Unit 1: Circuit Elements and

Network Theorems
 Contents
1. Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s law, resistance, resistivity, variation of
resistance with temperature
2. Network Analysis: Kirchhoff’s laws (voltage and current
law)
3. Network Theorems: Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem.
4. Self and Mutual Inductances: Self-inductance, inductors, mutual
inductance, dot convention, coupled coils in series, coupled coils in
parallel.
5. Capacitors: Parallel plate capacitor, capacitance, permittivity, capacitors
in series, capacitors in parallel .
Ohm’s Law

The relation between voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R) in a dc circuit was first discovered
by a German scientist George Simon Ohm. This relationship is called Ohm’s Law.

The following points may be noted about Ohm’s law:

i. Ohm’s law is true for dc circuits.
ii. Ohm’s law is true for metal and conductors at constant temperature.
iii. Ohm’s law not applicable on conductors (e.g; Silicon Carbide) even if the temperature
remains constant.
iv. Ohm’s law can be expressed as
I = V/R, V = IR, R = V/I
Resistance

It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity
(i.e., electrons) through it.
Metals (as a class), acids and salts solutions are good conductors of electricity.
Amongst pure metals, silver, copper and aluminium are very good conductors in the given order.
It is due to the presence of a large number of free or loosely-attached electrons in their atoms.
These vagrant electrons assume a directed motion on the application of an electric potential difference.
These electrons while flowing pass through the molecules or the atoms of the conductor, collide and other atoms and
electrons, thereby producing heat.

The Unit of Resistance:

The practical unit of resistance is ohm. The symbol for ohm is Ω.

Table 1. Multiples and Sub-multiples of Ohm

Laws of Resistance:
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors:
(i) It varies directly as its length, l.
(ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.
(iii)It depends on the nature of the material.
(iv)It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. If in Eq. (i), we put l = 1 metre and A = 1 metre2, then R =
ρ
Hence, specific resistance of a material may be defined as
the resistance between the opposite faces of a metre cube
of that material.
Units of Resistivity:
From Eq. (i), we have ρ = (AR) / l
In the S.I. system of units,

Hence, the unit of resistivity is ohm-metre

(Ω-m).
Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that

Where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the material of the conductor and is known as its specific resistance or resistivity.
 Effect of Temperature on Resistance

i. For pure metals (e.g., Cu, Al ):

R ↑se with ↑se in temperature [Positive Temperature coefficient]

ii. For electrolytes, insulators (e.g., glass, mica ) and semiconductor ( e.g., Si, Ge):
R ↓se with ↑se in temperature [Negative temperature coefficient]

iii. For alloy

R ↑se with ↑se in temperature but this ↑se is very small and irregular.
Change in R of material with ↑se in temperature can be expressed by means of temperature co efficient of
resistance.

Consider a conductor having resistance Ro at 0˚C.

Then for the normal range of temperatures, the ↑se in resistance (Rt – Ro),
i. Is directly proportional to the initial R.
ii. Is directly proportional to the rise in temperature.
iii. Also depends on the nature of the material.

Where, αo is a constant called temperature co efficient of resistance.

Hence, temperature co efficient of a material may be defined as the ↑se in resistance per ohm original resistance per ˚C
rise in temperature
Question 1
A Cu coil has resistance of 40 Ω at 0˚C.
Find the resistance of the coil at 50˚.
Resistance temperature coefficient of Cu is 0.0043/˚C at 0˚C.

Ans: 48.6 Ω
Question 2
The shunt winding of a motor has resistance of 80Ω at 15˚C.
Find its resistance at 50˚C.
Resistance temperature coefficient of Cu is 0.004/˚C at 0˚C.

Ans: 90.56 Ω
Question 2
Question 3
The resistance of a coil of wire increases from 80 Ω at 10˚C to 96.6 Ω at 60˚C.
Find the temperature coefficient of the material.

Ans: 4.33 x 10^-3/˚C

Voltage and Current sources

Ideal Voltage Source

It is that voltage source whose output voltage remains absolutely
constant whatever the change in load current. It has zero internal
resistance. In practice, ideal voltage source is not available, and every
voltage source has some internal resistance. Smaller the resistance of a
voltage source, more it will approach to the ideal voltage source. The
ideal voltage source can be represented by either of the symbols shown
in Fig.

Ideal Current Source

It is that current source whose output current remains absolutely
constant whatever the change in load resistance. Its internal resistance is
infinity. At any load resistance, it supplies the constant current. In
practice, ideal current source has very high resistance. Higher the
resistance of a current source, more it will approach to the ideal source.
The ideal current source can be represented by the symbol shown in Fig.

DC Circuit DC circuits can be classified as,

The closed path followed by a direct current (dc) is called a dc a) Series Circuit
circuit. b) Parallel Circuit
c) Series – Parallel Circuit
Series Circuit

Voltage drop across the resistance R2, V2=IR2

Voltage drop across the resistance R3, V3=IR3
Now, for a series circuit, sum of voltage drops is equal to the applied voltage. So,
V= V1+ V2+ V3
=IR1+ IR2+ IR3
=I(R1+R2+R3 )
V/I= R1+R2+R3
But, V/I is the total resistance RT between the points A and B. RT is called the total or
equivalent resistance of the three resistances. So,
RT= R1+R2+R3
Voltage Divider Rule
Parallel Circuit
Current Divider Rule
Q.2 Calculate the effective resistance of the following combination of resistances and the voltage drop across each resistance
when a P.D. of 60 V is applied between points A and B.
Q3 What is reading of the ammeter shown in the circuit shown?

Ans. The ammeter reading is 25A.

Practice question
What is the current flowing from the battery?
Q.1 Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit given in Fig. below
(a) between the following points
(i) A and B
(ii) C and D
(iii) E and F
(iv) A and F and
(v) A and E. Numbers represent resistances in ohm.
KIRCHHOFF’s LAWS
Active element
An active element is one that supplies electrical energy to the circuit. Thus, in Fig., V1 and V2 are the
active elements because they supply energy to the circuit.

Passive element
A passive element is one that receives electrical energy, and then either converts it into heat (resistance)
or stores in electric field (capacitance) or magnetic field (inductance). In Fig., there are three passive elements,
namely R1, R2, and R3. These passive elements (i.e., resistance in this case) receive energy from the active
elements (i.e., V1 and V2) and convert it into heat.

Node
A node of network is an equi-potential surface at which two or more circuit elements are joined. Thus, in
Fig., circuit elements R1 and V1 are joined at A and hence, A is the node. Similarly, B, C, and D are nodes.

Junction
A junction is that point in a network where three or more circuit elements are joined. In Fig., there are
only two junction points, viz. B and D. That B is a junction is clear from the fact that three circuit elements R1,
R2, and R3 are joined at it. Similarly, point D is a junction because it joins three circuit elements R3, V1, and V2.
All the junctions are the nodes but all the nodes are not junctions.

Branch
A branch is the part of a network lying between two junction points. Thus, referring to Fig., there are
total of three branches, viz. BAD, BCD, and BD. The branch BAD consists of R1 and V1, the branch BCD
consists of R2 and V2, and branch BD merely consists of R3.
 Loop
A loop is any closed path of a network. Thus, in Fig., ABDA, BCDB, and ABCDA are the loops.

Mesh
A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided into other loops. In Fig., both
loops ABDA and BCDB are meshes because they cannot be further divided into other loops. However, the loop
ABCDA cannot be called a mesh because it encloses two loops ABDA and BCDB. All meshes are loops but all
loops are not meshes.

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

“The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction or node in an electric
circuit is zero.”

“In any closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of the electromotive
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) forces and the voltage drops is equal to zero.”
Sign Conventions

• If we go from +ve terminal of the battery or the source to the –ve terminal , there is a fall in potential
so emf is assigned –ve sign.
• When the current flows thru a resistor, there is a voltage drop. If we go thru the R in the same
direction as the current, there will be a drop in potential so the sign of voltage drop will be –ve.
• While if we go in the opp. direction of the current flow there will be a rise in potential and hence the
voltage drop is given a =ve sign.
• If we go from +ve terminal of the battery or the source to the –ve terminal , there is a fall in potential
so emf is assigned –ve sign.
• When the current flows thru a resistor, there is a voltage drop. If we go thru the R in the same
direction as the current, there will be a drop in potential so the sign of voltage drop will be –ve.
• While if we go in the opp. direction of the current flow there will be a rise in potential and hence the
voltage drop is given a +ve sign.

Applying KVL to the loop ABDA of the circuit we get

V1- I1R1 – I3R3 = 0
Applying KVL to to loop ABCDA we get ,
V1- I1R1 +I2R2 – V2 = 0
Question:
With the help of mesh current method, find the magnitude and direction of the current flowing through the 1Ω resistor in the network.
Question 2:
By mesh analysis find current through 2Ω resistor in the circuit.
Question: Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Ohm's Law, find the magnitude and polarity of voltage Vin Fig. below (a).
Directions of the two current sources are as shown.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Thevenin's theorem is a powerful tool in the hands of engineers to simplify a complex problem and obtain the circuit solution
quickly. It reduces the complex circuit to a simple circuit. This theorem is particularly useful to find the current in a
particular branch of a network as the resistance of that branch is varied while all other resistances and sources remain
constant.
This theorem was first stated by French engineer M.L. Thevenin in 1883.
Steps to apply for Thevenin's Theorem
Step 1: Remove the branch resistance through which current is to be
calculated.
Step 2: Calculate the voltage across these open circuited terminals,
by using any one of the network simplification techniques. This is
VTH.
Step 3: Calculate RTH as viewed through the two terminals of the
branch from which current is to be calculated by removing that
branch resistance and replacing all sources by their internal
resistances.
Step 4: Draw the Thevenin's equivalent circuit showing source VTH
with the resistance RTH in series with it.
Step 5: Reconnect the branch resistance. Let it be RL. The required
current through the branch is given by 𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻
Problem 1
Solve the given circuit to find the current through 10 Ω using Thevenin’s Theorem.

Vth = 6.75V
Rth = 2.75Ω
IL = 0.529 A
1. Determine the current through 5Ω resistor in the network shown in Fig. by Thevenin's theorem.

Vth = 20.732 V
Rth = 1.463 Ω
IL = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏 𝑨 (↓)
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

NORTONS THEOREM

Norton's theorem is converse of Thevenin's theorem. Norton's equivalent circuit uses a current source instead of
voltage source and a resistance RN (which is same as RTH) in parallel with the source instead of being in series with it.
Steps to apply Norton's theorem
Step 1:
Short the branch resistance through which current is to be calculated.
Step 2:
Obtain the current through this short-circuited branch, using any of the network-
simplification techniques. This current is Norton's current IN.
Step 3:
Calculate RN as viewed through the two terminals of the branch from which current is to be
calculated by removing that branch resistance and replacing all sources by their internal
resistances.
Step 4:
Draw the Norton's equivalent circuit showing current source IN, with the resistance RN in
parallel with it.
Step 5:
Reconnect the branch resistance. Let it be RL. The required current through the branch is
given by

𝑅𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑁 ×
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑁
Problem 2
Solve the given circuit to find the current through 10 Ω using Norton’s Theorem.

I1 = 4.090A
IN = 2.454A
Rth = 2.75Ω
IL = 0.529 A
Numericals on Series Parallel Circuit:
Numericals on Series Parallel Circuit:
Numericals on Series Parallel Circuit:
Numericals on Temperature Coefficient:
Numericals on Temperature Coefficient:
Numericals on Mesh Analysis:
 Numericals on Thevenins Theorem:

I1=3mA and Vth=12V

I1=2A,I2=2A,Vth=10V
Numericals on Norton’s Theorem: