) + 3I3
6(I3 − I2 ) + 3I3 = −50
6I3 − 6I2 + 3I3 = −50
−6I2 + 9I3 = −50 … … … … … . . (4)
In matrix form (equation (3&4),
13 −6 I1 85
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−6 9 I 2 −50
13 −6
∆= [ ] = (117 − 36) = 81
−6 9
85 −6
∆I2 = [ ] = (765 − 300) = 465
−50 9
13 85
∆I3 = [ ] = (−650 + 510) = −140
−6 −50
∆I2 465
I2 = = = 5.74A
∆ 81
∆I3 −140
I= = = −1.73A
∆ 81
I1 = I2 − 5 = 5.74 − 5 = 0.74A
Current flowing from b to a due to negative sign Iab = -1.73A
65
Example 37: Calculate the power delivered by the voltage source. Dec – 11, May – 2014.
Solution:

𝐢𝟏 = 𝐢𝟐 + 𝐢𝟑 + 𝟐
50 − 𝑉1 V1 V1 − V2
= + +2
5 10 2
2(50 − 𝑉1 ) = V1 + 5(V1 − V2 ) + 2
100 − 2𝑉1 − 𝑉1 − 5𝑉1 + 5𝑉2 = 2
−8𝑉1 + 5𝑉2 = 2 − 100
−8𝑉1 + 5𝑉2 = −98 … … … … … . (1)
At node 2, we do the same thing and get
𝐢𝟑 + 𝟐 = 𝐢𝟒 + 𝐢𝟓
V1 − V2 V2 V2
+2= +
2 5 12
V1 − V2 + 4 12V2 + 5V2
=
2 60
30(V1 − V2 + 4) = 12V2 + 5V2
30V1 − 30V2 + 120 − 12V2 − 5V2 = 0
30V1 − 47V2 = −120 … … … … … . (2)
66
In matrix form
−8 5 V −98
[ ] [ 1] = [ ]
30 −47 V2 −120
To fine ∆
−8 5
∆= [ ] = [(376) − (150)] = 226
30 −47
To find V1& V2
−98 5
∆V1 = [ ] = [(4606) + 600] = 5206
−120 −47
∆V1 5206
V1 = = = 23.035V
∆ 226
−8 −98
∆V2 = [ ] = [(960) + 2940] = 3900
30 −120
∆V2 3900
V2 = = = 17.25V
∆ 226
Current in 50V source
50 − 𝑉1 50 − 23.035
𝐼1 = = = 5.393𝐴
5 5
Power delivered by 50V source = VI = 50 × 5.393 = 269.65 Watts.
Example 38: By applying nodal analysis for the given circuit, determine the power output
of the source and the power in each resistor and capacitor of the circuit. Dec -10, May -
2013.
Solution:
67
j5Ω and 2Ω connected in series = j5+2 = 2+j5

i1 = i2 + i3
20∟30° − 𝑉𝐴 VA VA
= +
3 −j4 2 + 𝑗5
20∟30° 𝑉𝐴 jVA VA
− − − =0
3 3 4 2 + 𝑗5
1 j 1 20∟30°
(− − − ) VA + =0
3 4 2 + j5 3
1 j 1 20∟30°
−( + + ) VA + =0
3 4 2 + j5 3
1 j 1 20∟30°
−( + + ) VA = −
3 4 2 + j5 3
1 j 1 20∟30°
( + + )V =
3 4 2 + j5 A 3
4(2 + j5) + j3(2 + j5) + 12 20∟30°
( ) VA =
12(2 + j5) 3
20∟30° 12(2 + j5) 80∟30° (2 + j5) 80∟30° (2 + j5)
VA = ×( )= =
3 4(2 + j5) + j3(2 + j5) + 12 8 + j20 + j6 − 15 + 12 5 + j26
80∟30° (5.3851∟68.198° )
= °
= 16.2716∟19.084° V
26.476∟79.114
20∟30° − VA 20∟30° − 16.2716∟19.084°
i1 = = = 1.6891∟67.452° A
3 3
Pout of source = VI1 cosθ = 20 × 1.6891 × cos(67.452° − 30° ) = 28.8182Watts
VA 16.2716∟19.084°
i3 = = °
= 3.0215∟−49.114° A
2 + j5 5.3851∟68.198
Example 39: Use resistance and source combinations to determine the current I in the Fig.
and the power delivered by the 80V source. APRIL/MAY 2019
68
Solution:
Apply KVL on loop:

80 − 10i + 30 − 7i − 5i − 20 − 8i = 0
80 − 30i + 30 − 20 = 0
90 − 30i = 0
−30i = −90
90
i= = 3𝐴
30
Power delivered by the 80V source:
P = VI = 80 × 3 = 240W
Example 40: Find the magnitude of total current (IT) and also find out current and voltage
drop across the resistors as shown in the figure.2. Assume R1 = 100Ω, R2 = 20Ω and V = 50V.
APRIL/MAY 2019
Solution:
100Ω in parallel with 20Ω

100 × 20 2000
100Ω ∥ 20Ω = = = 16.67Ω
100 + 20 120
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 16.67Ω
V 50
I𝑇 = = = 3A
𝑅𝑒𝑞 16.67
Applying current division rule,
I𝑇 × R2 3 × 20
I1 = = = 0.5A
𝑅1 + R 2 100 + 20
69
I𝑇 × R2 3 × 100
I2 = = = 2.5A
𝑅1 + R 2 100 + 20
Example 41: Find the voltage across the three resistance shown in the figure. APRIL/MAY
2019
Solution:
R eq = R1 + R 2 + R 3 = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60Ω
V 60
Current (i) = = = 1A
R eq 60
Voltage across the resistance R1:
V = iR1 = 1 × 10 = 10V
V = iR 2 = 1 × 20 = 20V
V = iR 3 = 1 × 30 = 30V
Example 42: Current in 5Ω resistor of the circuit shown in fig. is 5A. Find the current in the
10Ω resistor and also power consumed by 5Ω resistor. Nov/Dec 2019
Solution:

20 × 30 600
20Ω ∥ 30Ω = = = 12Ω
20 + 30 50
70
Using current division rule,

12
Current in the 10Ω resistor = 5 × = 2.727A
12 + 10
Power consumed by 5Ω resistor:
P = VI = 𝐼2 R = (5)2 × 5 = 125W
Example 43: Determine the current in the 10Ω resistor in the circuit shown in fig. and find
the voltage across terminal AB. Nov/Dec 2019
Solution:

7
10 + 7
5Ω and 2Ω are in series,
= 5 + 2 = 7Ω
10
10 + 7
(Or)
Current in the 7Ω resistor = 10 − 4.118 = 5.882A
Voltage across terminal AB:
Voltage across terminal AB = IR = 5.882 × 2 = 11.754V
71
Example 44: Find the supply voltage V in the circuit shown below in fig. which drives a
current zero in the 10Ω resistor employing nodel analysis. Nov/Dec 2019.
Solution:

𝐢𝟏 = 𝐢𝟐
V − 𝑉1 V1
=
3 2
V 𝑉1 V1
− =
3 3 2
𝑉1 V1 V
+ = … … … . . (1)
3 2 3
1 1 V
( + ) V1 = … … … . . (1)
3 2 3
𝐢𝟒 = 𝐢𝟑
50 − 𝑉2 V2
=
7 5
50 𝑉2 V2
− =
7 7 5
V2 𝑉2 50
+ =
5 7 7
1 1 50
( + ) V2 = … … … . . (2)
5 7 7
72
In matrix form
1 1 V
+ 0 V
[3 2 ] [ 1] = [ 3 ]
1 1 V2 50
0 +
5 7 7
To fine ∆
0.8333 0
∆= [ ] = [(0.8333) × (0.343)] = 0.286
0 0.343
To find V1& V2
0.333V 0
∆V1 = [ ] = [(0.333V) × (0.343)] = 0.114V
7.143 0.343
0.8333 0.333V
∆V2 = [ ] = [(0.8333) × (7.143)] = 5.952
0 7.143
∆V2 5.952
V2 = = = 20.811V
∆ 0.286
∆V1 0.11V
V1 = = = 0.399V
∆ 0.286
V1
V= … … … . (3)
0.399
Current zero in the 10Ω resistor, So
V1 = V2 = 20.811V
From equation (3),
V1 20.811
V= = = 52.158𝑉
0.399 0.399
V = 52.158𝑉
Example 45: Find the voltage between A and B of the circuit shown below in fig. by mesh
analysis. Nov/Dec 2019
Solution:
73
I1 = 10A … … … . . (1)
Apply KVL on loop (AbeBA):
−5I2 − 1(I2 − I3 ) + 20 − 4(I2 − I1 ) = 0
20 = 5I2 + 1(I2 − I3 ) + 4(I2 − I1 )
20 = 5I2 + I2 − I3 + 4I2 − 4I1
10I2 − I3 − 4I1 = 20
10I2 − I3 − 4(10) = 20
10I2 − I3 − 40 = 20
10I2 − I3 = 20 + 40 = 60
10I2 − I3 = 60 … … … … . . (2)
Apply KVL on loop (bcdeb):
−4I3 + 20 − 1(I3 − I2 ) − 20 = 0
4I3 + 1(I3 − I2 ) = 0
4I3 + I3 − I2 = 0
−I2 + 5I3 = 20 … … … … . . (3)
In matrix form
10 −1 I2 60
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−1 5 I 3 0
10 −1
∆= [ ] = (50 − 1) = 49
−1 5
60 −1
∆I2 = [ ] = (60 × 5) = 300
0 5
10 60
∆I3 = [ ] = 60
−1 0
∆I2 300
I2 = = = 6.122A
∆ 49
∆I3 60
I3 = = = 1.22A
∆ 49
Current flowing from A to B = I1 − I2 = 10 − 6.122 = 3.878𝐴
Voltage across A and B = 4 × 3.878 = 15.512V
74
Example 46: Find the current through various branches of the circuit shown in fig. by
employing superposition theorem. Nov/Dec 2019.
Solution:
Step: 1 open circuit the current source,
100 100
Current (i1 ) = = = 1A
50 + 50 100
Step: 2 short circuit the voltage source,

50 50
i2 = 10 × = = 5A
50 + 50 100
50 50
i3 = 10 × = = 5A
50 + 50 100
Current in 50Ω resistor = i3 − i1 = 5 − 1 = 4A

Current in 50Ω resistor = i1 + i2 = 1 + 5 = 6A
Current in 5Ω resistor = 10A
75
CIRCUIT THEORY – UNIT – I - TWO MARKS
1. Define Current.
The flow of free electrons in a conductor is called as an electric circuit.
Unit: Ampere (A)
2. Define voltage or Electric potential.
The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit called voltage.
Unit: Volts (V)
3. What is meant by Resistance? April/May 2015
Resistance (R) is one of the property of the circuit element. It opposes the current flows
through it.
Unit: Ohm(Ω)
4. Distinguish between a mesh and a loop of a circuit. (Nov/Dec - 2010), (May/June –
2013)
 A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops. All meshes are loop, but all loops
are not meshes.
 A loop is any closed path of branches.
5. Define Ohm law.
It states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is directly proportional to the current (I)
flowing through the resistor, when the temperature of the conductor remains constant.
𝐕∝𝐈
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
6. Define KCL. (or) State KCL for A.C circuits. (May/June - 2009, 2010, 2011),
(Nov/Dec-2015), May – 2018, April/May 2019
 It states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero.
(Or)
 In a node,
Sum of the entering currents = Sum of the leaving currents.
76
7. Define KVL. (or) State KVL for A.C circuits. (May/June – 2009, 2011) (Nov/Dec –
2013)
 It states that the algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.
(Or)
 In a closed path,
Sum of potential rise = Sum of potential drop
8. What is meant by linear and Non-linear elements?
Linear elements: It obeys super position principle.
Example: Resistor.
Nonlinear elements: It is not obeying super position principle.
Example: Transistor and Diode.
9. What is meant by active and passive elements?
Active elements: It is the sources of energy (Example: Voltage and current sources).
Passive elements: It stores or dissipates energy (Example: Resistor, Inductor,
Capacitor).
10. What is meant by Unilateral and bilateral elements?
Unilateral: The voltage – current relation is not same for both the direction.
Example: Transistor and Diode.
Bilateral: The voltage – current relation is same for both the direction.
Example: Resistor.
11. Mention the disadvantages (limitations) of Ohm’s law. (May/June –2013) (Nov/Dec:
2016)
 It does not apply to all non – metallic conductors.
 It also does not apply to non-linear devices as Zener diodes, vacuum tubes etc
12. What is mesh analysis? (or) What is the advantage of Mesh analysis in a circuit?
(Apr/May - 2011), (May/June - 2012), (Nov/Dec – 2010, 2011, 2012)
 Mesh analysis is one of the basic technique.
 It is used for finding the current flowing through the loop in a network.
77
13. What is nodal analysis? (or) What are the advantages of node voltage method of
solving electrical network? (May/June – 2011, 2012)
 Nodal analysis is one of the basic technique.
 It is used for finding the voltage at the nodes.
14. Write the expression for resistance in series and parallel? (May/June -2010)
In series connection:
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏
In parallel connection:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯+
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏
15. Difference between Node and Branch.
S.No. Node Branch

1. Node has only one point Branch has two terminals
It is the junction point for various It is connected between any two nodes
2.
branches of the circuit
16. Define power factor. (May/June – 2011, 2012), (Nov-Dec – 2009, 2010)
The cosine angle between the voltage and current is called as power factor. It is
denoted as cosФ.
17. Draw the circuit of a practical voltage source and its equivalent current source.
(May/June 2018)
vs
is = (Or) vs = is R
R
18. Draw the circuit of an ideal voltage source.
78
19. Draw the circuit of an ideal current source.
20. Find ‘R’ in the circuit. (April/May 2017)
From the fig,
Voltage across 8Ω Resistor = 16V
Voltage across 4Ω Resistor = 04V
Voltage across (R)Ω Resistor = 16 – 4 =12V
Current in 4Ω resistor is
V 4
I= = = 1A
R 4
Value of R,
Voltage across R = IR
V 12
R= = = 12Ω
I 1
21. Find the equivalent resistance of circuit with three resistors connected in series
each having a resistance value of 3 ohms. April/May 2019

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9Ω
22. State Current division rule. Nov/Dec 2019
Current flowing through any Total Current X Resistance of opposite parallel branch
( )=
Resistor in a parallel circuirt Sum of all the resistances
23. State voltage division rule. Nov/Dec 2019
Total voltage across
( ) X Value of same Resistance
Voltage across any resistor the series circuit
( )=
in a series circuit Sum of all the resistances
79
24. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Fig. (Nov/Dec 2015)
3.2Ω and 4.27Ω are in parallel

3.2 × 4.27 13.66
= = = 1.82Ω
3.2 + 4.27 7.47
1.82Ω and 1Ω are in series = 1.82+1 = 2.82Ω
25. Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z = (30-j70)Ω, When voltage
of 100VS = 100∟00 is applied across it. Nov/Dec 2019
Given data’s:
𝐙 = (30 − j70) = 76.15∠−66.80°
𝐕𝑺 = 100∠0°= 100
Solution:
V 100∠0° °
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐈) = = ° = 1.313∠66.80 = 0.517 + j1.206
Z 76.15∠−66.80
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐫𝐛𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐚𝐧 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐝𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐙 = VI = 100 × 1.313 = 131.3 W
26. Estimate the resultant resistance produced by the parallel connection two resistors
of 10Ω and 30Ω. April/May 2019

10 × 30 300
= = = 7.5Ω
10 + 30 40
80

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EE8251 – CIRCUIT THEORY – Mr. S.

– mesh current and node voltage – methods of analysis.

 Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric

 This physical property or ability to resist current is known as resistance and is

represented by the symbol R.

 The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A

and its length (l).

Figure 1.1: (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for resistance.

Ρ – Resistivity of the material in ohm-meters

Good conductor with low Resistivities: Example: Copper and aluminum.

Insulators with high Resistivities: Example: mica and paper,

Resistivities of common materials.

Material Resistivity (Ωm) Usage

Silver 1.64 ×10-8 Conductor

Copper 1.72×10-8 Conductor

Aluminum 2.8×10-8 Conductor

Gold 2.45×10-8 Conductor

Carbon 4×10-5 Semiconductor

Germanium 47×10-2 Semiconductor

Silicon 6.4×102 Semiconductor

Paper 1010 Insulator

Mica 5×1011 Insulator

Glass 1012 Insulator

Teflon 3×1012 Insulator

(R) of the circuit, provided the temperature remains constant.

flowing through the resistor.

Figure 1.2: Ohms law

V - Voltage in volts (V);

R - Resistance in ohm (Ω);

I - Current in Amps (A)

Direction of current (I) and the polarity of voltage (V):

 If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential V = IR.

Open and short circuit:

Figure 1.3: (a) Short circuit (b) Open circuit

 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current.

 It is measured in mhos (ʊ) or siemens (S).

 The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.

Example 1: An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.

From Ohm’s law,

They are classified as

Ideal voltage source:

of the output current.

(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics

Figure 1.4: Ideal voltage source

Practical voltage source:

source and is represented by Rse.

(a) Circuit (b) Characteristics

Figure 1.5: Practical voltage source

Voltage sources are further classified as follows,

Time invariant sources:

Figure 1.6: D.C Source

 The sources in which voltage is not varying with time.

Time variant sources

Figure 1.7: A.C Source

 The sources in which voltage is varying with time.

Ideal current source:

(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics

Figure 1.8: Ideal current source

Practical current source: