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ISOTOPES
 Isotopes - Atoms of a given

element which have the
same number of protons but
different numbers of
neutrons. Thus,isotopes
have the same position in
the periodic table, the same
chemical properties and the
same atomic charge.
 Artificial isotopes - also known as radioisotopes, can be produced from

heavier elements
PROPERTIES OF ISOTOPES
Isotopes have similar chemical properties but slightly different physical

properties
 Isotones - elements that have the same number of neutrons

 Isobars - elements that have the same mass number but different atomic
numbers
 Average Atomic Mass - calculation of the average atomic mass of an

atom is performed using the relative abundance data from the isotope of
each atom
Average atomic mass = [(% abundance of isotope) (mass of isotope)] + [….]

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Stable vs. Unstable Isotopes
 Radioactive isotopes - emit nuclear radiation in the form of rapidly moving
Radioactive Decay:
 alpha (symbol is α)-made of two protons and two neutrons
 beta (symbol is β) - made of an electron.
 gamma (symbol is γ) - is radiant energy coming from the atom.

Uses of Isotopes
 Heavy water- Although the amount of heavy water molecules in nature is

very small (1 part in 3200), it has been concentrated for use in the
development of nuclear weapons. Also, when concentrated, it can be
poisonous to plants and animals.
 Carbon-14 (C-14)- isotope is radioactive, the amount of it in an object that
was once living can be used to approximate the date of death
 Other uses of isotopes include their use in smoke detectors, in agricultural
applications, food irradiation, climatology, biological tracing, structural
imaging, explosives detection, pest control and in medical applications,
among others.
CHEMICAL FORMULAS
 Ion - An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or

negative charge.
2 types of Ion
 Cation - loss of one or more electrons from a
neutral atom results in a cation, an ion with a
net positive charge
 Anion - ion whose net charge is negative due
to an increase in the number of electrons

CLASSIFICATION OF IONS
MOLECULE
 Molecule - aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held

together by chemical forces (also called chemical bonds)
 Diatomic molecule - it contains only two atoms
Ex: (hydrogen molecule, symbolized as H2, nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2), as
well as the Group 7A elements—fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2),
and iodine (I2)
 Polyatomic Ions - molecules containing more than two atoms

- they can be atoms of the same element as in Ozone
(O_3).
-Water ( H_2O) and Ammonia (NH_3)
TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS
 Molecular Formulas - Chemical formulas that indicate the actual numbers

atoms in a molecule. It gives the composition of the molecule in terms of
the actual number of atoms present.
Examples:
-a molecule of NaOH is composed of 1 Sodium atom, 1 Oxygen and 1
Hydrogen atom
-a molecule of Mg3N2 is composed of 3 Magnesium atoms and 2 nitrogen
atoms.
 Empirical Formulas - Chemical formulas that give only the relative number
of atoms of each type in a molecule and the subscripts in an empirical
formula are always the smallest possible whole-number ratios
Examples:
-Benzene, C6H6, has the simplest form of CH, its empirical formula
-Butane, C4H10, has the simplest form of C2H5, its empirical formula
 Structural Formula - shows the location of the atoms relative to one
another in a molecule and the number of chemical bonds between the
atoms.
 Complete structural formula - all bonds
and atoms are shown
 Condensed structural formula - atoms

that are connected to a specific carbon
are represented like molecular formulas,
where more than one atom is represented
by a subscript attached to a specific
carbon.
 Skeletal or line-angle formula - simplest form in

representing organic compounds with
hydrocarbons in its structure would be to draw
 Implicit hydrogens - hydrogen attached to each carbon will

not be drawn
 Molecular Model - 3D model is the best way to see how atoms are
connected in a molecule, it show us geometry and help us predict its
properties and reactions.
 Ball-and-Stick Model
 balls represent atoms, while sticks
represent bonds between the atom
 atoms are wooden or plastic balls
with holes in them
 sticks or springs are used to
represent chemical bonds
 the angles they form between atoms
approximate the bond angles in
actual molecules
 with the exception of the H atom the
balls are all the same size and each
type of atom is represented by a
specific color.
 Space-filling Models
 atoms are represented by truncated balls
held together by snap fasteners, so that
the bonds are not visible.
 the balls are proportional in size to atoms.

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ISOTOPES

 Isotopes - Atoms of a given

 Artificial isotopes - also known as radioisotopes, can be produced from

Isotopes have similar chemical properties but slightly different physical

 Isotones - elements that have the same number of neutrons

 Average Atomic Mass - calculation of the average atomic mass of an

Average atomic mass = [(% abundance of isotope) (mass of isotope)] + [….]

 alpha (symbol is α)-made of two protons and two neutrons

 beta (symbol is β) - made of an electron.

 gamma (symbol is γ) - is radiant energy coming from the atom.

 Heavy water- Although the amount of heavy water molecules in nature is

 Ion - An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or

 Molecule - aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held

 Diatomic molecule - it contains only two atoms

 Polyatomic Ions - molecules containing more than two atoms

 Molecular Formulas - Chemical formulas that indicate the actual numbers

 Condensed structural formula - atoms

 Skeletal or line-angle formula - simplest form in

 Implicit hydrogens - hydrogen attached to each carbon will

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