GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

FIRST SEMESTER- QUARTER 1

MODULE 2: ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses
2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas, and models
3. Name compounds given their chemical formula and write the chemical formula given the
chemical name of the compounds
4. Calculate molecular formula given the molar mass
5. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound.

LESSON 1: COMMON ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons they contain. The atomic number (Z) is the
number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element. In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons, so the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons present in the atom. The chemical
identity of an atom can be determined solely from its atomic number. For
example, the atomic number of fluorine is 9. This means that each fluorine atom has 9 protons and 9 electrons. Or,
viewed another way, every atom in the universe that contains 9 protons is correctly named “fluorine.”
The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an
element. Except for the most common form of hydrogen, which has one proton and no neutrons, all atomic nuclei contain
both protons and neutrons. In general, the mass number is given by

The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between the mass number and the atomic number,
or (A 2 Z). For example, if the mass number of a particular boron atom is 12 and the atomic number is 5 (indicating 5
protons in the nucleus), then the number of neutrons is 12 2 5 5 7. Note that all three quantities (atomic number, number
of neutrons, and mass number) must be positive integers, or whole numbers.
Atoms of a given element do not all have the same mass. Most elements have two or more isotopes, atoms that
have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
For example, there are three isotopes of hydrogen. One, simply known as hydrogen, has one proton and no
neutrons. The deuterium isotope contains one proton and one neutron, and tritium has one proton and two neutrons. The
accepted way to denote the atomic number and mass number of an atom of an element (X) is as follows:

Thus, for the isotopes of hydrogen, we write:

Isotopes and their uses

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 1

 The study of atoms entails a lot of concepts such as their subatomic particles, atomic structures, discoverer, and
properties. One fascinating area of study of atoms is the isotopes. Many of us have heard this word already but have
limited clear understanding what the concept is.
Isotopes are often related to nuclear energy which is being used in many industries. This is because the nuclear
energy usually comes from radioisotopes- a kind of isotopes that is radioactive. Many of the food products in the market
were subjected to radiation that comes from radioisotopes. Only few people knew this because the industries are aware
that people are sensitive to the use of nuclear energy. This module will discuss the nature of isotopes as well as their
kinds, examples and uses.
What are isotopes?
The word isotope was derived from Greek words isos and topos which means “the same place”. Isotopes variants
of an element are still found in the same location in the periodic table of elements. This term was introduced by a British
Chemist Frederick Soddy.
As another example, consider two common isotopes of uranium with mass numbers of 235 and 238,
respectively:

The first isotope is used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs, whereas the second isotope lacks the properties
necessary for these applications. Except for hydrogen, which has different names for each of its isotopes, isotopes of
elements are identified by their mass numbers. Thus, the preceding two isotopes are called uranium-235 (pronounced
“uranium two thirty-five”) and uranium-238 (pronounced “uranium two thirty-eight”)
The chemical properties of an element are determined primarily by the protons and electrons in its atoms;
neutrons do not take part in chemical changes under normal conditions. Therefore, isotopes of the same element have
similar chemistries, forming the same types of compounds and displaying similar reactivities.

Isotopes of Oxygen

To identify a specific isotope of an element, write the name of the element followed by a hyphen and the mass
number of the isotope. Isotopes of oxygen are presented below.

• Oxygen-16 for the isotope with mass number of 16

• Oxygen-17 for the isotope with mass number of 17
• Oxygen-18 for the isotope with mass number of 18

An oxygen atom with eight protons and eight neutrons and has a mass number of 16, its name is Oxygen-16.
Oxygen-17 has eight protons and nine neutrons, and its mass number is 17. And lastly, an oxygen atom with eight
protons and ten neutrons and has a mass number of eighteen.
Due to the variations of the mass number of the isotopes like Oxygen-16, Oxygen-17 and Oxygen-18, the
relative atomic mass should be computed as indicated in the periodic table. The atomic mass of oxygen indicated in the
periodic table is 15.999. How this figure obtained? To calculate the atomic mass of an element, you have to multiply
the mass number of each isotope by its percentage abundance in decimal form. Then add these amounts together to find
the relative atomic mass.
For example, Chlorine-35 makes up 75.53 percent of all the chlorine in nature, and Chlorine-37 makes up the
other 24.47 percent. The relative atomic mass of chlorine is calculated as follows;

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 2

 Some isotopes of an element have unique properties because they are unstable. An unstable atom is an atom
whose nucleus can change its composition. This type of isotope is called radioisotope. Radioisotopes are radioactive
isotope because they produce radiation as they breakdown in the process.

Table 1.1 Important Isotopes

LESSON 2: WRITING AND NAMING THE CHEMICAL FORMULA OF COMPOUNDS

IMPORTANT VOCABULARY WORDS
VOCABULARY WORD MEANING
1. Atom – basic unit of a chemical element
2. Molecule - an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by intramolecular forces
3. Ion – an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge
4. Intramolecular forces - The force that binds the atoms together in a molecule or compound. (Chemical bond)
5. Molecular formula - gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of the actual number of atoms present
6. Empirical formula - gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of the smallest ratio of the number of
atoms present.
7. Ionic compound - made up of a cation and an anion
8. Molecular compounds/covalent compounds - compounds contain discrete molecular units. They are usually
composed of nonmetallic elements
9. Structural formula - shows how atoms are bonded to one another in a molecule
10. Ball and stick model - the atoms are wooden or plastic balls with holes in them. Sticks or springs are used to
represent chemical bonds.
11. Space filling model - atoms are represented by truncated balls held together by snap fasteners, so that the
bonds are not visible.

What is chemical formula, chemical name, and structural formula?

Chemical Formula, Chemical Name and Structural Formula

From our previous lesson, we have described chemical formula as a symbolic expression of a compound or
substance. It is also defined as shorthand of expressing the types and the number of atoms in a substance. Chemical
name is the scientific name given to a chemical in accordance with the nomenclature system developed by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. While structural formula is a graphical representation of the
molecular structure showing how the atoms are possibly arranged in the real three-dimensional space.
Elements are often referred to collectively by their periodic table group number (Group 1A, Group 2A, and so
on). However, for convenience, some element groups have been given special names. The Group 1A elements (Li, Na,
K, Rb, Cs, and Fr) are called alkali metals, and the Group 2A elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Ra) are called alkaline
earth metals. Elements in Group 7A (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) are known as halogens, and elements in Group 8A (He, Ne,

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 3

Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn) are called noble gases, or rare gases. The periodic table is a handy tool that correlates the properties
of the elements in a systematic way and helps us to make predictions about chemical behavior.

Molecules and Ions

Of all the elements, only the six noble gases in Group 8A of the periodic table (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn)
exist in nature as single atoms. For this reason, they are called monatomic (meaning a single atom) gases. Most matter
is composed of molecules or ions formed by atoms.

Molecules

A molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite

arrangement held together by intramolecular forces (also called chemical
bonds). A molecule may contain atoms of the same element or atoms of two or
more elements joined in a fixed ratio, in accordance with the law of definite
proportions. Thus, a molecule is not necessarily a compound, which, by
definition, is made up of two or more elements. Hydrogen gas, for example, is
a pure element, but it consists of molecules made up of two H atoms each.
Water, on the other hand, is a molecular compound that contains hydrogen and
oxygen in a ratio of two H atoms and one O atom. Like atoms, molecules are
electrically neutral.
The hydrogen molecule, symbolized as H 2, is called a diatomic
molecule because it contains only two atoms. Other elements that normally exist as diatomic molecules are nitrogen
(N2) and oxygen (O2), as well as the Group 7A elements—fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2).
Of course, a diatomic molecule can contain atoms of different elements. Examples are hydrogen chloride
(HCl) and carbon monoxide (CO).
The vast majority of molecules contain more than two atoms. They can be atoms of the same element, as in
ozone (O3), which is made up of three atoms of oxygen, or they can be combinations of two or more different elements.
Molecules containing more than two atoms are called polyatomic molecules. Like ozone, water (H2O) and ammonia
(NH3) are polyatomic molecules.

Ions

An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net

positive or negative charge. The number of positively charged
protons in the nucleus of an atom remains the same during
ordinary chemical changes (called chemical reactions), but
negatively charged electrons may be lost or gained. The loss of
one or more electrons from a neutral atom results in a cation, an
ion with a net positive charge. For example, a sodium atom (Na) can readily lose an electron to become a sodium cation,
which is represented by Na+:

On the other hand, an anion is an ion whose net charge

is negative due to an increase in the number of electrons. A
chlorine atom (Cl), for instance, can gain an electron to become
the chloride ion Cl-:

Monoatomic ions are named based on the element.

a. For cations, the name of the element is unchanged. If an element can form two ions of different charges,
the name, which is usually derived from its Latin name, is modified by the suffix –ic for the ion with the
higher charge, and –ous for that with the lower charge.
b. For anions, the name of the element is modified by the suffix –ide.

Several anions are polyatomic and are named based on the atomic constituents and the suffix – ide. The most common
examples are:
a. OH- – hydroxide ion
b. CN- – cyanide ion

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 4

A number of polyatomic anions containing oxygen atoms are named based on the root word of the central (or non-
oxygen) atom and the suffix –ate for the one with more oxygen atoms and –ite for the one with less oxygen atom.
a. NO3-– nitrate ion
b. NO2-– nitrite ion
c. SO32- – sulfite ion
d. SO42- – sulfate ion
e. PO43- – phosphate ion
Some anions have common names ending with the suffix –ate.

a. C2H3O2-– acetate ion

b. C2O42- – oxalate ion

Chemists use chemical formulas to express the composition of molecules and ionic compounds in terms of
chemical symbols. By composition we mean not only the elements present but also the ratios in which the atoms are
combined. Here we are concerned with two types of formulas: molecular formulas and empirical formulas.

Molecular Formulas
A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance. In
our discussion of molecules, each example was given with its molecular formula in parentheses. Thus, H2 is the
molecular formula for hydrogen, O2 is oxygen, O3 is ozone, and H2O is water. The subscript numeral indicates the
number of atoms of an element present. There is no subscript for O in H2O because
there is only one atom of oxygen in a molecule of water, and so the number “one” is omitted from the formula. Note
that oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) are allotropes of oxygen. An allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an
element. Two allotropic forms of the element carbon—diamond and graphite—are dramatically different not only in
properties but also in their relative cost.

Molecular Models
Molecules are too small for us to observe directly. An effective means of visualizing them is using molecular
models. Two standard types of molecular models are currently in use: ball-and-stick models and space-filling models
(Figure 2.1). In ball and stick model kits, the atoms are wooden or plastic balls with holes in them. Sticks or springs are
used to represent chemical bonds. The angles they form between atoms approximate the bond angles in actual molecules.
Except for the H atom, the balls are all the same size and each type of atom is represented by a specific color.
In space-filling models, atoms are represented by truncated balls held together by snap fasteners, so that the
bonds are not visible. The balls are proportional in size to atoms. The first step toward building a molecular model is
writing the structural formula, which shows how atoms are bonded to one another in a molecule. For example, it is
known that each of the two H atoms is bonded to an O atom in the water molecule.
Therefore, the structural formula of water is H¬O¬H. A line connecting the two atomic symbols represents a chemical
bond.
Ball-and-stick models show the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms clearly, and they are fairly easy to
construct. However, the balls are not proportional to the size of atoms. Furthermore, the sticks greatly exaggerate the
space between atoms in a molecule. Space-filling models are more accurate because they show the variation in atomic
size. Their drawbacks are that they are time-consuming to put together and
they do not show the three-dimensional positions of atoms very well. Molecular modeling software can also be used to
create ball-and-stick and space-filling models.

Figure 2.1 Molecular and structural formulas and molecular models of four common molecules.

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 5

Empirical Formulas
The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide, a substance used as
an antiseptic and as a bleaching agent for textiles and hair, is H 2O2. This
formula indicates that each hydrogen peroxide molecule consists of two
hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
atoms in this molecule is 2:2 or 1:1. The empirical formula of hydrogen
peroxide is HO. Thus, the empirical formula tells us which elements are
present and the simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms, but not
necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given molecule. As another
example, consider the compound hydrazine (N 2H4), which is used as a
rocket fuel. The empirical formula of hydrazine is NH2. Although the ratio
of nitrogen to hydrogen is 1:2 in both the molecular formula (N 2H4) and the
empirical formula (NH2), only the molecular formula tells us the actual
number of N atoms (two) and H atoms (four) present in a hydrazine
molecule.
Empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formulas; they are
written by reducing the subscripts in the molecular formulas to the smallest
possible whole numbers. Molecular formulas are the true formulas of
molecules. If we know the molecular formula, we also know the empirical
formula, but the reverse is not true. Why, then, do chemists bother with empirical formulas? As we will see in the next
lesson, when chemists analyze an unknown compound, the first step is usually the determination of the compound’s
empirical formula. With additional information, it is possible to deduce the molecular formula.
For many molecules, the molecular formula and the empirical formula are one and the same. Some examples
are water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4).

Example: Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules: (a) diborane (B 2H6), used
in rocket propellants; (b) dimethyl fumarate (C8H12O4), a substance used to treat psoriasis, a skin disease;
and (c) vanillin (C8H8O3), a flavoring agent used in foods and beverages.
Solution
(a) There are two boron atoms and six hydrogen atoms in diborane. Dividing the subscripts by 2, we
obtain the empirical formula BH3.
(b) In dimethyl fumarate there are 8 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen atoms. Dividing
the subscripts by 4, we obtain the empirical formula C 2H3O. Note that if we had divided the subscripts
by 2, we would have obtained the formula C 4H6O2. Although the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen
atoms in C4H6O2 is the same as that in C2H3O (2:3:1), C4H6O2 is not the simplest formula because its
subscripts are not in the smallest whole-number ratio.
(c) Because the subscripts in C8H8O3 are already the smallest possible whole numbers, the empirical
formula for vanillin is the same as its molecular formula.

Formula of Ionic Compounds

The formulas of ionic compounds are usually the same as their empirical
formula because ionic compounds do not consist of discrete molecular units. For
example, a solid sample of sodium chloride (NaCl) consists of equal numbers of
Na+ and Cl- ions arranged in a three-dimensional network (Figure 2.2). In such a
compound there is a 1:1 ratio of cations to anions so that the compound is
electrically neutral. As you can see in Figure 2.2, no Na+ ion in NaCl is associated
with just one particular Cl- ion. In fact, each Na+ ion is equally held by six
surrounding Cl- ions and vice versa. Thus, NaCl is the empirical formula for
sodium chloride. In other ionic compounds, the actual structure may be different,
but the arrangement of cations and anions is such that the compounds are all
electrically neutral. Note that the charges on the cation and anion are not shown
in the formula for an ionic compound.

For ionic compounds to be electrically neutral, the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula
unit must be zero. If the charges on the cation and anion are numerically different, we apply the following rule to make
the formula electrically neutral: The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and the

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 6

subscript of the anion is numerically equal to the charge on the cation. If the charges are numerically equal, then no
subscripts are necessary. This rule follows from the fact that because the formulas of ionic compounds are usually
empirical formulas, the subscripts must always be reduced to the smallest ratios. Let us consider some examples.

Figure 2.2 (a) Structure of solid NaCl. (b) In reality, the cations are in contact with the anions. In both (a)
and (b), the smaller spheres represent Na + ions and the larger spheres, Cl- ions. (c) Crystals of NaCl.

• Zinc Iodide. The zinc cation Zn2+ and the iodine anion I- combine to form zinc iodide. The sum of the charges
of one Zn2+ ion and one I- ion is +2 + (-1) = +1. To make the charges add up to zero we multiply the -1 charge
of the anion by 2 and add the subscript “2” to the symbol for iodine. Therefore, the formula for zinc iodide is
ZnI2.

• Aluminum Oxide. The cation is Al3+ and the oxygen anion is O2-. The following diagram helps us determine
the subscripts for the compound formed by the cation and the anion:

The sum of the charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0. Thus, the formula for aluminum oxide is Al2O3
Note that in each of the two examples, the subscripts are in the smallest ratios.
Naming Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of cations
(positive ions) and anions (negative ions). With the
important exception of the ammonium ion, NH4+, all
cations are derived from metal atoms. Metal cations
take their names from the elements.
Many ionic compounds are binary
compounds, or compounds formed from just two
elements. For binary compounds, the first element
named is the metal cation, followed by the nonmetallic
anion. Thus, NaCl is sodium chloride. The anion is
named by taking the first part of the element name
(chlorine) and adding “-ide.”
The “-ide” ending is also used for certain anion groups containing different elements, such as hydroxide (OH-)
and cyanide (CN-). Thus, the compounds LiOH and KCN are named lithium hydroxide and potassium cyanide,
respectively. These and a number of other such ionic substances are called ternary compounds, meaning compounds

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 7

consisting of three elements. The naming of ternary compounds follows the
same rule as that of the binary ionic compound: the name of the cation is given
first, followed by the name of the anion. (You can also find the list of common
cations and anions in a periodic table of element)
Certain metals, especially the transition metals, can form more than one
type of cation. Take iron as an example. Iron can form two cations: Fe 2+ and
Fe3+. An older nomenclature system that is still in limited use assigns the ending
“-ous” to the cation with fewer positive charges and the ending “-ic” to the cation
with more positive charges:
Fe2+ ferrous ion
Fe3+ ferric ion

The names of the compounds that these iron ions form with chlorine would thus be

FeCl2 ferrous chloride

FeCl3 ferric chloride
The “-ous” and “-ic” designations provide names for only two different
elemental cations. Some metallic elements can assume three or more different positive
charges in compounds. Therefore, it has become increasingly common to designate
different cations with Roman numerals. This is called the Stock system. In this system,
the Roman numeral I indicates one positive charge, II means two positive charges, and
so on. For example, manganese (Mn) atoms can assume several different positive
charges:
Mn2+: MnO manganese (II) oxide
Mn3+: Mn2O3 manganese (III) oxide
Mn4+: MnO2 manganese (IV) oxide

These names are pronounced “manganese-two oxide,” “manganese-three oxide,”

and “manganese-four oxide.”. Using the Stock system, we denote the correct charges of the cations used.

Molecular Compounds/Covalent compounds

Table 2.2
Unlike ionic compounds, molecular compounds contain discrete
molecular units. They are usually composed of nonmetallic elements (see Figure
2.10). Many molecular compounds are binary compounds. Naming binary
molecular compounds is similar to naming binary ionic compounds. We place the
name of the first element in the formula first, and the second element is named by
adding -ide to the root of the element
name. Some examples are

HCl hydrogen chloride

HBr hydrogen bromide
SiC silicon carbide

It is quite common for one pair of elements to form several different

compounds. In these cases, confusion in naming the compounds is avoided using
Greek prefixes to denote the number of atoms of each element present (Table 2.2).
Consider the following examples:

CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 8

The following guidelines are helpful in naming compounds with prefixes:

• The prefix “mono-” may be omitted for the first element. For example, PCl3 is named phosphorus
trichloride, not monophosphorus trichloride. Thus, the absence of a prefix for the first element usually
means there is only one atom of that element present in the molecule.
• For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is sometimes omitted. For example, N2O4 may be called dinitrogen
tetroxide rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide. Exceptions to the use of Greek prefixes are molecular
compounds containing hydrogen. Traditionally, many of these compounds are called either by their
common, nonsystematic names or by names that do not specifically indicate the number of H atoms
present:
B2H6 diborane
CH4 methane
SiH4 silane
NH3 ammonia
PH3 phosphine
H2O water
H2S hydrogen sulfide

Note that even the order of writing the elements in the formulas for hydrogen compounds is irregular. In water and
hydrogen sulfide, H is written first, whereas it appears last in the other compounds. Writing formulas for molecular
compounds is usually straightforward. Thus, the name arsenic trifluoride means that there are three F atoms and one
As atom in each molecule, and the molecular formula is AsF3. Note that the order of elements in the formula is the
same as in its name.

Acids and Bases

Naming Acids
An acid can be described as a substance that yields hydrogen ions (H+) when
dissolved in water. (H+ is equivalent to one proton, and is often referred to that way.)
Formulas for acids contain one or more hydrogen atoms as well as an anionic group. Anions
whose names end in “-ide” form acids with a “hydro-” prefix and an “-ic” ending, as shown
in Table 2.3. In some cases, two different names seem to be assigned to the same chemical
formula.
HCl hydrogen chloride
HCl hydrochloric acid

The name assigned to the compound depends on its physical state. In the gaseous
or pure liquid state, HCl is a molecular compound called hydrogen chloride. When it is
dissolved in water, the molecules break up into H1 and Cl2 ions; in this state, the substance
is called hydrochloric acid.

Oxoacids are acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another element (the central
element). The formulas of oxoacids are usually written with the H first, followed by the
central element and then O. We use the following five common acids as our references in
naming oxoacids:

H2CO3 carbonic acid

HClO3 chloric acid
HNO3 nitric acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 9

Often two or more oxoacids have the same central atom but a different number of O atoms. Starting with our reference
oxoacids whose names all end with “-ic,” we use the following rules to name these compounds.

1. Addition of one O atom to the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “per . . . -ic” acid. Thus, adding an O atom
to HClO3 changes chloric acid to perchloric acid, HClO4.
2. Removal of one O atom from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “-ous” acid. Thus, nitric acid, HNO3,
becomes nitrous acid, HNO2.
3. Removal of two O atoms from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “hypo . . . -ous” acid. Thus, when HBrO3
is converted to HBrO, the acid is called hypobromous acid.

Table 2.3 Some Simple Acids

Note that these acids all exist as molecular

compounds in the gas phase.

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 10

 Table 2.4 Names of Oxoacids and Oxoanions that contain Chlorine

Naming Bases
A base can be described as a substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH -) when dissolved in water. Some
examples are
NaOH sodium hydroxide
KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide

Ammonia (NH3), a molecular compound in the gaseous or pure liquid state, is also classified as a common base. At first
glance this may seem to be an exception to the definition of a base. But note that as long as a substance yields hydroxide
ion when dissolved in water, it need not contain hydroxide ions in its structure to be considered a base. In fact, when
ammonia dissolves in water, NH3 reacts partially with water to yield NH4+ and OH- ions. Thus, it is properly classified
as a base.

Hydrates

Hydrates are compounds that have a specific

number of water molecules attached to them. For
example, in its normal state, each unit of copper (II)
sulfate has five water molecules associated with it. The
systematic name for this compound is copper (II) sulfate
pentahydrate, and its formula is written as CuSO4 ●
5H2O. The water molecules can be driven off by heating.
When this occurs, the resulting compound is CuSO 4,
which is sometimes called anhydrous copper (II) sulfate;
“anhydrous” means that the compound no longer has
water molecules associated with it (Figure 2.4). Some
other hydrates are:
BaCl2 ● 2H2O barium chloride dihydrate
LiCl ●H2O lithium chloride monohydrate
MgSO4 ● 7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Sr(NO3)2 ● 4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 11

Introduction to Organic Compounds
The simplest type of organic compounds is the hydrocarbons, which contain only
carbon and hydrogen atoms. The hydrocarbons are used as fuels for domestic and industrial
heating, for generating electricity and powering internal combustion engines, and as
starting materials for the chemical industry. One class of hydrocarbons is called the alkanes.
Table 2.5 shows the names, formulas, and molecular models of the first 10 straight-chain
alkanes, in which the carbon chains have no branches. Note that all the names end with -
ane. Starting with C5H12, we use the Greek prefixes in Table 2.3 to indicate the number of
carbon atoms present.
The chemistry of organic compounds is largely determined by the functional
groups, which consist of one or a few atoms bonded in a specific way. For example, when
an H atom in methane is replaced by a hydroxyl group (¬OH), an amino group (¬NH2), and
a carboxyl group (¬COOH), the following molecules are generate:

The chemical properties of these molecules can be predicted based on the reactivity of the functional groups.
Although the nomenclature of the major classes of organic compounds and their properties in terms of the functional
groups is not included for this discussion, these organic compounds will be used as examples to illustrate chemical
bonding, acid-base reactions, and other properties throughout the subject.

Table 2.5 The First Ten Straight-Chain

Alkanes
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8
Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12
Hexane C6H14
Heptane C7H16
Octane C8H18
Nonane C9H20
Decane C10H22

LESSON 3: CALCULATING FORMULA MASS, EMPIRICAL FORMULA, AND MOLECULAR

FORMULA

What is atomic mass, formula mass, molecular mass, and molar mass?
Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom depends on the number of electrons, protons, and neutron it contains. Knowledge of an
atom’s mass is important in laboratory work. But atoms are extremely small particles—even the smallest speck of dust
that our unaided eyes can detect contains as many as 1 3 1016 atoms. Clearly, we cannot weigh a single atom, but it is
possible to determine the mass of one atom relative to another experimentally. The first step is to assign a value to the
mass of one atom of a given element so that it can be used as a standard.
By international agreement, atomic mass (sometimes called atomic weight) is the mass of the atom in atomic
mass units (amu). One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12
atom. Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope that has six protons and six neutrons. Setting the atomic mass of carbon-12 at 12
amu provides the standard for measuring the atomic mass of the other elements. For
example, experiments have shown that, on average, a hydrogen atom is only 8.400 percent as massive as the carbon-12
atom. Thus, if the mass of one carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 amu, the atomic mass of hydrogen must be 0.08400 3 12

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 12

amu or 1.008 amu. Similar calculations show that the atomic mass of oxygen is 16.00 amu and that of iron is 55.85 amu.
Thus, although we do not know just how much an average iron atom’s mass is, we know that it is approximately 56
times as massive as a hydrogen atom.

NOTE: The unified atomic mass unit (u), Dalton (Da), universal mass unit, either amu or AMU is an acceptable
acronym for atomic mass unit

Average Atomic Mass

Experiments have shown that atoms have different mass relative to one another. For example, a Mg atom is
experimentally reported to be twice as heavy as a carbon atom; a silicon atom is twice the mass of a nitrogen atom. It is
possible to make a relative scale if one atom is chosen as the reference or standard atom against which the masses of the
other atoms are measured.
By international agreement, the reference atom chosen is the C-12 isotope which contains six protons and six
neutrons. By definition, one atom of C-12 has a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu). One amu, therefore, is one-
twelfth (1/12) the mass of a C-12 atom. The atomic mass of Cu-63 is 62.93 amu. This means that relative to C-12, one
atom of Cu-63 is 62.93/12 or 5.244 times the mass of a C-12 atom.
The periodic table provides the average atomic mass which takes into account the different isotopes of an
element and their relative abundances. It is not a simple average that is taken but a weighted average. The atomic masses
of many elements have been accurately determined to five or six significant figures. However, for our purposes we will
normally use atomic masses accurate only to four significant figures
Average Formula Mass (also referred to as formula mass)
The formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in the ionic compound.

Important Steps in Solving the Formula Mass of a Compound

In writing the formula mass of a compound, do the following steps below. We will use Al(OH)3 as an example.

Step 1. List down the atoms involved in the formula which are represented by chemical symbol. Write this in
downward manner in the first column.

Atom
Al
O
H
Step 2. Determine the number of atoms in the formula. Write this in the second column. Consider the subscript
which is written outside the parenthesis.
Atom Number of Atoms
Al 1
O 3
H 3
Note that the number of oxygen atom and hydrogen atom have increased by 3 because of the subscript located
outside the parenthesis. The subscript will only affect the atoms inside the parenthesis which can be seen in (OH)3 of
Al(OH)3.
Step 3. Write the mass number of each element in the third column.
Atom Number of Atoms Mass number
Al 1 26.98 u
O 3 16.00 u
H 3 1.008 u

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 13

 Step 4. Multiply the number of each atom to its mass number to determine the total mass number of each
atom. Write this in the fourth column.

Atom Number of Atoms Mass number Total mass number of each atom
Al 1 26.98 u 26.98 u
O 3 16.00 u 48.00 u
H 3 1.008 u 3.024 u
Step 5. Get the sum of all total masses to determine the formula mass of Al(OH) 3.
Atom Number of Atoms Mass number Total mass number of each atom
Al 1 26.98 u 26.98 u
O 3 16.00 u 48.00 u
H 3 1.008 u 3.024 u___
78.004 u ≈ 78.00 u
Therefore, the formula mass of Al(OH)3 is 78.00 u.
NOTE: Round off the sum for four significant figures

Average Molecular Mass (also referred to as molecular mass)

The molecular mass is the sum of the average atomic masses of the atoms in the molecule. The steps in
determining the molecular mass is the same with formula mass.

Note the difference between molecular mass and formula mass. Molecular mass is used for covalent compounds while formula mass is used
for ionic compound.
PRACTICE EXERCISES 3.1(OPTIONAL)
Determine the formula mass: Determine the molecular mass
a. MgCl2 a. water
b. sodium chloride b. methane
c. KOH c. NH3
d. Fe2(SO4)3 d. iodine pentafluoride
e. MgSO4 ● 5 H2O e. (NH4)2SO4

Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element

The Mole

What is a mole? What is Avogadro’s number?

Atoms have very small masses. We expect that macroscopic samples will contain a very large number of atoms.
A special unit of measure, called the mole, is used to deal with extremely large numbers. In the SI system, the mole is
the amount of substance that contains as many entities as there are in exactly 12 g of C-12.
The number of atoms in 12 g of C-12 is experimentally determined to be 6.022 x 10 23. This is called
(NA)Avogadro’s number, in honor of the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro.†
Thus, just as 1 dozen oranges contains 12 oranges, 1 mole of hydrogen atoms contains 6.022 X 10 23 H atoms.
The enormity of Avogadro’s number is difficult to imagine. For example, spreading 6.022 X 10 23 oranges over the entire
surface of Earth would produce a layer 9 mi into space! Because atoms (and molecules) are so tiny, we need a huge
number to study them in manageable quantities.
We have seen that 1 mole of carbon-12 atoms has a mass of exactly 12 g and contains 6.022 X 1023 atoms. This
mass of carbon-12 is its molar mass (M), defined as the mass (in grams or kilograms) of 1 mole of units (such as atoms
or molecules) of a substance. Note that the molar mass of carbon-12 (in grams) is numerically equal to its atomic mass
in amu. Likewise, the atomic mass of sodium (Na) is 22.99 amu and its molar mass is 22.99 g; the atomic mass of
phosphorus is 30.97 amu and its molar mass is 30.97 g; and so on. If we know the atomic mass of an element, we also
know its molar mass.

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 14

 Knowing the molar mass and Avogadro’s number, we can calculate the mass of a single atom in grams. For
example, we know the molar mass of carbon-12 is 12 g and there are 6.022 X 10 23 carbon-12 atoms in 1 mole of the
substance; therefore, the mass of one carbon-12 atom is given by

FIGURE 3.1 The relationships between mass (m in grams) of an element and number of moles of an element (n) and between
number of moles of an element and number of atoms (N) of an element. M is the molar mass (g/mol) of the element and NA is
Avogadro’s number.
We can use the preceding result to determine the relationship between atomic mass units and grams. Because
the mass of every carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 amu, the number of atomic mass units equivalent to 1 gram is

Thus,
1 g = 6.022 X 1023 amu
and 1 amu = 1.661 X 10-24 g

NOTE: In calculations, the units of molar mass are g/mol or kg/mol.

This example shows that Avogadro’s number can be used to convert from the atomic mass units to mass in
grams and vice versa. The notions of Avogadro’s number and molar mass enable us to carry out conversions between
mass and moles of atoms and between moles and number of atoms (Figure 3.1). We will employ the following
conversion factors in the calculations:

where X represents the symbol of an element. Using the proper conversion factors, we can convert one
quantity to another.

After some practice, you can use the

equations in Figure 3.1 in calculations:
n = m/M and N = nNA.

EXAMPLES:

1. Helium (He) is a valuable gas used in industry, low-temperature research, deep-sea diving tanks, and balloons.
How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of He?

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 15

 1 mol He = 4.003 g He
Conversion factors:
SOLUTION:

Thus, there are 1.61 moles of He atoms in 6.46 g of He.

2. Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal that is used in making brass (with copper) and in plating iron to prevent corrosion.
How many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mole of Zn?

1 mol Zn = 65.39 g Zn
Conversion factors:
SOLUTION:

Thus, there are 23.3 g of Zn in 0.356 mole of Zn.

From the molecular mass we can determine the molar mass of a molecule or compound. The molar mass of a
compound (in grams) is numerically equal to its molecular mass (in amu).

1. Methane (CH4) is the principal component of natural gas. How many moles of CH4 are present in
6.07 g of CH4?
molar mass of CH4 = 12.01 g 1 4(1.008 g)
= 16.04 g

SOLUTION

Thus, there is 0.378 mole of CH4 in 6.07 g of CH4

2. How many hydrogen atoms are present in 25.6 g of urea [(NH2)2CO], which is used as a fertilizer, in animal
feed, and in the manufacture of polymers? The molar mass of urea is 60.06 g.
Conversion factors

SOLUTION

Solution To calculate the number of H atoms, we first must convert grams of urea to moles of urea using the molar mass
of urea. The molecular formula of urea shows there are four moles of H atoms in one mole of urea molecule, so the mole

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 16

ratio is 4:1. Finally, knowing the number of moles of H atoms, we can calculate the number of H atoms using Avogadro’s
number. We need two conversion factors: molar mass and Avogadro’s number.
Finally, note that for ionic compounds like NaCl and MgO that do not contain discrete molecular units, we use
the term formula mass instead. The formula unit of NaCl consists of one Na+ ion and one Cl- ion. Thus, the formula
mass of NaCl is the mass of one formula unit:

formula mass of NaCl = 22.99 amu + 35.45 amu

= 58.44 amu
and its molar mass is 58.44 g.
Percent Composition of Compounds
As we have seen, the formula of a compound tells us the numbers of atoms of each element in a unit of the
compound. However, suppose we needed to verify the purity of a compound for use in a laboratory experiment. From
the formula we could calculate what percent of the total mass of the compound is contributed by each element.
Then, by comparing the result to the percent composition obtained experimentally for our sample, we could
determine the purity of the sample. The percent composition by mass is the percent by mass of each element in a
compound. Percent composition is obtained by dividing the mass of each element in 1 mole of the compound by the
molar mass of the compound and multiplying by 100 percent. Mathematically, the percent composition of an element
in a compound is expressed as

where n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound. For example, in 1 mole of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) there are 2 moles of H atoms and 2 moles of O atoms. The molar masses of H 2O2, H, and O are 34.02 g, 1.008
g, and 16.00 g, respectively. Therefore, the percent composition of H2O2 is calculated as follows:

Empirical Formula from Percent Composition

The empirical formula of a compound can be calculated from the percent composition. Because percentage is
given, it is convenient to assume 100.00 grams of the compound.

A. A compound is found to consist of 7.81% C and 92.19% Cl. What is the empirical
formula of the compound?
Assume 100.00 grams of the compound. The sample will therefore contain 7.81 g C
and 92.19 g Cl. The grams are converted to moles to get the ratios of the moles of the
elements in the compound:

The compound is C0.650Cl2.601. But chemical formulas are expressed in

whole numbers. Empirical formulas are expressed as the lowest whole number ratio
between the atoms. To convert to whole numbers, divide the number of moles by the
smallest value (that is 0.650).

The empirical formula is C1Cl4 or CCl4.

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 17

B. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy. It is composed of 40.92 percent carbon (C), 4.58 percent hydrogen (H), and
54.50 percent oxygen (O) by mass. Determine its empirical formula.

ASSUME 100grams of ascorbic acid

Thus, we arrive at the formula C3.407H4.54O3.406, which gives the identity and the mole ratios of atoms present.
However, chemical formulas are written with whole numbers. Try to convert to whole numbers by dividing all the
subscripts by the smallest subscript (3.406):

where the ≈ sign means “approximately equal to.” This gives CH1.33O as the formula for ascorbic acid. Next, we
need to convert 1.33, the subscript for H, into an integer. This can be done by a trial-and-error procedure:

1.33 X 1 = 1.33
1.33 X 2 = 2.66
1.33 X 3 = 3.99 ≈ 4

Because 1.33 X 3 gives us an integer (4), we multiply all the subscripts by 3 and obtain C3H4O3 as the empirical
formula for ascorbic acid.

Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas (COMBUSTION ANALYSIS)

The fact that we can determine the empirical formula of a compound if we know the percent composition enables
us to identify compounds experimentally. The procedure is as follows. First, chemical analysis tells us the number of
grams of each element present in a given amount of a compound. Then, we convert the quantities in grams to number
of moles of each element. Finally, using the formula in the examples, we find the empirical formula of the compound.
As a specific example, let us consider the compound ethanol. When ethanol is burned in an apparatus, carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are given off. Because neither carbon nor hydrogen was in the inlet gas, we can conclude
that both carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) were present in ethanol and that oxygen (O) may also be present. (Molecular
oxygen was added in the combustion process, but some of the oxygen may also have come from the original ethanol
sample.)
The masses of CO2 and of H2O produced can be determined by measuring the increase in mass of the CO 2 and
H2O absorbers, respectively. Suppose that in one experiment the combustion of 11.5 g of ethanol produced 22.0 g of
CO2 and 13.5 g of H2O. We can calculate the mass of carbon and hydrogen in the original 11.5-g sample of ethanol as
follows:

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 18

Thus, 11.5 g of ethanol contains 6.00 g of carbon and 1.51 g of hydrogen. The remainder must be oxygen, whose mass
is mass of O = mass of sample - (mass of C + mass of H)

= 11.5 g - (6.00 g + 1.51 g)

= 4.0 g

The number of moles of each element present in 11.5 g of ethanol is:

The formula of ethanol is therefore C0.50H1.5O0.25 (we

round off the number of moles to two significant figures).
Because the number of atoms must be an integer, we divide
the subscripts by 0.25, the smallest subscript, and obtain for
the empirical formula C2H6O.
Now we can better understand the word “empirical,”
which literally means “based only on observation and
measurement.” The empirical formula of ethanol is
determined from analysis of the compound in terms of its component elements. No knowledge of how the atoms are
linked together in the compound is required.

Determination of Molecular Formulas

The formula calculated from percent composition by mass is always the empirical formula because the
subscripts in the formula are always reduced to the smallest whole numbers. To calculate the actual, molecular formula
we must know the approximate molar mass of the compound in addition to its empirical formula. Knowing that the
molar mass of a compound must be an integral multiple of the molar mass of its empirical formula, we can use the molar
mass to find the molecular formula.

1. A compound is found to consist of 43.64% P and 56.36% O. The molar mass for the compound is 283.88 g/mol. What
is the empirical formula and molecular formula of the compound?
Assume 100.00 grams of the compound. What is the mass of each element in 100.00 grams of compound?

What are the moles of each element in 100.00 grams of compound?

Divide the mole values by the smallest value to get

The compound is PO2.5. But the subscripts are still not whole numbers. Multiply the subscripts by a factor to get the
smallest whole number. When multiplied by 2, the empirical formula is P 2O5.

What is the molecular formula?

Compare the mass of the empirical formula to the molar mass:
Empirical Formula Mass of P2O5 = 141.94 g/mol
Molar mass = 283.88 g/mol

Therefore, the molecular formula is (P2O5)2 or P4O10

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 19

References:

Mendoza E. and Religioso T. (2008). Chemistry Laboratory Manual. Phoenix

Publication
Mendoza E. (2003). Chemistry Textbook. Phoenix Publication

Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. (2016). Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Isotopes and atomic mass [Simulation]. Retrieved from Phet Interactive Simulations website:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/isotopes-and-atomic-mass

Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L. &Jurs, P.C. (2012). Chemistry: The molecular science (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks
Cole/CengageLearning.

Zumdahl, SS. & Zumdahl, S.A. (2012). Chemistry: An atoms first approach. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage
Learning.

Allan, Andy. The mole [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from

http://www.sciencegeek.net/APchemistry/FlashPPT/3_TheMole/ index.html

Burdge, J. & Overby, J. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms first. New York: McGraw-Hill

Ma. Teresa M. Chico- PSDS, Rosalina Aranzamendez- PSDS and Ma. Victoria Santos- PSDS
General Chemistry 1 (2019) Rex Book Store

STEM General Chemistry 1 (2018) Diwa Learning System

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 20

 Class No.

General Chemistry 1
MODULE 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Name: _______________________________________________ Grade 11 - ________________ Score: __________

ACTIVITY 1.2.1 – ISOTOPES (WW)

Part A. Calculate the abundances of each isotope using the mass numbers as the mass of each individual isotope.
Write your complete solution.
1. Strontium consists of three isotopes with masses of 86, 87, and 88 (abundance of 72.6%). If the average atomic
mass of strontium is 87.62 amu, what are the abundances of Sr-86 and Sr-87?

2. Titanium has three common isotopes: 46Ti, 47Ti, 50Ti (45.3%). If the average atomic mass of titanium is 47.90 amu,
what are the percent abundances of Ti-46 & Ti-47?

Part B. Solve for the average atomic mass of the following isotopes using their percentage abundance and atomic
mass. Write your complete solution.

3. Rubidium is a soft, silvery-white metal that has Evo common isotopes, 85Rb and 87Rb. If the abundance of' 85Rb is
72.2% and the abundance of 87Rb is 27.8%, what is the average atomic mass of rubidium?

4. Uranium is used in nuclear reactors and is a rare element on earth. Uranium has three common isotopes. If the
abundance of 234U is 0.01%, the abundance of 235U is 0.71%, and the abundance of 238U is 99.28%, what is the average
atomic mass of uranium?

Part C. Complete the following chart:

Isotope name Atomic Mass # # of protons # of neutrons # of electrons

number
5. Boron - 11
6. Bismuth – 209
7. Strontium – 90
8. Calcium - 48
9. 22 22
10. 30 26

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 21

 Class No.

General Chemistry 1
MODULE 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Name: _______________________________________________ Grade 11 - ________________ Score: __________

ACTIVITY 1.2.2 - FORMULA WRITING AND NAMING OF COMPOUNDS (WW) If your class number is
an odd number, you will only answer the odd and if even number, answer even number. Write your class
number on the upper box
Part A. Name the following cations and anions.
1. Sr 2+ 6. S2-
2. Ba2+ 7. P3-
3. Fe3+ 8. I-
4. Cs+ 9. N3-
5. Sc3+ 10. F-

Part B. Use the criss-cross method to write formula units for these ionic compounds.
Cl- CO32- OH- SO42- PO43- NO3-
3+
1. Al
2. Co3+
3. Fe2+
4. Mg2+
5. H+
6. Fe3+

Part C. Name the following compounds

Ionic Compounds Molecular/Covalent Acids and Bases

Compounds
1. CaBr 1. NO 1. HI
2. Mg3N2 2. NH3 2. HF
3. Al2S3 3. CCl4 3. HBr
4. KCl 4. P2O5 4. H3PO4
5. Na2O 5. PCl5 5. HC2H3O2
6. AlF3 6. SF6 6. HCN
7. Ba(ClO3)2 7. NF3 7. Co(OH)2
8. CuI 8. NI3 8. Be(OH)2
9. HgBr2 9. Cl2O7 9. Ca(OH)2
10. Fe2O3 10. CBr4 10. H2CO3

Part D. Write the chemical formula of the following compounds.

Ionic Compounds Molecular/Covalent Acids and Bases

Compounds
1. Iron(II)chloride 1. nitrogen dioxide 1. hydrobromic acid
2. tin(IV)fluoride 2. dinitrogen trioxide 2. hydrofluoric acid
3. copper(II)oxide 3. carbon disulfide 3. aluminum hydroxide
4. silver fluoride 4. sulfur trioxide 4. nitrous acid
5. mercury(II)bromide 5. diphosphorus pentoxide 5. iron (III) hydroxide
6. strontium bicarbonate 6. dinitrogen tetroxide 6. lithium hydroxide
7. potassium nitrate 7. diphosphorus monosulfide 7. hydroselenic acid
8. zinc nitrate 8. phosphorus trichloride 8. sulfurous acid
9. Iron(II)oxide 9. nitrogen trifluoride 9. Chlorous acid
10. zinc chloride 10. oxygen difluoride 10. Perchloric acid

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 22

 Class No.

General Chemistry 1
MODULE 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Name: _______________________________________________ Grade 11 - ________________ Score: __________

ACTIVITY 1.2.3 - THE CONCEPTS OF ATOMIC MASS, FORMULA MASS, MOLECULAR MASS,
MOLAR MASS, EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA. (PT)
Answer the following questions. Show your calculations. Observe the use of significant figures for calculations and
indicate the appropriate units.

1. Aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, is a compound used in sewage treatment plants. What is the percentage composition
of Al2(SO4)3?

2. Sodium phosphate (Na3PO4) is used to cut grease. Calculate its percentage composition.

3. A mercury (I) salt has the following composition by mass; mercury, 80.69% sulfur, 6.436%; oxygen, 12.87%.
Determine the empirical formula of the salt.

4. A compound was analyzed and found to have the following percentage composition: aluminum, 15.77%; sulfur,
28.11% and oxygen, 56.12%. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

5. A compound consists of 65.45% C; 5.592% H, and 29.06% O on a mass basis and has a molar mass of
approximately 110g. Determine the molecular formula of the compound.

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 23

6. β-carotene, a compound found in carrots, can be broken down to form vitamin A. The empirical formula for β-
carotene is C5H7. The molar mass of β-carotene is 536 g/mol. What is the molecular formula of β-carotene?

7. 33.658 g of oxygen was used to completely react with a sample of a hydrocarbon in a combustion reaction. The
reaction products were 33.057 g of carbon dioxide and 10.816 g of water. Ascertain the empirical formula of the
compound.

8. A hydrocarbon fuel is fully combusted with 18.214 g of oxygen to yield 23.118 g of carbon dioxide and 4.729 g of
water. Find the empirical formula for the hydrocarbon.

_____________________________________
Parent’s signature over printed name
Date _______________

General Chemistry 1 – Module 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 24