1

PROVIDED BY
PN. ZURAIDAH BT ALI
MECH. ENG. DEPT.
PUO
Electricity is created when particles become charged.
Some are negatively charged (electrons), some are
positively charged (protons). These opposite charges
attract; whereas particles with similar charges repel
each other.

Electricity is classified into two types which are :
Statistical electricity under situation where there is
no electron movement in the specific direction.
Dynamical Electricity under situation where there
is electron movement in the specific direction.

2
Friction: static electricity from rubbing (walking across a carpet)

Pressure: piezoelectricity from squeezing crystals together (quartz
watch)

Heat: voltage produced at junction of dissimilar metals (thermocouple)

Light: voltage produced from light striking photocell (solar power)

Chemical: voltage produced from chemical reaction (wet or dry cell
battery)

Magnetism: voltage produced using electromotive induction (AC or
DC generator).
3

Prefix Symbol 10
n
Decimal
Tera T 10
12
1000000000000
Giga G 10
9
1000000000
Mega M 10
6
1000000
kilo k 10
3
1000
hecto h 10
2
100
deca da 10
1
10
10
0
1
deci d 10
1
0.1
centi c 10
2
0.01
milli m 10
3
0.001
micro 10
6
0.000001
nano n 10
9
0.000000001
pico p 10
12
0.000000000001
Standard SI
prefixes

4
1. Electromotive Force (emf)
Force which causes electrons to move from one location to
another.
Symbol : E Unit : Volt (V)

2. Electric Charge
Charge is defined as the product of current and time,
Q = I x t
Symbol : Q Unit : Coulomb (C)

3. Current
Current is the rate of flow of electrons through the circuit.
Symbol : I Unit : Ampere (A)

5
4. Potential Difference
The potential difference between two points in a circuit is defined as
the energy converted from electrical energy to other forms of energy
when unit charge passes from one point to the other.
Symbol : V Unit : Volt (V)

5. Resistance
An electrical circuits opposition to the flow of current through it.
Symbol : R Unit : Ohm ()

6. Resistivity
Resistivity, (rho) of a material is defined by the equation; R = l
A
Symbol : (rho) Unit : m

6
7. Conductor
Electricity flows more easily through some materials than through others.
Good conductors have little resistance.
Examples : metals (aluminum, copper, silver etc.) and carbon

8. Semiconductor
Which have moderate resistance.
Examples : germanium, silicon

9. Insulator
An insulator is a material or object which contains no free electrons to permit
the flow of electricity. When a voltage is placed across an insulator, no
charge/current.
Examples : most plastics such as polythene and PVC (polyvinyl chloride),
paper, glass.
7
Resistance is the opposition to current flow.

Resistance determines the amount of current flow as
long as the voltage stays constant.



8
There are four factors that affect the resistance value;

a. Length of wire, l
Resistance is directly proportional to the length or wire.
Shorter wire has less resistance.
R l

b. Cross sectional area, A
Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional
area of the wire. Large area has less resistance.

9
A
R
1

c. Resistivity value,
Resistivity is directly proportional to the resistance
value. Some materials conduct better than others.
R

d. Temperature, T
Resistance is directly proportional to the temperature of
the conductor. Heat increases the resistance in the
conductor.
R T
10
These factors can be combined together and perform in
mathematical form as below:

R = l
A

where R = resistance ()
= resistivity (m)
l = length (m)
A = cross section area (m
2
)
11
QI : Find the resistivity of conductor if the resistance
value is 25O and area of conductor is 1.7 mm
2
. Given the
length of conductor is 1520 mm.
Ans: 0.028 mO.m

Q2 : Find the resistance of aluminum wire if the
resistivity value is 0.025 O.m and diameter of wire is 10
mm. Given the length of aluminum wire is 1.5 km.

Ans: 0.477 O

12
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical
elements. Interconnection is referred to as an electric
circuit and each component of the circuit is known as an
element. An electric circuit represents the path taken by
an electric current as it flows from the positive to the
negative terminals. Electric current is a flow of electric
charges. Charge is actually carried by electrons. The
movement of electrons give rise to electricity.

13
Electrical circuits is classified into two types which are:
1. Complete circuit
2. Incomplete circuit;
a. Open circuits
b. Short circuits

14
1. Closed Circuit
Closing a switch creates a closed loop for the electrons to
flow through. This is sometimes referred to as "completing
the circuit."







(Closed Circuit Diagram)

15
1. Open Circuit
An open circuit is caused intentionally when a user
opens a switch or unintentionally when vibration or
mechanical damage severs a wire.

(Open circuit diagram)
16
2. Short Circuit
A short circuit exists
whenever the resistance of
a circuit or the resistance
of a part of a circuit drops
in value to almost zero
ohms. A short often occurs
as a result of improper
wiring or broken
insulation.

(Normal and short circuit conditions)
17
Law: current of a circuit is directly proportional to
the applied voltage and inversely proportional to
circuit resistance.

I V, I 1/R V = I R

Where; V = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance


18
QI : A resistance of 100 has a voltage of 10V. Find the

a. current flows
b. if the resistance value is changed to 250 ,
determine the new value of voltage that must be
supplied to get the same value of current
c. if the voltage is changed to 15V, find the new value
of resistance that gives 300 mA of current.

Ans: 0.1 A, 25V, 50


19
In an electric circuit, a linear element is an electrical element
with a linear relationship between current and voltage. Resistors
are the most common example of a linear element; other
examples include capacitors, inductors, and transformers. If you
drew a graph of voltage versus current for resistor, the graph
would be a straight line, as shown below.


20
21
A nonlinear element is one which does not have a linear
input/output relation. In a diode, for example, the current is a
non-linear function of the voltage. Most semiconductor devices
have non-linear characteristics. If you drew a graph of voltage
versus current for a diode, the graph would look something like
the one shown below.

The rate at which electric energy is converted to other forms of
energy, equal to the product of the current and the voltage drop.
Symbol : P Unit : Watts (W)

P = I .V where; P = power in watts
I = current in amperes
V = potential difference in volts

Joule's law can be combined with Ohm's law to produce two more
equations; P = I
2
R , P = V
2
/R

where; R = resistance in ohms

22
Electric power is measured by
means of a wattmeter. This
instrument is of the electro-
dynamic type. It consists of a pair
of fixed coils, known as current
coils, and a movable coil known as
the potential coil.
23
(A simplified electrodynamic wattmeter circuit)
Electric energy is defined as potential to do work.
Symbol : E (or W) Unit : Joules (J)

E = Q V

Energy to a resistor of resistance R can be combined with Joule's law and
Ohm's law to produce two more equations:

E = P t , E = VIt , E = I
2
Rt , E = (V
2
t) /R

Where; E = electrical energy
V = volt (V)
I = current (A)
R = resistor ()
t = time (s)


24
Watt-hour meters measure energy.
A watt-hour meter is basically a
small motor whose instantaneous
speed is proportional to the power
through the motor.

The total revolutions in a given
time are proportional to the total
energy, or watt-hours, used during
that time.

25
Q1 : A toaster used 5A current, 240V of power supply
within 15 minutes. Calculate :
a. Power used by the toaster
b. Energy used in kJ

Note : I Joule = 1 Watt second
Ans: 1200 W, 1080 kJ


26
There are basically three types of circuit -- series, parallel,
and series and parallel circuit.

Series Circuit : Parallel Circuit :




27







(Series Circuit)

The total resistance is equal to the
sum of the resistance on each
component.
eq 2: R
T
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+...+ R
n

(In this case, R
T
= R
1
+ R
2
)

The total current is equal in every
component.
eq 3: I
T
= I
1
= I
2
= I
3
= I
4
=...= I
n

(In this case, I
T
= I
1
= I
2
)

The total voltage is the sum of the
voltage on each component.
eq 1: V
T
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+...+ V
n

(In this case, V
T
= V
1
+ V
2
)


28
Q1: We have a series circuit like this. What is the total
voltage, resistance and current?







Ans: 30V, 100 , 0.3 A

29
30
31
+
_
R
1
R
2
+
V
1
-
+
V
2
-
V
s
V
1
= I
1
R
1
= I
T
R
1
V
2
= I
2
R
2
= I
T
R
2
V
n
= I
n
R
n
32
+
_
R
1
R
2
+
V
1
-
+
V
2
-
V
s
2 1
R R R
T
+ =
2 1
R R
V
R
V
I
T
T
T
T
+
= =


From Ohms law:
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
= =
2 1
1
T 1
R R
R
V V
1
2 1
1
R
R R
V
R I
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
= =
2 1
2
T 2
R R
R
V V
2
2 1
2
R
R R
V
R I
T
T
33
I
T
V
1
V
2

V
3

V
T
R
1
R
2

R
3

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=
+ +
= =
3 2 1
1
T 1
R R R
R
V V
1
3 2 1
1
R
R R R
V
R I
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=
+ +
= =
3 2 1
2
T 2
R R R
R
V V
2
3 2 1
2
R
R R R
V
R I
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=
+ +
= =
3 2 1
3
T 3
R R R
R
V V
3
3 2 1
3
R
R R R
V
R I
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
T
n
T n
R
R
V V
Q1 : Base on figure, determine
a. Total of resistance
b. Circuit current
c. Voltage drop each resistor



V = 120 V R
2
=10O

34
R
1
= 15
Ans: 25 , 4.8 A, V
1
= 72V , V
2
= 48V














(Parallel Circuit)

The resistance is equal to the sum of
resistance on each component divided by
the product of resistance of each
component.
eq 5: 1/R
T
= 1/R
1
+ 1/R
2
+...+ 1/R
n

(In this case, 1/R
T
= 1/R
1
+ 1/R
2
)

The total voltage is equal in every
component.
eq 4: V
T
= V
1
= V
2
= V
3
=...= V
n


(In this case, V
T
= V
1
= V
2
)

The total current is equal to the sum of
current in each component.
eq 6: I
T
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
+ I
4
+...+ I
n


(In this case, I
T
= I
1
+ I
2
)

35
Q1 : In the following schematic diagram, find the total
current, I.






Ans: 12A

36
37
38
I
T
I
T
I
1
I
2
R
1
R
2
1 1
1
1
R
V
R
V
I
T
= =
2 2
2
2
R
V
R
V
I
T
= =
n
n
n
R
V
I =
39
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
2
T 1
R R
R
I I
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
1
T 2
R R
R
I I
The current which flows through branches will split according to
the resistance values in each branch:



and


I
T
I
T
I
1
I
2
R
1
R
2
40
The circuit which has more than two parallel resistances, we need to reduce
the resistances to two before current division can be applied :
Reduce the resistors to two by replacing R
2
and R
3
with an equivalent resistor
R
a
where :
I
T
I
T
I
1
I
a
R
1 R
a
3 2
3 2
R R
R R
R
a
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1 a
a
T 1
R R
R
I I
Then :
R
1
R
2
R
3
I
3
I
T
41
Reduce the resistors to two by replacing R
1
and R
3
with an equivalent resistor
R
a
where :
I
T
I
T
I
2
I
a
R
2 R
a
3 1
3 1
R R
R R
R
a
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 a
a
T 2
R R
R
I I
Then :
R
1
R
2
R
3
I
3
I
T
42
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
R
a
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
3 a
a
T 3
R R
R
I I
Reduce the resistors to two by replacing R
1
and R
2
with an equivalent
resistor R
a
where :




Then :
R
1
R
2
R
3
I
3
I
T
I
T
I
T
I
a
I
3
R
a R
3
43
Q1 : If you have a parallel circuit like this, what is the
total resistance and voltage? And voltage and current on
A, B, and C?








Ans: 6 O, 30V, V
A
= V
B
= V
C
= 30V, I
A
= I
B
= 2A, I
C
= 1A


Series-Parallel; many circuit are both
series and parallel.


The total voltage is the voltage of
series plus the voltage of parallel.
eq. 7: V
T
= V
1
+ V
2
= V
1
+ V
3


The total resistance is the resistance of
series plus the resistance of parallel.
eq. 8: R
T
= R
1
+ [(R
2
R
3
) / (R
2
+ R
3
)]

The total current is equal to the current
on series and to the sum of the current
of parallel circuit.
eq. 9: I
T
= I
1
= I
2
+ I
3

44
Q1:
a. What is the single resistor equivalent?
b. What is the total current?
c. What is the voltage across the 6 ohm resistor?
d. What is the current in each resistor?

45
Ans:
a. 8.67 O
b. 1.38 A
c. 8.28 V
d. I
6
= 1.38 A
I
4
= 0.92 A
I
8
= 0.46 A

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

46
This law is also called Kirchhoff's junction rule or
Kirchhoff's point rule.

This law states that the sum of the currents entering
any junction of wires must equal the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.
i
in
= i
out




i
1
i
2

i
3




47
3 2 1
i i i + =
This law is also called Kirchhoff 's loop rule. It is a
consequence of the principle of conservation of energy.

It states that the sum of the voltages (potential
differences) across all the elements around any closed-
circuit loop is equal to zero.


48
0
3 2 1
= + + + V V V V
T
+ V
1
-
+
V
2
-
+ V
3
-
V
T

49
1. Define direction of current/voltage
polarity.
(Unknown current are usually defined in
clockwise direction while known current
are defined according to the direction of
the current source)

2. Apply KVL:



3. Express in voltage function:



0
3 2 1
= + + V V V
0
3 2 1
= + + iR iR V
50
Loop 1
0
3 1
= + + V V V
A
0
3 3 1 1
= + + R i R i V
A
Loop 2
0
3 2
= + + V V V
B
0
3 3 2 2
= + + R i R i V
B
1. Define direction of current/voltage polarity.

2. Apply KCL:

3. Apply KVL:

2 1 3
i i i + =
4. Express in voltage function:
Loop 1
Loop 2
5. Using KCL:
Loop 1
0 ) (
3 2 1 1 1
= + + + R i i R i V
A
Loop 2
0 ) (
3 2 1 2 2
= + + + R i i R i V
B
6. Substituting values:
Loop 1
0 ) (
3 2 1 3 1
= + + + R i i R R V
A
Loop 2
0 ) (
2 3 2 3 1
= + + + i R R R i V
B
7. Solve the simultaneous equations.
Positive value shows that the assumed direction of
current is the same with the actual one.

Negative value shows that the assumed direction of
current is the opposite with the actual one.

51
Q1 : Find I
1
, I
2
and I
3
in the following circuits.

52

R
1
= 1 R
2
= 6 R
3
= 2

5V 10V
Ans: I
1
= 1 A, I
2
= 2 A, I
3
= -1 A
I
1

I
2

This question refers to the circuit below in which the current is
100 mA:
a. What is the current in each resistor?
b. What is the total resistance?
c. What is the battery voltage?
d. What is the voltage across each resistor?

53