ETHICS: REVIEWER

THE ART OF CORRECT LIVING

Ethics is an art, “the art of correct living”. Thus, Ethics is a practical science
Ethics – the science of the morality of human acts. and differs from one that is purely speculative.

“Ethos” - characteristic way of acting, habit or custom. Every person is expected to be decent and trustworthy.

Equivalent in mos, mores, from which come the word moral and Some philosophers regard ethics as “the only necessary knowledge”.
morality.
Morality is not only necessary to a person but also to society.
This studies the characteristics behavior of man as endowed with
Beltran Russell – “without civic morality, communities perish, without
reason and freewill.
personal morality their survival has no value”.
Socrates – Father of moral Philosophy
ETHICS AND THE FILIPINO
Aristotle – greatly influenced ethical thinking with three
important treatises; Filipinos believe in moral integrity as essential to life. They also believe in a
just society. But norms are easily ignored for personal interest.
1. Nicomachean Ethics,
2. Eudamian Ethics; When we speak of “living standard” we inevitably mean “economic”, that is,
3. Magna Moralia (Great Ethics) higher salaries and low prices. Perhaps, we should think more of moral
standard as our priority.
Human Acts – are actions done intentionally and freely.
ETHICS AND RELIGION
- Differentiated from acts of man which are instinctive.
- Ethics does not only study the acts of man in themselves but Ethics and religion are both concerned with moral education, but they differ
as factors affecting man’s judgment and violation. from each other.
Ethics - the science of the morality of human acts. Ethics is a science and relies on reasons for its conclusions. Religion is a
- This is a study of man as moral being, one who is rationally system of beliefs and practices based on faith and revelation, or truths
able to distinguish between right and wrong. revealed to man by God.
- It examines how man is accountable for his actions and its
Ethics teaches the value of religion, presenting it as a duty of man towards
consequences.
the Supreme Being.
- It proposes how man ought to live his life – meaningfully.
- Concerned with morality, the quality which makes an act good Religion, on the other hand, as an organized church or institution,
or evil, correct or wrong. contributes to the development of ethical thought. Thus, religion and ethics
- Examines and explains the rational basis why actions are
complement each other.
moral or immoral.
- In other words, concerned with the norms of human behavior.
ETHICAL NORMS AND LAW 2. The theistic approach, to which we adhere, assumes that God is the
Supreme Lawgiver. Everything must conform to God's Eternal plan of
The laws of society sometimes legalizes immoral acts, like gambling and creation. Man must exercise his freedom in accordance with God's will.
divorce. Hence, what is legal is not necessary moral. Also, human laws There are absolute principles of morality which are net changeable. Man is
regulate external actions, but not thoughts and feelings. accountable for his actions and deserves either a reward or punishment in
e.g. Thinking of robbing a bank is not a crime until it is attempted. this life or in the next. Its tenets are:

Ethical norms, however, cover thoughts and feelings so that a person could a) God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver.
sin because of what he thinks or desires. Thus, St. Paul says a man who lusts b) Man is free and must use his freedom to promote his personal interest
after a woman is committing adultery. along with that of others.
Also, a moral norms require proper spiritual disposition towards what is c) Man has an immortal soul.
lawful.
d) Man is accountable for his actions, both good and evil.
It is not sufficient to do good, one must be sincere in doing good.
GENERAL AND SPECIAL ETHICS
ETHICAL APPROACHES
Ethics is divided into general and special ethics. The first part of this book is
There are two approaches — the atheistic and theistic ethics. about General Ethics and the second part about Special Ethics.
1. The atheistic approach assumes that only matter exists and man is General Ethics is about the principles of morality. It explains the norms with
responsible only to the State since there is no God who rules the universe.
which the moral significance of the human act is deter-mined. Special Ethics
Morality is an invention of man to suit his requirement and to preserve is the application of the principles of General ethics to the problems and
society. Moral truths are temporary and changeable depending on the issues confronting a person on account of his circumstances in life, for
situation. Accordingly, the concept of good and evil is relative. Some of its
instance, as a citizen, neighbour, worker, wife, husband, or child.
tenets are the following:
Special Ethics includes the sub-branches of professional ethics, such as
a) Matter is the only reality. medical ethics, business ethics, legal ethics, biological and environmental
b) Man is matter and does not have spiritual soul. ethics. This book is divided into General and Special Ethics.

c) Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the welfare of
society.

d) There is no life after death.

e) Man is accountable only to the State.

 smelling, tasting, seeing, hearing, perceiving, imagining and remembering;
2 MAN AS A PERSON and those acts of emotions, such as love, hatred, desire, disgust, joy,
sorrow, fear, despair, and courage. The rational powers are those of the
Ethics is the study of man as a moral being. What goals we assign to intellect and the will - comprehension and volition, respectively.
ourselves, what actions we choose to do, and how we treat others
Natural Law: All human powers or faculties are operational tendencies
- depend on how we understand ourselves as a human being. Socrates is
towards what is good to man as a rational animal. In this sense, human
wise indeed for proposing that the starting point of wisdom is *to know nature is the natural law because, like the laws of soci-ety, it directs man in
oneself". all his activities. Natural law differs from the so called laws of nature which
FILIPINO BELIEFES are the forces governing the material uni-verse, including man. Natural law
applies only to man as a rational animal. When we speak of an act as
Filipinos believe that "contrary to natural law" , we mean the act to be against human nature or
humanity
1. Man is a creature of God.
2. Man has an immortal soul. A MORAL BEING
3. Man has an assigned destiny in life.
4. Man must do good or else be punished by God. Three characteristics reveal man's moral nature:
5. Man by nature is good but is morally weak. 1. Man by natural insight is able to distinguish between good and evil, right
Regarding morality, Filipinos believe that and wrong, moral and immoral.

1. Morality is "batas ng Diyos" 2. Man feels himself obliged to do what is good and to avoid what is evil. He
2. A person should respect his humanity, "pagkatao" is moved by the inner force of his being demanding that what is good
3. A person should love and care for his family. ought" to be done, and what is evil "ought" to be avoided.
4. A person should strive to live peacefully with others 3. Man feels himself accountable for his actions so that his good deeds merit
5. A person should fear God and His punishment. reward, while his evil deeds deserve punishment. Man feels content with
RATIONAL ANIMAL himself for doing a good deed, or he feels remorseful for doing an evil deed.
All cultures have a system of reward and punishment based on the concept
Man is an organism composed of a material body and a spiritual soul. He is of justice.
the whole of his materiality and immateriality, the sub stantial union
(tomorphie) of body and soul, matter and spirit. This essential wholeness is These characteristics show man's innate perception of truth, duty, and law.
what we call human nature.

Human nature is made up of man's biological, psychological, and rational

powers. The biological powers are nutrition, locomotion, growth, and
reproduction. The psychological powers include those of the senses, such as
MAN AS PERSON
3 THE HUMAN ACT
Man is born as an individual, or person. Person is human nature actualized
and manifested in the history of place and time. Actions, since they are products of our thoughts and desires, reveal our
moral character.
Etymologically, the word "person" comes from the Greek "prosophon"
which is the mask worn by stage actors. The Latin "personare" alludes to the What we are and what becomes of us as persons depends on our choices
mask which is constructed so as to project forcefully the voice of the actor. and actuations.
Underneath the person is human nature which is the principle of human
activity. ATTRIBUTES OF HUMAN ACT

Person is defined as "an individual, existing separately and independently Human acts are those performed by a person who is acting knowingly,
from others, capable of knowing and loving in an intellectual way, and of freely, and wilfully.
deciding for himself the purpose or end of his actions'" (Brennan: 280) We These actions are deliberate, intentional, or voluntary.
also refer to person as "self" or "ego".
1. Knowingly – when the doer is conscious and aware of the reason
PERSONALITY AND CHARACTER and the consequences of his actions.
2. Freely – when the doer acts by his own initiative and choice without
The person is an individual human being. Personality is the sum of those
physical attributes and tendencies which define a person's distinctive being forced to do so by another person or situation.
behavaior. 3. Willfully – when the doer consents to the aact, accepting it as his
own, and assumes accountability for its consequences.
MORAL CHARACTER
KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS
The will of the person directing him towards a recognized ideal.
A. ELICITED ACTS – those performed by the will but are not bodily
This is how human actions are significant because they actualize man’s externalized such as the following:
potential to be what eh truly is as a rational being. 1. WISH – the tendency of the will towards an object, without
considering whether it is attainable of not.
SOCIAL DIMENSION OF THE PERSON 2. INTENTION – the tendency of the will towards an object which
Society is but an extension of the person. Ethics is particularly relevant is attainable, without necessarily committing oneself to get it.
because man’s social nature. The golden rule, for that matter, is concerned 3. CONSENT – the acceptance of the will to carry out the intention.
about the other person. 4. ELECTION - the selection of the will of those means necessary
to carry out in the intention.
Paul Tillich –“to be a person in the community of other persons”. 5. USE – the command of the will to make use of the means
elected to carry out the intention.
 6. Fruition – the enjoyment of the will due to the attainment of 1. PERFECT VOLUNTARINESS- possessed by a person who is acting
the intention. with full knowledge and complete freedom.
B. COMMANDED ACTS – the mental bodily actions performed under 2. IMPERFECT VOLUNTARINESS – is possessed by a person who acts
the command of the will. These are either internal or external without full understanding what he is doing, or without complete
actions. freedom.
a. INTERNAL ACTIONS – performed mentally. 3. SIMPLE VOLUNTARINESS – the disposition of a person performing
b. EXTERNAL ACTIONS – performed bodily. any activity regardless of his liking or not liking it. It’s either positive
or negative.
MORAL DISTINCTIONS 4. CONDITIONAL VOLUNTARINESS – the disposition of a person who is
On the basis of their conformity or non-conformity with the norm of forced by circumstances to perform an act which he would not do
morality, human acts are either moral, immoral, or amoral. under normal conditions.

1. MORAL ACTIONS – are those in conformity with the norm of DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY VOLUJNTARY
morality. They are good and permissible actions. The result of an act is indirectly voluntary.
2. IMMORAL ACTIONS - are those which are not in conformity
with the norm of morality. Evil and prohibited actions. Ex. A student watches a movie is to entertain himself (directly voluntary),
3. AMORAL ACTIONS – are those which stand neutral or but, in so doing, he misses school. (indirectly voluntary).
indifferent to the norm of morality.
A person is accountable for actions directly intended. He is accountable for
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC EVIL indirectly voluntary acts when:

Immoral acts are either intrinsically or extrinsically evil. 1. The does is able to foresee the evil result or consequence though in a
general way;
a. INTRINSICALLY EVIL – when its wrongfulness is part of the nature of
2. The doer is free to refrain from doing that action which would result
such act. The act of stealing, because it consist in depriving in the foreseen evil;
someone of his property against his will. 3. The doer has the moral obligation not to do that which would result
b. EXTRINSICALLY EVIL – when its wrongfulness comes from an
in something evil.
outside factor. The act of alms-giving, though good in itself, but evil
because it is done for the purpose of building one’s public image. SIGNIFICANCE OF HUMAN ACTS

VOLUNTARINESS Human acts come from the intellect and the will, they express the thoughts
and desires of a person, revealing his moral character.
Voluntariness, or volition, comes from the latin “voluntas” which means the
Will. Voluntariness is either perfect or imperfect, either simple or
conditional.
 2. PASSIONS - or concupiscence, are psychic responses.
4 MORAL ACCOUNTABILTY
Positive emotions – such as love, desire, delight, hope, and bravery.
THE SUBJECT OF HUMAN ACTS

The subject of a human act is any person who is capable of acting Negative emotions – hatred, horror, sadness, despair, fear and
intelligently and freely. A person is accountable for his decisions and anger.
actuations.
Principles;
A person is either guilty or innocent, deserving or undeserving of a. Antecedent passions – comes as natural reaction to an
punishment. object or stimulus without being aroused intentionally.
- Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they
SANCTIONS AND PENALTIES
diminish accountability over an act.
The penal laws of the country provide for a system of punishment for - Weakens will power without completely blocking it.
wrongdoings, ranging from fines to imprisonment. b. Consequent Passions – is the result of an act which cause it
to be aroused.
Heinous Crimes – death penalty. - Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, and may even
increase accountability.
MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
- This is because consequent passions are the direct result of the will
1. IGNORANCE - the absence of knowledge which a person ought to consenting to them, instead of subordinating them to the control
possess. reason.
Ignorance is either vincible or invincible, or affected.
3. FEAR – is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is
Vincible – renders an act involuntary. A person is not morally liable confronted by a danger to himself or loved ones.
if he’s not aware of his state of ignorance.
Principles:
Invincible Ignorance – does not destroy, but lessens the a. Acts done with fear are voluntary and are accountable.
voluntariness and the corresponding accountability over an act. b. Acts done out of fear, however, is simply voluntary, although it
is also conditional voluntary.
Affected Ignorance – though it decreases voluntariness, increases
the accountability of an act. Because affected ignorance interferes
with the intellect, it decreases voluntariness.
 4. VIOLENCE – is any physical force exerted on a person by a free ACTION AND EMOTION
agent for the purpose of compelling said person to act against his
will. Insults, torture, isolation, starvation, and mutilation are Man is not a robot devoid of feeling. Every human act involves a person
examples of violence. emotionally.

Emotions are natural and beneficial. The positive tendencies of love,

Principle: kindness, humility, reverence, and justice express approval of what is good
a. External, or commanded acts, performed by a person subjected and worthy in an object.
to violence, to which reasonable resistance has been offered,
are involuntary and not accountable. REFINEMENT OF EMOTIONS
b. Elicited Acts, or those done by the will alone, are not subject to
One must learn to rein his emotions and work them to his advantage.
violence and are therefore voluntary.
Moral perfection comes from within. Filipinos speak of a good person as
5. HABITS – habits is the readiness, born of frequently repeated acts, possessing “mabuting kalooban”.
for acting in a certain manner.
- Acquired through the repetition of an act over a period of time.
- They are either good or bad.
- They are difficult to overcome.

Principles:

Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in cause unless a

reasonable effort is made to counteract the inclination.

- Habits are voluntary in cause, because they are the result of

previously willed acts done repeatedly over a period of time.

POVERTY

Poverty is never an excuse for committing a crime just as wealth does not
justify abuses.

Poverty is a social evil which must be corrected by the state.

 KINDS OF GOOD
5 THE ENDS OF HUMAN ACTS
a. Essential and Accidental Good
Man does not aimlessly. His every action is done for a purpose. Essential – satisfies the need of person as a human being.
Accidental – is that which satisfies the want of a person because of
THE MEANING OF END his particular situations.
The “end” is the purpose or goal of an act. It is either the end of the act
itself or the end of the doer. b. Real and Apparent
Real – is anything which is intrinsic value.
The end of the act is the natural termination or completion of an activity. Apparent – is an evil which is viewed subjectively as something of
value.
The end of the doer is the motive or reason why a person performs an act.

KINDS OF END c. Perfective and Non-Perfective

Perfective – is that which contributes to integral growth or
a. The Proximate End is the purpose which the doer wishes to development of a person.
accomplish immediately. The Non-Perfective – anything which merely contribute to the external
The Remote End is the purpose which the doer wishes to appearance or convenience of a person.
accomplish sometime later.
b. The Intermediate End is that which is sought as a means for d. Perfect and Imperfect
obtaining another thing. Perfect – is a real good endowed with all essential qualities needed
The Ultimate End is that which is desired for its own sake. to satisfy a need.
Imperfect – Anything lacking in some qualities is imperfect.
ACTION AND MOTIVATION
THE GREATEST GOOD
1. Every action is performed for the sake of a definite end or purpose.
2. Every action is intended towards an ultimate end. “Summim Bonum” – The greatest good.
3. Every doer moves himself towards an end which he thinks suitable to According to Aristotle, the greatest good is happiness.
him.
THE MEANING OF HAPPINESS
THE END AS GOOD
Either objective or subjective.
Man acts in order to obtain something good to himself.
Objectively, happiness refers to something having intrinsic value and
The concept of good is synonymous to that of end or purpose. capable of satisfying a human need.

Aristotle defines “good” as “anything which fits or suits a function”. Subjectively, it is the psychological state of feeling contended resulting from
the attainment of that which is good in itself.
Happiness contributes to the perfection of a person. Happiness will also be within the reach of everyone, since, through learning
and exercise, it can be obtained by all who are not totally corrupted as
WHAT PEOPLE DESIRE regards virtue.
a. Some people regard money or the acquisition of wealth as the
ETHICAL THEORIES
ultimate aim of their life. While the desire is legitimate, money
does not satisfy human desire completely. a. Hedonism is based on the teachings of Epicurus who regards
b. Some people regard health and physical beauty as foremost in pleasure as the ultimate good of man.
importance. Health. - According to him, pain is an evil to be avoided
c. Some people indulge themselves in worldly pleasures. But - Hedonist is descriptive of a pleasure-seeking individual, “a low-life”.
pleasures in themselves are limited by our natural capacity for
them. b. Aristotelianism – proclaims the supremacy of reason over man’s
d. Some people seek fame and power. lower appetites.
e. Some people would want to dedicate themselves to the - The highest good of man is the contemplation of divine truths.
cultivation of science and arts. - The reasonable life is that which is in accordance with temperance,
f. Some people would consecrate themselves to the religious life. nothing by excess and nothing by defect. This is the Golden Mean.

NATURAL AND SUPERNATURAL HAPPINESS c. Thomism – based on the teachings of St. Thimas Aquinas.
Is that which is attainable by man through the use of his natural powers. - It holds that the ultimate purpose of man consists in the Beatific
Vision of God which, howver, is possible only in the next life and
Supernatural happiness is that which is attainable by man through his own only with the aid of supernatural grace.
powers aided by the infusion of grace from God.
d. Utilitarianism – defines pleasure as that which gives the greatest
“Natural Happiness”, says Joseph Buckley, “consists in the perfection that
happiness for the greatest number of people.
can be attained by man through the employment of his body and soul and
- John Stuart Mill, for example, says that pleasure itself is good, but
the powers inherent in them: intellect, will, internal and external sensory
even better when it experienced by the most number of people.
powers, sense appetites, locomotion, nutrition, and growth.”

THE ULTIMATE PURPOSE e. Evolutionism – Proceeds from the biological theories of Charles
Darwin.
The ultimate purpose of human life is the possession of the absolutely - The greatest good is the rearing of the greatest nuber of individuals,
greatest good. with perfect faculties, under given circumstances.
f. Existentialism – laments the inadequacy of reason to guide man in
The highest good according to Aristotle, pertains to the intellect.
the complexities of life.
- Either theistic or atheictic.