Notation

• IN the set of natural numbers {1, 2, · · · }

• ZZ the set of integers
• Q the set of rational numbers { m
n
| m, n ∈ ZZ, n 6= 0}
• Q c = IR\Q the set of irrational numbers
• IR the set of real numbers
• ∀ for each, for every, for all (對所有)
• ∃ there exists, for some (存在)
• ∃! there is a unique (存在唯一)
• ⊂, ⊆ inclusion (包含)
• ∈ belong (屬於)
• i.e. (拉丁文 id est 的簡寫.) that is to say; in other word.
• e.g. (拉丁文 exempli gratia 的簡寫.) for example, for instance.
• Show that, Prove that 證明
Definition 0.1 Let a, b ∈ IR and a < b.
1. The subset [a, b] := {x ∈ IR | a ≤ x ≤ b} of IR is called a closed
interval (閉區間).
2. The subset (a, b) := {x ∈ IR | a < x < b} of IR is called an open
interval (開區間).
3. The subsets [a, b) := {x ∈ IR | a ≤ x < b} and (a, b] := {x ∈ IR | a <
x ≤ b} are called half-open intervals, or half-closed intervals (半
開區間或半閉區間).
4. The subset [a, ∞) := {x ∈ IR | a ≤ x}.
5. The subset (a, ∞) := {x ∈ IR | a < x}.
6. The subset (−∞, b] := {x ∈ IR | x ≤ b}.
7. The subset (−∞, b) := {x ∈ IR | x < b}.
The number a is called the left-endpoint (左端點) and b the right-endpoint
(右端點) of intervals [a, b], (a, b), [a, b) or (a, b].

1
1 Functions
函數 (function): 兩集合間的一種對應關係 (relation).
Definition 1.1 Let A and B be nonempty subsets of IR.
f : A −→ B is a function from A into B, if

∀ x ∈ A, ∃!y ∈ B such that y = f (x).

In y = f (x), x is the independent variable of f (f 的獨立變數),

y is the value dependdent on x (非獨立變數，其值與 x 有關)。
The set A is called the domain of f (f 的定義域), usually denoted as Df .
The set B is called the codomain of f (f 的對應域).
Given a ∈ A, then f (a) is said to be the value of f at a.
The set Rf = f (A) := {f (x) | x ∈ A} is a subset of the codomain B of f ,
and called the range of f (f 的值域).
The graph (圖形) of f with domain Df is the set {(x, f (x)) | ∀ x ∈ Df },
and the set describes a curve(曲線).

Example. The area A of a circle depends on the radius r, also the area of a
circle is a function of r: A = A(r) = πr2 .

Definition 1.2 Two functions f and g are said to be equal(相等)

:⇔ Df = Dg and f (x) = g(x), ∀ x ∈ Df .

函數類別:

1. Piecewise defined functions(分段函數):

2. Symmetry(對稱型函數):

(a) A function f is even (偶函數) :⇔ f (−x) = f (x), ∀ x, −x ∈ Df .

(b) A function f is odd (奇函數) :⇔ f (−x) = −f (x), ∀ x, −x ∈ Df .

3. Monotone(單調函數):

(a) A function f is called increasing (遞增函數) :⇔ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), ∀ x1 , x2 ∈

Df with x1 < x2 .
(b) A function f is called decreasing (遞減函數) :⇔ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), ∀ x1 , x2 ∈
Df with x1 < x2 .

4. (a) Algebraic functions (代 數 函 數): 包 含 linear functions, power

functions, polynomials, rational functions 等.

2
 (b) Transcendental functions (超越函數): 包含 Trigonometric func-
tions(三角函數), exponential functions, logarithmic functions 等.

Definition 1.3 1. A power function(冪函數) is a function of the form

f (x) = xa ,

where a ∈ IR, a 6= 0.

2. A function f (x) is called a polynomial function (多項式函數), if it

is of the form

f (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 ,

where n ∈ IN ∪ {0} and each ci ∈ IR is called a coefficient (係數) of

f.
若 cn 6= 0, 則整數 n 稱為 the degree of f , 記為 n = deg(f (x)).
若 deg(f (x)) = 1, 則多項式 f (x) 稱為 linear function (線性函數)。

3. A function f (x) is called a rational function (有理函數), if it is of

the form
p(x)
f (x) = ,
q(x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) 6= 0.

Definition 1.4 For a fixed real number a > 0 and a 6= 1, the function
f : IR −→ (0, ∞) defined by

f (x) := ax

is called the exponential function with base a (以 a 為基底的指數函數).

Theorem 1.5 (Laws of Exponent)

Let a, b > 0 and x, y ∈ IR. Then

1. ax ay = ax+y .
ax
2. ay
= ax−y .

3. (ax )y = axy .

4. (ab)x = ax bx .

3
Proof. 公式證明在課本第六章

Example.

• 10x the exponential function with base 10 (以 10 為基底的指數函

數).

• 3x the exponential function with base 3 (以 3 為基底的指數函數).

1x 1 1
• 2
the exponential function with base 2
(以 2
為基底的指數函
數).

Remark.

• Let e be a fixed irrational number between 2 and 3. the exponential

function f (x) := ex is called the natural exponential function (自
然指數函數).

• 比較 power function f (x) = xa 和 exponential function g(x) = ax .

• 何謂” 指數成長”?

Definition 1.6 Let f and g be functions of x.

1. (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x).

2. (f · g)(x) := f (x) · g(x).

3. (f /g)(x) := f (x)/g(x).

Definition 1.7 合成函數 f ◦ g: the domain Df ◦g ⊆ Dg ,

g f
f ◦ g : Df ◦g −→ A −→ IR
x 7→ g(x) 7→ f (g(x)),

where A ⊆ Df and Df ◦g ⊆ Dg .

4
Rate of Change-Tangents to Curves
(課本的 § 1.4)

令 y = f (x) 為以 x 為變數的函數.

I. Rate of Change and Tangents to Curves

變化率與曲線切線的關係。
Example. (自由落體.) 令 y 為物件由高處落下第 t 秒的高度。自由落體
公為 y = 4.9t2 。令 ∆y 代表在時間區間長度 ∆t 內的高度差。

1. 此物體在前 2 秒鐘往下掉的平均 (averge) 速度 (平均變化率) 為多少?

2. 此物體在第 1 秒至第 2 秒的時間區間內往下掉的平均速度為多少?

3. 此物體在第 1 秒當下的 (瞬間 (instantaneous)) 速度 (瞬間變化率) 為

多少?

Solution.

1. 觀察的時間區間是 [0, 2]. 所以 ∆t = |[0, 2]| = 2 − 0 = 2. 則平均速度

為
∆y 4.9 · (22 − 02 )
= = 9.8 (m/s).
∆t 2
2. 觀察的時間區間是 [1, 2]. 所以 ∆t = |[1, 2]| = 2 − 1 = 1. 則平均速度
為
∆y 4.9 · (22 − 12 )
= = 14.7 (m/s).
∆t 1
3. 點 t = 1 那瞬間物體的速度: 觀察在時間區間 [t, 1] 或 [1, t] 的” 平均”
速度, 重點是 t 要非常接近 1
∆y ∆y
lim = lim =?
∆t→0 ∆t t→1 ∆t

Definition 1.8 令 y = f (x) 為以 x 為變數的函數, x1 , x2 ∈ Df 且 x1 < x2 .

則符號
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) f (x1 + h) − f (x1 )
= = , h 6= 0
∆x x2 − x1 h
有兩種說法

1. the average rate of change of the function y = f (x) with respect to

x over the interval [x1 , x2 ].

5
 2. the slope (斜率) of the line through the points (x1 , f (x1 )) and (x2 , f (x2 ).
在幾何上，此直線稱為割線 (secant).

• 在幾何上，有稱為切線 (tangent line) 的直線, 它是如何被定義的?

Example. Find the slope of the parabola y = x2 at the point P (2, 4). Write
an equation for the tangent to the parabola y = x2 at this point.

6
2 Limit of a Function
(課本的 §1.5, §1.6, §1.7.)

Example.
x2 −1
1. How does the function f (x) = x−1
behave near x = 1 ? 即 lim f (x) =?
x→1
{ x2 −1
, if x6=1.
2. f (x) = x−1 Then lim f (x) =?
1 , if x=1. x→1

3. f (x) = x + 1. Then lim f (x) =?

x→1
x2 −1
x f (x) = x−1
0.9 1.9
1.1 2.1
0.99 1.99
1.01 2.01
0.999 1.999
1.001 2.001
0.999999 1.999999
1.000001 2.000001

Definition 2.1 令 y = f (x) 為定義在區間 (interval) I 的以 x 為變數的函

數. 令 a, L ∈ IR, 實數 a 可以是在 I 裡，也可以不在 I 裡面但在附近。符
號

lim f (x) = L, or f (x) −→ L as x → a

x→a

解讀為: 任何一個逼近 a 點的元素 x ∈ I, 它的函數值 f (x) 必定趨近此固

定實數 L.
用數學語言表達 (ϵ − δ-Definition): ∀ ϵ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that,

if 0 <| x − a |< δ implies | f (x) − L |< ϵ.

7
Example. If f is the identity function(恆等函數) or a constant func-
tion(常數函數), then limf (x) exist, ∀ c ∈ IR.
x→c

{
x2 + 1 , if x6=1.
Example. Let g(x) =
1 , if x=1.
Solution.
x→1 1←x
x 0.9 0.99 0.9999 · · · 1 · · · 1.0000001 1.0001 1.001 1.01
g(x) 1.81 1.9801 19998 · · · 1 · · · 2.0000002 2.0002 2.002001 2.0201
g(x) → 2 2 ← g(x)
So, lim g(x) = 2.
x→1

Note. In finding lim f (x), we never consider x = a. In fact, f (x) need not
x→a
even be defined when x = a. The only thing that matters is how f is defined
near a.

8
 sinx
Example. Guess the value of lim x
.
x→0

cos 5x
Example. Find lim (x3 + 10000
).
x→0

x f (x) = x3 + cos 5x
10000
1 1.000028
0.5 0.124920
0.1 0.001088
0.05 0.000222
0.01 0.000101

0.005 0.00010009
0.001 0.00010000

Example. Discuss the behavior of the following function, explaining why

they have no limit as s → 0.
{
0 , if x < 0
1. U (x) =
1 , if x ≥ 0.
{ 1
, if x 6= 0
2. g(x) = x
0 , if x = 0.
{
0 , if x ≤ 0
3. f (x) =
sin( x1 ) , if x > 0.

9
Definition 2.2 (單邊極限: Right Limit and Left Limit)
令 y = f (x) 定義在區間 (interval) I, a, L ∈ IR, a 可以是在 I 裡，也可以
不在裡面但在附近。符號

1. (右極限)
lim+ f (x) = L, or f (x) −→ L as x → a+
x→a

解讀為: 任何一個逼近 a 點且大於 a 的元素 x ∈ I, 它的函數值 f (x)

必定趨近此固定實數 L.
用數學語言表達: ∀ ϵ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that,

if a < x < a + δ then | f (x) − L |< ϵ.

2. (左極限)
lim f (x) = L, or f (x) −→ L as x → a−
x→a−

解讀為: 任何一個逼近 a 點且小於 a 的元素 x ∈ I, 它的函數值 f (x)

必定趨近此固定實數 L.
用數學語言表達: ∀ ϵ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that,

if a − δ < x < a then | f (x) − L |< ϵ.

Theorem 2.3 (One-Sided Limit Theorem)

1. lim f (x) = L
x→a

⇔ lim+ f (x) = L and lim− f (x) = L.

x→a x→a

2. lim f (x) does not exist

x→a

⇔ at least one of lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) does not exist, or both exist
x→a x→a
but unequal.

10
 √
t2 +9−3
Example. Estimate the value of lim t2
.
t→0

√
2
t f (t) = t +9−3
t2
±0.001 0.166667
±0.0001 0.166670
±0.00001 0.167000
±0.00 · · · 01 0.000000

Example. Let f (x) = sin(π/x). Estimate the value of lim f (x).

x→0

x 1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/10 1/1000 · · ·

f (x) 0 0 0 0 0 0 ···
But there are ∞-many x → 0 with f (x) = 1.

11
Example. Evaluate each values of the limits.

(a) lim− g(x) = 3.

x→2

(b) lim+ g(x) = 1.

x→2

(c)lim g(x) doesn’t exist.

x→2

(d) lim− g(x) = 2.

x→5

(e) lim+ g(x) = 2.

x→5

(f)lim g(x) = 2.
x→5

{
x2 , if x > 2.
Example. 分段定義函數 f (x) =
x + 1 , if x ≤ 2.
Then lim f (x) does not exist.
x→2

lim f (x) 不存在的理由: 由

x→2

1. 數據表

2. y = f (x) 曲線圖 (左、右極限)

3. ϵ − δ 的極限定義

12
Suppose that lim f (x) = 3.
x→2
If we take ϵ = 2, 則可以選 δ = 1/10, 此時若 x 滿足 0 <| x − 2 |< 0.1, 則
Case 1. 若 x > 2, 則 | f (x) − 3 |=| x2 − 3 |< 2 = ϵ.
Case 2. 若 x < 2, 則 | f (x) − 3 |=| x + 1 − 3 |=| x − 2 |< 2 = ϵ.

但是, 若取 ϵ = 1/2: 因為 | f (x) − 3 |> 1, 所以無法找到一個適當的 δ 值

可以滿足極限存在的定義。所以 lim f (x) 6= 3.
x→2

−4) 2
Example. Prove that lim 4(xx−2 = 16.
x→2
Proof. Let ϵ > 0 be given.
4(x2 −4)
To show that ∃ δ > 0 such that 0 <| x − 2 |< δ implies | x−2
− 16 |< ϵ.
4(x2 −4)
First, to find δ : Consider | x−2
− 16 |=| 4x − 8 |= 4 | x − 2 |.
So we may take δ = ϵ/4.
Then we see that: ∀ ϵ > 0, take δ = 4ϵ , then
2 −4)
0 <| x − 2 |< δ, implies | 4(xx−2 − 16 |=| 4x − 8 |= 4 | x − 2 |< 4δ = ϵ.
2 −4)
Thus, lim 4(xx−2 = 16.
x→2

Example. Show that lim 4x − 5 = 7.

x→3
Proof. Let ϵ > 0, since

ϵ
|(4x − 5) − 7| = |4x − 12| = 4|x − 3| < ϵ ⇔ |x − 3| < .
4
Hence if we take δ = 4ϵ ,then

δ ϵ
0 < |x − 3| < δ ⇒ |(4x − 5) − 7| = |4x − 12| = 4|x − 3| < 4 · = 4 · = ϵ.
4 4
By the definition of the limit, we have lim 4x − 5 = 7.
x→3

13
Example. Show that lim x2 = 9.
x→3
Proof. Let ϵ > 0, since, if take x near 3, then we can assume that 0 <
|x − 3| < 1, and then

|x + 3| = |(x − 3) + 6| ≤ |(x − 3)| + |6| < 1 + 6 = 7.

Hence, we take δ = min{1, 7ϵ }, then

0 < |x − 3| < δ ⇒ 0 < |x − 3| < 1, |x − 3| < 7ϵ

⇒ 0 < |x + 3| < 7, |x − 3| < 7ϵ
⇒ |x2 − 9| = |x + 3||x − 3| < 7 · 7ϵ = ϵ.

By the definition of the limit, we have lim x2 = 9.

x→3

√
Example. Show that lim+ x = 0.
x→0√ √
Proof. Let ϵ > 0, since | x − 0| < x < ϵ ⇔ 0 ≤ x < ϵ2 ,

hence if we take δ = ϵ2 , then

√ √ √ √
0 < x < 0 +√δ⇒| x − 0| = x< δ = ϵ2 = ϵ
Thus, lim+ x = 0.
x→0

14
Theorem 2.4 (Limit Laws (極限基本運算規則))
If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M exist, where L, M ∈ IR, then
x→a x→a

1. lim (f (x) ± g(x)) = L ± M .

x→a

2. lim (cf (x)) = cL, where c ∈ IR.

x→a

3. lim (f (x) · g(x)) = L · M .

x→a

4. lim f (x)
= L
, if M 6= 0.
x→a g(x) M

5. lim (f (x))n = Ln , if n ∈ IN.

x→a

√ √ √ √
6. lim n f (x) = n L, if n ∈ IN, n f (x) is defined near a, and n L is
x→a
defined.

7. lim c = c, where c ∈ IR.

x→a

8. lim x = a.
x→a

Proof. 1. Let ϵ > 0. Since lim f (x) = L, hence, for ϵ/2 > 0, ∃ δ1 > 0 such
x→a
that

0 < |x − a| < δ1 ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ϵ/2.

Since lim g(x) = M , hence for ϵ/2 > 0, ∃ δ2 > 0 such that
x→a

0 < |x − a| < δ2 ⇒ |g(x) − M | < ϵ/2.

If we set δ = min(δ1 , δ2 ), then, if 0 < |x − a| < δ

⇒ |(f (x) + g(x)) − (L + M )| = |(f (x) − L) + (g(x) − M )|

≤ |(f (x) − L)| + |(g(x) − M )| < ϵ/2 + ϵ/2 = ϵ

Therefore, lim (f (x) + g(x)) = L + M .

x→a

15
Corollary 2.5 1. lim xn = an , if n ∈ IN.
x→a

2. If f (x) is a polynomial function and a ∈ IR , then lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

p(x)
3. If r(x) = q(x)
is a rational function and a is in the domain of r, that
is q(a) 6= 0 , then lim r(x) = lim p(x)
= r(a).
x→a x→a q(x)

Note.
Most of the theorems of limit are still valid for one-sided limits just give
some modified and replaced ”x → a ” by ”x → a+ ”, or ”x → a− ”.
Note.
√ √ √
1. lim x and lim x do not exist, because x is not defined near −4
x→−4
√
x→0 √ √ √
and 0. But lim x = 4 = 2 and lim+ x = 0 = 0.
x→4 x→0

√ √
2. lim 3
x= 3
−8 = −2.
x→−8

√ √ √
3. lim 9 − x2 and lim
9 − x2 do not exist, because 9 − x2 is not
x→4 x→3 √ √ √
defined near 4 and 3. But lim 9 − x2 = 5 and lim + 9 − x2 =
√ x→−2 x→−3
0 = 0.

Example. (Limits of Polynomials). lim 2x2 −3x+4 = 2·52 −3·2+4 = 39.

x→5

x3 +2x2 −1 (−2)3 +2·(−2)2 −1

Example. (Limits of Rational Functions). lim 5−3x
= 5−3·(−2)
=
x→−2
−1
11
.

Note. f (x) = g(x) for all x in an open interval containing a, except possibly
at a ⇒ lim f (x) = lim g(x).
x→a x→a

x2 −1
Example. (Rational Functions of x). Find lim .
x→1 x−1
Solution. Since when x 6= 1,

x2 −1 (x+1)(x−1)
x−1
= x−1
= x + 1,

x2 −1
hence lim = lim x + 1 = 2.
x→1 x−1 x→1

16
 (3+h)2 −9
Example. (Rational function of h). Find lim h
.
h→0
Solution. 2
−9 (9+6h+h2 )−9 (6h+h2 )
lim (3+h)
h
= lim h
= lim h
= lim h + 6 = 6.
h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0

√
t2 +9−3
Example. lim t2
=?.
t→0√
2 2
Solution. lim t2 +9−3
t2
= lim t2(t(√+9)−9)
t2 +9+3
= lim t2 (√t2t +9+3) = lim (√t2 +9+3)
1
= 16 .
t→0 t→0 t→0 t→0

{
x + 1 , if x6=1.
Example. Determine whether lim g(x) exists if g(x) =
x→1 π , if x=1.
Solution.

{ √
x − 4 , if x>4.
Example. Determine whether lim f (x) exists if f (x) =
x→4 8 − 2x , if x<4.

Solution. Since lim− f (x) = lim− (8 − 2x) = 0

x→4 x→4
√
lim f (x) = lim+ x−4=0
x→4+ x→4

are the same, hence lim f (x) = 0.

x→4

Example. Determine whether lim f (x) exists if

 x→1
 3−x , if x<1
f (x) = 1 √ , if x = 1

2+ x−1 , if x>1.

Example. Show that lim |x| = 0.

x→0
Proof. Since lim− |x| = 0,
x→0

lim |x| = 0
x→0+

are the same, hence lim |x| = 0.

x→0

17
Example. Show that lim |x|
x
does not exist.
x→0
|x| −x
Proof. Since lim− x
= lim− x
= lim− (−1) = −1,
x→0 x→0 x→0

lim |x| = lim+ xx = lim+ (1) = 1,

x→0+ x x→0 x→0

are different, hence lim |x|

x
does not exist.
x→0

Note. The greatest integer function is defined by [x] =the largest integer
that is less than or equal to n, if n ≤ x < n + 1 and n ∈ ZZ. Thus,
x − 1 < [x] ≤ x, ∀ x ∈ IR.
Example. Show that lim [x] does not exist.
x→3
Proof. Since [x] = 2 for 2 < x < 3, hence

lim [x] = lim− 2 = 2.

x→3− x→3

Since [x] = 3 for 3 < x < 4, hence

lim [x] = lim+ 3 = 3.

x→3+ x→3

Thus, lim [x] does not exist.

x→3

Theorem 2.6 Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x in an open interval con-
taining a, except possibly at a. And both lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist.
x→a x→a

⇒lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).

x→a x→a

Theorem 2.7 (The Sandwich Theorem (Squeeze Theorem))

Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open interval containing a,
except possibly at a. And both lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L.
x→a x→a
Then lim g(x) = L.
x→a

Example. Show that lim (x2 sin x1 ) = 0.

x→0
Proof. For x 6= 0, we have −1 ≤ sin x1 ≤ 1. Then
1
−x2 ≤ x2 sin ≤ x2 .
x
18
Since lim x2 = lim −x2 = 0, by the Sandwich Theorem, we obtain
x→0 x→0

1
lim x2 sin = 0.
x→0 x

Note.
√
1. 比較 lim x2 sin(1/x), lim x sin(1/x) and lim x sin(1/x).
x→0 x→0 x→0

2. lim x2 sin x1 6= (lim x2 )(lim sin x1 ), since lim sin x1 does not exist.
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0

Fig. 1: Graph of f(x)=sin x1

3. The graph of f(x)=x2 sin x1 .

19
3 Limits Involving Infinite
(課本的部分 §1.5 與部分 §3.4 .)

Definition 3.1 (Infinite limits)

1. lim f (x) = ∞
x→a
:⇔ f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by taking x to be sufficiently close
to a on both sides of a but x 6= a.
:⇔ ∀ a large B > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − a| < δ implies f (x) > B.

2. lim f (x) = −∞
x→a
:⇔ f (x) can be made arbitrarily large negative by taking x to be suffi-
ciently close to a on both sides of a, but x 6= a.
:⇔ ∀ −B < 0, ∃δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − a| < δ implies f (x) < −B.

Note. Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided infinite limits:

lim f (x) = ∞, lim− f (x) = ∞, lim+ f (x) = −∞, lim− f (x) = −∞.
x→a+ x→a x→a x→a

Example. lim 1 = ∞, and lim− 1

= −∞. Also lim 1
does not exist.
x→0+ x x→0 x x→0 x

20
Example. lim 1
2 = ∞.
x→0 x

Example. lim+ 1
x−1
= ∞. lim 1 = −∞.
x→1 x→1− x−1

Example. lim 2x = ∞, and lim− 2x

= −∞.
x→3+ x−3 x→3 x−3

Note. In finding lim f (x) > 0, and lim g(x) = 0, then

x→a x→a

1. lim f (x)
= ∞, if g(x) > 0 for all x near a, except possibly at a.
x→a g(x)

2. lim f (x)
= −∞, if g(x) < 0 for all x near a, except possibly at a.
x→a g(x)

Example. Find
(x−2)2
1. lim
x→2 x −4
2

x−3
2. lim+ x2 −4
x→2

21
Definition 3.2 The line x = a is a vertical asymptote(垂直漸近線) of
the curve y = f (x)

:⇔ At least one of the following statements is satisfies:

lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞,

x→a x→a+ x→a−
lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a x→a+ x→a−

2x
Example. Does the curve y = x−3
have a vertical asymptote?
Solution.

Example. Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) = tan x.

Solution.

Limits at infinity; Horizontal asymptotes (水平漸近線)

Definition 3.3 The limit lim f (x) = L exists

x→∞

:⇔ ∀ ϵ > 0 , ∃N ∈ IR such that

x > N ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ϵ.
Definition 3.4 lim f (x) = L exists
x→−∞

:⇔ ∀ ϵ > 0 , ∃N ∈ IR such that

x < N ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ϵ.

Note. Most of the limit laws also hold for limits at infinity just replaced
”x → a ” by ”x → ∞” or ”x → −∞”.

22
Example. Prove that lim x1 = 0.
x→∞
Proof. Let ϵ > 0, since
1 1
| − 0| < ϵ ⇔ <ϵ
x |x|
1
⇔ |x| >
ϵ
1 1
⇔ x < − or x > ,
ϵ ϵ
if we take N = 1ϵ ,then

1
x>N ⇒ x> >0
ϵ
1
⇒ |x| = x >
ϵ
1 1
⇒ | − 0| = < ϵ.
x |x|
1
Thus, lim = 0.
x→∞ x

Note. Let r ∈ IR and r > 0. Then

1
1. lim r = 0.
x→∞ x

2. lim 1r = 0.
x→−∞ x

Note. Let f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial,

where an 6= 0.

lim (f (x))
x→±∞
an−1 a2 a1 a0
= lim an xn (1 + 1/x + · · + 1/xn−2 + 1/xn−1 + 1/xn
x→±∞ an an an an
= lim an xn = ±∞
x→±∞

3x2 −x+2
Example. lim
5x 2 +4x+1 =?
x→−∞

Solution.

23
 5x2 +8x−3
Example. lim 3x2 +2
=?
x→∞

Solution.

2x3 −1
Example. lim 11x+2
=?
x→−∞

Solution.

Definition 3.5 Let L ∈ IR. The line y = L is called a horizontal asymp-

tote (水平漸近線) for the graph of f :⇔ either lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) =
x→∞ x→−∞
L.

√
2x2 +1
Example. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the graph of f (x) = 3x−5
.
Solution.

24
Example. Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve
x+3
y= .
x+2
Solution.

Example. Use the Sandwich Theorem to find the horizontal asymptote of

the curve y = 2 + sinx x .
Solution. Since 0 ≤ | sinx x | ≤ | x1 |, ∀x 6= 0, and
lim | x1 | = 0, then, by Sandwich Theorem, lim sinx x = 0.
x→±∞ x→±∞
sin x
Also, lim y = lim (2 + x
) = 2 + 0 = 2. Hence, the line y = 2 is the
x→±∞ x→±∞
sin x
horizontal asymptote of the curve y = 2 + x
.

Definition 3.6 (斜漸近線)

If lim (f (x) − (mx + b)) = 0, then the line y = mx + b is called a slant
x→∞
asymptote of the curve y = f (x), where m 6= 0.

Definition 3.7 lim f (x) = ∞

x→∞

:⇔ for every M > 0 , there is an N > 0 such that

x > N ⇒ f (x) > M.

Note. Similar definitions are attached to the following symbols:

lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞.

x→−∞ x→∞ x→−∞

25
Note. If n ∈ IN is even ⇒ we write lim xn = ∞; if n ∈ IN is odd ⇒ we
x→±∞
write lim xn = ∞ and lim xn = −∞.
x→∞ x→−∞

Example. lim (x3 ) = ∞ and lim (x3 ) = −∞.

x→∞ x→−∞

(x2 +x)
Example. lim .
x→∞ 3−x

Example. Evaluate lim sin x1 .

x→∞
Solution.

Example. Evaluate lim sin x.

x→∞
Solution.

Example. Evaluate lim x · sin( x1 ).

x→±∞
Solution.

• lim x · sin( x1 ) = lim+ sin t

t
= 1.
x→∞ t→0

• lim x · sin( x1 ) = lim− sin t

t
= 1. (see Theorem 8.1).
x→−∞ t→0

Example. lim (x2 − x) = lim x(x − 1) = ∞.

x→∞ x→∞

√
Example. Evaluate lim ( x2 + 1 − x).
x→∞
Solution.

26
4 Continuity (連續性)
極限與連續的關係
Definition 4.1 Let a ∈ IR. A function f is said to be continuous at a
:⇔ lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
:⇔ 1. f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f ),
2. lim f (x) = L exist.
x→a
3. L = f (a).
If a function f is not continuous at a, then f is said to be discontinuous at
a, or say that f has a discontinuity at a
If lim f (x) = f (a) for all a ∈ Df , then we say that f is a continuous
x→a
function.
Example. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

x2 −x−2 (x−2)(x+1)
(a) f (x) = x−2
= x−2
is discontinuous at 2.

Because f (2) is not defined.

{ 1
, if x 6= 0.
(b) f (x) = x2 is discontinuous at 0.
0 , if x = 0.
Because lim f (x) = lim x12 does not exist.
x→0 x→0
{ x2 −x−2
, if x 6= 2.
(c)f (x) = x−2 has a discontinuity at 2.
1 , if x = 2.
x2 −x−2
Because lim = lim (x−2)(x+1)
= lim (x + 1) = 3 6= f (2).
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

(d)f (x) = [x] is discontinuous at each n ∈ IN , because lim [x] does not
x→n
exist.
Based on these examples, the following definitions are used to categorize
various types of discontinuities.

Remark. (Types of Discontinuities) Suppose that f has a discontinuity at

a.
1. (The discontinuity is removable): If lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) both exist
x→a x→a
and are equal, but are not equal to f (a), or f is not defined at a.

27
 2. (The discontinuity is called a jump discontinuity): If lim+ f (x) and
x→a
lim− f (x) both exist but are not equal.
x→a

3. The discontinuity is infinite if f has a vertical asymptote at a.

2 −1
Figure 1: Types of discontinuities. In plot (a), upper left, f (x)= xx−1 has
a discontinuity at x = 1 that can be removed by defining f (1)=2. In plot (b),
upper right, the function f defined by f (x) = x + 1 for x 6= 1, f(1)=3 has a
discontinuity at x = 1 that can be removed by redefining f (1) to be equal to
2. In plot (c), lower left, the Heaviside function has a jump discontinuity in
its graph at . In plot (d), lower right, the function f (x) = x12 is discontinuous
at x =0 because of its vertical asymptote.

28
Definition 4.2 (right and left continuity ) Let f be a function of x and
a ∈ IR.
1. f is continuous from the right at a
:⇔ lim+ f (x) = f (a).
x→a

2. f is continuous from the left at a

:⇔ lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a

Example. f (x) = [x] is continuous from the right but discontinuous from
the left at each , because, if n ∈ IN, then

lim f (x) = lim+ [x] = lim+ x = n = f (n),

x→n+ x→n x→n

lim f (x) = lim− [x] = lim+ (x − 1)=(n − 1)6=f (n).

x→n− x→n x→n

Definition 4.3 (Continuity in an open or close interval)

1. f is continuous on an open interval (a, b)

:⇔ f is continuous at every number in (a, b).

2. f is continuous on the close interval [a, b]

:⇔ (1) f is continuous on the open interval (a, b),

(2) f is continuous from the right at a,

(3) f is continuous from the left at b.

3. f is continuous or f is a continuous function

:⇔ f is continuous at every number in its domain.

1
Example. Let f (x) = x
. Then
1. f is not continuous at 0, because it is not defined at 0.
2. f is continuous on the interval (0, 1), but f is not continuous on the
intervals (−1, 1) and [0, 1], for f is not continuous at 0.

29
 3. f is a continuous function, because it is continuous on its domain Df =
{x ∈ IR|x 6= 0} .
√
Example. Show that f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 is continuous on [−1, 1].
Proof. If a ∈ (−1, 1), then 1 − a2 > 0, thus,
√ √
lim f (x) = lim (1 − 1 − x2 ) = 1 − 1 − a2 = f (a).
x→a x→a

At the endpoints −1 and 1,

√
lim + f (x) = lim + (1 − 1 − x2 ) = 1 = f (−1).
x→−1 x→−1

√
lim− f (x) = lim− (1 − 1 − x2 ) = 1 = f (1).
x→1 x→1

Therefore, f is continuous on [−1, 1].

Theorem 4.4 If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant. Then

1. f ± g is continuous at a.

2. c · f is continuous at a.

3. f · g is continuous at a.

4. f /g is continuous at a, if g(a) 6= 0.

Proof. Since f and g are continuous at a, hence

lim f (x) = f (a), lim g(x) = g(a).

x→a x→a

Thus,

lim (f + g)(x) = lim (f (x) + g(x)) = f (a) + g(a) = (f + g)(a).

x→a x→a

Therefore, f + g is continuous at a.
Remark.

1. A polynomial function is continuous everywhere, that is, it is con-

tinuous on (−∞, ∞).

30
 2. A rational function is continuous whenever it is defined, that is, it is
continuous on its domain.

3. If an integer n is even

√
⇒ f (x) = n
x is continuous on [0, ∞).

4. If an integer n is odd

√
⇒ f (x) = n
x is continuous on (−∞, ∞).

Remark. The following types of functions are continuous functions, that is,
they are continuous on their domains:

1. polynomial functions,

2. rational functions,

3. root functions (or power functions with rational powers),

4. trigonometric functions.

Example. limπ tan x = tan π4 = 1, because the trigonometric function f is

x→ 4
π
continuous on its domain, and 4
is in it.

Example. On what intervals is each function continuous?

1. f (x) = x100 − 2x37 + 75.

x2 +2x+17
2. g(x) = x2 −1
.
√
3. h(x) = x+ x+1
x−1
− x+1
x2 +1
.

Solution. (1) f is a polynomial, so it is continuous on its domain (−∞, ∞).

(2) f is a rational function, so it is continuous on its domain, which is

D = {x|x2 − 1 6= 1} = {x|x 6= ±1}.

31
Thus, g is continuous on the intervals (−∞, −1),(−1, 1) ,(1, ∞).
√
(3) Since x is continuous on (0, ∞), x+1
x−1
is continuous on (−∞, 1) ∪
(1, ∞) , and x2 +1 is continuous on (−∞, ∞) , hence h is continuous on
x+1

[(−∞, 1) ∪ (0, ∞) ∪ (0, ∞)]∩(−∞, ∞)=[0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞). Thus, h is continuous

on the intervals [0, 1) and (1, ∞).

Theorem 4.5 If lim g(x) = b, and f is continuous at b,

x→a
then lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)).
x→a x→a

Theorem 4.6 If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a),

then f ◦ g is continuous at a.

Proof. Since g is continuous at a, so lim g(x) = g(a), and f is continuous

x→a
at g(a), hence

lim (f ◦ g)(x) = lim f (g(x)) = f (g(a)) = (f ◦ g)(a).

x→a x→a
Therefore, f ◦ g is continuous at a.

Theorem 4.7 If f and g are continuous functions,

then f ◦ g is also a continuous function.

Proof. Let a ∈ Df ◦g , then a ∈ Dg and g(a) ∈ Df . Since f and g are

continuous functions, hence g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a),
so f ◦ g is continuous at a. Therefore, f ◦ g is also a continuous function.

32
Example. Where are the following functions continuous?

1
(a) h(x) = sin(x2 ) (b) F (x) = √
x2 +7−4
.

Solution. (a) Let h(x) = f (g(x)), where f (x) = sin x, g(x) = x2 .

Since f , g are continuous on their domains, so h = f ◦ g is continuous on its
domain (−∞, ∞).

(b) Let F = f ◦ g ◦ h ◦ k, where

√
f (x) = x1 , g(x) = x − 4, h(x) = x, k(x) = x2 + 7,
and each of these functions is continuous on its domain, so F is continuous
on its domain.
Theorem 4.8 (The Intermediate Value Theorem(介值定理))
Let f be a function of x. If
1. f is continuous on the closed [a, b] with f (a) 6= f (b), where a, b ∈ IR,
2. N is any number strictly between f (a) and f (b).
Then there is an element c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = N .

Example. Show that there is a root of 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0 between 1

and 2.
Proof. Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2. To show that there is an elemnet
”c” on (1, 2) such that f (c) = 0.
Since f (1) = −1 < 0, and f (2) = 12 > 0, hence

f (1) < 0 < f (2).

Also the polynomial function f is, of course, continuous on [1, 2] , it follows
from the Intermediate Value Theorem that there is a ”c” in (1, 2) such that
f (c) = 0 . This completes the proof.

33
5 Derivatives and Rates of Change
Definition 5.1 We present three kinds of change on geometric relative with
derivatives (導數).

1. (平均變化率) The average rate of change of y = f (x) with respect to

x from a to x = a + h is

f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a) ∆y

= = .
h x−a ∆x

2. (切線斜率) The slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the
point (a, f (a)) is

f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a) ∆y

m = lim = lim = lim ,
h→0 h x→a x−a ∆x→0 ∆x
if this limit exists.

3. ((瞬間) 變化率) The (instantaneous) rate of change of y = f (x) with

respect to x when x = a is

f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a) ∆y

lim = lim = lim ,
h→0 h x→a x−a ∆x→0 ∆x

if this limit exists.

Here, ∆x = h = x − a and ∆y = f (a + h) − f (a) = f (x) − f (a).

34
 P, Q 為曲線 y = f (x) 上相近兩座標點，h 是這兩點在 x-軸的距離。
令 P = (a, f (a)), Q = (x, f (x)) = (a + h, f (a + h)). 通過 P, Q 的直線
P Q 稱為曲線 y = f (x) 上過 P, Q 的割線 (secant line), 其斜率 (Slope) 為
∆y
∆x
= f (a+h)−f
h
(a)
= f (x)−f
x−a
(a)
.
固定 P 點，讓 Q 延曲線 y = f (x) 往 P 滑動，則直線 P Q 斜率亦隨之改變
(h 變小)。當 P = Q, 此直線定義為曲線 y = f (x) 上在點 P 的切線 (The
tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)) (or, at a)). 此切線
斜率 (the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at a) (若可測) 則
定義為
∆y f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
lim = lim = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x h→0 h x→a x−a
切線斜率 (the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at a) 又稱為
導 (函) 數.
Definition 5.2 The derivative of a function f at a (函數 f 在點 a 的
導數), denoted by f ′ (a), is
f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a) ∆y
f ′ (a) := lim = lim = lim .
h→0 h x→a x−a ∆x→0 ∆x

if this limit exists.

Note.
1. The slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a))
(函數曲線 y = f (x) 在點 a 的切線斜率) is f ′ (a).
2. The equation of the tangent line to the curve at a (函數曲線 y = f (x)
在點 a 的切線方程式) is
y − f (a) = f ′ (a)(x − a),
also, the linear function y = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) is the function of the
tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)) (函數曲線
y = f (x) 在點 a 的切線函數).

35
 3. The rate of change of y = f (x) with respect to a is f ′ (a).

Example.

1. Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at a number a,

where a ∈ IR.

2. Find the equation of the tangent line to f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at the point

(3, −6) .
(a+h)2 −8(a+h)+9−a2 +8a−9 2ah+h2 −8h
Solution. 1. f ′ (a) = limf (a+h)−f (a)
h
= lim h
= lim h
h→0 h→0 h→0
= lim (2a + h − 8) = 2a − 8.
h→0

2. The function of the tangent line to f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at 3 is

y = f (3) + f ′ (3)(x − 3) = −2x.

36
6 The Derivative as a Function
Definition 6.1 Given a function f , define a new function f ′ by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim ,
h→0 h
then f ′ is called the derivative (導函數) of f .

Note.
1. f ′ (x) 的另外一種表示法:
f (z) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim .
z→x z−x

2. Df ′ (= dom(f ′ )) := {x|x ∈ Df and f ′ (x) exists} ⊆ Df .

3. If y = f (x), there are some other common notations for the derivative:
dy df d
f ′ (x) = = = f (x) = Dx f (x),
dx dx dx
dy
f ′ (a) = |x=a .
dx

4. ”To differentiate (微分)” means to find the derivative of f .

Example. If f (x) = x3 − x, find a formula for f ′ (x).
Solution.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
[(x + h)3 − (x + h)] − [x3 − x]
= lim
h→0 h
3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 − h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 3x + 3xh + h2 − 1
2
h→0
= 3x − 1.
2

√
Example. Let f (x) = x − 1. Find the derivative of f and state the
domain of f ′ .
Solution. f ′ (x) = 2√x−1
1
.
The domain of f : Df = [1, ∞).
The domain of f ′ : Df ′ = Df − {1} = (1, ∞).

37
Example. Find f ′ , if f (x) = 1−x
2+x
.
1−(x+h)
− 1−x
Solution. limh→0 f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
= limh→0 2+(x+h)h 2+x
−3h −3
= limh→0 h(x2 +4x+4+xh+2h) = (2+x) 2.

Definition 6.2 Let f be a function of x. We say that

1. f is differentiable at a (f 在點 a 可微), if f ′ (a) exists.

2. f is differentiable on an open interval (a, b) (or (a, ∞) , or (−∞, a)

, or (−∞, ∞)), if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.

3. f is differentiable (or a differentiable function),

if it is differentiable at every number in its domain.

Note. A function f is differentiable on a closed interval [a, b],

if f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b) and

f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (b)

lim+ and lim−
x→a x−a x→b x−b
exist.

38
Example. Where is f (x) = |x| differentiable?
Solution. The function
 f can also be written as the piecewise-defined func-
 − x , if x < 0.
tion f (x) = |x|= 0 , if x = 0.

x , if x > 0.
If x < 0 , then x + h < 0 for all sufficiently small h 6= 0 , so
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
−(x + h) − (−x)
= lim
h→0 h
−h
= lim = −1.
h→0 h

If x > 0 , then x + h > 0 for all sufficiently small h 6= 0 , so

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h) − (x)
= lim
h→0 h
h
= lim = 1.
h→0 h

If x = 0, then
|h|
lim f (0+h)−f
h
(0)
= lim does not exist, since
h→0 h→0 h
|h| |h| −h
lim+ h
= lim+ h
h
= 1, and lim− h
= lim− h
= −1 are different.
h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0

Theorem 6.3 (The relationship between diff. and conti.)

If a function f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
Proof. Since f is differentiable at a, hence
f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim .
x→a x−a
exists. Thus,
f (x) − f (a)
lim f (x) = lim ( (x − a) + f (a))
x→a x→a x−a
= f ′ (a) · 0 + f (a)
= f (a).
Therefore, f is continuous at a.
Note. The converse of the theorem 6.3 is not always true. For instance,
f (x) = |x| is continuous at 0, but not differentiable at 0.

39
Note. A function f is not differentiable at a, if one of the following is true:
1. f is discontinuous(不連續) at a;

2. The graph of f has a corner at (a, f (a));

3. The curve y = f (x) has a vertical tangent (垂直切線) at (a, f (a)), that
is, f is continuous at a and lim |f ′ (x)| = ∞.
x→a

Higher Derivatives (高階導函數)

Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. Then its derivative f ′ is a
function. If the function f ′ is differentiable, then its derivative is (f ′ )′ = f ′′
and called the second derivative of f ( f 的 2 階導函數)，又記為
d dy
′′ d2 y
f (x) = ( ) = 2 = Dx2 f (x).
dx dx dx
同理，the third derivative of f ( f 的 3 階導函數)，又記為
′′′ d d2 y d3 y
f (x) = f (3) (x) = ( 2 ) = 3 = Dx3 f (x).
dx dx dx
·
·
·
the nth derivative of f ( f 的 n 階導函數)，又記為
d dn−1 y dn y
( n−1 ) = n == Dxn f (x),
f (n) (x) =
dx dx dx
where n ∈ IN and f (x) = f (x).
(0)

′′
Example. Let f (x) = x3 − x. Find and interpret f (x).
Solution.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
[(x + h)3 − (x + h)] − [x3 − x]
= lim
h→0 h
3x h + 3xh + h3 − h
2 2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 3x2 + 3xh + h2 − 1
h→0
= 3x − 1.
2

40
Then,

′′ f ′ (x + h) − f ′ (x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
[3(x + h)2 − 1] − [3x2 − 1]
= lim
h→0 h
3x + 6xh + 3h2 − 1 − 3x2 + 1
2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (6x + 3h)
h→0
= 6x.
′′
We can interpret f (x) as the slope of the curve y = f ′ (x) at the point
(x, f ′ (x)). Moreover,
′′ ′′
(3) f (x + h) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
6(x + h) − 6x
= lim
h→0 h
= 6,

and then f (4) (x) = 0.

41
7 Basic Differentiation Formulas
Theorem 7.1 1. d
dx
(c) = 0, where c ∈ IR .
d
2. dx
(x) = 1.

3. (The Power Rule) d

dx
(xn ) = nxn−1 , if n ∈ IR, n 6= 0.

Proof.
1. Let f (x) = c for all x ∈ IR, then

d d f (x+h)−f (x) c−c

dx
(c) = dx
f (x) = lim h
= lim = 0.
h→0 h→0 h

3. We prove only for positive integer n ∈ IN.

By the definition of the derivative,

d n (x + h)n − xn
(x ) = lim
dx h→0 h
[x + (n1 )xn−1 h + · · · + (nn−1 )xhn−1 ] − xn + hn
n
= lim
h→0 h
(n1 )xn−1 h + (n2 )xn−2 h2 + · · · + (nn−1 )xhn−1 + hn
= lim
h→0 h
n n−1
= lim ((1 )x + (2 )x h + · · · + (nn−1 )xhn−1 + hn−1 )
n n−2
h→0
= (n1 )xn−1 = nxn−1 .

Note:
n!
(nk ) = .
k!(n − k)!

1
Example. Differentiate f (x) = x2
.
Solution.
f (x) = x12 = x−2 , so
f ′ (x) = −2x−2−1 = −2x−3 .

√
3
Example. Differentiate y = x2 .
Solution.√3
y = x2 = x2/3 , so
dy
dx
= 23 x(2/3)−1 = 23 x−1/3 .

42
Remark. The normal line(法線) to a curve C : y = f (x) at a point P is
the line through P that is perpendicular (垂直) to the tangent line at P .

Example.
√ Find equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve
y = x x at the point (1, 1).
Solution. √
Let f (x) = √ x x. Then
dy
dx
= f ′ (x) = 23 x.
So the slope of the tangent line at (1, 1) is f ′ (1) = dx
dy
|x=1√= 32 .
Then the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x x at (1, 1) is
3 3 1
y − 1 = (x − 1) or y = x − .
2 2 2
√
Then the equation of the normal line to the curve y = x x at (1, 1) is
2 2 5
y − 1 = − (x − 1) or y = − x + .
3 3 3

Theorem 7.2 If f and g are differentiable , then

1. d
dx
(cf (x)) d
= c dx (f (x)), where c ∈ IR.

2. d
dx
(f (x) ± g(x)) = d
dx
(f (x)) ± d
dx
(g(x)).

Proof. Suppose that f and g are differentiable.

This means that lim f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
and lim g(x+h)−g(x)
h
exist. Then
h→0 h→0

1. lim cf (x+h)−cf (x)

h
= lim c(f (x+h)−f (x))
h
= c lim f (x+h)−f (x)
h
= cf ′ (x).
h→0 h→0 h→0

2. d
dx
(f (x) + g(x)) = lim (f +g)(x+h)−(f
h
+g)(x)
h→0
= lim f (x+h)+g(x+h)−f
h
(x)−g(x)
h→0
= lim f (x+h)−f (x)+g(x+h)−g(x)
h
= lim ( f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
+ g(x+h)−g(x)
h
)
h→0 h→0
= lim f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
+ lim g(x+h)−g(x)
h
, since the both limits exist.
h→0 h→0
d d
= dx (f (x)) + dx (g(x)).

43
Example. Find d
dx
(x8 + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5)

Solution.
d 8
(x + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5)
dx
dx8 dx5 dx4 dx3 dx d5
= + 12 −4 + 10 −6 +
dx dx dx dx dx dx
= 8x7 + 60x4 − 16x3 + 30x2 − 6 + 0
= 8x7 + 60x4 − 16x3 + 30x2 − 6.

Example. Find the points on the curve y = x4 − 6x2 + 4 where the tangent
line is horizontal.
Solution.
dy
dx
= 4x3 − 12x = 4x(x2 − 3).
If the tangent line to this curve is horizontal (水平線), then the slope of the
dy
tangent line is 0, i.e., dx = 0.
√
dy
= 4x 3
− 12x = 4x(x 2
− 3) = 0, if x = 0 or x = ± 3.
dx √
Thus, the given curve√has horizontal √ tangent lines at x = 0 and x = ± 3
(i.e., at points (0, 4), ( 3, −5), (− 3, −5)).

44
The Product and Quotient Rules

Theorem 7.3 If f and g are both differentiable, then

1. (The product rule) d

dx
(f (x)g(x)) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x).
f ′ (x)g(x)−f (x)g ′ (x)
2. (The quotient rule) d
dx
(f (x)/g(x)) = (g(x))2
, if g(x) 6= 0.

Proof.
1. By the definition of the derivative,

d
dx
(f (x)g(x))
f (x+h)g(x+h)−f (x)g(x)
= lim h
h→0
f (x+h)g(x+h)−f (x+h)g(x)+f (x+h)g(x)−f (x)g(x)
= lim h
h→0
f (x+h)[g(x+h)−g(x)]+[f (x+h)−f (x)]g(x)
= lim h
h→0

= lim {f (x + h) [g(x+h)−g(x)]
h
+ g(x) [f (x+h)−f
h
(x)]
}
h→0

Since f is differentiable, hence f is continuous, so

lim f (x + h) = f (x).
h→0

Also, f and g are differentiable, hence

lim f (x+h)−f (x)

h
= f ′ (x) and lim g(x+h)−g(x)
h
= g ′ (x).
h→0 h→0

Thus, d
dx
(f (x)g(x)) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x).

Example. Differentiate y = x2 sin(x).

Solution.
2
dy
dx
= x2 d sin
dx
x
+ sin(x) dx
dx
= x2 d sin
dx
x
+ 2x sin(x) =
√
Example. Differentiate f (t) = t(a + bt), where a, b ∈ IR.
Solution. √ √
f ′ (t) = t d(a+bt)
dt
+ (a + bt) d t
dt
=

Example. If h(x) = xg(x) and g(3) = 5 and g ′ (3) = 2, find h′ (3).

45
Solution.
d(xg(x)) dg(x) dx
h′ (x) = = x + g(x)
dx dx dx
′
= xg (x) + g(x).

Then, h′ (3) =

x2 +x−2 dy
Example. Let y = x3 +6
. Find dx
.
Solution.
2 +x−2) 3
dy (x3 + 6) d(x dx
− (x2 + x − 2) d(xdx+6)
=
dx (x3 + 6)2
=

√
Example. Find a equation of the tangent line to the curve y = (1+xx2 ) at
(1, 12 ).
Solution.
dy
Find the value dx |x=1 . √
An equation of the tangent line to the curve y = (1+xx2 ) at (1, 12 ) is then

1 dy
y= + |x=1 (x − 1)
2 dx

46
8 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
The Sine and Cosine Functions

Theorem 8.1
sin θ
lim = 1.
θ→0 θ

π
Proof. 1. Suppose first that θ is positive and less than 2
. Consider the
picture:

47
 sin(7x)
Example. Find lim .
x→0 4x

48
Example. Prove that lim cos(θ)−1
θ
= 0.
θ→0

Proof. lim cos θθ−1 = lim (cos θ(cos

θ−1)(cos θ+1)
θ+1)
θ→0 θ→0
(cos2 2
= lim θ(cos θ−1)
θ+1)
= − lim θ(cos
sin θ
θ+1)
θ→0 θ→0

= − lim( sinθ θ cossinθ+1

θ
) = −1 · 0 = 0.
θ→0

Theorem 8.2 (微分公式)

1. d
dx
sin x = cos x, (x ∈ IR).

2. d
dx
cos x = − sin x, (x ∈ IR).

Proof. 1. By the definition of the derivative,

d sin(x + h) − sin(x)
sin x = lim
dx h→0 h
(sin x cos h + cos x sin h) − sin(x)
= lim
h→0 h
sin x(cos h − 1) + cos x sin h
= lim
h→0 h
= (sin x) · 0 + (cos x) · 1 = cos x.

2.
d cos(x + h) − cos(x)
cos x = lim
dx h→0 h
(cos(x) cos(h) − sin(x) sin(h)) − cos(x)
= lim
h→0 h
cos(x)(cos(h) − 1) sin(h)
= lim − lim sin(x)
h→0 h h→0 h
cos(h) − 1 sin(h)
= lim cos(x) · lim − lim sin(x) · lim = − sin x.
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h

Example. Differentiate y = 3 sin θ + 4 cos θ.

Solution.
dy
dθ
= 3 d sin
dθ
θ
+ 4 d cos
dθ
θ
= 3 cos θ − 4 sin θ.

d
Example. Find dx
(tan x).

49
Solution.
d d sin x
(tan x) = ( )=
dx dx cos x

Example. Find the 27th derivative of cos x.

Solution.

Let f (x) = cos x, then

f ′ (x) = − sin x
′′
f (x) = − cos x
f (3) (x) = sin x
f (4) (x) = cos x = f (x).

Thus, f (27) (x) = f (3) (x) = sin x.

Example. If f (x) = x1 , find f (n) (x).

Solution. Since f (0) (x)=f (x) = x1 = x−1 , hence
1
f ′ (x) = −x−2 = − ,
x2
2
f ′′ (x) = 2x−3 = ,
x3
3·2
f ′′′ (x) = −3 · 2x−4 = − ,
x4
4·3·2
f (4) (x) = 4 · 3 · 2x−5 =
x5
By the Mathematical Induction, we conclude that
n!
f (n) (x) = (−1)n ,
xn+1
for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · .

Theorem 8.3 (Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions (三角函數的微分公

式))
1. d
dx
sin x = cos x, for x ∈ IR.

2. d
dx
cos x = − sin x, for x ∈ IR.

50
 3. d
dx
tan x = sec2 x, for x 6= ± π2 , ± 3π
2
· ··).

4. d
dx
cot x = − csc2 x, for x 6= 0, ±π, ±2π · ··).

5. d
dx
sec x = (sec x)(tan x), for x 6= ± π2 , ± 3π
2
· ··).

6. d
dx
csc x = −(csc x)(cot x), for x 6= 0, ±π, ±2π · ··).

Example. Find y ′′ if y = sec x.

Solution.

y ′ = sec x tan x.
y ′′ = sec3 x + sec x tan2 x.

sec x
Example. Differentiate f (x) = 1+tan x
. For what values of x does the graph
of f have a horizontal tangent ?
Solution.

51