Newton’s Laws in Inertial Frames

AK

I. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMS Exercise: find derivative of f (x) = x2 , and plot as a

function of x. Understand that, the normal to the curve
A. Partial Derivatives is indeed ±(ŷ − f ′ (x)x̂).

1. Function of single variable

2. Function of multiple variables

ˆ Lets recall the definition of derivative for a function ˆ Lets consider an function, f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 . This
f (x), which depends on a single variable x: is a function of two variables. To get a feeling for
the function, one can plot this function in three
df f (x + h) − f (x) dimensions, as well as one can plot this function in
= f ′ (x) = lim , (1)
dx h→0 h two dimension, by keeping one of the variables to
be constant. These are minor exercises that you
provided this limit exists. An example is, if f (x) = should do.
4x3 , then, df (x)/dx = 12x2 .
ˆ For a function f (x1 , x2 , · · · , xi , · · · , xn ) of multiple
ˆ For any function y = f (x), the normal to the curve variables, x1 , x2 , · · · , xi , · · · , xn , we define the par-
is ±(ŷ − f ′ (x)x̂). tial derivative with respect to the ith variable as

∂f f (x1 , x2 , · · · , xi + h, · · · , xn ) − f (x1 , x2 , · · · , xi , · · · , xn )
= ∂xi f = lim . (2)
∂xi h→0 h

This is essentially taking a derivative with respect ⃗ =

For a function, such as f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 , ∇
to xi , treating other variables as constant. 2xx̂ + 2y ŷ.
ˆ As an example, for the function f (u, v) = u2 + v 2 , 3. For the surface, z = f (x, y) (where x, y are Carte-
sian coordinates), normal to the surface at any
∂u f = 2u; ∂v f = 2v.
point of the surface (x, y, z) is given by the gra-
One can also take higher order derivatives in the dient of a new function ϕ = f (x, y) − z, i.e,
same manner. ∂x f x̂ + ∂y f ŷ − ẑ. A proof of this will be given
later.
∂u2 f = ∂u (∂u f ) = 2; ∂v2 f = 2; ∂u ∂v f = ∂v ∂u f = 0.

Exercise: (a) Taken a function F1 (x, y) = x2 + y 3 + 3x2 y, 3. Exact differentials

compute all first and second order partial derivatives.
Check that ∂x ∂y F1 = ∂y ∂x F1 . For a function of several variables, say f (x, y), an exact
(b) Taken a function F2 (x, y) = log(x) + e3y + differential is defined as
sin(x) cos(y), compute all first and second order partial
derivatives. Check that ∂x ∂y F2 = ∂y ∂x F2 . df = (∂x f )dx + (∂y f )dy. (4)
A few remarks The left hand side is an exact differential which expressed
1. It is generally true that, ∂x ∂y ≡ ∂y ∂x , as long as all in the right-hand side with its partial derivatives written
derivatives exist. You may try to prove this from as linear combinations of dx, dy. Sometimes they are
the definition of partial derivatives. called differential forms.

2. If xi s are Cartesian coordinated, then we define It is confusing but important to note that, the re-
the gradient of a function, f (x1 , · · · , xn ), as verse of the statement is not always true. That is
every linear combination of dx and dy are not ex-
⃗ = ∂x f xˆ1 + · · · ∂x f xˆn .
∇f (3)
1 n act differentials. That is any expression of the form
 2

a(x, y)dx + b(x, y)dy ̸= d(c(x, y)), in general. y = y(t). Then,

So, a natural question is, when is this true? We can df = ∂x f dx + ∂y f dy

express the right hand side as d(c(x, y)) = (∂x c)dx + df dx dy
⇒ = ∂x f + ∂y f . (9)
(∂y c)dy. So, for the above to hold, we must have a = ∂x c dt dt dt
and b = ∂y c. This implies, ∂y a = ∂y ∂x c and ∂x b = 2. For a function f (x, y), lets make a change of co-
∂x ∂y c. As, ∂x ∂y c = ∂y ∂x c, we must have ∂y a = ∂x b. ordinate from x, y to u, v. Thus, x = x(u, v) and
This is indeed the condition that adx + bdy is an exact y = y(u, v). Then
differential! Let me state it again, ∂f ∂x ∂y
= ∂x f + ∂y f (10)
∂u ∂u ∂u
a(x, y)dx + b(x, y)dy an exact differential ∂f ∂x ∂y
⇒ ∂y a = ∂x b. (5) = ∂x f + ∂y f . (11)
∂v ∂v ∂v
Exact differentials are quite important in physics. For Further f can be expressed only in terms of u, v,
one, their integrals are independent of the paths the in- and then the above equations can be written by
tegrals are taken with: reversing the role of x, y and u, v.
It is crucial to remember that, for such multi-variable
⃗
rb ⃗
rb ∂x
̸= ∂u
Z Z
functions ∂u ∂x .
(adx + bdy) = dc = c(⃗rb ) − c(⃗ra ). (6)
⃗
ra ⃗
ra

The above does not depend on the exact path of the

integral.

Now, if I have a function of two (or more) coordinates,

f (x, y), then I can write

⃗ · d⃗r,
df = ∂x f dx + ∂y f dy = ∇f (7)

where ⃗r = xx̂ + y⃗y (essentially position vector). Thus,

⃗ · d⃗r does not depend on the path.
R
the integral of ∇f
This implies,
I
⃗ · d⃗r = 0
∇f (8) FIG. 1. Polar coordinates in 2D.

H Exercise: Consider the case of polar coordinates in 2D,

for all functions. Here the symbol means that the
FIG. 1. We can go from (x, y) coordinates to polar by:
initial and the final limit of the integral are the same,
and the path taken is any closed loop. This is an x = r cos ϕ; y = r sin ϕ.
important result that we shall use later.
(a) Write down ϕ and r in terms of x, y.
An example: consider (b) Find out ∂x r, ∂y r, ∂x ϕ, ∂y ϕ, ∂r x, ∂r y, ∂ϕ x, ∂ϕ y.
(c) Lets define: ⃗r = xx̂ + y⃗y ≡ rr̂. Here, the unit vector
∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r
3x2 y 2 dx + 2x3 ydy. r̂ = ∂r / ∂r . Find r̂ in terms of r, ϕ, x̂ and ŷ.

This is an exact differential, as Solution of (c): ⃗r = xx̂ + y⃗y = r cos ϕx̂ + r sin ϕŷ.
∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r
Thus, ∂r = cos ϕx̂ + sin ϕŷ, and thus ∂r = 1. Thus,
∂y (3x2 y 2 ) = ∂x (2x3 y) = 6x2 y r̂ = cos ϕx̂ + sin ϕŷ.

We also identify 3x2 y 2 dx + 2x3 ydy = d(x3 y 2 ). (d) Similarly, find ϕ̂ in terms of r, ϕ, x̂ and ŷ, which is
∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r
defined as ϕ̂ = ∂ϕ / ∂ϕ , and prove that r̂ · ϕ̂ = 0 (i.e,
they are orthogonal).
4. Chain rules

Two kinds of chain rules are going to be used here. 5. Extra (only for enthusiasts!)

1. For a function f (x, y), lets assume both x and y are ˆ Taylor expansion: For a two variable function
changing as a function of time t, i.e, x = x(t) and
 3

1 2
f (x + δx, y + δy) = f (x, y) + {(∂x f )δx + (∂y f )δy} + (∂x f )δx2 + (∂y2 f )δy 2 + (∂x ∂y f )δxδy + · · · . (12)
2

Thus, ⃗v = ⃗r˙ = vr r̂ + vϕ ϕ̂, with vr = ṙ and vϕ = rϕ̇. This

is pictorially shown in FIG. 2.

We also see that, as done in the above calculation,

r̂˙ = ϕ̇ϕ̂, (17)

˙
ϕ̂ = −ϕ̇r̂. (18)

Proving the second line is left as an exercise.

FIG. 2. d⃗r is the vector addition of rdϕϕ̂ and drr̂. Thus, The kinetic energy of a participle of mass m is then writ-
⃗r˙ = ṙr̂ + rϕ̇ϕ̂. ten as

1 1 1
Keeping upto the first order and identifying δx = dx and T = mv 2 = m⃗v · ⃗v = m(ṙ2 + r2 ϕ̇2 ). (19)
2 2 2
δy = dy, we recover Eq. (4).
ˆ Normal to surface: consider a function f (x, y).
In a similar manner, we can take another time derivative
Then the surface in the three dimension is given
to have:
by z = f (x, y). Lets call a function ϕ(x, y, z) =
f (x, y) − z. If two points (x, y, z) and (x + dx, y +
˙
   
dy, z + dy) are both on the surface, then the value ⃗r¨ = r̈r̂ + ṙr̂˙ + ṙϕ̇ϕ̂ + rϕ̈ϕ̂ + rϕ̇ϕ̂
of ϕ is zero on both points. Thus, dϕ = 0. Then,    
= r̈ − rϕ̇2 r̂ + rϕ̈ + 2ṙϕ̇ . (20)
dϕ = 0 = ∂x f dx + ∂y f dy − dz
 
= ∇f⃗ − ẑ · (dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ) .
Like before, we write, ⃗a = ar r̂ + aϕ ϕ̂, with ar = r̈ − rϕ̇2
Now, (dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ) is a direction which is tan- and aϕ = rϕ̈ + 2ṙϕ̇.
gential to the surface
 (as
 both points are on the
surface). Thus, ∇f ⃗ − ẑ is normal to the surface!

L
B. Polar Coordinates in Two-dimensions

From the exercise earlier, and the FIG. 1,

x = r cos ϕ; y = r sin ϕ. (13)
Now, as
⃗r = xx̂ + y ŷ = rr̂, (14) FIG. 3. Circular motion.
r̂ = cos ϕx̂ + sin ϕŷ,
ϕ̂ = − sin ϕx̂ + cos ϕŷ. (15) An example: For an uniform circular motion, say where
a ball is rotating by a string of constant length L (FIG. 3).
Now, let us take a time-derivative of Eq. (14): Here, ṙ = 0, angular velocity, ϕ̇ = ω, and ϕ̈ = 0. Thus,
d⃗r aϕ = 0 and ar = −Lω 2 . Thus, is the ball has a mass m,
⃗r˙ = = ṙr̂ + rr̂˙ the string exerts a force of F = mLω 2 on the ball to keep
dt
it attached.
= ṙr̂ + r(− sin ϕϕ̇x̂ + cos ϕϕ̇ŷ)
Similarly, its vr = 0 and vϕ = Lω. The force can then
= ṙr̂ + rϕ̇ϕ̂ . (16) be written as F = mvϕ2 /L.
 4

II. NEWTON’S LAW AND SYMMETRY the force exerted by the first particle on the second,
then Newton’s third law states that,
A. Point-particle Dynamics
F⃗12 = −F⃗21 .
1. Newton’s laws Using the second law, then,
d
(⃗
p1 + p⃗2 ) = 0,
In this section, we start by studying the dynamics of dt
‘point’ particles. A point particle is essentially an object where p⃗1 and p⃗2 are the linear momenta of the two
with a very small size (small compared to other length particles. This means, for two isolated mutually
scales of the problem), and have some finite mass m. At isolated pair of mutually interacting particles, the
a point of time t its position, with respect to an ’inertial’ net linear momentum does not change in time.
frame, is ⃗r(t). Its velocity is defined as

d⃗r
⃗v = ≡ ⃗r˙. (21) 2. Angular momentum, energy and conservation laws
dt
Its linear momentum p⃗ is defined as ˆ Angular momentum of a free-particle is defined as
(with respect to an origin)
p⃗ = m⃗v , (22)
⃗ = ⃗r × p⃗.
L
and its acceleration is the rate of change of it velocity, On the other-hand with respect to the same origin,
the torque is defined as
d⃗v
⃗a = ≡ ⃗v˙ . (23)
dt ⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ ,
ˆ Newton’s first law simply says that in such an in- where the force F⃗ is applied on the particle. We
ertial frame, if the particle is not acted upon by immediately see that,
any external forces, then its velocity remains un- ⃗
dL
changed. = ⃗r˙ × p⃗ + ⃗r × p⃗˙ = 0 + ⃗r × F⃗ = ⃗τ . (25)
dt
One may think that the first law is a statement that
inertial frames exists! ˆ The kinetic energy of the particle is
In an inertial frame, a free particle travels with uni- 1 ˙ ˙
T = m⃗r · ⃗r. (26)
form velocity. That is, it traverses equal displace- 2
ments in equal intervals of time. This is an essence This implies,
of homogeneity of time. Similarly, it must travel
in straight-line, otherwise its direction of velocity dT
= (m⃗r¨) · ⃗r˙ = F⃗ · ⃗r˙.
wont remain constant. This is a statement of homo- dt
geneity of space. And it shall travel in straight-line So, change of kinetic energy, when the particle
in any direction it started with. Which is a state- moves from ⃗r1 at time t1 to ⃗r2 at time t2 , is
ment of isotropy of the space. These all together Z t2 Z t2 Z ⃗r2
defines an inertial frame. dT ⃗ ˙
T (t2 ) − T (t1 ) = dt = F · ⃗rdt = F⃗ · d⃗r.
t1 dt t1 ⃗
r1
ˆ Newton’s second law states that, in an inertial (27)
frame, application of a force alters the momentum,
and the rate of change of linear momentum is equal Now, in case when the force is a gradient of a po-
to the applied force, tential,
⃗ (⃗r),
F (⃗r) = −∇V
d⃗
p
F⃗ = ≡ p⃗˙. (24)
dt then,
Z ⃗
r2
In some way, Newton’s first law can be derived from ⃗ · d⃗r = V (⃗r1 ) − V (⃗r2 ). (28)
T (t2 ) − T (t1 ) = − ∇V
the second, alternatively, the second law can be ⃗
r1
taken as a definition of force.
These kinds of forces are called conservative forces,
ˆ Newton’s third law states that to each action, as the net kinetic and potential energy remains con-
there is an equal and opposite reaction. stant under the dynamics of particle which are sub-
jected to conservative forces. That is, from the
For two interacting particles, if F⃗12 is the force ex- above equation,
erted by the second particle on the first, and, F⃗21 is T (t2 ) + V (t2 ) = T (t1 ) + V (t1 ) ≡ E.
 5

ˆ So, the conservation laws are following: Is this a gradient of a function?

1. When the force F⃗ = 0, linear momentum p⃗ is GM m ⃗r

F⃗ = − r̂ = −GM m 3
conserved. r2 r
xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ
2. When the torque with respect to some origin = −GM m 2
⃗ is conserved. (x + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
⃗τ = 0, angular momentum L  
⃗ GM m
3. When the force is a conservative force, i.e, = −∇ − , (29)
⃗ (⃗r), the total energy E is r
when F (⃗r) = −∇V
conserved. where the last line is kept as an exercise. Thus this
is a conservative force with gravitational potential
being V (r) = − GMr m .
3. Some examples Now consider two points, which are at height h1
and h2 from the earth’s surface, then r1 = R + h1
and r2 = R + h2 . Then
ˆ Hooke’s law. For a displacement x away from its
equilibrium position, a spring puts on a force 
1 1

Vg (r2 ) − Vg (r1 ) = GM m −
r1 r2
F⃗ = −kxx̂  
1 1
= GM m −
on a body. We can identify that R + h1 R + h2
   
GM m h1 h2

d 1 2
 ≈ 1− − (1 −
⃗
F =− kx x̂. R R R
dx 2 GM m
= (h2 − h1 ) ≡ mg(h2 − h1 ).
R2
Thus the potential function is
For a masm m, at height h, thus we simply write
1 the gravitational potential energy as Vg (h) = mgh.
V (x) = kx2 .
2
ˆ There is an additional property of gravitational
This implies that the total energy force. The gravitational potential of any spheri-
cally symmetric object of total mass M , at a point
1 1 1 2 1 2 outside the object, is simply the same as the grav-
E= mẋ2 + kx2 = p + kx
2 2 2m 2 itational potential of a point object of mass M ,
placed at the center of the sphere. This is some-
is conserved. This is an ellipse in the x, p plane!
times called Newton’s iron sphere theorem.
This above is also true for a ’simple’ harmonic os-
cillator, when the displacement is small.

ˆ Damped harmonic oscillator. In this case,

F (x, ẋ) = −kx − γ ẋ.

4. Check for conservative force
As the force depends on the amplitude x, as well as
velocity ẋ, this is not a conservative force and thus The definitive way to check whether a force is conser-
the net energy of the system is not conserved. vative or not is

ˆ Gravitational force. In this case, the gravitational 1. The force should only depend on the coordinates
attraction of a small body of mass m due to a large and not their time derivatives.
body of mass M (say, earth) is ⃗ r) =
2. Its curl must be zero. The curl of a vector A(⃗
GM m Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ is defined as
F⃗ = − r̂.
r2

x̂ ŷ ẑ
⃗ ×A
∇ ⃗= ∂x ∂y ∂z = x̂(∂y Az − ∂z Ay ) + ŷ(∂z Ax − ∂x Az ) + ẑ(∂x Ay − ∂y Ax ). (30)
Ax Ay Az
 6

⃗ = ∇V
It is easy to check that, for a vector of the form A ⃗ , Here F⃗ij is the force on ith particle exerted by the jth
⃗ ⃗
from the above formula, that ∇ × A = 0. particle. The net force (vector sum of forces) acting on
all particles is then
An example: Lets
consider the force field X X X
⃗
F (x, y) = c xy x̂ + yx3 ŷ .
3
Is this a conservative F⃗i = F⃗ij + F⃗iex
force? i i,j:j̸=i i
X X
= (F⃗ij + F⃗ji ) + F⃗iex .
Easy to work out, i<j i
X
x̂ ŷ ẑ = F⃗iex ≡ F⃗ ex .
⃗ × F⃗ =
∇ ∂x ∂y ∂z = 3cx̂(x2 y − y 2 x) ̸= 0. i

cxy 3 cyx3 0
Where we used Newton’s third law, which says that F⃗ij =
So, this is not a conservative force. −F⃗ji . Here F⃗ ex is the net external force on this system
So, its line integral (i.e, work done under this force) of particles. Then we can write
should depend upon the path. Say, we so a line integral X X
from A = (x, y) = (0, 0) to B = (x, y) = (1, 1), in two F⃗ ex = F⃗i = p⃗˙i . (32)
ways. First in a straight line joining A and B, and then, i i

going from A to C = (x, y) = (1, 0), and then from C to If we define the net linear momentum of the system as
B. P⃗ =
P
ip
⃗i , then Newton’s second law for a system of
First path: the straight line is parameterized by x = particles simply becomes
y = t, and dx = dy = dt. Thus, F⃗ .d⃗r = Fx dx + Fy dy =
c(t4 dt + t4 dt) = 2ct4 dt. Thus, ⃗˙
F⃗ ex = P.
Z Z 1
2c Let us define the center of mass coordinate as
F⃗ .d⃗r = 2ct4 dt = .
A→B 0 5 X mi⃗ri
R⃗ = , (33)
Now, A to C, y = dy = 0. i
M

1
P
where M = mi is the total mass. Then
Z Z
i
F⃗ .d⃗r = 0dx = 0.
A→C 0 X X
F⃗ ex = p⃗˙i = mi⃗r¨i = M R̈.
For C to B, dx = 0 and x = 1. i i

Z Z 1 Z 1 This is another way of stating Newton’s second law for

c
F⃗ .d⃗r = Fy dy = cydy = . a system of particles.
C→B 0 0 2

Thus the net line-integral on the second path is c/2.

2. Angular momentum
B. Many-particle Dynamics
The angular net momentum is then
1. Newton’s laws X
⃗ =
L mi⃗ri × p⃗i . (34)
i
Let us consider an N particle system. We label them
by an index i = 1, 2, · · · , N . The ith particle, at some The,
point in time, are at positions ⃗ri and have mass mi .
Then, Newton’s first law reads d⃗ X X
L= ⃗ri × p⃗˙i = ⃗ri × F⃗i
dt i i
p⃗˙i = F⃗i , (31) X X
= ⃗ri × F⃗ij + ⃗ri × F⃗iex
i,j:j̸=i i
where F⃗i is the force the ith particle feels due to external X
force F⃗iex of this particle, as well as due to the force = (⃗ri − ⃗rj ) × F⃗ij + τ ex . (35)
exerted by all other particles. Thus we can write i<j

Here τ ex = ri × F⃗iex is the net torque exerted by

P
i⃗
X
F⃗i = F⃗ij + F⃗iex .
j̸=i external forces. In most cases, F⃗ij is in the parallel
 7

direction to ⃗ri − ⃗rj , and thus the first term vanishes. C. Collisions
These kinds of forces are the ones we call central forces
(such as gravitational force and electrostatic force). In In this section, we’ll briefly review what we already
general the conservation of angular momentum is related know about elastic collisions. In elastic collisions, both
to isotropy of the space! This will be discussed while we the kinetic energy and linear momentum are conserved.
shall discuss Lagrangian formulation. Fo example, if we have a collision in the rest frame of
one particle of mass M , where another particle of mass
m collides with it with a velocity ⃗v , and if the final ve-
locities of these particles are ⃗v1 and ⃗v2 , then energy and
3. Kinetic energy momentum conservation leads to the following equations:
1 1 1
For dealing with energy, let us write, for every particle mv 2 = M v12 + mv22 (37)
2 2 2
the position from the center of mass coordinate, m⃗v = M⃗v1 + m⃗v2 . (38)
⃗ + r⃗′ i .
⃗ri = R ˆ In one dimension these are two equations, and two
unknowns, so can be solved exactly. In two dimen-
P ⃗ = P mi R,
As, i mi⃗ri = M R ⃗ this implies (exercise) sions, these are three equations (second one has
i
X two components), but four unknowns (each of the
mi r⃗′ i = 0. final velocities has two components). So, one needs
i more information for solving them. The same goes
for three dimensions, four equations and six un-
We can then write the net kinetic energy as knowns.
1X X1 1 ˆ One can square the second equation, and use the
T = mi ṙi2 = M R2 + mi ri′2 . (36)
2 i 2 2 first equation to also arrive as
i
 
M
Deriving the above is left as an exercise. The second − 1 v12 = ⃗v1 · ⃗v2 . (39)
term is the internal kinetic energy of the system. m
So, if m = M , then ⃗v1 ·⃗v2 = 0. So, either one of the
final velocity is zero, or they move in perpendicular
directions.
4. System with variable mass

Since 1. One Dimensional Collisions

dP⃗ Consider that a particle of mass m moving with a ve-

F⃗ ex =
dt locity ⃗v hits another particle of mass M , and they can
only move in one dimension. If vf and Vf are their fi-
⃗˙ the above can be written as
and P⃗ = M R, nal velocities, then momentum and energy conservation
reads:
⃗¨ + R
F⃗ ex = M R ⃗˙ Ṁ .
mv + 0 = mvf + M Vf (40)
This is the governing equation for a system with variable 1 1 1
mv 2 + 0 = mvf2 + M Vf2 . (41)
mass. 2 2 2
From the first equation, we get
m
Vf = (v − vf ).
M
Putting this in the second, we get
[(m + M )vf − (m − M )v] (v − vf ) = 0.
The solution v = vf is trivial, which says that the first
particle keeps moving with the original velocity, and sec-
ond particle remain at the same fixed position. The other
solution reads,
m−M
vf = v.
m+M
 8

FIG. 4. Collision in 2D.

This gives 2. Two Dimensional Collisions

2mv The figure depicts such an event. In this case, as the

Vf = . number of equation is one less than what we need, so one
m+M
needs to provided with an additional information, which
we take to be the angle θ, called the angle of deflection.
ˆ In 1D, relative velocity of two particles after We already know that θ + ϕ = 90o . Energy and momen-
collision is negative of their initial relative velocity. tum conservation in the two dimensions read:
1 1 1
mv 2 = mv12 + mv22 , (46)
Proof: Momentum and energy conservation reads: 2 2 2
mv = mv1 cos θ + mv2 cos ϕ, (47)
mvi + M vi = mvf + M Vf (42) 0 = mv1 sin θ − mv2 sin ϕ. (48)
1 1 1 1 Using ϕ + θ = 90o from two second and third equations,
mvi2 + M Vi2 = mvf2 + M Vf2 . (43)
2 2 2 2 we get

Here vi , Vi are initial velocities of these two parti- v 2 − 2vv1 cos θ + v11 = v22 .
cles. From these equations, we get
From the first equation, we write

m(vi − vf ) = M (Vf − Vi ) (44) v 2 = v12 + v22 .

This gives us,
m(vi2 − vf2 ) = M (Vf2 − Vi2 ) (45)
v 2 − 2vv1 cos θ + v11 = v 2 − v12 ⇒ v1 (v1 − v cos θ) = 0.
Divide the second equation by the first, to have,
The first solution, v1 = 0 is in fact the solution of 1D
motion, which we discard. Second solution gives us v1 =
vi − Vi = Vf − vf . v cos θ. This gives v2 = v sin θ.