07/08, 9:31 am

11)P2-B(iii),C(V),C(vi).
P2-B-(iii) Tribal Communities in India:
(a) Definitional problems
=Tribes have been defined as a group of indigenous people with shallow history, having common name, language and territory, tied by
strong kinship bonds, practicing endogamy, having distinct customs, rituals and beliefs, simple social rank and political organization, common ownership
of resources and technology.
-Such definitions are not very helpful because when the situation of tribes is examined carefully not only do we find a lot of variations in their lifestyles but
also many of these features are shared by the caste people. This raises the problem as to how to distinguish them from castes.
= Imperial Gazeteer of India - A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a
common territory and is not
usually endogamous, though originally it might have been so.
o Definite contiguous territorial area
o Common dialect
o Economically backward
o Political identity and customary laws
o Maintain social distance with other tribe
o Endogamous
o Culturally homogenous group
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay defines a tribe as a social group usually with a definite area, dialect, cultural homogeneity and unifying social organization.
It can include several sub-groups.
T.B Naik has given the following features of tribes in Indian context:
o A tribe should have least functional interdependence within the community.
o It should be economically backward (i.e. primitive means of exploiting natural resources, tribal economy should be at an underdeveloped stage and it
should have multifarious economic pursuits).
o There should be a comparative geographical isolation of its people.
o They should have a common dialect.
o Tribes should be politically organized and community panchayats should be influential.
o A tribe should have customary laws
Andre Beteille correctly said that there is a basic problem in the definition of tribe that it is very tough to differentiate between peasants and tribe.
Bailey (1960) has suggested that the only solution to the problem of definition of tribes in India is to conceive of a continuum of which at one end are
tribes and at the other are castes.
The tribes have a segmentary, egalitarian system and are not mutually interdependent, as are castes in a system of organic solidarity. They have direct
access to land and no intermediary is
involved between them and land.
S C Dube provided a fivefold classification of Indian tribes to highlight the diversity that lies among them.
o Aboriginals living in seclusion
o Tribal groups having an association with the neighboring non-tribal society, but maintaining their distinctiveness
o Tribals living in villages along with caste groups, sects and religious groups and maintaining their identity
o Tribals who have been degraded to the status of untouchables
o Tribals who enjoy high economic, social and political status
=Caste and Tribe:
According to one perspective, caste and tribe are seen along a continuum.
Srinivas’ sanskritisation model also illustrates how tribal groups enter into caste system.
Similarly, Ghurye has called tribals as Backward Hindus and he presented a framework for classification of tribes from Hindu perspective.
F.G.Bailey gave a tribe – caste continuum model but such a simplistic correlation between caste and tribes is rejected by modern anthropologists.
Alternative view holds that tribe and caste are different social categories which are mistakenly viewed by earlier sociologists and anthropologists as
being a part of one larger Indian society.
Caste has been treated as social institution regulated by hereditary DOL, hierarchy, principle of purity and pollution, civil and religious disabilities, etc.
Tribes, on the other hand, have been seen as being characterised by absence of features attributed to caste. The differences in two can be summed up
as:
o According to Herbert Risley, the convention of endogamy is not rigidly enforced in tribes unlike in case of caste.
o Max Weber – when a tribe loses its territorial significance, it assumes the form of caste.
o Tribal societies have an egalitarian social order. Status of members of tribal group, but in caste of caste, it is not.
o Caste is not a political association per se, but a tribe, often, is.
= Over the years, as tribal groups came in close contact with the larger Hindu society, they also acquired some traits of Hindu society. Study by
Mandelbaum in Nilgiri hills, dating back to
1930s, showed that Todas, had, even at that time, acquired much caste – like attributes. Many of them practiced endogamy and had occupational
segregation as well.
Owing to lack of consensus on a uniform definition, tribal definitional problem still remains significant because it is closely related to their identity and to
question of their development.
A change in definition from colonial time to present time also shows the changing attitude of mainstream towards them. Thus definition is an important
point that charts out the course of action for their socio – economic and cultural development and preservation of their identities.
(b) Geographical Spread
As per some estimates, tribals are concentrated in about 15% of geographical area and as per 2011 census, they form about 8.6% of total population.
There are more than 700 notified tribes under article 342 and there are many more subs –tribes as well.
About 85% of tribal population lives in central India. Chhattisgarh, parts of MH and AP form heart of this region. Of remaining 15%, over 11% inhabit NE
states leaving only a little over
3% living in the rest of India.
Tribal in India originate from five language families, i.e. Andamanese, Austro-Asiatic, Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman. It is also important to point out that
those tribes who belong
to different language families live in distinct geographic settings. For example, in South Orissa there are languages that originate from the Central
Dravidian family, Austro-Asiatic
(Munda) family and the Indo-Aryan. In the Jharkhand area, languages are from the Indo-Aryan, North Dravidian and Austro-Asiatic. Tribal in India live in the
following five territories.
o The Himalayan belt: (Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, hills of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh). Major
tribes are
Lepchas, Bhotias, Gaddi, Jaunsari, Abhor, Kuki, Mismi, Garo and Naga – mostly from Mongolian stock
o Central India: Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh. 55% of the total tribal population of India lives in this belt. Major tribes are Bhumjo, Gond,
Ho, Dhangar, Oraon, Munda and Santhal. Belong to Proto – Australoid stock
o Western India: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Main tribes – Bhils, Grasia belong to Proto – Australoid stock
o Dravidian region: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
o Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep island group. Southern zone and islands major tribes – Chenchu, Toda, Jarawas, Irula and Kadar; mix of Negrito,
Caucsoid and Proto – Australoid stocks.
=Some of the tribes with their geographical location are mentioned below
1)Santhals are the third largest tribe in India. They are mostly found in the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhand and Assam.
2)Munda tribe mainly inhabit the region of Jharkhand, although they are well spread in the states of West Bengal, Chhattisgarh,
Orissa and Bihar. Munda generally means headman of the village. Hunting is the main occupation of the Mundas tribe.
3)Khasi tribe is mainly found in the Khasi Jaintia hills in Meghalaya and in the states of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur, West Bengal and Jammu and
Kashmir. They form the large part of the population in the state of Meghalaya.

(c) Colonial policies and tribes:

Before colonial rule, Indian tribes had been living in forest and hilly areas a part and parcel of Indian population and enjoyed freedom of life without
interference of state.
British – economic exploitation – one prime reasons for exploiting India and affected relations with Indian tribes as well.
British policy – 2 major elements:
1)o It favoured isolation of tribal areas from mainstream. Their political interests also prevented integration of tribes with mainstream as they saw their
union with larger population as threat to empire.
2)o At level of reforms, the British administration was interested in civilising these people.
Colonisers followed similar policy of exploitation and alienation with tribes that they followed in rest of India. To maximise their earnings, various attempts
were made to
bring tribes into fold of revenue administration. At same time, forests and tribal lands were subjected to exploitation at an unprecedented level.
AR Desai indicates that colonial tribal policy was a systematic form of economic exploitation of the forest area and massive mineral deposit that were
exploited through the use of tribal
labour. Contractors and money lenders were permitted by the colonial rule to exploit these resources located within tribal pockets for economic gains.
-Any tribal protest was ruthlessly suppressed and many tribes in different parts of the country who refused to cooperate with the colonial policies were
labeled as criminal tribes e.g. Mina Tribes. He considers that colonial tribal policy is largely responsible for detribalisation and depeasantization.
=The tribes were labeled as criminals just for asking for justice and freedom. The criminal tribes are not criminals because of the fact that they go for crime
by force and not by choice. Their habitat is altered, their livelihood is taken away from them and their self-respect is undermined. Labeling them as criminal
tribes, the state got legitimacy to imprison and even kill innocent tribesmen to generate fear in the mass mind for the accomplishment of their economic
goals.
Mahatma Gandhi reflecting on the limitation of colonial tribal policy, indicated that rise of Hindu militantism is a reaction to the conversion policy
accelerated by Christian missionaries in tribal pockets under the patronage of British administration. Whereas another view considers that Christian
missionaries took tribal away from the world of darkness to the world
of enlightenment, spreading education, and health care and glorified the unity among the tribes.
During 1871 the Government of India act was introduced which was further provided tooth by the act of 1891. These acts laid down provision for the
creation of „Partially Secluded
Areas‟ (tribal population at least 50%) and "Fully Secluded Areas‟ (tribal population more than 80%). Without official permission outsiders were not
allowed to enter into these areas,
developmental activities in these areas can only be initiated through the endorsement of state, the governor will be in charge of these areas.
Therefore these areas were converted into tribal islands completely controlled by the state. This colonial policy led to the distinction between
caste society and tribal society. The tribal in these areas realized caste society as their prime exploiters and identified them as “Dikus” (Dacoits).
Initial attempts of the British to interfere with the tribal areas led to a large number of tribal revolts like Chaur Uprising, 1832, Kol and Ho Uprising, Chota
Nagpur, 1832, Satara Revolt,
1840, Santhal Rebellion, 1856 and so on. Due to this, during the late 19th century a policy of administrative segregation emerged.
Colonial rule permitted traders, forest contractors to commercially exploit the resources and that subsequently led to the hostility between caste and
tribe.
M S A Rao writes that during colonial rule mining and construction activities reduced tribe people as casual low paid labor. According to Guha & Gadgil,
colonial rule also led to „ecological imperialism‟ and tribals were invariably forced to move into commercial agriculture from hunting gathering nomadic
activities. Some tribals were even termed as
criminal tribes by Criminal Tribes Act 1871.
During the 19th century, the British policy towards tribes is seen in terms of 3 aspects:
1)o Administrative segregation: aimed at isolating tribes from mainstream. GOI act of 1870 provided some protection and scheduled districts act of 1874
led to creation of certain scheduled tracts.
-1919 act created excluded and modified excluded areas with different administrative structure than mainstream which was later slightly modified
in 1935 act as excluded and partially excluded areas. Even Elwin, who worked a lot for tribals in India, talked of creating some sorts of tribal national parks
and he
termed the then contemporary attempts of tribal developments as overhasty.
2)o A proactive forest policy: traditional lifeline of tribes – source of livelihood apart from cultural significance. Forest policy – maximising economic gain
passed
exclusionary laws like forest act of 1865, which took away traditional forest rights. Forest act of 1878 tightened grip and change nature of common
property. Classified
forests as reserved, protected and village forests – without considering tribals and was uncorrected for 125 years until forest rights act, 2006 was enacted.
Activities like
grazing and collection of fuel wood was declared illegal and tribals had to pay taxes for these activities where permissible. Laws exhaustive and many
tribals violated
according to Elwin.
3)o Reformist approach: British also assumed redemptory role wherever possible. Christian missionaries manifested in form of The White Man‟s Burden
creating further divide between mainstream Hindus and tribes, thus, creating further social divide in already divided society. However some sociologists
argue that they were taking tribes out of dark ages and made them aware of their rightful place in society.
= Veerrier Elwin suggested an isolation approach to tribal development. He indicated that tribes must be kept away from their progressive counterparts
because if they are exposed to market economy and modern culture without adequate preparation, they would simply die out suffering from cultural
shock.
-This approach was termed as "Museumology‟ approach by his critics. GS Ghurye rejecting this approach indicated that tribal development does not
mean we
should go for national parks. He indicated that social evolution should take place in phases i.e. first from tribe to caste and ultimately to class. Therefore
tribes must be exposed to caste,
live in caste villages and take up caste occupation so that tribe–caste differences can be minimized and both can enter into modern society eventually
contributing to the nation
building process.
= According to Buddhadeb in his book – "Tribal Transformation in India, 1992‟, expansion of railways broke down their historical isolation and initiated a
process of unchecked and indiscriminate assimilation leading to "detribalisation‟ of tribes.
On the whole, tribals were detached from their traditional occupations, were forced into sedentary subsistence agriculture or into bonded labour in
estates, were pushed into poverty
and indebtedness leading to tribal unrest.

(d) Issues of integration and autonomy

Issues of tribal development, integration and autonomy had been highly convoluted right since inception of British rule in India.
Complexity of tribal population made task of integration and autonomy a difficult one.
Ethnic tribal sub – nationalism was another issue that Independent India had to address.
Theoretical basis of development debate in context of Indian tribals is use of balance between autonomy and integration.
Autonomy is desired so that development policies are organically evolved to suit to their tribal culture and lifestyle. On other hand, there is also an
argument that leaving tribal in their
own state will deepen development divide between the mainstream and tribal.
Verrier Elwin said – "we don‟t want to preserve tribesman as museum specimen, but at same time want the development clock to show the right time‟.
Famous isolation versus integration debate in 1940s
o Isolationist side – need protection from traders, moneylenders. Hutton supported isolation view.
o Elwin modified no change and revivalism.
o Integrationists called for integration of tribal into mainstream society.
The issue of tribal integration with larger society has been studied from two broad perspective:
o Cultural integration – theory is by product of tribe – caste continuum proposition that
was forwarded by early anthropologists. S C Roy articulated this thought through his idea of co – existence of Jana and Jati. Ghurye called tribes as
Backward Hindus. Such arguments led Andre Beteille to conclude that tribe and caste are similar as there are little racial and language differences.
o Political and economic integration – other like Surajit Sinha understands integration in terms of economic necessity of peasants to have cheap labour
and he instead gave
concept of Tribe – Peasant continuum. Thus, cultural integration had an economic basis according to him.
LP Vidyarthi was the chief architect of the Tribal Development Program in India. On the basis of his suggestions multiple tribal development projects
were introduced in India since
the fourth plan period. He mooted the idea of developing Tribal Development Areas on the lines of Community Development Areas where schools,
hospitals, irrigation, vocational training centre, agriculture facilities should be extended to the tribal communities. Abandoning their traditional mode of
livelihood, tribes can participate in a new system of production and tribal economy can be linked up with the national economy efficiently.
-He further suggested special rehabilitation schemes for tribal communities displaced by industrialisation and development projects. Therefore these
tribal groups instead of becoming
victims of development must be benefiting from development programs. It will also lead to their integration with the larger economy and society.
Jawahar Lal Nehru introduced Panchsheel policy for tribal development which talked about:
o Tribal development should take place respecting its own genius.
o Tribal development should be evaluated not in terms of amount of money spent but in terms of how many national characters have been developed.
o Tribal should not be kept in a state of isolation.
o Many developmental projects should not be introduced in tribal areas to accelerate the process of development.
o Tribal development should take place on the basis of potential needs of the tribal people.
Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006 is a step to assuage their condition and address the
long standing demand of forest
rights. Other initiatives include – Tribal Sub Plan since 1974, National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, TRIFED for tribal goods marketing, reservation of
seats for ST in Lok
Sabha and Assemblies – Article 164, 330, 332, appointment of Minister in charge of Tribal welfare, Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996
(PESA) and so on which
aim to address problems of integration, development and autonomy in a multi-dimensional manner.
According to Walter Fernandes, in his „Power and Powerlessness: Development Projects and Displacement of Tribals, 1991‟, around 3 crore people have
been displaced by developmental
activities in the past 50 years and 42% of them were tribal. Number of tribal laborers has also increased substantially during this period. Poverty among
tribes is around 50% much more
than the country average. There are also higher incidence of maternal mortality, anemia and child mortality among tribes.
According to Xaxa tribal integration in post-independence period has been a constitutional prescription and not an empirical reality. Despite lofty plans
like as suggested by Elwin that
there be special blocks in the first Five Year Plan (FYP) for tribal development, consequent adoption of "Tribal Sub Plan‟ since 5th FYP and "Diversified
Approach‟ since 9th FYP have
all proved inadequate. Instead, inconsiderate developmental process has posed a threat to their identity and it has not been for tribes, but at the cost of
tribes and they are reduced to second
class citizens.
-While linguistic factions are successful in carving out their own states, tribals are still struggling for meaningful autonomy. However, some concessions
are made in form of
Schedule 5th and 6th to tribals and recent progress like Darjeeling Hill Council being given as more autonomy in 2012 are some signs of state doing its
extra bit towards tribal autonomy.

=Some issues:
The Dhebhar Commission visited some such areas and remarked some of these attempts as "absurd‟. Thus, weaning people away from it does appear to
be not the only solution. The
problem in case is to be understood in the backdrop of the peoples‟ sociocultural and economic relations. Apart from the cost of displacement and
relocation, there is also the
problem of deforestation, loss of agricultural land, environmental degradation, and marginalization of the weaker sections.
These adverse effects are called the „backwash effects.‟ The benefits of „spread effects‟ are enjoyed by the nation at large, while it is the local
population that bear the brunt of the
backwash effects. In 2011, the Twelfth Five-Year Plan blandly noted that of the estimated 60
million people displaced in development projects since independence, as many as 40% were adivasis - not a surprise given that 90% of our coal and more
than 50% of most minerals and
dam sites are mainly in tribal regions.
Another problem which accentuates the situation of land scarcity and land alienation among the tribals is their growing population. 50-70% of the
adivasi population lives in areas that are
still not covered by the Fifth Schedule.
Levels of illiteracy are high, with 47% in rural areas and 21.8% in urban areas being unable to read and write. According to census 2011 literacy rate for STs
is 59% compared to national
average of 73%. Literacy level among ST men is at 68.5% but for women it is still below 50%. As in other matters of agriculture the tribals also suffer from
terrible inadequacies.
They do not have access to credit facilities, irrigation works, etc. On the whole, in matter of planned development the tribals have been neglected.
During the Fifth Five-Year Plan, it was felt that the benefits of state-sponsored modernization and development activities were being chiefly
monopolized by the big tribes, thus the gulf
between them and the other smaller tribes was widening. The need was to have special schemes for them. From the list of Scheduled Tribes, the
communities which were educationally and socially backward and nearly isolated, surviving at a pre-agricultural level, and had a declining or
near-constant population, were separately placed in a list of Primitive Tribes.
=Constitutional safeguards:
Under Article 15(4) special provisions are made for educational advancement of the Scheduled Tribes. These provisions are like reservation of seats and
relaxation in marks in
admission to educational institutions, scholarships, etc.
Under Article 46 the State is enjoined upon to promote with special care to education and economic interests of SC and ST and protect them from social
injustice and all forms of exploitation.
Articles 330 and 332 seats are reserved for SC and ST in Lok Sabha, State Vidhan Sabhas. Under Article 339(1) the President may at anytime appoint a
Commission to report on the
administration of the Scheduled Area and the welfare of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes in
the State.
Articles Of the Fundamental Rights to Equality (14, 15, 16, 17), rights against exploitation (23, 24), special rights of the tribals (15, 16, 19).
Directive Principles of the State Policy related to the Scheduled Tribes (38, 39, 41, 43, 46, 47, 48). Article 46 which commits that the state "shall promote
with special care the educational
and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from
social injustice and all forms of exploitation."
A provision for a minister of tribal welfare in some states (164).
Administration of the Scheduled and Tribal Areas specially with respect to land alienation and money lending (244).

=PVTG:
In 1973, the Dhebar Commission created Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) as a separate category, who are less developed among the tribal groups. Some
basic characteristics of PVTGs are:
o Mostly homogenous
o A small population
o Relatively physically isolated
o Primitive Social institutions
o Absence of written language
o Relatively simple technology and a slower rate of change
Their livelihood depends on food gathering, Non Timber Forest Produce, hunting, livestock rearing, shifting cultivation and artisan works.
Scheme for Development of Primitive Vulnerable Tribal Groups (2008):
o It identifies 75 PVTGs as the most vulnerable among the Scheduled Tribes across 17 states.
o It gives state governments flexibility in planning initiatives.
o Activities covered include housing, land distribution and development, agriculture, roads, energy, etc.
o Additional Funds are available for activities not already funded by any other Scheme of the center/state.
o A long term Conservation-cum-Development plan for five years for each PVTG to be established by States. The Scheme is funded entirely by the Central
government.
=De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-nomadic Tribes:
During the British colonial rule, if the local government had reason to believe that a gang or a tribe had “addicted to systematic commission of
non-bailable offences” then it was registered as criminal tribe under the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871.
Restrictions were imposed on their movement and adult male members of the community had to report to the police on regular intervals.
Next came the Criminal Tribes Act, 1924. Under this act, the local government may establish reformatory schools and separate criminal tribe children
from their parents and guardians and
place them in such schools.
The Ananthsayanam Ayyangar Committee (1949-50) gave a comprehensive report on how CTA worked throughout India.
o It listed 116 tribes in British territories and 200 in Princely States.
o It also recommended that the CTA be repealed and a central legislation be established that was applicable to habitual offenders without distinction
based on caste, creed and race.
The CTA was repealed in 1949 and was replaced by the Habitual Offenders Act, 1952. In 2002, Justice Venkatchaliah Commission recommended for
strengthening the programmes for
economic and educational development of DNTs. It also recommended constituting a special commission to look into the needs and grievances of the
DNTs.
In March 2007, the UN‟s Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination said: “The so-called de-notified and nomadic people which are listed for
their alleged „criminal
tendencies‟ under the former Criminal Tribes Act (1871), continue to be stigmatized under the Habitual Offenders…,” and asked India to repeal the Habitual
Offenders Act and rehabilitate the de-notified and nomadic tribes.
The recommendation found an echo in the Idate Commission, constituted with the similar mandate in 2015. Recently Union Government has decided to
form Welfare Development Board for De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNT/ NT/ SNT) communities and committee under NITI Aayog to
identify them.
= Thus it will be premature to conclude that tribes of India are effectively integrated with the larger society, glorifying the intervention policy of the state
in terms of reservation, creation of tribal states. Tribes of India are confused, shattered, disillusioned and at the same time volatile and going for protest
and movement with different intensity in various parts of the country.
These rebellions may be considered as the manifestation of cultural myopia of the tribes but many consider such reaction as a tribal search for the
appropriate space in the social life which has been historically denied to them.
Even in these modern Days, the lifestyle of tribal society is primitive and it totally depends on characteristic ways of non-monetary transacted life. It‟s
astonishing and fascinating to know what a synthesized country India is, highly encapsulating macrocosm and microcosm.

Q: Analyse the perspectives of Isolation, Assimilation and Integration in understanding the trajectories of Indian Tribal Development.
Isolation:
-The isolation perspective is based on the belief that tribal communities should be left alone to develop at their own pace and in their own ways. It
suggests that any external interference, be it from the government or the non-tribal communities, would disrupt their cultural and social fabric. This
approach has been used to justify the creation of tribal reserves and protected areas where the tribal communities can live in isolation from the
mainstream society.
-Assimilation:
The assimilation perspective views tribal communities as backward and primitive, and advocates for their assimilation into the mainstream society. It
suggests that tribal communities should adopt the socio-cultural and economic practices of the mainstream society to progress and develop. This
approach has been used to justify various government policies and programs aimed at assimilating tribal communities into the mainstream society.
-Integration:
The integration perspective views tribal communities as distinct but equal entities, and advocates for their integration into the mainstream society. It
suggests that tribal communities should be allowed to retain their unique culture and identity while also participating in the socio-economic activities of
the mainstream society. This approach has been used to justify various government policies and programs aimed at integrating tribal communities into
the mainstream society.
-In conclusion, the perspectives of isolation, assimilation, and integration provide valuable insights into the trajectories of Indian tribal development.
However, they also highlight the need for a more nuanced and inclusive approach that recognizes the unique socio-economic and cultural needs of the
tribal communities.

Q: Elucidate the challenges of integration for tribal communities in india.

-Integration of Tribal Communities
Tribal communities in India, also known as Adivasis, constitute around 8.6% of the total population. They are predominantly found in the central, eastern,
and northeastern parts of the country. Despite their rich cultural heritage and unique social structures, tribal communities face numerous challenges in
integrating with mainstream Indian society. Some of the key challenges are as follows:
-Socio-economic Marginalization
Tribal communities in India are often economically disadvantaged, with limited access to resources, education, healthcare, and employment
opportunities. They largely depend on agriculture, forest produce, and traditional occupations for their livelihood. The lack of integration with the
mainstream economy and the absence of adequate social security measures further exacerbate their socio-economic marginalization.
Land Alienation and Displacement
Large-scale development projects, such as dams, mining, and industrialization, have led to the displacement of tribal communities from their ancestral
lands. This has not only disrupted their traditional way of life but also resulted in the loss of their cultural identity. The inadequate implementation of
protective legislation, such as the Forest Rights Act (2006) and the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (1996), has also contributed to land
alienation and displacement.
-Cultural Assimilation and Loss of Identity
The process of integration often involves the imposition of mainstream cultural values and practices on tribal communities. This can lead to the erosion of
their unique cultural identity, languages, and traditions. The dominant mainstream culture often views tribal culture as inferior, leading to discrimination
and stigmatization of tribal communities.
-Educational Challenges
Tribal communities have significantly lower literacy rates compared to the national average. The lack of access to quality education, language barriers,
and cultural differences contribute to the educational challenges faced by tribal communities. The absence of culturally sensitive and relevant
educational curricula further hampers their integration into mainstream society.
-Health Disparities
Tribal communities face numerous health challenges due to inadequate healthcare infrastructure, lack of awareness, and cultural barriers. They often
have limited access to modern healthcare facilities and rely on traditional healing practices. The prevalence of malnutrition, communicable diseases, and
high infant mortality rates further underscores the health disparities faced by tribal communities.
-Political Representation and Participation
Tribal communities are often underrepresented in the political sphere, which hampers their ability to influence policies and decisions that affect their
lives. The lack of political representation and participation also contributes to their marginalization and exclusion from mainstream society.
-Discrimination and Social Exclusion
Tribal communities often face discrimination and social exclusion based on their distinct cultural identity. This can manifest in various forms, such as
denial of access to public spaces, social ostracism, and even violence. The persistence of stereotypes and prejudices against tribal communities further
exacerbates their social exclusion.

P2-(c)-(v)Social Movements in Modern India:

(a) Peasants and farmers movement

Social movements in modern India were mostly the result of British rule and the impact caused by the rule on Indian society. Different sections have
launched their movements but
there was also a movement for national regeneration and future independence of India.
MSA Rao- Social movements are such collective actions which involve a large number of people; a specific enunciation of the objectives and goals of the
movement and they must
have an ideology to follow. Rao said movements are always organized and have divisions of labour, framed rules and a leadership. India has experienced a
whole array of social
movements involving women, peasants, dalits, adivasis, and others.
Gail Omvedt in her book Reinventing Revolution points out that concerns about social inequality and the unequal distribution of resources continue to
be important elements in these movements.
=Peasants and Farmers movement:
Peasant Movements in India have started in large numbers during the British rule:
o Before the British rule, there was a large Mughal consensus and compromise to not collect the land revenue at the time of drought/famine.
o The reasons which led to peasant movements during the British Rule:
Loss of traditional rights
Marketization of land
Usurious land reforms
Unpaid labour
 Forced cultivation of crops
Restriction of trade
Famine
= There are three questions/controversies on Indian Peasant Movement:

Peasants are conceptually different from the farmers. Farmers grow farm produce for the commercial purpose and have considerably larger
landholdings whereas peasants have smaller landholdings. Peasants may sometimes also do part time labour during leaner season.
There are multiple meanings have been given to the term peasant:
o DN Dhanagre- many classes and sections are linked to agricultural activities. In general discourse all of them are called peasants.
o Kathleen Gough- peasants are divided into many classes and they have unequal interests also.
o Peasants in different regions have different socio-economic conditions due to different modes of production in different regions like feudals,
semi-feudals or
capitalists and often their problems are also different.
o Overall, peasant movements address the problems of actual cultivators, agricultural labourers and other agrarian artisans.
According to AR Desai peasants were the second group to join middle –class intelligentsia to join the National Movement. He said that movements prior
to independence were
predominantly peasant movements and post independence, they were primarily farmer’s movements.
Shift from peasant movements to farmer’s movements also underscores a shift to capitalist mode of production. The peasant movements in the
pre-independence era were not radical
movements.
They wanted to have benefits for some sections of peasantry like Champaran Satyagraha of Gandhi, Bardoli movement of Patel etc. Mostly these
movements were against the British. It
was only the Telangana movement which was against the Nizam and local landlords. In 1946, Tebhaga movement of Bengal was for the 2/3rd share for the
sharecroppers.
❖ Overall nature of PM:
● Moore Jr- hasn’t accepted revolutionary potential of Indian peasantry. Indian peasants= traditionally docile & passive–hence inefficient cultivation
during
Mughal & British periods–so, no widespread PMs.
● Moore’s contention challenged:
➔ Desai- Indian rural scene during entire British period & thereafter—bristling
with protests, revolts & large-scale militant struggles involving 100s of
villages & lasting for yrs
➔ Ranjit Guha- agrarian disturbances of difft forms & scales–ndemic until
end of 19th C, no fewer than 110 known revolts during 117 yr long British rule
➔ Dhanagare- Moore’s generalisations= questionable as there were
various peasant resistance movts & revolts in India
● Desai- nature of peasant movements varies acc to agrarian structures which have undergone changes during difft periods. He classified colonial India
into
ryotwari areas under British territory, zamindari under Princely authority & tribal areas. Peasant struggles in these had difft characteristics, issues &
involved difft peasantry strata.
=Gail Omvedt classifies peasant movements as –
I. Restorative Movements – They included movements like Sanyasi rebellion, Pagalpanthi movement etc which aimed at restoring the old glory apart from
addressing the issues
related to hardship of peasants.
II. Ethnic Movements – They included movements like Santhal Rebellion, Khond Rebellion etc which largely targeted colonial taxation polices, but
mobilization was on ethnic lines.
III. Social Bandatory – They included movements like Tebhaga, Eka Movement etc. They were militant and had leaders like –Madari Pasi, Sahjanad Sraswati
etc who wanted radical
change in the system.
IV. Kisan Sabha Movement – These movements also raised peasants and farmers issue at national issue and also helped in mobilization of peasants in
mainstream national struggle.
=Evolution of Peasant movements:
1) Pre-Independence :
o 19th century:
- In 1858, in Bengal the Indigo Movement started, which was against a kind of
tenancy system where the farmers had given their land on lease to the
company or the independent traders from England. They wanted to free their
lands and it was quite successful.
-In the 1870s, in Mumbai presidency there was a movement of the Maratha
peasants, popularly known as the Deccan riots. These movements were
basically against money lenders.
o 1900-1947: There were many movements in this time frame
- Gandhi’s movement in Champaran in 1916- this was the movement of Indigo farmers to free their lands from Indigo cultivation.
-Bardoli movement of Sardar Patel in 1921- the movement of peasants for the remission of land revenue.
-The first organization to be founded was the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha in 1929 and in 1936 the All India Kisan Sabha was founded as an
umbrella organization.
- The decade of 1930-40 was a decade of serious peasant movements. Such movements were led by leftists like Karyanand Sharma or some
independent activists like Swami Sahajanand.
= These movements were against three grievances:
1)o The peasants wanted control over fallow land which was given under the custody of the landlords.
2)o Many peasants were unhappy with the tenancy laws as these laws placed the peasants in a very weak position.
3)o There was the movement of sharecroppers who wanted 2/3rd share of produce from the field whereas earlier almost 50% was taken by the landlord. In
this phase the
question of peasants was linked to national cause and the peasant’s movements acquired a national character. An important role in linking the cause of
peasants and
agricultural labourers to the wide national movement was played by the Communist Movement.
In 1936, the All India Kisan Sabha was founded as an umbrella organization for peasants. Leadership was from within and was also provided by the
national leaders like Swami Sahajanand and NG Ranga.
According to Dhanagre, leadership of these movements came from the urban middle class and politicians. These movements were properly organised
and represented the interests of
farmers and small landlords. In 1946 probably the most revolutionary peasant movement in India in 20th century occurred.
Post Independence: 3 phases:
o Phase I : It was for sharecropping and tenancy rights. They were not sufficiently strong that they could become the basis for land reforms for example
the Bargadar movement of Bengal.
o Phase II (Pre-Green Revolution ) :The movement of poor peasants for government land was launched. This became quite successful in Kerala and other
parts of the country.
o Phase III (Post-Green Revolution):Faulty land reforms and unequal benefits of the Green Revolution had created discontent among the peasants and
started a movement for the land by the landless people.
After this, there was the beginning of a revolutionary movement of the peasants. PN Mukherjee who has studied the Naxalbari Movement said that might
not have spread to the
large area but their ideology wanted to change the whole Indian state. Even today, the Left Wing Extremism (LWE) is the movement of peasantry.
There were also many farmers’ movements which fall under the category of New Farmers Movements. They were driven by the interest ideology and
wanted to extract maximum benefits out of the state policies.
Another stream of the movement led by the middle class intelligentsia and social workers which clubbed the peasants’ cause with the other social issues,
eg. Narmada Bachao Andolan.
=Impact of Peasant Movements:
Peasant movements in India other than changing the land relations also have strong ‘social impacts’:
Religious and caste differences decreased but the class division’s increased.
Wherever they occurred, they changed the caste relations and the caste distinctions were mostly overcome.
Cultural assimilation increased- as in the areas where they occurred, the collective participation through singing and dancing increased.
With the peasant issues, other issues like poverty, linguistic issues clubbed together. Farmer’s movements differ from peasant movements in terms of
their organisation, purpose and ideology.
Farmers’ movements are largely a post.
=Green revolution movements:
These have emerged in prosperous regions of the country and are also called the new farmer’s movements. Farmers’ movements have a wider resource
base than the peasant movements.
Farmers’ movements address the issue of relative deprivation and the peasant movements address the issue of absolute deprivation. In a globalised and
capitalist mode of production,
interests of farmers and peasants are at crossroad.
There is generally an exploitative and subordinate relationship between peasants and the capitalist farmers.
Farmers’ movements are more organised and act like interest groups.
The nature of protest between farmers’ and peasants movements is different; farmers’ mobilisations have been generally non-violent in contrast with
the peasant movements. Farmers’ movements use new means like Rasta roko, Rail rook etc. to force the government to agree on their demands.
TK Oommen- the issue of farmers and peasants mobilisation have changed drastically over time. No longer there are calls for the Land to the tiller by the
leadership of the farmers’ movements.

= Vibha Arora said that the farmers’ movements in post Independent India emerged in the late 1970s and peaked in the late 1980s. They occasionally
resurfaced in 1993 and 1997 as the Green revolution increased the productivity but the prices remained low.
They pressured the government and got their demands fulfilled like loan waivers, free electricity, free water, subsidised seeds and fertilisers, increased
MSP etc.
Farmers’ groups are taking their movements to the global level and have mobilised support for the agricultural issues in WTO, retail FDI, Contract
Farming, GM seeds etc. In recent
times, farmers’ protests have increased their frequency. The nature of unrest and agitation has changed. The agitation is all about getting the
remunerative prices.
Indian farmers are not able to face global market fluctuations.
Small farmers are more in crisis but almost each farmer is facing the problems of high input cost and low output cost.
Institutional loans are still not available to the farmers, so they are bound to take loans from the moneylenders at high interest rates. Lack of proper
prices to their productivity lead them in a debt trap and in the end they are forced to commit suicides.
The farmers’ agitation has the ability to affect the power structure of the country. By looking at the situation, the government has increased the MSP
by 1.5 times; schemes like PM KISAN Yojana have been launched to provide financial help to the farmers.
 Also other schemes like PM Fasal Bima Yojana to provide insurance to the farms, PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana for providing the irrigation benefits and e-NAM
to connect all the mandis have been launched. According to MS Swaminathan, to solve such a crisis there is a need for ‘Special Agricultural Zones’ (SAZ)
and ‘Evergreen Revolution’ instead of Green Revolution.

(b) Women’s movement:

According to Ramchandra Guha, women in India started thinking about themselves probably around 1886, when Tarabai Shinde wrote a book in Marathi
‘Man and Woman’, where she
had discussed how the cultural and structural impediments resist women education and advancements.
In India's independence struggle women participated in large numbers. Women like Annie Besant and Sarojini Naidu have led the movement by leading
the Congress sessions.
o The early 20th century saw the growth of women’s organisations at a national and local level.
o Women’s participation in the large numbers came in the Swadeshi Movement. Women came in large numbers on the streets to burn the clothes and
succeed the Boycott movement.
o According to Shekhar Bandopadhyay in the 1930-32 Civil disobedience movement more than 30,000 women participated. This was probably possible
due to the popularity of Gandhi Ji.
o The 1935 act provided the voting rights to the women.
o The Women’s India Association (WIA) (1917) All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) (1926), National Council for Women in India (NCWI) (1925) are ready
names that we can mention.
o While many of them began with a limited focus, their scope extended over time. For instance, the AIWC began with the idea that ‘women’s welfare’ and
‘politics’ were mutually exclusive.
o In 194os, there was the start of independent women activities when some women formed the Family Planning Association of India in 1949. Laksmi
Rajvardhan of the Family Planning Association of India demanded for the males to adopt Family planning.
o Independence of India gave a push to the efforts for the women 's causes. There was a boost of the initiatives for the education of women. In the decade
of 1950-60 the
number of women graduates in Indian crossed lakhs. In 1952 women got the Universal voting rights.
In the mid-1970s there was a renewal of the women’s movement in India. Some call it the second phase of the Indian women’s movement. While many of
the concerns remained the
same there were changes both in terms of organisational strategy as well as ideologies.
There was the growth of what is termed as the autonomous women’s movements. The term ‘autonomy’ referred to the fact that they were ‘autonomous’
or independent from political
parties as distinct from those women’s organisations that had links with political parties. It was felt that political parties tended to marginalise issues of
women.
Apart from organisational changes, there were new issues that were focused upon. For instance, violence against women. Over the years there have been
numerous campaigns that have been taken up.
Important legal changes have taken place thanks to the campaign by the women’s movement. Issues of land rights, employment have been fought
alongside rights against sexual
harassment and dowry.
There has been recognition too that while all women are in some way disadvantaged vis-a-vis men, all women do not suffer the same level or kind of
discrimination. The concerns of the
educated middle class women are different from the peasant women just as the concern of the Dalit woman is different from the ‘upper caste’ woman.
Another important incident was the Roop Kanwar incident. She committed suicide by performing Sati. This attracted reactions from many quarters
against the inhuman practices towards the women. According to Maitrayee Chaudhuri this was the important year for the women movement in India.
After 1987 middle class women activists became active in opposing the incidents related to women atrocities.
Many incidents after that like Mathura Rape incident attracted large women support.
The infamous Nirbhaya Case had attracted attention from the many quarters but it was the students and middle class women who have come in large
numbers with the demand of
stricter laws to protect women. Nirbhaya Movement was the Climax of Middle class women movements in India, where a new law was enacted. In reality
the women's movement has come a long way.
● Maitrayee Chaudhuri- women’s participation in freedom struggle developed their critical consciousness about their role & rights in independent India
resulting in intro of franchise & civic rights of women in the Indian Constitution
● Women’s role in tribal & peasant movements:
➔ Manoshi Mitra & Indra Munshi analysed women’s militant role in tribal movements while confronting authorities, wielding traditional
weapons,maintaining supplies to rebels, providing hideouts
➔ Meena Velayudhan analysed their role in communist-led movement of coir workers in Kerala
➔ Sunil Sen pointed out women’s participation in struggles launched by trade union (TUs )in iron ore mines in MP.
This movement was a movement of transition for women from a ‘commodity to identity’. Maitrayee Chaudhury pointed out that patriarchy is deeply
embedded in Indian society.
She has divided the women movement in three different stages:
 Indian women have come a long way and they can go far ahead. The women movement in India is a success story. But it has been suffered from many
weaknesses also:
1)The mobilization is still low for the movements. Large number of women's participation is still lacking for the movement. For example in the recently
held
movement by the Domestic Workers from Noida, the participation was from only the lower class women and not the middle and upper class women.
2)Women movements have still been acquired with the questions of caste, religion, class and ethnicity. For example for the movement against Triple Talaq
the large
participation was of Muslim women only and that to from the middle and lower class. For the movement of women rights in the Local Body election in
Nagaland, the
participation was from the women of Nagaland and not from the other corners of the country.
3) Women movements also face structural impediments like tradition, culture etc.

= Veena Majumdar said that the Hindutva ideology has gone against the pace of the women movement. They are not ready to give Indian women rights
like the western women enjoy. Against the different acts passed for the welfare of the women there is now an opposition with the voice that these laws
have been misused against the males.
Religion is still an impediment to women independence; we can see that from the opposition to the Supreme Court verdict in the Sabarimala Case and
Triple Talaq case. Women
movements in India have launched movements in their own ways, they tried to organize themselves with the formation of different organizations; political
parties have their different
wings to support the initiatives of the women cause.
The women organization is not strong as they lack resources and political support is not so vocal on the ground. They have still not got seats reserved
for them in the Parliament and
their representation is also very miniscule there.
Women in India do not have the capacity to change the power structure but surely they can affect the power structure as done in Bihar.
=#MeToo and India:
It was on October 8, 2018, when the long-awaited wave of the global #The MeToo movement finally hit Indian social media. A sexual harassment
complaint by Tanushree Dutta against fellow actor Nana Patekar resurfaced wherein Dutta said Patekar acted inappropriately while they were shooting a
film in 2008.
In a matter of days, more disclosures came in the form of Twitter threads and Facebook posts. As one woman’s note urged others to speak up, the
insidious pattern of silence broke
instantly, by (mostly) women who’ve been sexually harassed and assaulted by (mostly) men in powerful positions. Since then, the list of sexual
harassment allegations against prominent figures in India has grown.
The well-known names came from Bollywood, the journalism and media industry, and even politics.
=Impact of movement:
 An analysis by ComplyKaro Services, an Indian provider that helps companies and organisations comply with legal obligations; found that among the
top 100 Bombay Stock
Exchange companies, there’s been a 14 per cent increase in reports of sexual harassment within a year.
During the movement, it’s was seen that name shaming become far more effective than the formal routes of justice (that of going to the police station
and filing a criminal complaint
under the Sexual Harassment Act).
The year also saw the biggest rise in complaints with the National Commission for Women —from 570 in 2017 to 965 in 2018.
Some organisations have gone beyond what the law mandates, putting in place genderneutral policies against harassment, and rules against same-sex
harassment.
The fear of being falsely accused has become more pronounced among male executives.
It has also been said that it would lead to the decrease in the recruitment of the women employees.
In sectors employing blue-collar workers, even less has changed. In the garment industry in Bengaluru, for example, which employs over 5 lakh workers,
80% of whom are women, activists say internal complaints committees overwhelmingly side with the management.
Culturally the movement has brought changes by talking about women rights. There is a slow movement towards a culture that is striving towards
gender equality and attempting to break away from sexist trends. There are more films being made with female protagonists in the lead today, which has,
in turn, encouraged actresses to hike their fees to what they rightfully deserve.
The movement has been seen as having a social impact also. It’s is believed that the voice of the movement will also raise the issues of abuse faced by
the Dalit women and lower class women.

(c) Backward classes & Dalit movement

=Dalit movement
Social movements of Dalits show a particular character. The movements cannot be explained satisfactorily by reference to economic exploitations
alone or political oppression, although
these dimensions are important. This is a struggle for recognition as fellow human beings. It is a struggle for selfconfidence and a space for
self-determination. It is a struggle for
abolishment of stigmatisation, that untouchability implied. It has been called a struggle to be touched.
Dalits are those castes and groups who engaged in polluting works. They were not allowed to live in the proper village settlements. It refers to those
who have been broken, ground down
by those above them in a deliberate way. There is, in the word itself, inherent denial of pollution, karma and justified caste hierarchy. Herbert Risley the
Census Commissioner in
1901 called them exteriors.
They were called untouchables, Pancham and many other terms. For the first British gave them some special benefits. BR Ambedkar after his return
from England formed a „Depressed
Class Association‟ and Dalit was the literal translation of the depressed.
The word Dalit became famous with the start of Dalit Panther Movement on the lines of Black Panther Movement of America. In Travancore the Dalit
Movement started as Adi
Movement but this was also not successful.
Later Jyotibha Phule in Maharashtra tried to unite the backward class movement with the Dalits movement but was not successful, but his works made
aground for the Ambedkar to
start a movement for the Dalits.
Dalit movements got their success with Ambedkar. He started a journal Bahiskrit Bharat and talked about the Dalit emancipation.
Ambedkar launched Temple entry movements and movements for the opening of public amenities (wells, schools etc.) from 1927-29.
He gave a new life to the Mahar movement which was going in the Maharashtra for the Dalit‟s advancement. He led the Satyagraha campaign at Mahad
in 1927 against the ban on
the use of water from a lake. Ambedkar led a group of people and drank water. The largest Satyagraha took place in 1930 at Nasik. It was organized by Dr
Ambedkar and local leaders.
In 1928 Ambedkar represented a memorandum on the behalf of a Dalits to the Simon Commission. During round Table Conferences he was the
representative of the Dalits.
Ambedkar wrote a book „Annihilation of Caste‟. In this he talked about the attitude of the upper caste people regarding their social reform movements
to change the conditions of the
Dalits. According to Ambedkar the Upper Caste is interested only in the capture of power and in social reforms.
=Dalit Movement after Independence followed four different ideological platforms:
1) Gandhian Ideology
Gandhian ideology tries to unite Dalits with the larger Indian society and caste system. He gave the name „Harijan‟ (God‟s child) to the Dalits.
He worked a lot for Dalits including support to the Temple entry Movements etc. After independence Congress followed Gandhi‟s ideology to support
the Dalits. But this ideology
has been less supported by the Dalits.
They consider themselves as a different identity from the Hindu caste system.
2)Hindutva Ideology
This ideology wants the Dalits to be the part of a larger Hindu religion. This has been followed by the right wing political organisations to increase their
support base in Dalits.
This has helped the Dalits to be a part of mainstream Indian political spectrum but due to ideological differences this has not been popular among the
Dalits.
3)Communist Ideology
This ideology has been famous among the Dalits but most importantly followed by the Left Wing Extremists (LWE).
 They had wanted to unite the Dalit in their war with the state.
They have got their support base in the tribes and Dalits. More of it the younger generation of the Dalits is more attracted towards the Communist
ideology as they realise that their
situation is not going to change until through the state‟s measures.
4)Ambedkar’s Ideology
This ideology has the larger backing in the Dalits. They believe in Ambedkar's way of achieving their status and identity in the society.
According to Ambedkar the situation of the Dalits can only be changed if they are part of the political spectrum and get power in their hands.
This ideology has been used by the „Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)‟.
On the basis of Ambedkar‟s ideology BSP have been able to garner a larger support base among the Dalits. They have in-fact been successful in making
government in Uttar Pradesh
=Dalit Panther Movement:
The most important Movement for the Dalit discourse is Dalit Panther Movement. The movement was started on the lines of Black Panther Movement
of the USA.
The Dalit Panthers emerged in an atmosphere where there seemed to be no group or party that appeared to be genuinely involved with the problems of
Dalits.
The sense of grievance and of being historically wronged persisted among the Dalit masses in post-colonial. India, and the Dalit Panther movement
used this sentiment to win popular
support for its activities.
In Maharashtra, Dalit Panthers represented a grass-roots revolt against the reluctance and mendicancy of the leadership of the Republican Party of
India. It was part of the angry young
men's protest that had been gathering momentum in many industrial towns where Dalits were facing unrelenting atrocities.
It was not only fashioned on material and economic issues, but was animated by a desire to gain respect for the community; little wonder then that
Dalit poets and writers were prominent
in providing an intellectual leadership to the movement.
Since its inception, the Panther Party was based on the ideology of Dr Ambedkar and was quite radical in nature. Their radical nature is due to the
impact of Communist ideology on them.
The movement is still confined to urban centres with majority of the Dalits concentrated in rural areas remaining untouched. Of late, the party has
extended its focus outside Maharashtra
and is trying to build up an all India Dalit Panthers Organization by opening a number of branches in various states.
Achievements of the Dalit Panthers are as follows:
o They started a debate on Dr Ambedkar‟s ideology.
o They made popular the term “Dalit”, in preference to terms such as “Harijans” and “Untouchables”.
o They were able to create a counter culture and separate identity.
o They raised their voice against the unjust caste system.
o They compelled the government to work for the Dalit emancipation.
o They contributed immensely towards Dalit literature.
o They captured the imagination of the younger generation, projected a militant image
through their tactics of confrontation.
=Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP):
Bahujan Samaj Party was founded by Kanshi Ram in 1984. In 1984, it was formed to chiefly represent the Dalits, and claims to be inspired by the
philosophy of Dr Ambedkar.
With the demise of Kanshi Ram in 2006, Mayawati is now the undisputed leader of the party.
It was started as an organisation named as BAMCEF (Backwards Adivasis Minorities and Schedule Caste Employees Federation).
This has been the basis for the BSP. BSP has worked hard to unite Dalits under one political symbol and has been responsible to remove the Congress‟s
influence among the Dalits. They
have also spread their base outside the UP.
=Present status of Dalit movement:
Dalit Movements have been increasing in the country; movement in Una Gujarat, Dalits movement going in Maharashtra, Dalits movements in
Universities in JNU and Hyderabad University.
The present Dalit movement has changed its way of reaction for the movement. Earlier the demands were of dignified human status, parity with others.
But the present demands are not
for removing discrimination and suppression but the demand for „power‟. They purely believe in Ambedkar‟s ideology and according to them their
situation can only be changed by having
power in their hands.
o The present day Dalit movement has been more articulated in intellectual from. It has been seeing more articulation in higher educational institutes.
o They have realized themselves as a different identity and they see their interests as different from the larger society.
o There is a movement in the educated Dalit youths for a new kind of assertion.
o The atrocities on the Dalits is not new in India but the way Una tragedy and later movement have shaped the Dalit‟s cause under Jignesh Meghwani is
different from
the earlier reactions. Meghwani demanded not only equal status but also land for the Dalits.
o The suicide of Rohit Vemula has given a new hope and life to the Dalit movement. The educated Dalit youth have been leaving their jobs and colleges to
fight for the
Dalit cause. These Dalit movements for the rights of Dalits have been started in almost every University in the country.
o Intellectuals like Sukhdeo Thorat has starting to provide a new intellectual support base to the Dalit movements.
o Badri Narayan said that this articulation of Dalit interest and the movement of Dalit youths is radical in nature.
o The new phase of Dalit movement has tries to unite itself with the tribals and minorities.
Today‟s Dalits movement is different from the earlier ones. They are now not ready for any compromise other than power in their hands.
=Backward class movement:
The term "Backward Classes‟ has been in use in different parts of the country since the late 19th Century.
It began to be used more widely in Madras presidency since 1872, in the princely state of Mysore since 1918, and in Bombay presidency since 1925.
From the 1920s, a number of organisations united around the issue of caste sprang up in different parts of the country.
These included the United Provinces Hindu Backward Classes League, All-India Backward Classes Federation, All India Backward Classes League. In 1954,
88 organisations were
counted working for the Backward Classes.
In the 19th century, Pune and Kolhapur (Maharashtra) provided leadership to the emergence of backward castes movement in India.
One of the first leaders of Christian missionary education was Jothiba Phule of Poona who came from among the Shudra caste of gardeners.
= Mahatma Jotiba Phule, who was the first to raise the voice of the downtrodden classes against orthodoxy not only in Maharashtra but in the whole of
India. Phule (1827-1890) is
known as the father of the non-Brahmin movement in India.
o He advised the Shudras and Ati- Shudras to close their ranks, take up the struggle for education and against Brahminical oppression.
o He founded the "Sathyashodak Samaj" (Society of Truth Seekers) in 1873 to liberate the Shudras and Ati-Shudras from religious and mental slavery.
o He built up the preconditions of a grass-root movement of the Shudras and Ati- Shudras for the abolition of the caste system itself. His work fostered a
sense of
identity among the socially backward masses such as Kunbis, Malis and Dhangars. Phule's movement gained ground even in rural areas. During the latter
part of the nineteenth century, some sections of the dominant Shudra castes in Madras presidency like Vellalas were clearly on the rise challenging the
position occupied by the Brahmins in public life.
o It was followed by protest movements among even non-dominant Shudras or untouchables against the ritual and civil disabilities they were subjected
to over centuries. For instance, the untouchable toddy tappers of Madras Province called Nadars organised their association called 'Nadar Mahajana
Sangam' and led a series of protest movements against Brahmanical orthodox.
M.S.A. Rao, classified Backward class Movements into four kinds of variations which could be distinguished on the basis of structural cleavages and
manifest conflicts.
o The upper Non-Brahmin castes (Reddy, Kamma)
o The second kind of Backward Class Movement hinges around the cleavages within the category of Non-Bahaman castes. It was between the upper
castes and the
intermediate and lower castes Hindus. (For ex. in North India the conflict was between Thakurs, Rajputs and Bhumihar Brahmins on the one hand and
the intermediate and lower castes such as the Ahir and Noniyas on the other).
o There was the opposition between certain Non-Bahaman castes on the one hand and the depressed classes on the other.
o The fourth type of movement was a tribal movement.
=Formation of the Caste based Organization:
The process of the formation of a constituency and the making of the common political identity was facilitated by the emergence of multiple caste
associations and caste federations among the low-castes all over India.
Initially they demanded entry into temples, prestigious caste names and honourable occupations and designations in the census etc. eg. The case of
the Yadavas and Noniyas of North-India, Vanniyakula Kshatriyas and Nadars of Tamilnadu illustrate the same.
With the penetration of liberal and democratic ideas the caste associations began to shift from sacred to secular goals- places in the new
administrative and educational institutions and for political representation.
The lower castes took to another strategy to secure and safeguard their interests by establishing common fronts of the backward castes, first at
regional levels and later covering the entire country.
In Madras, several non-Brahman castes formed the Justice Party in 1916. In Uttar Pradesh several backward castes came together in 1929 and formed
Uttar Pradesh Hindu Backward Classes League.
There was the formation of Triveni Sangh in Bihar four years later through the joint efforts of Yadav, Kurmi and Koeri Sabhas.
These caste federations or fronts were weak because of their differing ideologies and weak organisational structures.
=20th century:
The inauguration of the Indian Home Rule Movement in 1916 gave rise to attempts by non-Brahmins to secure a more influential and assured place in
public life under the leadership of Shri Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur state in Bombay Province and of Dr. T.M.Nair and Sir P.Chettiar in Madras Province.
E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in 1925 organised the „Self-Respect Movement‟, designed as a Dravidian uplift endeavour, to expose Brahmin tyranny.
With the transfer of power from British to Indians and the introduction of suffrage and the promise of reservations in government jobs opened up new
possibilities for the Backward Classes to assert their claims to power in the arena of democratic politics.
Due to vote bank politics and the role of caste in the Indian politics, the respective state governments and even the centre have been accepting their
demands irrespective of Judicial limitations on the reservation.
=Difference between the Backward Class Movement in the South and the North:
While the Backward Class Movements of South India were mainly directed against the Brahmins, such a trend was not found in North-India. In several
parts of the North, Brahmins were backward in terms of modern education and government employment compared to certain non-Brahmin castes. The
1901 Census of India found that in the socio-economic position Brahmins occupied a lower status in relation to other high castes in the regions of Bengal,
Bihar and Bombay. However, in the southern provinces they were on the top.
The caste structure in the North-Indian plains (where the people and sanscritic culture made their deepest impact) differs from the South. In the South,
Brahmins with only 3 percent of the population were the only representatives of the twice-born castes, which increased their social distance from the rest
of the Shudra population. On the other hand, due to the presence of other groups the twice-born castes constitute nearly 20 per cent of the population in
this region. This factor displaces the supremacy of the Brahmins as compared to the South.
The traditions of semi-feudalism in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have enabled the forward castes to keep a tight control over smaller backward castes and
prevent them from joining the mainstream of the Backward Classes Movement. This is not so in the South.
 Fourthly, owing to the longer history and better organisation of Backward Classes in the South, they were able to acquire considerable political clout.
Despite the lead given by Yadavas and other peasant castes, a unified and strong OBC Movement has not emerged in the North as yet.

=Major Backward class movements:

1)Satya Shodhak Samaj:
Satya Sodhak Samaj was founded by Mahatma Jotiba Phule to liberate the Shudras and Ati-Shudras from religious and mental slavery. In his early life
Jotiba Phule was influenced by
Islam and Christianity and became critical of the Brahmanical religion and customs.
o He stood not only against Vedas, but also against the Aryan Sanskrit literature. He took his stand on rationality and equality and the entire caste
system.
o He provoked the people to revolt against Hindu casteist Gods and humiliating religious practices. He preached for the abolition of false beliefs,
meaningless rituals and baseless customs. He advised the Shudras and Ati-Shudras to close their ranks, take up the struggle for education and against
Brahminical oppression.
o Phule inspired the lower castes to form their association, create a spirit and work for their emancipation from the age old taboos pertaining to shudras in
social status, education and religion.
o To carry out this mission and to free the Lower Castes from the Sanskritic and religious orthodoxy he formed Satya Soadhak Samaj in Poona in 1873. This
was formed to bring together all the backward classes on a common platform.
o He did not remain satisfied with the social reforms of the upper caste Hindus instead built up the preconditions of a grass-root movement of the Shudras
and Ati-Shudras for the abolition of the caste system itself.
o His work fostered a sense of identity among the socially backward masses such as Kunbis, Malis and Dhangars. He was also a source of inspiration to the
movements of untouchables.
o Phule did not link his efforts for democratic revolution with that of national independence, as he thought that the nationalist movement was pitting
itself against alien rule without being sensitive to caste oppression.
o Phule also He opened a number of schools, orphanages for the children and women belonging to all castes.

2) Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement:

One of the most influential social movements in modern Kerala is the Narayana Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement, which is not only for the reforms
or Sanskritization but also for the structural change in the caste system, Modernization, rejection of the traditional occupation, accessibility to the
education, employment and spiritual life and alternative religion.
o In the 19th century Sri Narayana Guru set a silent revolution against traditional and hierarchically graded society in motion.
o Though initially started as a movement to remove the unnecessary customs and traditional evil practices prevalent among the Ezhavas, it produced
results, which eventually changed the face of the social, political, economic and religious life of Kerala as a whole.
o Narayan Guru formulated a new system of thought, oriented towards social transformation, and maintained that the reformation of Hinduism was a
necessary adjunct for the uplift of the masses.
o The method Narayana Guru adopted was the process of 'sanskritization', raising the untouchables to the status of Brahmins. He established a set of
religious institutions, in his time he built around 60 temples in Kerala. Beginning with Aruvippuram, in all these temples he also started teaching to young
students the classics in Sanskrit. He even stressed the importance of secular pursuits like education and building of unions and associations to empower
the lower classes.
o He gave a new philosophy, religion, code of conduct and programme of action, which formed the basis of the 'Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana'
movement. Narayan Guru gave a new slogan “one religion, one caste and one God for mankind”.
o The SNDP movement represented one of the most successful attempts of the untouchable castes to alter the traditional balance of power besides
improving their own positions.
o It also demonstrated that it was possible to remain within the fold of Hinduism and yet escape from the stigma of untouchability. The movement not
only paved the way for other social reform movements in Kerala, but also became forerunners of leftist movement.

3) Self - Respect Movement:

E.V.Ramaswamy Naicker in 1925 organised the „Self-Respect Movement‟. It was initiated for Dravidian upliftment and to expose Brahmin tyranny and the
deceptive methods by which they controlled all spheres of Hindu life.
o He carried an active propaganda in an attempt to get rid of Puranic Hinduism from the people and wean them away from religious ceremonies requiring
priestly service of the Brahmins.
One of the most critical and significant sociological changes that occurred through the Self-Respect Movement was the enforcement of self-respect
marriages in which a marriage could be officiated without a Brahmin priest.
The movement regarded marriages to be not bound by caste and hence encouraged inter-caste and inter-religious marriages where one should be able
to marry a person of their choice.
o The three main ideologies that were propagated through this movement were the breaking down of the Brahminical hegemony, equal rights for the
backward classes and women in the society and revitalization of the Dravidian languages which included Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam.
o The movement insisted on equality between men and women, attracted the lower castes
and classes, spread rationalist and egalitarian thinking based on the idea that religion and caste institutions are the core of all evil.
o The Self-Respect Movement wanted to bring a radical transformation in the heterosexual relationships by abolishing gender hierarchy and gender roles.
It emphasized the importance of sharing domestic work and child-rearing activities among men and woman.
o The „Self Respect Movement‟ was powerfully oriented towards oppressed groups in the caste hierarchy, including untouchables. It adopted concrete
measures to involve women and youth.
o The self-respect movement was based on the Dravidian ideology to save the non-Brahmin from the tyranny of Brahmin who were considered Aryans.

(d) Environmental movements

= India is a country blessed with abundant natural resources; large areas of forests, many rivers which provides livelihood for a considerable number of
people including the adivasis.
However these natural resources were a favorite prey for the vested interests in the state. They exploited the nature without any social concerns resulting
in larger issues of development and displacement.
. These movements can be classified as new social movements because of their following characteristics:
o The movements were addressing novel issues like environmental degradation.
o The movements were massive with the active participation of marginalized groups.
o The demands of the new movements were novel in the sense that it demanded right to livelihood and rights of displaced.
o The environmental movements adapted non-violent strategy.
o The movements incorporated hitherto unrepresented sectors of society including adivasis, women and the marginalized.
o Many of the new environmental movements forced the governments to take affirmative policies in the form of new laws and provisions.
1)The Chipko movement,
-The Chipko movement, an example of the ecological movement, in the Himalayan foothills is a good example of such intermingled interests and
ideologies. According to Ramachandra Guha in his book Unquiet Woods, villagers rallied together to save the oak and rhododendron forests near their
villages. When government forest contractors came to cut down the trees, villagers, including large numbers of women, stepped forward to hug the trees
to prevent their being felled.
o The economy of subsistence was pitted against the economy of profit. Along with this issue of social inequality (villagers versus a government that
represented commercial,
capitalist interests), the Chipko movement also raised the issue of ecological sustainability. Cutting down natural forests was a form of environmental
destruction
that had resulted in devastating floods and landslides in the region.
o It helped to slow down the rapid deforestation, expose vested interests, increase ecological awareness, and demonstrate the viability of people power.
Above all, it
stirred up the existing civil society in India, which began to address the issues of tribal and marginalized people.
o The Chipko movement became a benchmark for socio-ecological movements in other forest areas of Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar; in
September 1983, Chipko
inspired a similar, Appiko movement in Karnataka state of India, where tree felling in the Western Ghats and Vindhyas was stopped.
=Guha- Chipko was not only synonymous with eco-feminism but also a product of realization that envt degradation had produced floods in the past like
in 1970. He also calls it an expression of eco-feminism because women are most intimately connected with their envt right from fulfilling their domestic
water & fuel wood needs
to their religious like worshipping a river/rock.
o In recent years, the movement not only inspired numerous people to work on practical programmes of water management, energy conservation,
afforestation, and
recycling, but also encouraged scholars to start studying issues of environmental degradation and methods of conservation in the Himalayas and
throughout India.
2)Narmada Bachao Andolan is a social movement consisting of tribal people, adivasis, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the
Sardar Sarovar Dam being built
across the Narmada river, in Their mode of campaign includes hunger strikes and garnering support from noted film and art personalities. Narmada
Bachao Andolan, together with its
leading spokespersons Medha Patkar and Baba Amte, were the 1991 recipient of the Right Livelihood Award.
3)Movement Against Endosulfan- The struggle against the use of endosulfan and the struggle for compensation to the victims of endosulfan is one of
the most serious social movement in the
state of Kerala. Enodsulfan is an insecticide, the use of which will badly affect the human life and environment. However this insecticide was widely used
by the plantation corporation of Kerala in their cashew plantations in Kasargod. With the people’s movement the movement was successful in stopping
the spray and compensating the victims.
Navdanya Movement, 1982 - Initiated by Vandana Shiva who set up the Navdanva in 1982;
The organization promotes biodiversity conservation and organic farming; It has not only helped create markets for farmers, but also quality food for
consumers, connecting the seed to the cooked food.
4)Appiko Movement - the southern version of the Chipko movement; Locally known as "Appiko Chaluvali" ; the locals embraced the trees which were to
be felled by contractors of
the forest department Apiko movement in Karnataka - Panduranga Hegde - against paper and
plywood industries who were felling exotic and vulnerable species in the ecologically
sensitive zone - supported by Sitaram Kesari, Salim Ali, MS Swaminathan - government declared it as "Reserved Ecosystem"
5)Anti-mining movement- Jharia (river and air pollution - polluted water in 40 km radius, poison air in 10 km radius), Kalinganagar, Dun valley gypsum
project, Goa (lost massive
natural resources in only 5 years).
6)Marine resources movements - Kerala fishermen cooperative (against trawlers and mechanical boats in the 1980s), Chilka Bachao Andolan by Banka
Bihari Das (mechanized trawlers), Ganga Mukti Abhiyan and Yamuna Bachao Andolan (river pollution), against landfill site in Sanjay Gandhi National
Park.
=Madhav Gadgil- EM highlighted issues- forest & land rights, dams, commercial exploitation of mines, rights over marine resources.
=Gadgil and Guha identify 4 broad strands w/in the envt movts in India based on vision, ideology & strategy. 1st type- those emphasising moral necessity
to restrain overuse &
ensure justice to poor & marginalised (Gandhians belong to this strand). 2nd- stressing
need to dismantle the unjust social order through struggle (Marxists mostly follow this).
3rd & 4th strands advocate reconstruction (employing tech appropriate to given context
& time). They reflect concerns of the scientists or the spontaneous efforts of the
communities @ village level aiming to protect local community forests or the right to pursue e-f agri practices.

(e) Ethnicity and Identity movement:

=Ethnicity movements:
An ethnic group – shares common physical or social cultural characteristics.
Can be based out of one or multiple symbols like religion, language, region, etc.
Mobilisation of people on basis of markers which they share, real or imagined, into collective action, is called ethnic mobilisation.
Dipankar Gupta, book – The Context of Ethnicity: The Sikh Identity in Comparative perspective, 1997, differentiates between communalism and
ethnicity. Argues that ethnic
mobilisation is related to nation – state; the territory and the sovereignty, but the communal
mobilisation does not involve the nation – state.
Paul Brass, in his ethnicity and state, 1985, defined 3 types of ethnic movements/conflicts:
o Intra ethnic – there is different ethnic identity within an umbrella ethnic identity. Ex: Shia and Sunni conflict
o Inter-ethnic – identity of one group is seen as completely different from others. Ex: Movement of Assamese against the migrants
o Ethic group vs state – ethnic group sees its identity as different from larger state. Ex; Naga movement
Tribal ethnic movements: Tribals provide the most appropriate example of ethnic movements. Divided into five groups:
o Cultural revivalist movements – as in case of Adivasi Mahasabha established in Bihar 1938 and various other tribal movements
o Agrarian and forest based movements – Rampa Rebellion of Andra Pradesh
o Autonomy movements – Case of Ladakh
o Movement for separate state – As in case of Jharkhand movement; Khalistan movement of 1980
o Insurgency and secessionist movements – as in case of Naga movement
=Common factors for rise of ethnic movements:
Economic factors and regional disparities
Relative deprivation
Modernisation and political centralisation
Historical reasons
Competition for scarce resources
Internal colonialism
=Identity movements:
Identity movements are those:
o Which are based on birth based groups like women movement, Dalit movement, backward class movements.
o These are confined to the homogeneous group based on the criteria of birth.
o These movements have typical group based demands So the earlier movements which
we have discussed so far are categorized as the Identity Movements.
Every group has been initiating movements for themselves. Like the Dalits, the Backwards, Tribals, women etc. Some has the view that the Identity
Movements are beneficial for the
group and not for the society at large and hence they g=have a negative character.
Brij Ranjan Mani said that these movements are positive in character as they are helpful for
the marginal sections of the society (Dalits, women etc.) for unification and increasing their voices.
These movements are particularly necessary because they are confined and are related to weaker sections of the society who need empowerment, and
in the end this is related to the
advancement of the society itself.
Identity is created, dismantled / changed and recreated for gratification of contemporary needs
- identity focussed movements include: caste movements, women movements, regional movements, tribal movements - movement gives you an identity,
and you use this new identity to go for a movement.
o Caste as identity - Dravidian movement, Dalit movement, Yadav movement (Shahu Maharaj), Jat, Patidar, Maratha
o Gender as identity - patriarchy, dowry, domestic violence, female foeticide
o Region as identity - Gorkhaland, Khalistan (no industrialization, agriculture diminishing returns - discontent) - DO NOT WRITE KASHMIR
o Tribe as identity - Nagalim, Bodoland, Garo state (because they say all development funds go to Khasi Hills).
= In India studies of stratification have to address not just issues of caste, class but tribes and communities-religious/linguistic/regional. The last
decade or more has witnessed a surge of ethnic/national revivals. One may identify several situations where 'ethnicity' or outsider identity becomes
salient vis-å-vis 'nationality' or insider identity.
o The demand for a political-administrative unit within the Indian state (e.g. Gorkhaland for Nepalis, Jharkhand state for the tribes of Central India).
o The demand for expulsion of 'outsiders' when the entire state is engulfed by migrants from other states or neighbouring countries (e.g. in Assam and
Tripura).
o The demand for the expulsion of videshis (foreigners) belonging to other folk regions within the state (e.g. the Chotanagpur tribal demand to expel
fellow Biharis of the plains) or from other state (Bengalis or Marwaris).
o The demand to expel those who do not belong to the same cultural region although they are from the same state (e.g. the demand for the expulsion of
Andhras from the Telangana region).
o The demand to expel migrants from other linguistic states who come to work and reside in metropolitan centres (e.g. mobilization against Tamils in
Bombay and Bangalore).
=Limitations:
Caste based identity movements have not been able to unite all the sections of that group itself. In most of the Backward Class movements the
participation of the poor and weak section remain negligible.
These movements are subject to divisions. In Bihar, the Backward Class movement was fragmented by the creation of MAHA PICHDA WARG among the
Backward Classes by the government.
Majority of the Identity movements fall prey to the nepotism and Dynastic Politics, like Samaj Wadi Party in UP, RJD in Bihar, Shiromani AKali Dal in
Punjab etc.
The leaders of these parties generally leave the movements for their political opportunities, like most of the prominent Dalit leaders after gaining
political power have not provided new direction to the Dalit mvements.
Some of the Identity movements like women movements suffer from the lack of resources to expand their base.

=New movements:
New movements - movements which became dominant from the second half of the 20th century are classified into new movements. This includes the
feminist movement, pro-choice
movement, civil rights movement, environmental movement, free software movement, gay rights movement, peace movement, anti-nuclear movement,
alter-globalization movement,
etc. Sometimes they are known as new social movements. They are usually centered on issues that go beyond but are not separate from class.
The new social movements manifest the true nature of contemporary world crisis and prepare for a future desirable society. The role of these people's
movements and experiments transcends not only state power, but also the new existing civil societies. They work to transform the state itself to
become more humane and responsive to the sufferings. By highlighting the question of ecology, health, gender etc. the new movements have a
valuable role to play in enlarging the scope of lower class movements.
The ecology movements represent a new kind of class struggle; one over natural resources like forests and water Likewise, the women's movement has
insistently questioned the
downgrading of certain forms of work on sexual grounds, both in the work place and within the household, and the barriers to the entry of women in
many professions.
New social movements are distinctive in so far as they work outside the traditional party system. Much of their membership and force is the reflection
of people's disappointment and frustration with the government and their search for alternatives to the political process, political parties and the
state.
These popular movements have some middle-class leadership of middleclass intelligentsia, professionals, teachers, etc. who offer their services as
leaders, organizers or advisers to these community and other Third World social movements.
The new movements have evolved an effective methodology of working with the disadvantaged sections of society which in turn has helped them to
grow as an alternative
agency of social change. This is a methodology of critical intervention (critique to the government policies at the national and international platforms),
creative action (theatre
workshops, street plays,) and participatory mobilization (through social media etc.)
Another aspect of the methodology of these action groups is the measure of openness, innovative spirit, participatory research and experimental
strategies that these groups employ.
These new social movements do not believe in a rigid hierarchy. Their organizational structure is horizontal in nature. As these organizations do not
have a rigid hierarchy, the concept of the leader and the led does not exist. The prominent members of these organizations prefer to call themselves
organizers and not leaders.
The new social movements can be seen as vehicles of cumulative change in the social, economic and political fields.
They are able to generate a new kind of consciousness among the socially deprived about the unjust arrangements in which they are placed and new
social sensitivity to dismantle such arrangements.
In the economic field these movements initiate alternative development strategies and are able to involve the poor and the dispossessed in self-reliant
development projects.
=New Social movements in India:
In recent years in India, a number of social movements emerged. These movements are varying in nature and methods. However, they do have a
substantial shared ideology. The
following are some shared characteristics.
o They claim to represent the people – the downtrodden Indian masses.
o Most of these movements are against the demerits of globalization.
o They claim to be fighting for oppressed groups such as Dalits and Adivasis.
o They oppose the state as well as large corporations and large funding agencies such as the World Bank. They also oppose largescale projects. They
claim to be fighting for the protection of the environment.
o They criticize the mainstream industrialized, corporate West.
o The new movements reject universal indices of measuring development and progress such as GDP, life expectancy, child mortality, literacy rate, etc.
Rather, they argue in favor of subjective and local yardsticks.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________
P2-C(vi) Population Dynamics
(a) Population size, growth, composition and distribution
India, like many other countries, has come a long way from the initial days of evolution under conditions of high mortality due to famines, accidents,
illness, infections and war, when
relatively high levels of fertility was essential for species survival.
Over the years, better equipped in dealing with diseases and vagaries of nature, it has witnessed significant increase in life expectancy along with steep
fall in mortality .Confronted
with Malthusian growth, changing social mores and spurred by government interventions, the population did respond to steps to reduce fertility, but the
continued increase in number of
women in reproductive age has led to high number of births each year.
2011 census - 121 crores - 17.5% world's population, 2.4% of world's land.
Between 1901-1951 the average annual growth rate did not exceed 1.33%. In fact, between 1911 and 1921 there was a negative rate of growth of -0.03%.
This was because of the influenza epidemic during 1918-19 which killed about 12.5 million persons or 5% of the total population of the country - Visaria
and Visaria.
The growth rate of population substantially increased after independence, going up to 2.2% during 1961-1981. Since 1951, the population of India has
nearly tripled. The density of
population has increased from 72 persons per square kilometer in 1901 to 267 persons in 1991, 325 persons in 2001 and 382 persons in 2011.
The percentage decadal growth during 2001-2011 has registered the sharpest decline since Independence - a decrease of 3.90 percentage points from
21.54 to 17.64% Nearly 40% of
India's cause population consists of those below 15 years of age and about 5 to 6 per cent of 60 years and above.
Thus, the problem of population growth is really a serious one as the increases in employment opportunities and other resources cannot keep up with
increase in population.
While looking at the trends in population growth in India, it is important to understand the different stages in demographic transition. Demographic
transition is a descriptive
interpretation of the change that populations undergo from high to low birth and death rates.
-India , at present, is at stage three of the four stage model* of demographic transition from stable population with high mortality and fertility to stable
population with low mortality and
fertility, with some of the states/UT's already into stage four.
The fertility rates have fallen by 2.7 per cent per annum (2.8 to 2.5) over the 2006–10 period—a faster decline than the decline of 1.6 per cent per annum
(3.1 to 2.9) in the
preceding five years. Despite this steady decline, India has missed and postponed its fertility goals time and again. Increased use of contraception (51%)
has been the major cause for fertility decline in India, followed by pattern of delayed marriage (45%)
Seven states with high fertility rates are Bihar (3.6), Uttar Pradesh (UP) (3.4), Madhya Pradesh (MP) (3.1), Rajasthan (3.0), Jharkhand (2.9),
Chhattisgarh (2.7), and Assam (2.4), of
which six belong to the empowered action group (EAG) states. Major states like Bihar, UP, and Rajasthan are likely to achieve TFR of 2.1 by 2030.
Birth rate in 2013 decreased marginally to 21.4 from 21.6 in the previous year, with decreases observed in both rural (23.1 to 22.9) & urban areas (17.4 to
17.3).
Population of most of the developing countries including India consists of large proportions of children and persons in reproductive age group. For now
and the near future , population
projections for India, since it will have a large segment of population in the working age group , with considerably decreased dependency ratio putting it
in a position to reap demographic dividend.
As per results of Census 2011, persons aged 0-6 years accounted for about 13.6 % of total population with the proportion in case of males being 13.8 %
and females being 13.2 %.
The projected per cent population in the 0–14 year age group shows a continuous decline over a period of time across all the states and India. The
north Indian states have a window of opportunity to utilise the demographic dividend, as a large number of working people will enter into the job market.
=Three determinants of size, growth and distribution of any population are – how many persons are born, how many persons die, and how many persons
are added to the population after considering the number of persons leaving the country and the number of persons coming into the country.
- India’s population as per 2011 census stood around 125 crore, making India 2nd most populous country in the world. India will overtake China as the
most populous country in 2025. In terms of growth parameters,
-India still continue to grow at a rate of around 1.9% annually which is still away from replacement level growth rate. Its population has grown more than
three times than at independence from 36 crore to more than 125 crore. National Population Policy of 2000 set 2045 as deadline for stabilization of
population, which was later shifted to 2065.
=Composition of Indian population is as varied as its diversity. In terms of age group, India has a very young population with enormous demographic
dividend to reap. Another feature of Indian population is the skewed sex ratio of around 940. Hindus account for around 80% of population followed by
14% Muslim population and rest other communities. 75% of the population is literate. However literacy among various communities also varies.
=Distribution of population is driven by various factors like – migration, physical geography, urbanization, industrialization and so on. Historically, plain
areas around the river basins have been magnets of population settlements. As Colonial trade started, many coastal cities like Mumbai and Kolkata
were also developed. Similarly, growth of industry led to growth of new towns like Ludhiana, Gurgaon, Pune and so on. Literacy levels also affect
population distribution. States with poor literacy rate observe high birth rate and hence higher population. Most populous state according to 2011
census is Uttar Pradesh followed by Maharashtra and Bihar.
=Determinants of population growth can be divided into following broad categories –
I. Demographic factors – Birth rate, mortality rate etc. Demographic transition theory says that growth rate is high when death rate is controlled with
advancement in medical sciences, but
birth rate is still unchecked. Similarly, as birth rate is also controlled by means of efforts like family planning etc, it leads to low population growth.
II. Economic factors – It has been noticed by National Population Registrar and Census Office India in 2011 Census that lower the economic status of
family, greater the number of children per
family. Further, states which are economically weaker are also the leading states in population growth. During 2001-2011, Empowered Action Group states
– which are economically backward
– have observed a decadal growth rate of more than 20%, while non-EAG states have observed growth rates of less than 15%.
III. Educational status – Educational status is closely linked with fertility rates. Often, less educated families are found to be less acquainted about family
planning techniques.
IV. Social values – Several social norms like desirability of male children leads to high birth rates.
V. Natural calamities – Decade of 1911-21 recorded negative growth rate despite high birth rate due to natural calamities like plague and famine.
VI. Increase in net migration – Certain countries like Fiji and Mauritius in 18th and 19th century witnessed high growth rate due to migration from
countries like India, Burma etc.
VII. Age of Marriage – Lower age of marriage is also considered an important factor towards increase in birth rates.
VIII. Cultural factors – Certain religious practices prohibit use of contraceptives. For example - Certain ulemas in hinterlands of UP had issued fatwas
calling use of contraceptives as anti-
Islamic. Similarly, most of the orthodox Christians don’t permit abortion at any stage. Recent incident of death an Indian origin doctor in Canada in 2012
due to such rules is an example. All
the religions of the world, except Buddhism, contain injunctions to their followers to breed and multiply.
IX. Diseases – Certain pandemics like AIDS are also causing havoc in African countries and on one hand they are causing the decline of population, on the
other hand discouraging people to become more cautious about sexual relations.
X. Increases in food production and distribution – This has reduced the food insecurity problem and mortality due to malnutrition has come down.

=Consequences of population growth –

I. Malthusian Hypothesis predicts that high population growth rates will eventually lead to such a scarcity of resources that ultimately it will lead
enforcement of ‘positive checks’ by nature in form of starvation and disease.
II. Carrying Capacity Hypothesis – Rapid exponential growth may surpass carrying capacity of the land and natural resources.
III. Difficulties encountered in implementation of all national and state developmental programmes and five-year plans. Rapid growth in population is
associated with drought, famine or war or political disturbances. As a result, Plans are never successful. Set targets are never achieved. The national, as
well as per capita income does not increase by the same rate as planned and envisaged.
IV. Poverty – The rapid expansion of population size observed since the end of World War II in the world's poorest nations has been a cause of their
poverty.
V. Resource crunch – The world's current and projected population growth calls for an increase in efforts to meet the needs for food, water, health care,
technology and education.
VI. Environmental impact – Denudation of forests had happened to increase the area under agriculture. Pollution of water, land, food materials etc are
other emerging challenges associated with population growth.
VII. Increase in unemployment – It has become difficult to provide employment opportunities to the vast army of unemployed.
VIII. Difficulty in capital formation – Increase in population has resulted in decrease of savings and capital formation.
IX. Fragmentation of land below the economic level

(b) Components of Population growth: birth, death, migration

= Population growth of a country or state is affected only by natural increase and net (overseas) migration. Natural increase is the easiest to define. It
is simply the population growth that
arises from the difference between the number of live births and deaths over a specified period. An important influence on the number of births and
deaths in a period is the age
structure of the population. Changes in population size and structure are dependent mainly on three variables — birth-rate, death-rate and migration.
=Birth rate:
The birth rate (also called the crude birth rate) indicates the number of live births per 1,000 populations in a given year. Birth Rate is directly related to
fertility rate. The Total Fertility
Rate is the average number of children that would be born to a woman by the time she has ended childbearing if she were to pass through all of her
childbearing years in conformance to
the age-specific fertility rates of a given year.
The Indian health and family planning (FP) programme works within a sound policy framework. In 1952, India was the first country to launch a national
programme, emphasising
the need for family planning to the extent necessary for reducing birth rates "to stabilise the population at a level consistent with the requirement of
national economy."
CBR(crude birth rate ) at the national level has declined uniformly, from 36.9 in 1971 to 21.8 in 2011, a decline of 41 per cent in four decades. Among the
EAG states, UP and Bihar recorded much higher CBRs, at 28 per 1,000 population in 2011.
The total fertility rate (TFR) declined to an all-time low of 2.2 in 2017 after being stable at 2.3 for the four years from 2013 to 2016. In the last four
decades (1971–2011), TFR declined
by 53.8 per cent, and the maximum decadal decline (more than 22%) was observed in the last
decade (2001–11).
The indicators known for proximate determinants of fertility include- Age at effective marriage, couple protection rate, and contraceptive prevalence
rate (CPR), Education,
Violence against women, Economy, urbanisation, effect of religion etc.
=Birth rate in a society depends upon various factors including cultural, geographical, educational, developmental etc. According to Demographic
Transition Theory, birth rate
remains high for a nation from its under-developed to developing phase. High birth rate leads to high population and hence higher burden on resources.
Birth rate is directly related to fertility of
female population. Birth rate stabilizes as people get educated and aware about benefits of family planning. Governments also incentivize birth rate
moderation through family planning programs.
=In India, while death rate has come down significantly due to improved health facilities and a check on epidemics, famines, plagues and other morbid
factors, the birth rate has not registered
a sharp fall and it still hovers around 19% as compared to 9% death rate as per 2011 census.
-This is because the birth rate is a socio-cultural phenomenon that is relatively slow to change. By and large, increased levels of prosperity exert a
strong downward pull on the birthrate as is evident in case of states like Kerala and Tamilnadu where birth rate has even come down below the
‘replacement levels of fertility’.
-Once infant mortality rates decline, and there is an overall
increase in levels of education and awareness, family size begins to fall. There are very wide
variations in the fertility rates across the states of India. Some states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu
have managed to bring down their total fertility rates (TFR) to 1.7 while others like Bihar, West Bengal still have high birth rates.

=FERTILITY
Fertility is ability to produce offspring. The fertility rate refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in the child-bearing age group, usually taken
to be 15 to 49 years. Fertility rate
determines the growth or decline in population. Several factors contribute to the high fertility of Indian women, some of these factors –
I. Religious factors – Belief in high fertility has been strongly supported by all the major religions of the world, except Buddhism. In one form or the other,
they contain
injunctions to their followers to breed and multiply. It is religions and social institutions in India, leading to appropriate norms about family size.
II. Universalization of marriage – Another factor contributing to high fertility is the universality of the institution of marriage. Amongst the Hindus, a man
is expected to go
through the various stages of his life (Ashramas), performing the duties attached to each stage. Marriage is considered one such duty.
III. Age of marriage – In India, traditionally, women get married at young age and start childbearing at an early age, and continue to do so till they cross the
age at which they
are no longer biologically capable of bearing children.
IV. Social norms and values – As in all traditional societies, in India too, great emphasis is laid on bearing children. A woman, who does not bear children, is
looked down upon insociety. In fact, the new daughter-in-law attains her rightful status in the family only after she produces a child, preferably a son.
V. Preference for sons – The preference for sons is deeply ingrained in the Indian culture. Sons are required for extending the family line and for looking
after the parents in their old age and women which have girl children as first or second children, bear more children to have a male child.
VI. Child labor and other issues – Children in the Indian society have a great economic, social, cultural as well as religious value. Poor family sees large
family as conducive for economic production as children also contribute in household works.
VII. Joint family – Further, there is no economic motivation for restricting the number of children, because the biological parents may not necessarily be
called upon to provide
for the basic needs of their own children since the extended family is jointly responsible for all the children born into it.
VIII. Lack of awareness about family planning – In the absence of widespread adoption of methods of conception control, the fertility of Indian women
continues to remain high.
=Implications of high fertility are visible at family level – at manifest level – and at the level of society as well – i.e. at manifest level. Apart from
contributing in a big way to the population
problem of the country, high fertility affects the family and, in turn, society in many ways.
I. Women are tied down to child-bearing and child-rearing for the best years of their productive lives. They are, therefore, denied the opportunity to
explore other avenues
for self-expression and self-development. This also in turns creates economic disparity between man and woman.
II. Excessive child-bearing affects the health of women and that of their children. Looking after a large number of children puts a further strain on the
slender physical and emotional resources of such women.
III. The burden of providing for a large family sits heavily on the bread-winner of the family and frustration may lead to resorting to drinking etc.
IV. The children, often unwanted, unloved and neglected, are left to their own devices to make life bearable. Indulgence in delinquency is sometimes the
result. The children in large families often have to start working at a very early age to supplement the meager financial resources of the family.
V. The girl child is the worst sufferer. She is often not sent to school at all, or is withdrawn from school at an early age to help her mother in carrying out
domestic chores and to look after her younger siblings when the mother is at work. Early marriage pushes her into child-bearing, and the vicious cycle
continues.
VI. Poor financial health of family results in poor education of the children and hence poor employment opportunities.

=MORTALITY or DEATH RATE

-Mortality or death rate is another important component of population growth. There are three basic measures of mortality: the crude death rate, the
expectation of life at birth, and the infantmortality rate (IMR).
-The Crude death rate is the ratio of the total registered deaths occurring in a specified calendar year to the total mid-year population of that year,
multiplied by 1000. There
is an absolute growth in population if mortality is lower than the birth rate. Maternal mortality and infant mortality are more important out of these as
they reflect developmental level of society.
-Mortality rates are higher in under-developed and moderate in developing countries as per Demographic Transition Theory. In India, mortality rates have
come down significantly in past 50 years after Independence due to better healthcare.
=Some of the major factors affecting mortality rates are –
I. High IMR and MMR indicate poor health facilities, poor institutional deliveries and apathy of administration etc.
II. Unequal access to healthcare is another major reason for mortality among the poor.
III. Cultural religious factors also affect mortality rates. In Muslims of India, instances have been reported in which the Maulvis have prohibited
administration of oral vaccines to the children.
IV. Girl children and women in general are also discriminated against boys in terms of access to health.
=1)Up to 1921, the crude death rate in India was quite high (between 40 and 50 per thousand population), the highest being for the decade 1911-21,
mainly because of the influenza epidemic
in 1918, when more than 15 million persons died.
2)Since 1921, the death rate has been declining. From 1911-21 to 1971-81, that is, in a period of 60 years, the average annual death rate declined from 48.6
per thousand to 14.9 per thousand – a reduction of more than 69 per cent.
3)In 2000, the crude death rate has declined to 8.5 per thousand. Similarly, life expectancy has also improved from 21 years in 2011 to 64 years today.
=Causes for decline in death rate:
Increased levels of control over famines and epidemic diseases.
Improvements in medical cures for diseases, mass vaccination and efforts to improve sanitation. Substantial improvements in productivity of
agriculture and means of transportations.
Amartya Sen - famines were not necessarily due to fall in food grains production; they were also caused by a 'failure of entitlements', or the inability of
people to buy or otherwise obtain food.
=Migration:
❖ Everett Lee a well known demographer, defines migration broadly ‘as a permanent or semi- permanent change of residence’.
- Others like Eisenstadt consider it as a more or less permanent in nature.
-Migration is the one of the three components of population change, the other two being mortality and fertility. Migration is a response of humans to
economic, social and demographic
forces in the environment and like other two components of population is not biological and can be voluntary, for example – brain drain, as well as forced,
for example – migration due to calamity, war etc.
-Migration also plays an important role in the distribution of the population of any country, and determines the growth of labor force in any area.
Migration is thus an important symptom of social change in society.
= The Migration Report 2019 released by the United Nations has placed India as the leading country of origin of international migrants in 2019 with
diaspora strength of 17.5 million.
Further, as per the October 2019 report of the World Bank, India remained the top remittance recipient country in 2018, followed by China, Mexico, the
Philippines and Egypt.
According to Census 2011, there were 454 million migrants in India. This had risen by 139 million from 315 million in 2001 in Census 2011.
=In India, the migrants are classified into four migration streams, namely –
Migration in India is basically classified in 4 ways: (according to 2011 census)
o a) Rural to Rural – 47%
o b) Rural to Urban – 22%
o c) Urban to Urban – 22%
o d) Urban to Rural – 9%
=A few more dimension can be added to this classification in form of international migration including – immigration and emigration, long range (for
longer time) and short range migration,
voluntary and involuntary. Rural to rural migration has formed the dominant migration stream since 1961 till 2011 census. There have been substantial
increases in the proportion of rural to urban, and urban to urban migration with the passage of time.
=While rural to rural migration is dominated by females due to predominant patrilocal marriages and village exogamy in India, rural to urban migration is
dominated by males. Further, rural- urban migration is dominated by migration of young population.
Another important characteristic is that the migrants have a tendency to move to those places where they have contacts and where the previous
migrants serve as links for the new migrants, and this chain is thus formed in the process, and is usually called ‘chain migration’. Thus, kinship also plays
an important role in migration patterns.

=Reason for migration

The major reason of voluntary migration is economic Factors.
1)economic Factors. In most of the developing countries, low agricultural income, agricultural unemployment and underemployment are the major
factors pushing the migrants towards areas with greater job opportunities.(Ashish Bose)
-The most important economic factors that motivate migration may be termed as ‘Push Factors’ and ‘Pull Factors’. Poverty, low productivity,
unemployment, exhaustion of natural resources and natural calamities are some of ‘Push factors’.
-Opportunities for better employment, higher wages, better working conditions and better amenities of life like education, health etc come under the
latter type. In context of developing countries like India – there are other factors, according to Ashish Bose, which are termed as ‘Push Back Factors’. As
unemployment and marginal employment in cities increases, it acts as a deterrent for rural population to find a place in urban areas and pushes them
back.
- There can be various other reasons as well. According to R C Chanda in ‘A Geography of Population, 1986’, some seek more religious freedom which is
offered in a cosmopolitan
environment of city. Sometimes there is a tacit government guideline which promotes economic and cultural activity at specific places.
2)Socio-cultural Factors:
Migration can also be driven by social factors such as marriage, family reunification, or the desire to be closer to one's community or social network.
-Marriage: Marriage is the main reason for migration among women in India.
-Caste: Caste-based discrimination and marginalization, and violence against certain groups can also lead to migration.
-Religion: Religious persecution or discrimination can also cause individuals to migrate.
3)Political factors also play important role.
-Political instability: Conflicts, war, or other forms of political instability can force individuals to migrate in search of safety and security.
-Persecution: Migration can also be driven by persecution or discrimination based on factors such as religion, ethnicity, or political views.
-Separatist movements: Migration can also be driven by separatist movements or ethnic conflicts, where individuals or groups may feel compelled to leave
their homes to escape violence or persecution.
-Government policies and administrative actions: Government policies and administrative actions that lead to displacement or loss of livelihoods can
affect migration.
-For instance, in our country, the adoption of the jobs for ‘sons of the soil policy’ by the State governments will certainly affect migration from other
states.
=Consequences of migration are social, economic and psychological as well –
1) Demographic consequences:
o Migration changes the characteristics of the population in regions of out migration and regions of in migration.
o It changes age and sex composition of population with rate of growth of population. The proportion of old children and females increases due to out-
migration in the source region.
2) Social consequences:
o Migration results in intermixing of diverse cultures and leads to the evolution of composite culture.
o It breaks the narrow thoughts and widens the mental horizon of the people.
o In history, India received migrants from different cultural groups causing different cultures but sometimes migration creates social vacuum and sense
of dejection among individuals and people fall in crimes and drug abuse .
3) Economic consequences:
o Migration changes the resource population ratio. If the people are moving from an overpopulated area to an area of under population the result is in the
balancing of the
resource population ratio. If the migration is from an area of under population to over population or optimal populated, the results are harmful to both
the areas.
o Migration affects the occupational structure of the population. The population of receiving areas becomes more productive causing dependency ratio
in the source areas.
o Brain drain is another consequence of migration. Skilled people migrate from poorer states to developed states in search of better economic
opportunities. Internationally
Indian engineers have been migrating to countries like the USA for better opportunities.
4) Environmental consequences:
o Large scale movement of people from rural to urban areas causes overcrowding in cities and puts heavy pressure on resources.
o It causes haphazard growth of cities and causes slums lacking basic infrastructural facilities such as safe drinking water, electricity, sewage etc.
o Overcrowding is also responsible for any environmental problems of air, water, land and noise pollution, disposable and management of solid wastes.
5) Other consequences:
o Migration enhances remittances to the source region but causes heavy loss to human resource, in terms of skilled labour.
o Women remained behind and enjoyed empowerment effects with increased interaction in society including their partnership as workers and decision
making of households.
o In India Feminization of Poverty is because of the absence of men from the rural fields for better job aspects in cities.

(c) Population Policy and Family planning

At the level of the family, family planning implies having only the desired number of children.
However, family planning implies both limitation of the family to a number considered appropriate to the resources of the family as well as proper
spacing between the children. The
various components of the family planning programme are:
o Information, Education and Communication Activities
o Contraceptives: Supplies and Services
o Training of Personnel
o Research
o Administrative Infrastructure
The size of the population, its characteristics, spatial and rural-urban distribution, rate of growth and its determinants decide the quantum, pattern
and distribution of consumption and production.
=Evolution of population policy in India:
Unlike in the case of several other developing countries, the Indian concern about the relatively high level of fertility or the number of children born to
Indian women rather than
the rate of population growth reflected a genuine desire to improve the living standards of the people.
In the 1940s, the Bhore Committee on Health Survey and Development (1946) and the subcommittee on population set up by the National Planning
Committee (1940) favoured the
involvement of the government in the promotion of family planning.
o In 1952 India became the first developing country in the world to adopt a policy of governmental efforts to promote a reduction in the number of
children born to Indian
couples. The early concept of population policy covered both mortality and fertility and did not exclusively focus on fertility.
o The effective date of the adoption and implementation of a clear family planning programme is often put at 1966, when the ‘extension approach’ to the
promotion of
family planning throughout the country replaced the earlier clinic-oriented approach.
o A separate Department of Family Planning was set up in the Ministry of Health during the fourth five year plan period. Around the same time, a
‘time-bound’ target of reducing the crude birth rate from about 39 to 25 per 1000 population in 10 to 12 years was adopted.
o Slippages in the achievement of this goal and the resulting frustration led to the outburst of a special drive during the emergency period of 1975-77 to
promote sterilization.
o In 1992, the Karunakaran Committee, set up by the National Development Council (NDC) partly in response to the 1991 Census results, recommended
the formulation of a National Population Policy. In the meanwhile, the state governments have begun to follow the suggestion of the Swaminathan
group to formulate state level population policies.
o In 1997, to avoid misconceptions and to direct the programme more towards addressing clients’ needs, the Target-free Approach was renamed as the
Community
Needs Assessment Approach, and decentralised participatory planning was initiated.
-The government has provided broad guidelines for conducting community needs assessment and has given states the responsibility for working out
the practical details of implementation. Thus a lot of changes were initiated in the Family planning scenario over the decades and paved a way to face
the challenges in reproductive health.
o The National family planning policy adopted in February 2000 further legitimised the paradigm shift to client-based services. The National Population
Commission was set
up in May 2000. In March 2001, an Empowered Action Group was set up by the Government of India to facilitate focused efforts to promote the
Reproductive and Child Health Programme in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and
Uttaranchal which have been lagging behind in a number of socio-demographic indices.
=National Population Policy, 2000: It has following broad targets –
I. Reduce IMR to 30.
II. Reduce maternal mortality rate also to 100.
III. Improve child, maternal and reproductive health.
IV. Prevent communicable diseases and other diseases like AIDS
V. Achieve 100% birth and death registration. Compulsory registration of marriage and pregnancy, along with birth and death.
VI. It has special focus on health and education strategies like free school education to children up to the age- group of 14, 20 % reduction in the drop
outs of children in schools at primary and secondary levels.
VII. It envisages the target of stable population by 2045 A.D. (which is now further pushed back to 2065).
VIII. The policy includes freezing of Lok Sabha seats at current level of 543 till 2026.
IX. Cash incentives for compliance with requirements regarding antenatal checkup, institutional delivery by a trained birth attendant.
X. Increasing the number of health workers.
XI. Improve the availability of contraceptives and strengthening the health and family welfare services.
XII. The medium term objectives of the policy include bringing down the total fertility rate to replacement level by 2010.
XIII. Under the policy the Government of India has offered an incentive package to model small families. It includes improvement in the facilities for safe
abortion, prize to village panchayats and district boards fulfilling the target of model small families in respect of reducing infant mortality rate and
improv-ing literacy.
=Family welfare programs are another important component of family planning process. Over the years different family welfare programs have been
launched to provide for maternity health, child care, awareness etc to complement family planning. Some of them are –
I. National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) – National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) was launched by in 2005 and its primary focus is on maternal and child
health. It aims at improving health of the mother and child to reduce mortality and improve other health indicators.
II. Janani Suraksha Yojna (JSY) – This has been launched as a part of NRHM. It aims at reducing both maternal and neo-natal death. It promotes
institutional delivery (ASHA helps in doing that). It
also integrates cash assistance with delivery and post delivery care. This has special focus in the states which have low institutional delivery.
III. Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) – It focuses both mother and child. The scheme was launched in 1975 for holistic development,
immunization, care and nutrition of children below 6 years of age and proper nutritional and health education of pregnant and lactating mothers with
33 projects and 4,891 anganwadi centers (AWCs). It has now been universalized.
IV. Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS) – This was launched in 2009-10 with the objective of providing a safe and secure environment for
comprehensive development of children in the
country who are in need of care and protection as well as children in conflict with the law. It provides preventive and statutory care and rehabilitation
services to any vulnerable child including orphans, HIV infected, drug abused, trafficked or sexually exploited etc.
V. Universal Immunization Program (UIP) – The UIP targets 2.7 crore infants and 3 crore pregnant women annually and is one of the largest programs in
the world.
VI. Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY) – It aims at correcting the imbalances in availability of affordable/reliable tertiary level healthcare
in the country in general and
augmenting facilities for quality medical education in the under-served States.
VII. Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojna (IGMSY) – It is a conditional cash transfer scheme on pilot basis in selected 52 districts during the remaining
period of 11thFive Year Plan at a total cost of Rs 1000 crore. Under the scheme, Cash transfers will be made to all pregnant and lactating women as
incentives based on fulfillment of specific conditions relating to mother and child health and nutrition.
= Research shows that adequate attention to family planning in countries with high birth rates can not only reduce poverty and hunger but also avert
32 percent of maternal and nearly 10 percent of childhood deaths, respectively.
There would be additional significant contributions to women's empowerment, access to education and long-term environmental sustainability. The
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) estimates that ‘every dollar invested in family planning saves four dollars in other health
and development areas, including maternal health, immunization, malaria, education, water and sanitation’.
Thus, investing in family planning is the most intelligent step that a nation like India can take to improve the overall socio-economic fabric of the
society and reap high returns on investments and drive the country's growth.

(d) Emerging issues – ageing, sex rations, child and infant mortality, reproductive health
=Ageing:
-Ageing is defined as accumulation of changes in personality. Changes can be biological, social or psychological. With biological ageing, social ageing is
also accompanied and the norms, values and roles that are particularly associated with a chronological age also change.
-Ageing as a phenomenon poses challenges for the individual as well as for society. As a process, it poses challenges at every phase of life from puberty
to old-age.
-Countries like Japan today face enormous pressure as a significant chunk of their population is now approaching old age and dependency ratio is
increasing. Ageing brings
emotional challenges as well. For example – youth face generation gap, older people face loneliness.
❖ Tibbitts- "ageing may best be defined as the survival of a growing no. of people who have completed the traditional adult roles of making a living and
childrearing"
=Theories of Ageing -
I. Disengagement Theory – As persons grow old, they disengage from larger society to find meaning of their lives. It is a functionalist theory which argues
that disengagement of the elderly
people from their current roles also helps in freeing up of these roles for others who can perform them more efficiently. This theory, however stereotypes
older people as frail, unproductive and of less importance.
II. Age Stratification Theory – It came as a reaction to functionalist explanation of ageing in 1970s. According to this theory, social structures affect
individuals and the wider strata of older people.
III. Political-Economy Theory – This is given by Carroll Estes in her ‘Critical Perspectives on Ageing, 1991’ and according to her, political economy defines
the roles which are to be given to the aged.
IV. Role Theory – A man performs various roles over lifetime. Even traditional Hindu notion of various phases like – Brahmcharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha etc
is related to concept of ageing and social roles.
V. Activity Theory – More the activity, greater the life satisfaction. Example of Fauja Singh a nonagenarian Sikh who still take active participation in
marathons worldwide to raise awareness and promote charity.
❖ Linda R. Gannon - ageing affects women more adversely than men as a result of
lifestyles, habits, expectations and roles that place women at risk. Materially
disadvantages- paid less and have more caring responsibilities. Menopause seen as a
disease and treated with hormone replacement therapy - even men produce less
androgen hormone as they age, but not seen as a problem.
=Social transition and impact on senior citizens:
Indian society is undergoing rapid transformation under the impact of industrialization, urbanization and globalization. Consequently Indian
traditional values and institutions are in
the process of erosion.
With the rapidly increasing number of senior citizens, compound disintegration of joint families and ever increasing influence of modernization and
new life styles, the care of
elderly has emerged as an important issue in India.
Providing care for the senior citizen has never been a problem in India where a value based joint family system was dominant. However, with growing
trends towards nuclear family set- up, increasing education, urbanization and industrialization, the vulnerability of senior citizens is rapidly increasing .
The coping of the younger and senior citizen family members are now being challenged under various circumstances resulting in neglect and abuse of
senior citizens in many ways, both within the family and outside.
=The growth in the proportion of the aged in the population is directly linked to the phenomenon of demographic transition. Two major causes are –
decline in fertility and longevity due to improvement in health facilities. This leads to higher dependency ratios – number of dependents (old) to
working population in 15-59 age group and some argue that as dependency ratio increases strain on scarce resources also increases.
=1)-In the pre-industrial society, the family was also the unit of production and the productive assets are controlled by the elders, which ensured their
influence and status despite their declining individual attributes. Also, in their family enterprise the aged can work as long as their condition permits and
on task consistent with their diminishing capacity, which ensures gradualness in their aging process.
=2)-On the other hand, in the modern industrial society, as the family tends to lose its production function, the younger tends to become economically
independent of their elders, giving rise to a change in the family structure. Thus, in the new type of family structure in the industrial society, the aged are
often left to fend for themselves at a time when their capacity for social adjustment tends to decline.
=Problems of Senior Citizen in India:
1) Health problems:
o It is often claimed that senior citizens are accompanied by multiple illnesses and physical ailments. Besides physical illness, the senior citizens are more
likely to be
the victims of poor mental health. Decline in mental ability makes them dependent.
o Senior citizens in general and in rural areas in particular are assumed to have some problems like cough, poor eyesight, anaemia and dental problems.
There is lack of
provision of medical aid, and proper familial care, besides insufficient public health services to meet the health needs of senior citizens.
2) Economic problems:
o Elderly people face several challenges and one of the most important among those is the problem of financial insecurity. Old age dependency ratio is
increasing and it is
projected to increase continuously, with higher share from rural areas than in urban areas.
o The National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) in its 2006 report revealed that a higher percentage of males in rural areas (32 per cent) are found to
be financially
fully dependent as compared to that in the urban areas (30.1 per cent). Widows, poor and disabled elderly constitute more disadvantaged among elderly
population.
o Elderly women, especially widows, face many disadvantages, like a substantial gender differential exists in the ownership of property and assets and in
role and participation in the family as compared to aged men in both urban and rural India, which consequently affects their access to various basic
necessities like food, housing and health.
3) Social problems:
o Sociologically, aging marks a form of transition from one set of social roles to another and such roles are difficult. However, in modern society, improved
education,
rapid technical changes and new forms of organization have often rendered obsolete the knowledge, experience and wisdom of senior citizens.
o Once they retire, elderly people find that their children are not taking advice from them. This realization often results in feeling loss of status,
worthlessness and
loneliness. If senior citizens are economically dependent on children, the problem is likely to become even worse.
o Due to the generation gap the youngsters do not pay attention to their suggestions and
advice. Instead of developing a sympathetic attitude towards the old, they start asserting their rights and power. This may create a feeling of deprivation
of their dignity and importance.
o Due to loss of most of the social roles they once performed, they are likely to be lonely and isolated. Severe chronic health problems enable them to
become socially isolated which results in loneliness and depression.
o A higher proportion of elderly women than men experience loneliness and are dependent on children.
4) Psychological problems:
o The common psychological problems that most of the senior citizens experience are: feeling of powerlessness, feeling of inferiority, depression,
uselessness, isolation and reduced competence.
o The number of people in old age homes is constantly increasing and also most of the parents are now deciding to live in old age homes rather than living
with their children. Nowadays these people are facing problems like lack of care, emotional support and economic support from the family etc.
o Today, children are not willing to take care of their parents, they do not want to spend money on them, they are treating their parents as aliens, and
they do not want to share an emotional bond with parents.
5) Housing Problems:
o Housing for the senior citizens should be suitable not only to the living pattern which they have established in optimum health, but also to conditions
of failing health and
illness, commonly associated with later years of life such as, failing eyesight, hearing, slowing and upsurges, diminishing energy and more acute
disabilities, such as blindness, forgetfulness etc.
o In this pattern, the housing available to the majority of the senior citizens may be found inappropriate and unsuitable to their requirement.
o Changing lifestyles and values, job culture, various means of distractions like the internet, television, societal shift such as nuclear family structures
and redefined priorities have led to increased neglect of the elderly by families or communities, and with this isolation comes in. With it the problem of
housing rises again. It is not only a terrible thing but also it leads to a detrimental quality of life.
=National policy for elders:
The foundation of the new policy, known as the ―National Policy for Senior Citizens 2011 ‖ is based on several factors. These include the demographic
explosion among the elderly, the
changing economy and social milieu, advancement in medical research, science and technology and high levels of destitution among the elderly rural
poor (51 million elderly live
below the poverty line). Focus of the policy :
Mainstream senior citizens, especially older women, and bring their concerns into the national development debate. Support promotion and
establishment of senior citizens associations, especially amongst women.
Promote the concept of ―"Ageing in Place "or ageing in own home, housing, income security and homecare services, old age pension and access to
healthcare insurance schemes and other
programmes and services to facilitate and sustain dignity in old age. The thrust of the policy would be preventive rather than cure.
The policy will consider institutional care as the last resort.
Being a signatory to the Madrid Plan of Action and Barrier Free Framework it will work towards an inclusive, barrier - free and age - friendly society.
Recognise that senior citizens are a valuable resource for the country and create an environment that provides them with equal opportunities,
protects their rights and enables their full participation in society. Towards achievement of this directive, the policy visualises that the states will
extend their support for senior citizens living below the poverty line in urban and rural areas and ensure their social security, healthcare, shelter and
welfare. It will protect them from abuse and exploitation so that the quality of their lives improves.
❖ Critics of concerns around ageing:
● Jenny Hockey and Allison James - elderly are often compared to and treated
as children. Infantilized old age. They argue that both childhood & old age are
social constructs linked by the common theme of dependency. Yet both can be
much more independent than society usually allows them to be
● Dean Baker, in his Social Security- The Phoney Crisis- ageing unlikely to have huge impact in eco terms in America

=Sex ratio:
=Sex Ratio is defined as ratio of male and female population. The Indian Census has preferred to define the sex ratio as the number of females per 1000
males, though the definition of the sex ratio followed the world over is the number of the males per 100 females.
=It can be further defined as adult sex ratio and child sex ratio. Sex ratio is one of the key demographic indicators which also reflect the socio-
cultural values of a given society also. Poor sex ratio reflects a preference for male child in a patriarchal society. Poor sex ratio creates demographic void
and has serious implications for society.
The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive
Principles. The Constitution not only
grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women.
Women now represent 40 percent of the global labour force, 43 percent of the world‘s
agricultural labour force. Empowering women as economic, political, and social actors can change policy choices and make institutions more
representative of a range of voices.
Continuing preference for boys in society, for the girl child the apathy continues, the child sex ratio in India has dropped to 914 females against 1,000
males, one of the lowest since Independence according to Census 2011.
According to the report," Understanding Gender Equality in India 2012", a joint report by UN and National Commission of Women, Delhi, Chandigarh and
Haryana have an adverse ratio though these states are economically quite progressive.
=Factors responsible for poor sex ratio in India –
1) Sex Selective Abortion: Many studies have shown that Pre Natal Sex Determination is the main reason of low sex ratio in India followed by abortion of
female foetuses. Son preference
is the main reason for this result. Sex selection and medical technology is misused in India for detecting the sex of unborn child and ultimately for the sex
selection, Female foetuses, thus identified and aborted.
o Missing Women: Sen calculated how skewed sex ratios translate into absolute numbers of missing women. His computations permit us to derive the
number of
additional women who would have been alive in, say, China or India if these countries had the same ratio of women to men as in developed countries,
where
women and men presumably receive similar care. The majority of missing women are of adult age suggests that excess female mortality across the
developing world is not
just the result of gender-biased parental preferences.
2) Violence against females: Crimes against women including dowry deaths, honour killings, sexual violence etc. are also responsible for the low sex
ratio. In a study done by the Centre
for Social Research in Haryana, fear of violence is a cause for female foeticide.
3) Lack of political will: The state of local governments had a lack of will to take serious steps
to control female foeticide, only after reaching an alarming state, the government has now taken serious steps.
4) Small family norms: For the sake of small families also parents do not want to more daughters, abortion of female foetus preferred.
5) Problem of security of girls: As girls are more prone to crimes, problem security of girls is also a main problem of parents.
6) Traditional thought: Females only cause burden on parents may it be financial, social, emotional and mental. Patriarchy always maintains a strong
hold on gender inequality. Themajor barrier in the way towards a balanced gender structure is gender inequality based on socio-cultural issues.
7) Under enumeration of females: Females not have been fully enumerated in the Census.
8) Migration: Males have left their females behind in the rural areas which have skewed the sex ration in urban areas.

=Consequences of low sex ratio:

Import of girls in other states: The ugly social practice of polygamy has made a comeback in certain areas as well as forcible marriages of widows and
purchasing of brides from poor areas. Brides have been imported from poor states like Orissa to Haryana.
Crime against women: The shortage of women has led to a sharp rise in violence against them. This has led to a situation where, apart from the
ingrained son preference, people don‘t want girls all the more as they feel that it is difficult to keep them safe. Also the women who produce daughters
face much more domestic violence which makes them complicit in getting rid of the girl child.
Patriarchy system become so strong: If sex ratio is declined then the patriarchy system became so strong because the less representation of grails in
homilies effects the social of women in society.
No proper recognition in Family Affairs: If sex-ratio is declined then many problem are created. Women coming from other states are unable to relate
with people around them.
Social level of women in society is affected in social functions like marriage or sangeet ceremony in villages due to the language problem, communication
problem barriers and cultural differences. So no proper recognition in family affairs .
Economic Consequences: The economic consequences are grave for this means that a huge proportion of the productive population is missing and
also the lack of women impairs the
ability of men to work. According to the IMF, women‘s participation in the workforce to the level of men can boost the Indian economy by 27%.
=Steps by government to check sex detection and improve sex ratio –
1.PCPNDT Act 2003 has been passed which makes sex determination as illegal.
II. Special incentives are launched by some states where ratio is poor. For example, in Haryana cash incentives are given for girl child. Education has been
made free by Haryana government
till graduation. Even UPSC waives off examination fee for female candidates.
III. Many specific schemes have also been launched by both the central and state governments. Haryana government runs schemes like ‘Apni Beti, Apna
Dhan’, ‘Laadli’ etc. Government of India has also launched ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’ scheme in 2014.
IV. Technological solutions are also being experimented. A tool called ‘Silent Observer’ is used by states like Maharashtra and Haryana governments
which is fitted along ultrasound machines to record the observations.
Finally, behavioural change is required. Mentality of human beings needs to be changed.
Economic benefits related to girl child, like Sukanya Samridhi Yojana needs to be encouraged more.
Women participation in labour needs to be encouraged more. Financial independence is the utmost necessity to improve the situation of women.
Basic health care should be available free of charge, so that parents are not deterred by financial constraints from seeking health care for their
daughters.
The regional variation is an important thing government schemes need to focus on. Some states have shown much improvement in implementing
schemes aimed at reducing the
disparity while some states such as Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Odisha etc. have been poor performers for a long time. Where the implementation
has been to generate some
positive results like Maharashtra and Rajasthan, the complaints about the paucity of staff members and equipment at hospitals and health inspectors
need to be addressed.
=However, these measures, including the PCPNDT Act, have largely proved ineffective in checking the menace of female feticide. Under the PCPNDT Act,
not even a single conviction has been done till date.
=Demographic Dividend and India:
Since 2018, India‘s working-age population (people between 15 and 64 years of age) has grown larger than the dependent population — children aged
14 or below as well as people
above 65 years of age. This bulge in the working-age population is going to last till 2055, or 37 years from its beginning.
India sits at the helm of this demographic dividend because half of India‘s current population of over 1.2 billion is under the age of 26 and the median
age in India by
 2020 is projected to be 29, making it the youngest country in the world. But with huge populations comes huge problems.
In theory, this increase in working-age population should generate a ―demographic dividend" that can power economic growth. However, according
to research by the Reserve Bank of
India (RBI), this will depend on India addressing its declining labour force participation rate.
- This growth will depend on those in the working-age population actually working.
In their study, Atri Mukherjee, Priyanka Bajaj and Sarthak Gulati examine how changes in India‘s population have influenced macroeconomic outcomes
between 1975 and 2017.
They find that while overall population growth is associated with lower economic growth, an increase in the working-age population is associated with
higher growth.
The authors highlight that India‘s labour force participation rate is declining, especially among rural youth (15- to 29-year-olds) and women. For India
to harness the power of its
favourable demographics, the authors argue it is critical that this is addressed. They suggest that India‘s labour force needs to be empowered with the
right skills for the modern economy.
Improve labour force participation: Only Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat are producing more formal jobs than graduates. India‘s coverage ratio is
barely over 50%. There is an urgent
need to provide mass employment as well as opportunities for highly skilled workers.
Ensure participation of women: With a forecast of a gradually shrinking workforce, India needs to ensure participation of women to reap the
demographic dividend.
Improve alternative labour force training modes like vocational and skills training: Higher education is not the only workforce training mode. South
Korea, Japan, and Germany have
built robust industries, like electronics manufacturing and automobile design, with a highly skilled workforce trained through vocational programs.
Meanwhile,
China is a great case study in imparting skills to a large population, and providing mass employment in labourintensive industries. India must study
these paradigms and deploy the
same to build a robust workforce that can be converted into a massive economic and export trade advantage.

=Child and infant mortality:

Infant mortality rate is generally taken as death rate of children of age 0-1 year per 1000 children born. In India, it is 47 per 1,000 live births, even after 51%
decline in infant mortality rate between 1980 and 2008. It is still short of the target which was set up in UN Millennium Development Goals. In comparison,
the Asian average has declined to 30, for OECD it is 5, that for China is 21 and Sri Lanka is 15.
=Various factors that affect child and infant mortality are –
I. Biological factors – They play a dominant role in determining the level of neonatal mortality. These factors are also known as endogenous factors.
II. Age of mother – It is known that neonatal mortality rates are higher when the mother is below the age of 18 or above 35.
III. Interval between two children - When the interval between two births is less than one year, there are high chances of mortality. World Population Fund
and Indian government recommend
a gap of 3-4 years between two children.
IV. Weight at Birth – The standards laid down by the World Health Organization specify that babies with a birth weight of less than 2,500 grams should be
considered as ‘high risk’ babies, needing
special care. 24 to 37 per cent of Indian babies have a birth weight below 2,500 grams without the possibility of receiving any special care.
V. Ante-Natal Care – It is generally concerned with the pregnant woman’s well-being. It is severely lacking in our country for various reasons like
patriarchy, traditional values, poverty and so on.
An anemic mother gives birth to a low-weight baby with slender chances of survival.
VI. Hygiene – Proper hygienic conditions and medical care during and after delivery are not ensured, especially in the rural areas. The delivery is generally
conducted by an untrained
traditional birth attendant – called dai – or an elderly relative. Institutional delivery is still very poor.
VII. Diseases – Common childhood diseases, such as, diphtheria, pertusis (whooping cough), measles
and polio as well as tuberculosis contribute substantially to the post-neonatal and child mortality. Diarrhea alone claims 30% children death in India.
VIII. Poor immunization – Immunization also needs to be strengthened. Government has launched Universal Immunization Program, but its coverage is
still not 100%.
=Fortunately, the practice of breast-feeding is widespread in our country. This protects the baby from exposure to several infections. Breast-feeding is,
however, initiated only after 48 to 72 hours of birth, and is absolutely prohibited during the first 24 hours due to various cultural notions. If the baby is put
to the breast soon after birth, it acquires several immunities which are passed on by the mother through colostrums (the first flow of breast milk).
=High infant mortality has several social consequences –
I. High rates of infant and maternal mortality are an unambiguous indicator of backwardness and
poverty. Development is accompanied by sharp falls in these rates as medical facilities and levels of education, awareness and prosperity increase.
II. Because of the high levels of infant and child mortality, a couple may go in for a large number of children in the hope that at least a few would survive to
adulthood.
III. Mortality of children also has an adverse effect on the health of mothers who have to undergo multiple cycles of pregnancy with, often, a precarious
health condition. Parents also face psychological trauma.
IV. Bearing child is also an economic burden for poor women who are members of labor force in un-organized sector as no compensation is paid for the
work not done during the pregnancy.

=Emerging Issues: Reproductive Health

Although India was among the first countries in the world to develop legal and policy frameworks guaranteeing access to abortion and contraception,
women and girls continue to
experience significant barriers to full enjoyment of their reproductive rights, including poor quality of health services and denials of women‘s and girls‘
decision-making authority.
Historically, reproductive health-related laws and policies in India have failed to take a women‘s rights based approach, instead focusing on
demographic targets, such as population control.
It implicitly or explicitly undermines women‘s reproductive autonomy through discriminatory provisions such as spousal consent requirements for
access to reproductive health services.
Despite a national law penalizing marriages of girls below 18 years of age and policies and schemes guaranteeing women maternal healthcare, in
practice India continues to account for the highest number of child marriages and 20% of all maternal deaths globally.
Although India‘s National Population Policy guarantees women voluntary access to the full range of contraceptive methods, in practice state
governments continue to introduce schemes
promoting female sterilization, including through targets, leading to coercion, risky substandard sterilization procedures, and denial of access to
non-permanent methods.
In addition, although abortion is legal on multiple grounds until 20 weeks of gestation and throughout pregnancy where necessary to save the life of
the pregnant woman under the
Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (MTP Act), 56% of the 6.4 million abortions estimated to occur in India annually are unsafe and result in 9% of all
maternal deaths.
The broad components of reproductive health care are:
Accessibility to good quality family planning services, counselling to suit the reproductive needs of individuals and couples, and prevention of
unwanted pregnancy.
Provision of safe motherhood services and infant care during and after pregnancy.
Provision of services related to infertility.
Prevention and management of reproductive disorders, including sexually transmitted disease, and prevention of HIV/AIDS.
❖ Nirmala, in her 2013 study,-elderly women now witness ↑instances of ovarian cancer, uterus removal, acute menopausal symptoms,etc.--women are
exposed to more risk factors than men
Empowering adolescents by giving them reproductive and sexual health information and education in a comprehensive and sensitive way.
Ensure regular and uninterrupted availability of contraceptives, and quality family planning services, including counselling to individuals and couples.
=Fostering gender equality and further reproductive rights requires:
Effective enforcement of laws relating to reproductive rights, such as the Child Marriage Restraint Act (1978) and the Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques
Act (1994)
Sensitization of law enforcement agencies
o Constant review and revision of existing laws from a gender perspective.
Both government and civil institutions must become more accountable for protecting rights.
Documentation of the violation of rights.
Education in the field of human rights and alliances between concerned institutions.
India has a large and vibrant media network that can be used effectively to disseminate information on Reproductive Rights.
Sensitizing representatives of the media to Reproductive Rights will result in a paradigm shift in the way the Rights are perceived in India, and thereby
create an active forum for debate, discussion and progress.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____
Q: Examine the relevance of corporate social responsibility in a world marked by increasing environmental crises.
-Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to the ethical conduct of a corporation towards society. It implies that corporations should not only be
concerned about profit-making but also the welfare of society and the environment. With the increasing environmental crises worldwide, the relevance of
CSR is more significant than ever.
-CSR and Environmental Protection
CSR initiatives can play a crucial role in environmental protection. Many corporations have significant environmental footprints due to their operations,
such as manufacturing, mining, and energy production. These activities can lead to air and water pollution, land degradation, and biodiversity loss.
Through CSR, corporations can commit to reducing their environmental impact. For example, they can invest in cleaner technologies, improve waste
management, and promote biodiversity conservation.
-An example of this is the Indian multinational conglomerate Tata Group, which has implemented numerous CSR initiatives focused on environmental
sustainability. These include water conservation projects, afforestation drives, and efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Similarly, Infosys, one of India’s
largest IT companies, has committed to becoming carbon neutral and has invested in renewable energy sources as part of its CSR strategy.
-CSR and Climate Change
The increasing severity of global climate change has underscored the importance of CSR. Corporations are significant contributors to greenhouse gas
emissions, which are driving global warming. Through CSR, corporations can commit to reducing their carbon footprint, for example, by improving energy
efficiency, transitioning to renewable energy sources, and offsetting their emissions.
-Globally, many corporations have made commitments to address climate change through their CSR strategies. For example, Google has committed to
operate on 24/7 carbon-free energy by 2030, while Apple has pledged to become carbon neutral across its entire business and supply chain by the same
year.
CSR and Environmental Justice
CSR also has a role to play in promoting environmental justice. Often, the negative environmental impacts of corporate activities disproportionately affect
marginalized and vulnerable communities. Through CSR, corporations can ensure that their operations do not exacerbate social inequalities and that
they contribute positively to the communities in which they operate.
-An example of this is the Indian mining company Vedanta Resources, which has faced criticism for its environmental and human rights impacts. In
response, it has implemented a CSR strategy focused on community development and environmental stewardship, including initiatives to improve access
to clean water and sanitation, promote sustainable agriculture, and restore local ecosystems.
Conclusion
In a world marked by increasing environmental crises, the relevance of CSR is clear. Through CSR, corporations can reduce their environmental impact,
combat climate change, and promote environmental justice. However, for CSR to be truly effective, it must not be seen as a mere public relations exercise.
Instead, it should be integrated into the core business strategies of corporations and backed by robust monitoring and accountability mechanisms. By
doing so, corporations can contribute significantly to sustainable development and the protection of our planet for future generations.
Q: Discuss the nature of regional variations in sex ratio in India, stating reasons thereof.
Sex Ratio in India
The sex ratio is a demographic concept that refers to the number of females per 1000 males in a given population. In India, the sex ratio has been a subject
of concern due to its skewed nature, favoring males over females. The regional variations in sex ratio in India are significant and reflect the
socio-economic, cultural, and historical disparities that exist within the country.
=Regional Variations in Sex Ratio
Northern India:
The northern states of India like Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have consistently shown a lower sex ratio. This is largely due to the deeply entrenched
patriarchal norms and values that favor male children over female children. The preference for sons often results in female infanticide, female feticide, and
neglect of the girl child leading to higher mortality rates.
Southern India:
In contrast, southern states such as Kerala and Tamil Nadu have a higher sex ratio. This is attributed to higher literacy rates, better health infrastructure,
and a more egalitarian society where women are accorded equal status. The matrilineal system of inheritance in parts of Kerala has also contributed to a
more favorable sex ratio.
Eastern India:
Eastern states like West Bengal and Odisha also have a higher sex ratio. This is attributed to the lesser prevalence of son preference and more equitable
treatment of girls and women. However, states like Bihar and Jharkhand have a lower sex ratio due to poverty, illiteracy, and patriarchal norms.
Western India:
The sex ratio in western states like Rajasthan and Gujarat is lower due to the prevalence of patriarchal norms and preference for sons. However, states like
Maharashtra have a higher sex ratio due to better socio-economic conditions and higher literacy rates.
Reasons for Regional Variations
1. Socio-cultural Factors: The patriarchal norms, son preference, and gender discrimination prevalent in many parts of India contribute to a lower sex ratio.
2. Economic Factors: Poverty and economic hardship often lead to neglect of the girl child, resulting in higher mortality rates.
3. Literacy and Awareness: Higher literacy rates and awareness about gender equality contribute to a higher sex ratio.
4. Health Infrastructure: Access to quality healthcare services for women and girls also influences the sex ratio.
5. Government Policies: The implementation and effectiveness of government policies aimed at improving the status of women also impact the sex ratio.
Conclusion
The regional variations in sex ratio in India reflect the deep-seated gender disparities that exist within the country. While some regions have made
progress, others continue to lag behind. Addressing these regional variations requires a multi-pronged approach that includes changing societal
attitudes, improving socio-economic conditions, enhancing literacy and awareness, and implementing effective government policies.

Q: In the face of rising global climatic concerns, how do you contextualize the relevance of Chipko Movement and its Gandhian tone? Answer analytically.
Chipko Movement
The Chipko Movement, a non-violent agitation in the 1970s that was initiated by rural villagers, particularly women, in the Himalayan region, has been a
significant milestone in the history of environmental movements in India. The movement employed the Gandhian principles of peaceful resistance and
non-cooperation, and its relevance in today’s context of escalating global climatic concerns cannot be overstated.
Contextualizing the Relevance of Chipko Movement
1. Emphasis on Sustainable Development: The Chipko Movement was a clarion call for sustainable development. It underscored the importance of
maintaining a balance between economic growth and environmental conservation. In the current scenario of global warming and climate change, the
message of the Chipko Movement is more pertinent than ever. It reminds us that development should not be pursued at the cost of environmental
degradation.
2. Empowerment of Marginalized Communities: The Chipko Movement was a people’s movement where the marginalized communities came forward to
protect their environment. It demonstrated that the people most affected by environmental degradation are often the most effective in combating it.
Today, as climate change disproportionately affects the world’s poor, the Chipko Movement’s emphasis on grassroots activism and community
mobilization is particularly relevant.
3. Non-Violent Resistance: The Chipko Movement adopted the Gandhian method of non-violent resistance and peaceful protest. In an age where conflicts
over resources are increasing, the Chipko Movement offers a model of peaceful advocacy for environmental justice. It is a testament to the power of
non-violent protest in bringing about change.
The Gandhian Tone of the Chipko Movement
The Gandhian philosophy of “Sarvodaya” (welfare of all) and “Antyodaya” (upliftment of the weakest) was at the heart of the Chipko Movement. The
movement’s emphasis on non-violence, self-reliance, and community participation reflected Gandhian principles. The participants in the Chipko
Movement, like Gandhi, believed in the intrinsic value of nature and the need to live in harmony with it.
Examples of the Relevance of Chipko Movement
The Chipko Movement has inspired numerous environmental movements across the world. For instance, the Appiko Movement in Karnataka, which was a
protest against the felling of trees, was directly inspired by the Chipko Movement. Internationally, the principles of the Chipko Movement have influenced
movements like the Green Belt Movement in Kenya, led by Wangari Maathai, which has mobilized communities to plant trees and combat deforestation.
-Conclusion
In conclusion, the Chipko Movement, with its Gandhian tone, is highly relevant in the face of rising global climatic concerns. It serves as a reminder of the
power of peaceful protest, community participation, and sustainable development. As we grapple with the challenges of climate change, the lessons from
the Chipko Movement can guide us towards a more sustainable and equitable future.

Q: What actionable measures would you suggest to curb the recurrent child labour menace in India ?
Child Labour in India
Child labour is a deeply rooted social issue in India. The prevalence of child labour is a blatant violation of child rights and a hindrance to the social and
economic development of the country. Despite having laws against child labour, the problem persists due to a variety of reasons such as poverty, lack of
quality education, and social norms. Therefore, to curb this menace, a multi-pronged approach is required.
1. Strengthening Legal Framework and Enforcement:
The first step towards eradicating child labour is to strengthen the legal framework. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016,
which prohibits the employment of children below 14 years in all occupations and processes and adolescents in hazardous occupations and processes,
should be strictly enforced. There should be severe punishment for those who employ children in work. For instance, in Bangladesh, the law imposes a fine
of up to one lakh Taka and imprisonment up to six months for employing a child.
2. Enhancing Access to Quality Education:
Education is a powerful tool that can break the vicious cycle of poverty and child labour. The government should ensure that every child has access to
quality education. This can be done by implementing the Right to Education Act effectively. For instance, in Brazil, the Bolsa Familia program, a conditional
cash transfer scheme, has been successful in reducing child labour. The scheme provides financial aid to poor families on the condition that their children
attend school and get vaccinated.
3. Economic Empowerment of Families:
Poverty is one of the main drivers of child labour. Therefore, measures should be taken to improve the economic condition of families. This can be done
through various poverty alleviation programs, skill development initiatives, and providing employment opportunities to adults. For instance, the Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) can be effectively used to provide employment to adults and thus reduce child labour.
4. Awareness and Sensitization:
There is a need to create awareness about the ill effects of child labour among parents, employers, and society at large. This can be done through various
campaigns, street plays, workshops, etc. For instance, the ‘Childline‘ service in India is a helpline for children in distress, and it also works towards creating
awareness about child rights.
5. Strengthening Child Protection Mechanisms:
Child protection mechanisms at the local, state, and national level should be strengthened. This includes setting up child welfare committees, child
protection units, and child rights clubs in schools. For instance, in Kerala, student police cadets are trained to report cases of child rights violations.
6. Role of Civil Society and NGOs:
Civil society and NGOs play a crucial role in the fight against child labour. They can help in identifying and rescuing child labourers, providing them with
rehabilitation services, and advocating for child rights. For instance, the Bachpan Bachao Andolan led by Kailash Satyarthi has been instrumental in
rescuing thousands of children from bonded labour.
Conclusion:
The issue of child labour cannot be solved overnight. It requires a concerted effort from all stakeholders including the government, civil society, NGOs, and
the community. With the right policies and actions, we can hope to see a future where every child is free from labour and has the opportunity to learn,
grow, and thrive.

Q: Do you think that the decades of Dalit political mobilizations and movements have helped in strengthening India’s democracy? Substantiate your
arguments with facts
Dalit Political Mobilization & Strengthening Democracy:
Dalit political mobilizations and movements have been a significant part of India’s socio-political landscape. Dalits, who were historically marginalized and
oppressed, have used political mobilization as a tool to assert their rights and fight for social justice. The decades of Dalit political mobilization have
indeed played a crucial role in strengthening India’s democracy.
Inclusive Democracy:
Dalit political movements have contributed to making India’s democracy more inclusive. They have brought the issues of the most marginalized sections
of society to the forefront of political discourse. The representation of Dalits in political institutions has increased over the years, thanks to their
mobilization. This has made India’s democracy more representative and inclusive.
Social Justice:
Dalit movements have played a crucial role in pushing for social justice. They have fought against caste-based discrimination and untouchability, which
are against the principles of democracy. The movements have led to significant social reforms and legislations like the Scheduled Castes and Tribes
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, which have strengthened the democratic fabric of the country.
Political Empowerment:
Dalit political movements have led to the political empowerment of Dalits. Parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) have come to power in states like
Uttar Pradesh, representing the political aspirations of Dalits. This has not only strengthened democracy but also challenged the dominance of
upper-caste politics.
Examples of Dalit Political Mobilization:
1. The Dalit Panthers Movement:
The Dalit Panthers movement in Maharashtra in the 1970s was a significant Dalit mobilization. It was a radical movement that challenged caste oppression
and discrimination. The movement played a crucial role in bringing the issues of Dalits to the forefront of political discourse.
2. The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP):
The rise of the BSP under the leadership of Kanshi Ram and Mayawati is another example of Dalit political mobilization. The party has been successful in
capturing power in Uttar Pradesh, one of India’s largest states, multiple times. The BSP has been instrumental in asserting Dalit identity and rights.
Conclusion:
Therefore, Dalit political mobilizations and movements have indeed strengthened India’s democracy. They have made democracy more inclusive and
representative. They have challenged social injustices and pushed for social reforms. They have led to the political empowerment of Dalits. However, the
struggle is far from over. Caste-based discrimination and violence are still prevalent, and the political representation of Dalits is still not proportionate to
their population. Therefore, Dalit political mobilization needs to continue to further strengthen India’s democracy.

Q: What is ‘reverse migration’ ? Discuss its features, causes and consequences in India
Reverse Migration
Reverse migration, also known as return migration, refers to the phenomenon where migrants return to their place of origin after having migrated to
another place for a certain period. It’s a common occurrence worldwide, but it has gained significant attention in India due to the large-scale reverse
migration prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Features of Reverse Migration:
Temporary Nature: Reverse migration is often temporary, with migrants returning to their home regions during periods of economic downturn or crisis and
then re-migrating when conditions improve.
Skilled Labor: Reverse migration often involves skilled laborers who have gained skills and experience in their host countries and bring these back to their
home countries.
Remittances: Reverse migrants often continue to send remittances to their families in their host countries, contributing to the economy of those
countries.
Urban to Rural: In the Indian context, reverse migration often involves movement from urban to rural areas.
Causes of Reverse Migration:
Economic Factors: Economic downturns or lack of job opportunities in host regions can prompt reverse migration. The COVID-19 pandemic, for example,
led to widespread job losses, prompting many migrants to return to their home regions.
Social Factors: Migrants may also return home due to social factors like family ties, cultural connections, or a desire to retire in their home country.
Political Factors: Political instability or changes in immigration policies can also lead to reverse migration.
Consequences of Reverse Migration:
Economic Impact: Reverse migration can have a significant economic impact. It can lead to labor shortages in host regions and an oversupply of labor in
home regions, potentially driving down wages.
Social Impact: Reverse migration can also have social impacts, such as changes in family structures and increased pressure on social services in home
regions.
Development Impact: On a positive note, reverse migration can contribute to development in home regions, as returning migrants bring skills, experience,
and sometimes capital.
Example of Reverse Migration in India:
A large-scale example of reverse migration in India occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. With the nationwide lockdown, millions of migrant workers
found themselves without work and means to survive in the cities. Consequently, they embarked on long journeys back to their home villages. This reverse
migration posed significant challenges, including the risk of spreading the virus in rural areas, the strain on rural economies, and the potential disruption
of urban economies due to labor shortages.
Conclusion:
Reverse migration is a complex phenomenon with significant economic, social, and development implications. It requires careful management and policy
responses to mitigate its negative impacts and harness its potential benefits. In the Indian context, it highlights the need for stronger social protection
for migrant workers and more balanced regional development to reduce the pressures for migration.
Q: What is 'Ageing' ? Discuss the major problems of aged people in India.
Ageing:
Ageing is a natural and inevitable biological process that involves a gradual decline in the functional capacity of an organism over time, leading to an
increased vulnerability to diseases and death. In humans, ageing is marked by a progressive deterioration of physiological functions, leading to impaired
cognitive function, reduced physical and mental agility, susceptibility to diseases, and ultimately, death.
Major Problems of Aged People in India:
1. Economic Problems: One of the major problems faced by the elderly in India is economic insecurity. With retirement, the regular income ceases and many
elderly people are forced to depend on their savings or their children for financial support. For example, according to a report by HelpAge India, around
65% of the elderly population in India are dependent on others for their livelihood.
2. Health Issues: With ageing, the physical strength deteriorates and many health issues like heart problems, diabetes, arthritis, etc., start to surface. The
healthcare cost in India is skyrocketing and many elderly people are unable to afford the necessary treatments.
3. Social Isolation: In the Indian context, where the joint family system is breaking down and giving way to nuclear families, the elderly often face social
isolation. They are left alone at home with no one to interact with, leading to loneliness and depression.
4. Lack of Respect and Abuse: There are numerous cases reported where the elderly are not treated with respect and are even subjected to abuse. This can
be physical, mental, or emotional abuse, often perpetrated by their own family members.
5. Inadequate Infrastructure: India lacks sufficient old age homes, healthcare facilities, and other necessary infrastructure for the elderly. This makes it
difficult for them to lead a comfortable and dignified life in their old age.
Examples:
An example of the economic problems faced by the elderly in India can be seen in the case of 70-year-old Ram Prasad. After retirement, he was unable to
support himself with his meager pension and had to depend on his children for financial support.
-The health issues faced by the elderly in India can be exemplified by the case of 75-year-old Kamala Devi who suffers from arthritis. The high cost of
treatment and medication has put a significant financial burden on her family.
Conclusion:
Ageing in India is fraught with numerous challenges. The government and society need to work together to address these issues and ensure that the
elderly can lead a dignified and comfortable life. This can be achieved by strengthening the social security system, improving healthcare facilities,
promoting respect for the elderly, and creating an inclusive society that values and cares for its elderly population.

Q: Discuss Law as an important instrument for women’s empowerment.

Role of Law in Women’s Empowerment
Law plays a crucial role in women’s empowerment in India, as it provides a framework for addressing gender inequalities and promoting women’s rights. The
Indian Constitution guarantees equality before the law and prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sex. Over the years, various laws have been enacted
to address specific issues related to women’s rights, such as dowry, domestic violence, sexual harassment, and equal pay. These legal provisions have
been instrumental in empowering women by providing them with the necessary tools to fight against discrimination and violence.
1. Legal provisions for women’s rights
The Indian Constitution and various laws provide for the protection and promotion of women’s rights. For instance, the Constitution guarantees equality
before the law (Article 14) and prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sex (Article 15). The Equal Remuneration Act (1976) mandates equal pay for
equal work for both men and women. The Dowry Prohibition Act (1961) criminalizes the giving and taking of dowry, while the Protection of Women from
Domestic Violence Act (2005) provides legal protection to women from domestic abuse.
2. Awareness and access to legal remedies
Laws related to women’s rights have helped raise awareness about gender-based discrimination and violence. This increased awareness has led to more
women seeking legal remedies to protect their rights. For instance, the number of cases filed under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act
has been steadily increasing since its enactment, indicating that more women are now aware of their rights and are willing to take legal action against their
abusers.
3. Legal reforms and policy changes
Laws related to women’s rights have also led to policy changes and reforms that aim to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment. For example,
the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (2013) was enacted in response to the brutal gang rape of a young woman in Delhi in 2012. This law introduced stricter
penalties for sexual assault and harassment and expanded the definition of rape to include non-penetrative acts. Additionally, the Sexual Harassment of
Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act (2013) mandates the establishment of internal complaint committees in organizations
to address workplace sexual harassment.
4. Changing social norms and attitudes
Legal provisions related to women’s rights have contributed to changing social norms and attitudes towards gender equality. As more women become
aware of their rights and seek legal remedies, society is gradually becoming more accepting of the idea of women’s empowerment. This change in attitude
is evident in the increasing number of women participating in the workforce, pursuing higher education, and taking on leadership roles in various sectors.
5. Challenges and limitations
Despite the progress made through legal provisions, there are still significant challenges to women’s empowerment in India. Many women continue to face
discrimination, violence, and limited access to resources and opportunities. The implementation and enforcement of laws related to women’s rights
remain weak, and there is a need for greater awareness and sensitization among law enforcement agencies, the judiciary, and society at large.
-In conclusion, law plays a vital role in women’s empowerment in India by providing a legal framework to address gender inequalities and promote women’s
rights. However, for these legal provisions to be truly effective, there is a need for better implementation, enforcement, and awareness. Additionally,
societal attitudes and norms must continue to evolve to create an environment where women can fully exercise their rights and achieve their full
potential.

Q: “Instead of promoting equality in society , the present system of education itself has contributed to increased socio economic disparities” Comment .
Impact of the Current Education System on Socio-Economic Disparities
The statement posits that the current education system, rather than promoting equality, has contributed to an increase in socio-economic disparities.
From a sociological perspective, education is meant to serve as a great equalizer, providing opportunities for all, regardless of socio-economic status.
However, in the context of India, the situation might be perceived differently.
1. Access to Quality Education
There are significant disparities in access to quality education in India. Urban areas tend to have more and better educational resources than rural ones.
Children from wealthier families often attend private schools with superior resources, whereas those from less affluent backgrounds typically go to
under-resourced government schools. This disparity in educational quality can perpetuate socio-economic inequality, as those with access to better
education often have more opportunities for economic advancement.
2. Cultural Capital
The concept of cultural capital, coined by Pierre Bourdieu, refers to non-financial social assets that promote social mobility. These may include education,
intellect, style of speech, dress, or physical appearance. Parents with a high level of cultural capital, often from higher socio-economic statuses, can pass
this on to their children, giving them a significant advantage in the educational system. This perpetuates a cycle of inequality as these benefits are not
easily accessible to those from lower socio-economic backgrounds.
3. Language
English is often the medium of instruction in Indian schools, especially the more prestigious ones. Students from families where English is not spoken or is
not the first language can struggle academically, contributing to a gap in educational achievement.
4. Caste System
The lingering effects of the caste system still influence access to education. Although there are policies in place like reservations to ensure educational
opportunities for lower caste groups, they often face social stigma and discrimination, hindering their progress.
5. Gender
Gender disparities also exist in India’s educational system. While significant strides have been made to improve female education, many regions,
particularly rural areas, still have lower rates of female literacy and school attendance compared to males. This disparity can contribute to persistent
gender inequality in socio-economic terms.
6. Cost of Education
Rising costs of education also contribute to the disparity. Higher education, in particular, is often prohibitively expensive for economically disadvantaged
students, limiting their opportunities for economic mobility.
In conclusion, while education has the potential to be a powerful tool for equality, structural issues within India’s educational system often perpetuate
socio-economic disparities. To address this, comprehensive reforms that increase access to quality education, mitigate the effects of cultural capital,
bridge the language gap, combat caste and gender discrimination, and reduce the cost of education are necessary.

Q: Discuss recent trends in the structure of migration

Recent Trends in the Structure of Migration
In recent years, India has witnessed significant shifts in the patterns and structure of migration, influenced by various social, economic, and political
factors.These trends have had a profound impact on the social fabric of the country, as well as on the lives of millions of migrants and their families.
-Some of the key trends in the structure of migration in India are as follows:
Rural to Urban Migration: One of the most significant trends in India’s migration pattern is the increasing movement of people from rural to urban areas.
This is primarily driven by the search for better employment opportunities, higher wages, and improved living conditions. The rapid urbanization and
growth of cities have led to a massive influx of migrants, resulting in the expansion of urban slums and putting immense pressure on urban infrastructure
and resources.
Migration for Education: With the expansion of higher education institutions and the growing importance of education for social mobility, there has been
a surge in migration for educational purposes. Young people from rural and semi-urban areas are increasingly moving to urban centers to pursue higher
education and professional courses. This has led to the growth of educational hubs and the emergence of a new class of migrants – the student migrants.
Gendered Migration: The gender dynamics of migration have also undergone significant changes in recent years. While earlier, male migrants dominated
the migration streams, there has been a steady increase in the number of female migrants, particularly in urban areas. Women are now migrating
independently for work, education, and marriage, challenging traditional gender roles and contributing to the feminization of migration.
Internal and International Migration: India has been witnessing both internal and international migration. While internal migration involves the movement
of people within the country, international migration refers to the movement of people across national borders. The Gulf countries, North America, and
Europe have emerged as popular destinations for Indian migrants seeking better job opportunities and higher wages. At the same time, internal migration,
particularly from the eastern and northeastern states to the southern and western states, has also increased due to regional disparities in economic
development and job opportunities.
Circular and Seasonal Migration: Circular and seasonal migration has become a common feature of India’s migration landscape. This involves the
temporary movement of people, particularly from rural areas, to urban centers or other rural areas for work during specific seasons or periods. These
migrants often return to their native places after the completion of their work, only to migrate again when the need arises. This form of migration is often
driven by the agrarian distress and lack of employment opportunities in rural areas.
Forced Migration: India has also witnessed instances of forced migration due to various reasons such as natural disasters, conflicts, and
development-induced displacement. Large-scale displacement has occurred due to the construction of dams, infrastructure projects, and urban renewal
programs, leading to the uprooting of communities and the loss of livelihoods.
Migration and Social Networks: Social networks have played a crucial role in shaping migration patterns in India. Migrants often rely on their social
networks, including family, friends, and community members, to find jobs, housing, and other resources in their destination areas. These networks also
provide crucial emotional and financial support to migrants, helping them navigate the challenges of migration.
In conclusion, the structure of migration in India has undergone significant changes in recent years, driven by various social, economic, and political
factors. These trends have had a profound impact on the lives of migrants and their families, as well as on the social fabric of the country. Understanding
these trends is essential for policymakers and researchers to develop appropriate interventions and policies to address the challenges and harness the
potential of migration for inclusive and sustainable development.

Q: Bring out the various issues involved in Dalit movements in India.

Dalit Movement in India
The Dalit movement in India has a long and complex history, with its roots in the caste-based social structure that has persisted for centuries. The term
“Dalit” refers to the lowest castes in the Hindu caste hierarchy, who have been subjected to social, economic, and political marginalization. The Dalit
movement aims to challenge and dismantle the caste system and empower the Dalit community by addressing various issues that they face.
Key Issues in the Dalit Movement
1. Caste-based discrimination and untouchability: The caste system in India has led to the social exclusion and marginalization of the Dalit community.
They have been subjected to untouchability, which is the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream society. This has
resulted in limited social interaction, restricted access to public spaces, and denial of basic human rights.
2. Economic inequality: The caste system has also led to economic disparities between different caste groups. Dalits have been historically confined to
menial and low-paying jobs, which has resulted in widespread poverty and limited access to resources. The movement seeks to address this economic
inequality by advocating for land reforms, equal opportunities in education and employment, and social security measures for the community.
3. Political representation and empowerment: The Dalit community has been underrepresented in the political sphere, which has hindered their ability to
influence policies and decisions that affect their lives. The movement aims to increase political representation and participation of Dalits in order to
empower the community and ensure that their voices are heard.
4. Access to education: Education is a crucial tool for social and economic mobility. However, the Dalit community has historically faced discrimination
and exclusion in the education system, which has limited their access to quality education. The movement seeks to improve access to education for Dalits
and address issues such as discrimination in schools, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of financial support for education.
5. Violence and atrocities against Dalits: The Dalit community has been subjected to various forms of violence and atrocities, including physical assault,
sexual violence, and social boycotts. The movement seeks to address these issues by raising awareness, advocating for legal reforms, and providing
support to victims of violence.
6. Intersectionality: The Dalit movement recognizes that the issues faced by the community are not homogenous and that there are multiple layers of
discrimination and marginalization based on gender, religion, and regional identities. The movement aims to address these intersecting forms of
oppression and work towards a more inclusive and equitable society.
7. Identity and cultural assertion: The Dalit movement also seeks to challenge the negative stereotypes and stigma associated with the Dalit identity and
promote a positive sense of self and cultural pride. This involves reclaiming and celebrating Dalit history, art, and culture, and asserting their rights to
dignity and respect.
In conclusion, the Dalit movement in India is a multifaceted struggle that seeks to address various issues faced by the community, ranging from social and
economic discrimination to political representation and cultural assertion. The movement aims to dismantle the caste system and empower the Dalit
community by advocating for social, economic, and political equality and justice.

Q: Critically examine the dialectics between ‘development and environment’.

-Development vs Environment
The dialectics between development and environment in India can be understood as a complex interplay of economic growth, social progress, and
ecological sustainability. India, as a developing country, faces the challenge of balancing rapid industrialization and urbanization with the need to
preserve its natural resources and maintain ecological balance. This dialectical relationship is characterized by contradictions, conflicts, and
interdependencies that shape the country’s development trajectory and environmental policies.
-On the one hand, development is seen as a necessary process to improve the living standards of the population, create job opportunities, and reduce
poverty. India’s economic growth, driven by industrialization and urbanization, has lifted millions out of poverty and improved the quality of life for many.
However, this development has come at a significant environmental cost. Rapid industrialization has led to the degradation of land, water, and air quality,
posing severe threats to public health and the country’s biodiversity. The construction of large infrastructure projects, such as dams and highways, has
often resulted in the displacement of local communities and the destruction of ecosystems.
-On the other hand, the environment is increasingly recognized as a critical factor in ensuring sustainable development. India’s rich natural resources,
including forests, rivers, and biodiversity, are essential for the well-being of its people and the functioning of its economy. The degradation of these
resources not only threatens the livelihoods of millions who depend on them but also undermines the long-term prospects for economic growth and
social progress. Moreover, climate change poses significant risks to India’s development, as it exacerbates existing vulnerabilities and creates new
challenges for agriculture, water management, and disaster risk reduction.
-The dialectics between development and environment in India can be seen in the tensions between different actors and interests. The state, as the
primary agent of development, often prioritizes economic growth over environmental concerns, leading to policies and practices that undermine
ecological sustainability. At the same time, civil society organizations, local communities, and environmental activists have been increasingly vocal in
demanding greater attention to environmental issues and advocating for more sustainable development models.
-In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the need to reconcile development and environmental imperatives in India. This is reflected in the
country’s commitment to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and its efforts to integrate environmental concerns into development planning and
policymaking. The National Green Tribunal, established in 2010, is an example of an institutional mechanism designed to address environmental disputes
and promote sustainable development.
-However, the dialectics between development and environment in India remain fraught with challenges. The country’s development trajectory is still
heavily reliant on resource-intensive and environmentally damaging industries, such as coal mining and thermal power generation. Moreover, the
enforcement of environmental regulations remains weak, and the capacity of institutions to manage the complex interdependencies between
development and environment is limited.
-In conclusion, the dialectics between development and environment in India are characterized by contradictions, conflicts, and interdependencies that
shape the country’s development trajectory and environmental policies. While there has been some progress in recognizing the need for a more
sustainable development model, significant challenges remain in reconciling the imperatives of economic growth, social progress, and ecological
sustainability. Addressing these challenges will require a fundamental transformation in the way development is conceived and pursued, as well as a
strengthening of institutions and governance mechanisms to ensure that environmental concerns are effectively integrated into development planning
and policymaking.

Q: What is identity politics? Discuss the main trends in Dalit movements in India.
What is Identity Politics ?
-Identity politics refers to the political activities and movements that are based on the shared experiences, interests, and concerns of individuals
belonging to specific social groups, such as race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. These groups often face discrimination,
marginalization, and oppression in society, and identity politics seeks to address these issues by promoting the rights and interests of the group
members. The main goal of identity politics is to empower these marginalized groups and provide them with a platform to voice their concerns and fight
for social justice.
-Dalit movement in India is a significant example of identity politics.
Dalits, also known as Scheduled Castes, are the lowest caste in the Indian caste system and have historically faced social, economic, and political
discrimination and exclusion. The main trends in Dalit movements in India can be discussed as follows:
1. Anti-caste and anti-untouchability movements:
The earliest Dalit movements in India focused on fighting against the caste system and the practice of untouchability. These movements were led by
prominent Dalit leaders like B.R. Ambedkar, who advocated for the annihilation of the caste system and the establishment of a casteless society. The
movements aimed at raising awareness about the injustices faced by Dalits and mobilizing them to fight for their rights.
2. Political representation and reservation:
Another significant trend in the Dalit movement has been the demand for political representation and reservation in education and employment. The
Indian Constitution, under the guidance of B.R. Ambedkar, provided for reservation of seats in educational institutions and government jobs for
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This has been a crucial step in ensuring social and economic upliftment of the Dalit community.
3. Dalit literature and cultural assertion:
Dalit literature and cultural expression have emerged as important tools for asserting Dalit identity and challenging the dominant narratives of caste and
discrimination. Dalit writers, poets, and artists have used their creative expressions to highlight the experiences of marginalization and oppression faced
by their community. This has helped in creating a distinct Dalit identity and consciousness.
4. Dalit feminism:
Dalit women face multiple forms of discrimination due to their caste and gender. Dalit feminism is a movement that addresses the specific issues faced by
Dalit women, such as sexual violence, caste-based discrimination, and social exclusion. This movement seeks to challenge the patriarchal structures
within the caste system and empower Dalit women to fight for their rights.
5. Coalition-building and alliances:
In recent years, Dalit movements have sought to build alliances with other marginalized groups, such as religious minorities, Adivasis (tribal communities),
and other backward castes. This coalition-building has helped in amplifying the voices of marginalized communities and strengthening their collective
struggle for social justice.
-In conclusion, the Dalit movement in India is a significant example of identity politics that seeks to address the historical and ongoing discrimination
faced by the Dalit community. The movement has evolved over time, focusing on various aspects such as anti-caste struggles, political representation,
cultural assertion, and coalition-building. Despite the progress made, the struggle for social justice and equality for Dalits in India continues, and the Dalit
movement remains an essential force in challenging the caste-based discrimination and promoting social change.
Q: Is Indian society moving from "Hierarchy" towards "differentiation" ? Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.
-Hierarchy and Differentiation
Sociologically speaking, “hierarchy” refers to a system where people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority, whereas
“differentiation” involves the development or evolution of differences among people or groups, often in the context of specialization and diversity.
Shift from Hierarchy to Differentiation in Indian Society
In many ways, Indian society is experiencing a shift from hierarchy towards differentiation, although this transition is uneven and complex. This shift is
influenced by a variety of factors such as economic development, urbanization, globalization, and changes in legal and societal attitudes.
Economic Development and Urbanization
Economic Development and Urbanization: With the growth of the Indian economy, new job opportunities in industries such as IT, telecommunications,
and services have emerged. These sectors often value skills and qualifications over traditional social hierarchies, enabling individuals from lower castes or
economically disadvantaged backgrounds to achieve upward mobility. For example, the success stories of individuals from lower castes making it big in
the startup ecosystem challenge traditional hierarchies.
Education
Education: Increased access to education, particularly higher education, also contributes to social differentiation. Education offers a platform for social
mobility and can help break down hierarchical barriers. The implementation of affirmative action policies in educational institutions also promotes
diversity and differentiation.
Globalization
Globalization: Globalization has exposed Indian society to diverse cultures and perspectives, encouraging a shift towards differentiation. For instance,
multinational corporations in India often adopt global standards of equality and diversity in their hiring and workplace practices, thereby challenging
traditional hierarchies.
Legal and Social Changes
Legal and Social Changes: Laws and reforms, such as those aimed at banning untouchability and caste-based discrimination, promote social equality and
differentiation. The rise of caste-based political parties and movements also reflects a shift towards differentiation, as they provide platforms for different
social groups to voice their concerns and assert their rights.
However, it’s important to note that while these trends indicate a move towards differentiation, the hierarchical caste system remains deeply ingrained in
many aspects of Indian society. For example, in marriage, which is a significant social institution in India, caste considerations often still play a crucial role.
Caste-based discrimination and inequalities persist in many rural areas and among certain social groups.
In conclusion, while there are clear signs of a shift from hierarchy to differentiation in Indian society, the transition is ongoing and complex, reflecting the
intricacies of India’s socio-cultural landscape. It’s a process of change that sociologists continue to study and understand.

Q: Discuss the main features of the debate between G. S. Ghurye and V. Elwin on tribal development.
Debate on Tribal Development in India
The debate between G. S. Ghurye and V. Elwin on tribal development in India is a significant one in the field of Indian sociology and anthropology. It
revolves around the issues of integration, assimilation, and preservation of tribal culture in the context of Indian society. The main features of this debate
can be summarized as follows:
1. Ghurye’s Assimilationist Approach: G. S. Ghurye, a renowned Indian sociologist, believed in the assimilation of tribal communities into the mainstream
Indian society. He argued that tribal communities should be integrated into the larger society to ensure their development and progress. Ghurye believed
that the tribal communities were backward due to their isolation and lack of exposure to the modern world. He advocated for the assimilation of tribal
culture into the mainstream culture, which would lead to the development of tribal communities.
2. Elwin’s Integrationist Approach: V. Elwin, a British anthropologist who spent a significant part of his life in India, had a different perspective on tribal
development. He believed in the integration of tribal communities into the mainstream society while preserving their distinct cultural identity. Elwin
argued that tribal culture was an essential part of India’s cultural diversity, and it should be protected and preserved. He emphasized the need for a
balanced approach to tribal development, which would involve providing education, healthcare, and other facilities to the tribal communities without
imposing the mainstream culture on them.
3. Cultural Preservation vs. Assimilation: The debate between Ghurye and Elwin essentially revolves around the issue of cultural preservation versus
assimilation. While Ghurye believed that the tribal culture should be assimilated into the mainstream culture for the development of tribal communities,
Elwin argued that tribal culture should be preserved and protected as a part of India’s cultural diversity.
4. Role of the State: The debate also highlights the role of the state in tribal development. Ghurye believed that the state should play an active role in
assimilating tribal communities into the mainstream society, while Elwin argued that the state should focus on providing basic facilities and infrastructure
to the tribal communities without imposing the mainstream culture on them.
5. Relevance of the Debate: The debate between Ghurye and Elwin is relevant even today, as the issues of tribal development and cultural preservation
continue to be significant in India. The Indian government has adopted various policies and programs for the development of tribal communities, which
often reflect the ideas of both Ghurye and Elwin. The debate between the two scholars highlights the need for a balanced approach to tribal development,
which involves providing basic facilities and infrastructure to the tribal communities while preserving their distinct cultural identity.
In conclusion, the debate between G. S. Ghurye and V. Elwin on tribal development in India revolves around the issues of integration, assimilation, and
preservation of tribal culture. While Ghurye advocated for the assimilation of tribal communities into the mainstream society, Elwin believed in preserving
their distinct cultural identity. The debate highlights the need for a balanced approach to tribal development, which involves providing basic facilities and
infrastructure to the tribal communities while preserving their cultural identity.

Q: What are the sociological reasons and implication of “reverse migration" during the recent pandemic in India ?
Reverse Migration and its Sociological Reasons
Reverse migration, especially as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic, refers to the movement of people from urban centers back to their rural homes. This
phenomenon has been observed worldwide, but it was particularly dramatic in India, where millions of urban migrant workers returned to their home
villages as a result of the pandemic.
Sociological Reasons for Reverse Migration
1. Loss of Livelihood: With nationwide lockdowns implemented to curb the spread of the virus, many businesses, particularly in the informal sector, had to
shut down. This led to widespread job losses, primarily affecting migrant workers in cities. Left without a source of income, these workers had little choice
but to return to their home villages.
2. Lack of Social Security: Many migrant workers in India don’t have access to social security benefits like unemployment insurance, health coverage, or
housing support. This lack of a safety net made it difficult for them to survive in the cities during the pandemic.
3. Fear and Uncertainty: The fear of the unknown, particularly concerning health and the ability to meet basic needs, also contributed to this reverse
migration. In many cases, migrants felt safer returning to their home villages, where they had a social support network and potentially better access to
food and shelter.
4. Inadequate Living Conditions: The living conditions of many migrant workers in urban areas are often overcrowded and lack basic amenities. Such
conditions are not conducive to social distancing or self-isolation, increasing the risk of contracting the virus.
5. Emotional Connect and Cultural Factors: For many migrants, the home village represents a safe haven with a strong emotional connect. In times of crisis,
the desire to be close to family and in familiar surroundings is intensified.
Implications of Reverse Migration
1. Economic Impact: The sudden outflux of workers has disrupted the economies of urban centers. Industries such as construction, manufacturing, and
services, which rely heavily on migrant labor, were particularly hard-hit.
2. Rural Pressure: The return of millions of migrants to rural areas has put additional pressure on these regions’ infrastructure and resources. These areas
often lack the health facilities to deal with a health crisis, and an increased population only exacerbates this issue.
3. Spread of Virus: While the intention of the lockdown was to limit the spread of the virus, the mass movement of people from cities to villages potentially
facilitated its spread across regions.
4. Social Impact: The pandemic and the resulting migration have brought the plight of migrant workers into the spotlight, highlighting issues like income
inequality, poor living conditions, and lack of social security.
5. Policy Challenges: The reverse migration has posed significant policy challenges. It has underscored the need for comprehensive social security
measures that cover all workers, regardless of where they live and work. Additionally, it has raised questions about how to manage large-scale internal
migration, both in crisis and normal times.
6. Potential Opportunities: Some see potential in this reverse migration, with the possibility of harnessing returning workers’ skills to improve rural
economies. It could potentially lead to a more balanced regional development if managed correctly.
In conclusion, reverse migration during the pandemic has brought forth significant sociological and economic challenges and opportunities. It has
highlighted the urgency for inclusive social protection systems, better management of internal migration, and the need for development policies that
balance rural and urban growth.

Q: Is 'ageing an emerging issue in Indian society ? Discuss the major problems of the old age people in India.
Ageing in Indian Society
Ageing is an emerging issue in Indian society. With advancements in healthcare and improved living conditions, the elderly population in India has been
increasing over the years. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the number of people aged 60 and above in India is projected to
increase from 100 million in 2011 to 300 million by 2050, accounting for 18% of the total population. This demographic shift poses several challenges for
the Indian society, including economic, social, and healthcare concerns.
Challenges faced by elderly people in india
Major problems faced by the elderly in India can be discussed under the following sociological aspects:
1. Economic Issues
Many elderly people in India face financial difficulties due to inadequate savings, lack of pension coverage, and limited employment opportunities. The
traditional joint family system, which provided financial support to the elderly, is gradually disintegrating, leaving many older individuals without a stable
source of income. This economic insecurity affects their overall well-being and quality of life.
2. Healthcare
The elderly population is more susceptible to chronic illnesses and age-related health issues. However, the healthcare system in India is not adequately
equipped to address the specific needs of the elderly. There is a lack of geriatric care facilities, specialized healthcare professionals, and affordable
healthcare services for the elderly. This results in inadequate access to healthcare and a higher burden of out-of-pocket expenses for the elderly.
3. Social Isolation
The disintegration of the joint family system and increased migration of younger generations for better job opportunities have led to social isolation
among the elderly. Many older individuals live alone or with their spouses, without the support of their children or extended family members. This lack of
social interaction can lead to feelings of loneliness, depression, and a decline in mental health.
4. Abuse and Neglect
Elder abuse is a significant yet often overlooked issue in India. The elderly may face physical, emotional, or financial abuse from their family members or
caregivers. This abuse often goes unreported due to fear of retaliation, lack of awareness, or social stigma associated with reporting abuse. Additionally,
many elderly individuals face neglect in terms of their basic needs, such as food, clothing, and healthcare.
5. Lack of Social Security
The absence of a comprehensive social security system in India leaves many elderly individuals without adequate financial support. Only a small
percentage of the elderly population receives pension benefits, and these benefits are often insufficient to cover their basic needs. This lack of social
security exacerbates the economic and social challenges faced by the elderly.
In Conclusion
The ageing population in India is an emerging issue that requires urgent attention from policymakers, civil society, and the community at large. Addressing
the economic, healthcare, and social challenges faced by the elderly is crucial to ensure their well-being and dignity in the later stages of life. This can be
achieved through the development of comprehensive social security systems, improved healthcare facilities, and increased awareness about the rights
and needs of the elderly population.

Q: Underline the socio-cultural factors responsible for India's skewed sex-ratio

Factors Responsible for India’s Skewed Sex Ratio
India’s skewed sex ratio can be attributed to a variety of socio-cultural factors that have deep-rooted historical, cultural, and social origins. Some of the
key factors responsible for this imbalance are:
1. Patriarchal society: Indian society is predominantly patriarchal, where men are considered the primary breadwinners and heads of the family. This has led
to a preference for male children, as they are seen as the ones who will carry on the family name, provide financial support, and look after their parents in
old age.
2. Dowry system: The dowry system, though illegal, is still prevalent in many parts of India. The practice involves the bride’s family giving gifts, money, or
property to the groom’s family as a precondition for marriage. This has resulted in a preference for male children, as families with daughters are burdened
with the financial obligation of providing dowry.”
3. Son preference: In Indian society, sons are often considered more valuable than daughters due to various cultural and religious beliefs. Sons are
expected to carry on the family lineage, perform religious rites, and provide financial support to their parents. This preference for sons has led to
sex-selective abortions, female infanticide, and neglect of girl children.
4. Lack of education and awareness: Low levels of education and awareness about gender equality and the importance of women in society contribute to
the skewed sex ratio. Educated families are more likely to understand the value of having daughters and treat them equally.
5. Economic factors: In rural areas, where agriculture is the primary source of livelihood, male children are preferred as they are perceived to be more
capable of physically demanding labor. Additionally, families with sons are believed to have better economic prospects, as sons are expected to bring in
additional income through marriage.
6. Discrimination against women: Discrimination against women is widespread in India and manifests in various forms, including limited access to
education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. This discrimination further reinforces the preference for male children, as they are seen as more
valuable and capable.
7. Legal loopholes and lax implementation: Despite the existence of laws prohibiting sex-selective abortions and the dowry system, these practices
continue due to legal loopholes and lax implementation of existing laws. This allows for the continuation of practices that contribute to the skewed sex
ratio.
In conclusion, the skewed sex ratio in India is a result of multiple socio-cultural factors that reinforce the preference for male children and perpetuate
discrimination against women. Addressing these factors through education, awareness campaigns, and stricter implementation of laws can help improve
the sex ratio and promote gender equality in Indian society.

Q: Rising 'ethnocentricism' is leading to conflict in our society. Assess this statement with appropriate reasons
Ethnocentrism in India
Ethnocentrism is the belief in the inherent superiority of one’s own ethnic group or culture. It often involves the tendency to judge other groups or
cultures by the standards of one’s own. In India, a diverse country with a multitude of ethnic groups, languages, religions, and cultures, the rise of
ethnocentrism has led to increased tensions and conflicts among different groups.
Reasons for the rise of ethnocentrism in India
One of the main reasons for the rise in ethnocentrism in India is the growing influence of identity politics. Political parties and leaders often use
identity-based issues to mobilize support and gain power. This has led to a situation where different ethnic and religious groups are pitted against each
other, leading to increased tensions and conflicts.
Impact of Hindu nationalism
For example, the rise of Hindu nationalism in India has led to a growing sense of ethnocentrism among some sections of the Hindu population. This has
resulted in increased incidents of violence against religious minorities, particularly Muslims and Christians. The cow protection movement, which seeks to
enforce a ban on cow slaughter, has led to the lynching of several people, mostly from the Muslim community, on suspicion of cow smuggling or
consumption of beef.
Conflict in northeastern states
Another example is the ongoing conflict in the northeastern states of India, where ethnocentrism has fueled tensions between indigenous tribes and
non-tribal settlers. The demand for separate states based on ethnic identity has led to violent clashes and loss of lives in these regions.
Caste-based discrimination
Caste-based discrimination is another manifestation of ethnocentrism in India. Despite legal measures to prevent caste-based discrimination, the caste
system continues to be deeply entrenched in Indian society. This has led to widespread discrimination, violence, and social exclusion of lower caste
groups.
Impact of globalization and modernization
The rise of ethnocentrism in India can also be attributed to the rapid pace of globalization and modernization. As people are exposed to new ideas,
cultures, and lifestyles, there is a tendency to cling to one’s own cultural identity as a means of asserting one’s distinctiveness and superiority. This has led
to a growing intolerance towards cultural diversity and an unwillingness to accept and accommodate differences.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the rising ethnocentrism in India is indeed leading to conflict in society. The increasing influence of identity politics, the persistence of
caste-based discrimination, and the impact of globalization and modernization have all contributed to the growth of ethnocentrism. To address this
issue, it is crucial to promote a culture of tolerance, inclusiveness, and respect for diversity. This can be achieved through education, awareness
campaigns, and legal measures that promote social harmony and discourage discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, or caste.
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