3

A Concise Account of the Studies Conducted

on the Transport, Fate, Transformation and
Toxicity of Engineered Nanomaterials
Sauvik Raha and Md. Ahmaruzzaman*

Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Silchar, India

Abstract
The growing use of engineered nanomaterials, courtesy of their exhibition of a plethora of desirable
properties, in technological, industrial and biomedical fields as well as their extensive use in several
consumer products warrants a range of insightful studies on their fate, transformation and all sorts
of adverse impacts following their final deposition in the eco-system. Furthermore, their detection in
waste leachate yet more heightens the concerns of the environmental risks these nano-sized materials
actually pose, triggering investigations seeking to determine their optimum concentrations for their
toxic effects on the biosphere. Besides, nanomaterials are capable of undergoing several transformations
both in the environment and within biological systems in the form of interactions with macromole-
cules, redox processes, bio-stimulated degradation of their surface coatings, aggregation and dissolu-
tion, which alter their fate, transport and implications. This discourse therefore seeks to discuss these
critical transformations with an aim to present fresh information and key aspects emerging from recent
investigations. The toxic effects of nanoparticle accumulation in terrestrial and aquatic organisms also
find room in the discourse. The profound alteration of the fate, transport and toxic implications induced
by transformation of nanoparticles to ions via their dissolution has been looked into. For instance, it is
worth assessing the potential implications and genotoxicity of the widely touted bactericidal Ag+ ions
that in several ways get released from used Ag nanoparticles into terrestrial, aquatic and atmospheric
environments. Worth-noting, in this regard, are the means of transport of Ag+ ions into the internal
system of higher organisms, including humans and mammals. Likewise, of particular relevance are the
ecotoxic effects of the bactericidal ZnO nanoparticles after their transfer into biota. Several studies have
zeroed in on the dissolution of Zn2+ ions, ROS (reactive oxygen species) generation and other photo-
induced mechanisms while seeking to expound on the inimical nature of ZnO nanoparticles. The dis-
course finally acknowledges the current paucity of knowledge and techniques required to ascertain the
properties of the nanomaterials under environmental conditions, which hinders definitive study of the
rates and extent of their transformations and thereby their ultimate fate, transport and the scale of their
negative implications. The discourse thus concludes with a stress on further research into some of the
key aspects of the behavior of nanomaterials in environmental conditions.

Keywords: Nanomaterials, transformations, aggregation, fate, dissolution, transport, genotoxicity,

ROS

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain (ed.) The ELSI Handbook of Nanotechnology: Risk, Safety, ELSI and Commercialization,
(51–66) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

51
52 The ELSI Handbook of Nanotechnology

3.1 Introduction
The field of nanoscience and nanotechnology has undergone massive expansion in the
recent past and engineered nanomaterials have been produced in vast quantities for use
in commercial, industrial and research sectors. Engineered nanomaterials are substances
with at least one dimension scaling within the range of 1–100 nm. Therefore, a natural
spike in their release into the environment has been a marked phenomenon in the past
few years. Concomitantly, investigations probing into the threats they pose began. In this
course, many aspects whose inspection was imperative for proper evaluation of risk came to
the fore. For instance, it was observed that transport of engineered nanomaterials in aquatic
medium was greatly influenced by sedimentation rate, which in turn was determined by the
presence of electrolytes, stabilizers or NOM, viscosity of the medium and the initial concen-
tration of the engineered nanomaterials [21, 22]. A retarded sedimentation is thus expected
to be associated with longer transport distances. Additionally, engineered nanomateri-
als might undergo sulfidation and interactions with humic substances (HS) and natural
organic matter (NOM) which can alter their behavior and final deposition [53–57]. Redox
processes [58–64] might also induce radical transformation of engineered nanomaterials.
So far as toxicity is concerned a lot of investigations have been modeled to understand
a wide range of parameters that can affect toxicity. There have also been studies made to
locate the possibility of genotoxicity associated with exposure to engineered nanomaterials
[103, 113]. Here, in this discourse, an earnest attempt has been made to provide a vantage
point that looks over a range of issues concerning the transport, fate, transformation and
toxicity of engineered nanomaterials.

3.2 Transport of Engineered Nanomaterials

Upon release into the environment, engineered nanomaterials may either accumulate
around the point of release or migrate far away depending on their ease of mobility either
inherently present in them or earned after interaction of species in the environment. If
accumulation about the point of release predominates, “hot spots” are created while their
transport away from the point of release leads to their wide distribution in the environment
and subsequently a low average concentration therein. Therefore, prior to assessing the del-
eterious effects they would exert at biological end-points, their behavior in the matrix of
ecosystem is worth factoring in. In view of the significance of the effects of engineered
nanomaterials on the ecosystem and the overriding importance of evaluation of factors
regulating their mobility within it, investigations into the transport of the engineered nano-
materials in the biosphere forms an integral part of their risk assessment.

3.2.1 Transport in Air

The emission of engineered nanomaterials into the atmosphere may be from diffuse as well
as indirect sources before their eventual deposition in terrestrial and aquatic compartments
of the ecosystem [1]. Although they are released in small quantities in air and have a tem-
poral presence in it, a thorough study of their transport in air is imperative for a proper
evaluation of their subsequent fate and toxicity [2]. For instance, aerosol insect repellants
 Transport, Fate, Transformation and Toxicity of Engineered Nanomaterials 53

tend to accumulate in a definite region of space in air. Such localized accumulation leads to
the greater concentration of engineered nanomaterials in the atmosphere which might facil-
itate their aerial alteration, both physical and chemical characteristics that in turn might dic-
tate their subsequent fate and transformation in the remaining segments of the biosphere [3].
There are major shortcomings in the measurement of the concentration of engineered
nanomaterials in air. One, the device is unable to distinguish engineered nanomateri-
als from background particles [4]. Two, aerosol mass spectrometer is unable to make a
measurement of metal and metal oxides [4]. Three, existing devices for measurement are
sensitive to size and are unresponsive towards density [5]. Four, current instrumentation
procedure cannot yield detection of trace amounts [6]. Five, some transition and heavy
metals are usually beyond detection [6]. Further research in this area is thus the only way
ahead in light of the aforementioned limitations concerning measurement and detection of
airborne engineered nanomaterials.
The difficulty accompanying the quantitative detection of engineered nanomaterials
when present in traces and small sizes and the very sophisticated nature of the system pre-
cludes a detailed inspection of their aggregation and deposition in air channels. Despite
this, one investigation [1] observed that for a span of ten days’ retention, one-thirty-sixth
of the admitted engineered nanomaterials eventually displayed a continued survival in the
lower layers of air, suggesting that much had undergone settlement. On the other hand,
another study [7] reported their long-term persistent presence in the lower atmospheric
level citing their agglomeration in sizes beneath 1 µm. Nevertheless, the transport of engi-
neered nanomaterials in atmosphere will be restricted by their low concentration, which is
an outcome of their low volatility and consequent fast settlement.

3.2.2 Transport in Water

A humongous amount of engineered nanomaterials are discharged in water bodies [8]. Their
transport in aquatic medium is largely controlled by their chemical response to the chemical
nature of the aqueous ambience. Aggregation of their particles in water usually occurs due
to their high concentration. Clinging of the particles in the dispersed liquid medium may
come about either through homoaggregation or heteroaggregation [9, 10]. After they are dis-
charged in water, particles of engineered nanomaterials tend to aggregate and the properties
of aggregates are observed to differ from the properties of the aggregates of the primal NPs
[11]. The extent of aggregation and the size of the aggregates are again determined by their
concentration and the chemical nature of both the aggregates and the aquatic medium [12,
13]. And the properties of aggregates have a critical bearing on the transport, fate, transfor-
mation, bioavailability and the risks posed by the engineered nanomaterials [14–16].
The rate of aggregation of engineered nanomaterials can be ascertained from their colli-
sion rate and attachment efficiency in aquatic environment. Attachment efficiency can be a
good measure of the scale of aggregation and is a function of a host of parameters pertain-
ing to the aquatic ambience, viz., pH, oxidation state of ions, concentrations of engineered
nanomaterials and other species, temperature, etc. [17]. Furthermore, it has been observed
that heteroaggregation is more likely than homoaggregation [18], although at the time of
release, homoaggregation may predominate. The attachment efficiencies and collision rates
associated with the interaction between engineered nanomaterials and natural particles
being high heteroaggregation will almost solely affect their elimination [19].
54 The ELSI Handbook of Nanotechnology

Engineered nanomaterials may also undergo sedimentation and in this course settle
down under the action of gravity either as aggregates or in their adsorbed state with natural
organic matter (NOM) or other particles. Greater aggregation resulting in bigger size leads
to higher sedimentation. Usually, a time lag separates aggregation from sedimentation, in
which cases sedimentation goes at a slower pace. Sometimes, however, initial aggregation
happens so fast that sedimentation takes place concomitantly. The sedimentation rate is
chiefly controlled by the size of aggregates. Other parameters that influence the pace of
sedimentation are the presence of electrolytes, stabilizers or NOM, viscosity of the medium
and the initial concentration of the engineered nanomaterials [20, 21]. The prerequisite for
the occurrence of sedimentation is the velocity of settling having greater magnitude than
the critical velocity of settling [22]. Sedimentation is found to proceed through three stages:
a slow initial stage followed by a rapid settling and finally another slow deposition due
to a lowered concentration of suspended engineered nanomaterials [20]. Sedimentation
rate is found to be affected by pH and concentration of NOM. A slower sedimentation
will prolong the presence of engineered nanomaterials in the medium and, so, they have
a greater chance to travel longer distances in water. As a rule, seawater happens to have
greater sedimentation rate than other forms of water bodies. It is worth mentioning here
that sedimentation rate varies across seawater, freshwater, groundwater, storm-water and
other kinds of water.

3.2.3 Transport in Terrestrial Compartment

Understanding the transport of engineered nanomaterials in land, particularly in soil, is dif-
ficult chiefly because of the sophisticated nature of the soil as an immensely heterogeneous
system. The presence of organic colloids, their inorganic counterparts and microbial organ-
isms in the soil greatly affect the transport of engineered nanomaterials in the soil. Also,
great difficulty lies in the analytical measurement of engineered nanomaterials present in
trace amounts [23, 24]. Furthermore, with the existence a few nanomaterials occurring
naturally in soil, it is problematic to distinguish them from the ones with anthropogenic
origin [25]. It therefore points towards the necessity to make more detailed investigations
for better comprehension of this matter.
Terrestrial biosphere constitutes soil and organisms. Soil, in turn, contains air, water,
organic substances, primary and secondary minerals and microorganisms [26]. Air and
water fill up soil pores. In the pores are dispersed engineered nanomaterials which are
mobilized or stabilized in the soil solution present therein. Engineered nanomaterials dis-
charged in the soil undergo interactions with its solid constituents like minerals and organic
substances.
Transport within soil pores can happen through three possible means: (a) straight,
unmediated interactions with soil, (b) settling down under gravity and (c) diffusion dic-
tated by Brownian movement [12, 27]. Gravity inspired settling down of engineered nano-
materials will happen insignificantly unless considerable scale of aggregation has already
taken place [27]. Those forces responsible for the clinging of engineered nanomaterials to
other substances, such as van der Waals forces, steric strains, electrostatic forces, and hydro-
dynamic forces, have to be minimal for appreciable transport to take place. Other param-
eters like the primal particle size, aggregate size, surface charge, pH, flow velocity and the
presence of organic and inorganic matter impact the transport of engineered nanomaterials
 Transport, Fate, Transformation and Toxicity of Engineered Nanomaterials 55

[28–32]. The size of aggregates exerts a great influence on the transport of engineered nano-
materials contrary to the minimal influence exerted by the size of the primal nanoparticles.
Greater particle or aggregate size associated with greater attachment efficiency implies less-
ened mobility of engineered nanomaterials [30, 31]. However, Wang et al. [33, 34] reported
a lowered mobility of small-sized SiO2 NPs attributable to the relative charges on the sur-
face. Size is found to influence the way particles interact with themselves and soil matter
apart from determining their physical and chemical [33, 34]. Surface charge, on the other
hand, strongly determines the interplay between particles themselves and between particles
and soil components [35, 36]. The pH of the soil wields great control on aggregation. With
a pH that facilitates the generation of zeta potential close to zero, repulsive interactions
between particles lessen, leading to increased aggregation and attachment to soil particles.
Soil characteristics, such as the size of soil particles and soil pores, tend to exercise great
control on transport of engineered nanomaterials in soil. Pore-size equal to or greater than
aggregate size slows down transport by straining [37, 38] and by filtration via removal of
the particles by interception, diffusion, and/or sedimentation [12, 27, 28, 39]. This leads
to the greater retention of aggregates in the upper layers of soil. Also, the flow velocity of
groundwater is known to have a great impact on the mobility of engineered nanomaterials
[32]. A minimum flow velocity associated with greater collision frequency is likely to hin-
der transport while a vigorous flow, partly owing to lowered attachment efficiency, favors
mobility [40, 41].

3.3 Fate and Transformation of Engineered Nanomaterials

Fate and transformation are important aspects of risk evaluation of engineered nanomateri-
als. Transformation, in particular, has been found to exert a great impact on the fate, trans-
port and toxicity of engineered nanomaterials released in the environment. For instance,
sulfidation of silver NPs alters the surface characteristics, surface charge and the phenome-
non of release of baneful Ag+ ions [50]. Also, the interplay between engineered nanomateri-
als and matter such as HS and NOM can bring about a sea change in their properties, scale
and form of aggregation, final deposition and pernicious influences [51–54].

3.3.1 Fate and Transformation in Air

In a study, fugitive diffusive emissions from a platinum NPs generating reactor was sim-
ulated and the fate of these platinum NPs in indoor air was investigated. It was revealed
that agglomeration restricts their prolonged presence in air. Upon release the NPs, in the
presence of an aerosol backdrop, agglomerated with faster rates among themselves or with
the aerosol backdrop. If the aerosol concentration is high, nearly all NPs were held in the
aerosol backdrop, whereas at low concentration of aerosol the NPs were present in primal
form, which might end up being deposited in land and water as individual particles or in
aggregated form [42]. At low concentration, the alternate fate of NPs is their attachment to
large-sized aerosol agglomerates [43]. Inertial impaction and Brownian diffusion of engi-
neered nanomaterials causes their separation from the air stream and this process is called
dry deposition [44]. Dry deposition leads to enhancement in the size of the particles as well
as their aggregates and this in turn facilitates their removal [44]. Wet deposition through
56 The ELSI Handbook of Nanotechnology

purging out by rain was also found to be dependent on particle size [45–47]. The size and
quantity of engineered nanomaterials in air will also be affected by atmospheric turbulence,
temperature and relative humidity [48]. Engineered nanomaterials, to an unknown extent,
may also undergo degradation via photolysis and oxidation while airborne [49].

3.3.2 Fate and Transformation in Terrestrial and Aquatic Compartments

A great variety of transformations of the engineered nanomaterials may take place in ter-
restrial and aquatic compartments of the ecosystem. These often include redox reactions,
dissolutions, adsorptions and aggregations. The constituents—both metallic and non-
metallic—of engineered nanomaterials are known to undergo redox phenomena.
Attachment with macromolecules may initiate a redox reaction, leading to a subsequent
alteration of the ratio of Ce3+ and Ce4+ ions in ceria [55]. Even sulfur and selenium undergo
redox processes in some metal sulfides or selenides, leading to the liberation of noxious
metal ions [56, 57]. However, sometimes oxidation deters release of metal ions by forming a
surface passivation layer of metal oxide about the nanoparticle. For instance, the formation
of a shell of Ag2O about AgNP prevents the oxidation of and the subsequent release of core
Ag in soil or water in their harmful ionic incarnation [58]. Aerated soil and natural water
are oxygen-rich and hence oxidizing media while carbon-rich sediments and groundwater
are oxygen-deficient and hence are predominantly reducing. Therefore, engineered nano-
materials expectedly shuttle between different oxidation states all along their stay in land
and water.
Redox processes may also be driven by sunlight. In such cases, phenomena such as coating
of engineered nanomaterials, oxidation state, ROS productivity and persistence are subjected
to marked alteration. Carbon-based materials are drastically impaired as a result of photoin-
duced oxidation [59]. The sunlight induced destruction of gum Arabic coating on silver NPs
triggered aggregation and subsequent sedimentation [60]. Furthermore, inherently photoac-
tive engineered nanomaterials were found to generate ROS upon exposure to sunlight [61].
Sulfidation makes an import class of transformation that holds a great influence on the
ultimate persistence of engineered nanomaterials in a medium. The rate and degree of sul-
fidation is predominantly controlled by the concentration of sulfides in the environment.
High concentration of sulfides is often observed in anaerobic surroundings; however, an
absolute lack of oxygen was found to hinder sulfidation [62]. Under anaerobic ambience,
nano-sized ZnO underwent conversion to ZnS via a process entailing dissolution followed
by precipitation [63]. Even the transformation of nano-sized Cd [64] and Ag to their respec-
tive sulfides with Ag taking the course of oxysulfidation and also undergoing near absolute
alteration to Ag2S in reducing ambience of wastewater have also been reported [50, 62]. Fe,
Pb and CuO were also found to be highly susceptible to sulfidation given the low solubility
constants of the metal sulfides [65].
The presence of sulfides in medium was found to raise the rates of aggregation and sed-
imentation [50, 63]. A low pH was found to favor sulfidation [62, 66]. Attachment with
NOM induced a change in the surface properties and stabilities of engineered nanomateri-
als. These alterations greatly affected sulfidation as evident from a study [62] that reported
an increase in sulfidation after interaction with NOM.
The consequences of the presence of phosphate in the medium have not been put to wide
investigation. One investigation reported the prevention of ZnO dissolution in a medium
 Transport, Fate, Transformation and Toxicity of Engineered Nanomaterials 57

containing phosphate by transformation into zinc phosphate [67]. While another study
reported adsorption of phosphate on ZnO surface to be the cause of the prevention of ZnO
dissolution [68]. Similar outcomes have also been reported in the case of Fe3O4 NPs at low
pH [69]. Ag exhibited lower affinity for phosphates [70]. TiO2 NPs were apparently ren-
dered more stable when environed by phosphate-rich water via an increase in their suspen-
sion abilities [71, 72].
Aggregation, as discussed in earlier section, is an inevitable phenomenon the engineered
nanomaterials are subjected to. Only coatings, fabricated or later acquired, may delay
aggregation. Among homoaggregation and heteroaggregation, the later plays a critical role
in modifying the behavior of engineered nanomaterials in the medium. For instance, a
heteroaggregation with clay may impart clay-like mobility to the engineered nanomaterial
[73]. Aggregation decreases surface area and as such truncates reactions associated with
large surface area like ROS generation. This lowers toxicity. Aggregation may further reduce
dissolution and degradation, leading to an enhanced persistence of engineered nanomate-
rials. Even bioavailability shrinks with aggregation since aggregation leads to bigger sizes
whose passage through cell wall stand hindered.
Biological transformation of the coating as well as the core of engineered nanomate-
rials may even occur. Such transformations bring about alterations in the stability and
behavior of engineered nanomaterials and as such affect their persistence, bioavailability
and toxic power [74–76]. Upon uptake by organisms, engineered nanomaterials inevitably
interact with biological molecules that more often than not bring about a variation of their
surface composition, structure, size, electrophoretic mobility, etc. Likewise, interactions
with geo-macromolecules like proteins, polysaccharides, HS and other NOMs may result
in grave changes in the properties, persistence and toxicity of engineered nanomaterials.
Heteroaggregation with NOMs leads to varying aggregation and dis-aggregation behavior.
Also, triggering of redox processes has been spotted, as discussed in the case of ceria in an
earlier section.

3.4 Toxicity
3.4.1 Toxicity in Aquatic Biomes
Investigations were carried out to evaluate the toxicity of nano-sized Ag, TiO2 and ZnO
through an assessment of the immobilization of Daphnia magna, a phytoplankton resid-
ing abundantly in freshwater. Ag was found to form huge and stable agglomerates and at
enhanced solubility was found to exert a high level of toxicity. Stable nano-scaled agglom-
erates of TiO2 in an ambience of low ionic strength demonstrated toxicity that heightened
with dissolution. But with high ionic strength, toxicity wasn’t detected. Similar observations
could be made with small and stable agglomerates of ZnO [77–79].
Using the strains Escherichia coli, a study showed toxicity of CuO, TiO2 and ZnO via
enhanced generation of ROS [80]. The study further stressed the higher toxic impacts of
nano-sized components than their bulk counterparts. Nano-sized Ag could cause annihila-
tion of bacterial DNA, simultaneously effecting a serious disruption of the cloning phenome-
non [81]. Furthermore, AgNPs could bring about impairment of the bacterial cell membrane,
leading to leakage of cytoplasm and thereby disintegration of bacterial cell [82, 83].
58 The ELSI Handbook of Nanotechnology

With algae, toxicity was found to depend on doses of engineered nanomaterials and was
mediated by ROS formation and creation of oxidative stress [84–86]. Engineered nanoma-
terials like nano-sized TiO2 [87], fullerenes [88] and single-walled carbon nanotubes [89]
induce biochemical transformations in the brain of fish that might manifest as behavioral
changes. Lipid metabolism also gets perturbed. However, either this disruption happens
too slowly to surface as a noticeable effect or an optimum accumulation is required for the
observation of an effect [90].

3.4.2 Toxicity in Terrestrial Biomes

At a dose of 300 mg kg-1, Fe NPs have been lethal to earthworms and other soil fauna. Loss
of weight and dysfunctional reproduction were the reasons for fatality. At higher doses,
animal fatality intensified. Although, there is some respite that such deleterious effects wear
off after a long time period [91, 92]. AgNPs proved fatal at a dose of 100 mg per kg of the
soil [92]. Loss of weight and abnormality in reproduction were induced by AgNPs. CuNPs
also triggered death of soil fauna at a dose of 50 mg kg-1 [93, 94]. A decline in reproduction
was also observed in this case.
While low AgNP concentration proved blissful in causing elongation of plant roots, higher
doses operated in a reverse mode inhibiting sprouting of seeds and retarding shoot elonga-
tion [95]. Phytotoxic effects were also seen when higher concentration of AgNPs resulted in
abnormal development of fibrils of the suction zone, breaking of root caps and development
of vacuoles in root cortex and epidermal cells. TiO2 NPs didn’t have any phytotoxic effects
[96]. On the contrary, their presence mellowed down the baneful effects of Cd [97].
TiO2 is widely used for cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications and is usually nontoxic.
However, upon inhalation of TiO2 NPs, a pronounced generation of free radicals is trig-
gered and this results in inflammation and pulmonary fibrosis [98]. Inflammations of pul-
monary tissue may occur as a result of pro-oxidant influence and genotoxicity [99]. Several
physiological malfunctions were observed in animals exposed to ultrafine titanium dioxide
particles [100]. Upon oral administration of TiO2 in mice, rapid distribution and acute tox-
icity in lungs, liver, spleen and kidneys were observed [101]. While the baneful effects of
exposure to CuNPs could be toxic to lungs [102], disruption of the blood pH, liver degener-
ation and glomerulonephritis symptoms [103, 104]. BiNPs cause disruption of the reproduc-
tive system [105]. TiO2 NPs wreak havoc in the endocrine profile of rats besides tampering
with the expression of the c-kit gene, testosterone quantities in serum and spermatozoid
quantity [106]. Animals exposed to Ag and Cd NPs had issues with spermatogenesis [107].
Transcriptomic alterations were induced by AgNPs and these led to malicious effects on
fetation [108]. White rats exposed to AgNPs had a breakdown of DNA that pointed towards
a possible genotoxicity [109]. Furthermore, AgNPs can settle in lungs, liver and kidneys and
can also gain access to the brain [110]. The degenerative effects of AgNPs were thoroughly
studied by [111, 112]. Similar effects also were observed with AuNPs [113].

3.5 Existing Challenges

There are a few challenges that need to be met for acquiring a better understanding of the
whole process of the evaluation of risks posed by engineered nanomaterials. The lack of a
 Transport, Fate, Transformation and Toxicity of Engineered Nanomaterials 59

standard procedure to measure and detect engineered nanomaterials over a large spectrum
of concentration needs to be plugged soon. Also, concentrations that can match up to the
ones that prevail in a real environment have not been tested. This gap may impact our
comprehension about the various phenomena such as aggregation, dissolution, sedimen-
tation, adsorption, etc., that constitute the fate and transformation of engineered nano-
materials. The pace and degree of transformation are likely to vary across ions and other
complex organic substances present in the biosphere and so wide and extensive studies
in this regard must be made and data generated must be standardized for statistical com-
parison across sizes, shapes, kinds, properties and medium of engineered nanomaterials.
However, although toxicity at the current concentration of engineered nanomaterials may
be dismissed, chronic deposition and thereby chronic exposure may generate effects that
have not been looked into. Furthermore, toxicity to soil organisms has not been investi-
gated extensively and more work factoring in the sophisticated nature of the exposure of
soil organisms to engineered nanomaterials can be expected in this area. Also, little about
the extent of percolation of engineered nanomaterials to groundwater and their toxic effect
on the biomes therein are known.

3.6 Conclusion
Despite the shortcomings of the various procedures adopted for risk assessment of engi-
neered nanomaterials, a lot has been studied about their transport, fate, transformation and
toxicity in recent years. This discourse has thrown light on the various reports that have
thus emerged. It is worth mentioning here, that to have a comprehensive understanding of
the noxious effects of engineered nanomaterials on living organisms, it is imperative to gain
deeper insights into the processes preceding their arrival at the biological endpoint, namely
fate and transformation. For safeguarding mankind, restoration of the ecological balance is
currently a matter of growing priority in light of the relentless impairment the ecology has
undergone over the past many years.

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