CRUX-Geography Environment & Disaster MGMT

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GS-1/3 C-23-HO-34

Forest Resources:
• Introduction:
• Forests in India cover about 24.62% of the country's land area ( including tree cover) and are
some of the most biodiverse forests in the world.

• State:
• As per the India State of Forest Report-2021, forest and tree cover in the country increased by
2,261 square kilometres since the last assessment in 2019.
• India’s total forest and tree cover was 80.9 million hectares, which accounted for 24.62% of
the geographical area of the country.
• The report said 17 States and Union Territories had more than 33% of their area under
forest cover.
• Madhya Pradesh had the largest forest cover, followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha and Maharashtra.
• Very Dense Forest - 3.04%, Moderately Dense Forest-9.33%, Open Forest-9.34%, Tree
Cover - 2.91%

• Signi cance of Forests for India:


• Ecosystem Services: water regulation, soil conservation, and carbon sequestration.
• Ex: Western Ghats help to regulate the water cycle of southern states.
• Hub of Biodiversity: India is home to a wide variety of plant and animal species
• Ex: Sundarbans mangrove are home to the Royal Bengal tiger.
• Economic Value: timber, non-timber forest products, and tourism.
• Ex: bamboo forests of the Northeast are a major source of livelihood for local communities.
• Cultural value: cultural and spiritual value for many communities, who depend on them for their
livelihoods and cultural practices.
• Ex: Gond tribes of Madhya Pradesh.

• Issues with Forest Resources in India:


• Deforestation and Land Degradation: Illegal logging, mining, and land conversion for
agriculture and urban development → deforestation.
• India lost 384,000 ha of forests between 1990 and 2000, and it rose to 668,400 ha between
2015 and 2020 which is 2nd highest globally( UK Rep).
• Loss of biodiversity
• 90% of the area under the biodiversity hotspots in India have been lost acc to “State of
India’s Environment in Figures 2021”.
• Climate Change: climate change, including insect outbreaks, invasive species due to climate led
migration, wild res, and storms.
• By 2030, 45-64% of forests in India will experience the effects of climate change
• Forest Fires: Forest res are a signi cant problem in India, especially during the dry season.
• 36% of the country's forest cover is prone to frequent forest res.
• Resource Access Con ict: Con ict between the interests of local communities and those of
commercial interests, such as pharmaceutical industries or timber industries —> Violence and
Social tensions.

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GS-1/3 C-23-HO-34
• Steps taken by govt:
• Article 51 A (g) — fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests and Wildlife.
• Article 48 A — State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard
the forests and wildlife of the country.
• Forest Conservation Act, 1980: This act prohibits the de-reservation of forest land for non-
forest purposes without the prior approval of the central government.
• National Forest Policy, 1988: governs the forests of India, i.e., objectives of this policy is
related to the protection, conservation, and development of forests. It envisages that 33% of the
country's geographical area should be under forest or tree cover
• National Afforestation Programme (NAP): This programme was launched in 2000 to afforest
degraded forest lands.
• Environment Protection Act of 1986: This act provides for the protection and improvement of
the environment, including forests.
• Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act,
2006: This act recognizes the rights of tribal and forest-dwelling communities to their traditional
forest lands.
• National Mission for a Green India (GIM): This mission was launched in 2010 to increase forest
cover and improve the quality of forests in India.
• Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA): This
authority was set up in 2016 to manage the funds collected from the user agencies for
compensatory afforestation.
• School Nursery Yojana, Nagar Van Yojana, Sub-mission on agro forestry(Har Medh Per Ped).

• Constraints in forest management:


• Need of a new,updated and scienti c forest policy.
• Limited government budgeting for forest conservation initiatives.
• Poor enforcement of legislations and illegal encroachments.
• De nition of forest cover is problematic includes plantations.
• Undue recognition of indigenous people.
• At present, in India, there is no clear nationally-accepted de nition of ‘forest’ responsibility of
the states to de ne forests stems from a 1996 Supreme Court order called the T.N. Godavarman
Thirumulpad vs the Union of India judgement.

• Way forward:
• Strengthening Forest Governance:
• Promotion of Agroforestry and Plantations: Encouraging agroforestry practices
• Ex: Rajasthan — familial forestry, Nature Pledge
• Community Participation and Empowerment: Implementing community-based conservation
models, such as Joint Forest Management (JFM) and Community Forest Resource rights, can
empower communities to protect and manage forests sustainably.
• Embracing technological advancements, such as remote sensing, GIS (Geographic Information
System), and data analytics
• Dedicated Forest Corridors: For safe intrastate and interstate passage of wild animals and
protecting their habitat from any external in uence.

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C-23-HO-35

Forest Resources of India-2: Relevance: GS1/3

● Urban Forestry:
Urban forestry is the art and science of managing trees and forest resources in and
around urban community ecosystems for availing physiological, sociological, economic
and aesthetic benefits trees provide for society.
● Needs/Benefits of Urban forestry:
The urban population growth of 32% btw 2001-11 is more than the national
population growth of 17.6 % and by 2030, 40% population will be residing in urban
areas which will further aggravate urban problems.
● Benefits:
Ecological Benefits:
● Microclimate and Urban Heat Island effect: help in mitigating the heat island
effect by giving green lungs to cities by improving air quality reducing GHG effect.
● Carbon Sequestration: sequester huge amounts of carbon by capturing carbon
dioxide from atmosphere.
● Biodiversity: provide shelter and habitat to many important plants and animals
especially avifauna.
● Management of Urban Hydrological Cycle: urban forests play key roles in
supporting water management in and around urban settlements.
● Ecosystem services: Discussed in 1st part of forest resources.

Social Benefits:
● Checks Haphazard Urbanisation: Urban forests can check rapid and unplanned
urbanisation.
● Aesthetic Benefits: Increases beauty and environmental quotient of city.
● Improves Mental Alertness And Reduce Stress: Green areas reduce stress and
improve physical health for urban residents
● Education: parks, botanical gardens, zoological gardens, avenue trees and other
urban green spaces are centres of education on flora and fauna.
● Cultural Regeneration: providing venues for local festivals, civic celebrations,
political gatherings and theatrical performances.

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Economic Benefits:
● Real estate prices: can increase property values and commercial benefits
● Employment: work opportunities for Tree planting and maintenance.
● Reduced energy consumption: reducing building air-conditioning demand and
reducing energy consumption
● Steps to promote urban forestry in India:
● AMRUT Mission: 1864 No. of parks over 3794 acres of land have been
developed in the Mission.
● Smart Cities Mission.
● Swachh Bharat Mission: The Swachh Bharat Mission includes a component for
urban forestry, which aims to plant trees along roads and in public spaces to
improve the cleanliness and sanitation of these areas.
● Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority
(CAMPA): The CAMPA can also be used to fund urban forestry projects.
● Nagar Van Scheme: The Nagar Van Scheme is a government scheme that was
launched in 2020 to develop 200 urban forests across India.
● The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has issued guidelines to encourage
and support urban local bodies in developing and maintaining green spaces in
cities
● Case Studies:

● Warje Urban Forestry is the first ever urban forestry project in Maharashtra.
Before developing it into forestry, it was around 16 hectares of barren land hill.In
collaborations with TATA Motors and Persistent Foundations as CSR Partners,
TERRE has planted around 9500 plants.
● China’s State Forestry Administration officially launched the “National Forest
City” programme in 2004 in which the theme is “bringing forests into cities and
letting cities embrace forests” .By 2015, more than 170 cities and 12 provinces
were actively involved. Tree cover in these urban communities had increased to
40 percent from 10 percent in 1981.

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 Forest Rights Act,2006:


 The Forest Rights Act (FRA),2006 recognizes the rights of the forest-dwelling
tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers to forest resources
 Individual Rights: The Act recognizes the Rights of Self-cultivation and habitation
which are usually regarded as Individual rights.
 Community Rights: It also recognizes community Rights such as Grazing, Fishing
and access to Water bodies in forests, Habitat Rights for PVTGs
 Objectives:
 To right the historical wrong done to forest
dwelling communities.
 To ensure the land tenure, livelihood, and
food security of Scheduled Tribes and
other traditional forest dwellers.
 To strengthen the forest conservation
regime.
 Who can claim these Rights?
 It can also be claimed by any member or
community who has lived in forests land
for at least three generations (75 years) prior to the 13th of December, 2005 for
legitimate livelihood needs.
 The Gram sabha has the authority to begin the process.
 Significance of Forest Rights Act:
 It broadens the mandate of the Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution.
 It has the potential to democratize forest governance by recognizing community
forest resource rights.
 It will ensure that people have the ability to manage their forests on their own.
 Challenges:
 Claims being rejected by the government.
 Forestry agencies' seeming unwillingness to transfer their forest holdings has
caused problems.
 Tribes like the Baigas have accused the department of failing to support their
claim to the land, criticising the forest department's role..
 Degraded land constitutes about 40% of forests, the government's role in
allowing commercial plantings on it is also contested.
 Way Forward:
 Governments at Central and State levels are strengthened with human and
financial resources to implement FRA on a mission mode.

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 Besides leveraging modern technology to map and monitor the implementation


of FRA
 The forest bureaucracy must also be reformed to serve as service providers to
gram sabhas.

● Forest Fires:

Forest fire is the uncontrolled fire that destroys large parts of the forest. They are a
threat to the fauna and flora and destroy the biodiversity and the ecology of a region.

More than 36% of the


country’s forest cover has
been estimated to be prone
to frequent forest fires.
States of northeast India,
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,
Chhattisgarh, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand
are the most fire-prone in
India.

● Causes of Forest Fires:


● Anthropogenic Causes(90% forest fires bcz of this):
● Global Warming & Climate Change is the biggest cause.
● Irresponsible tourism(camp fires, cigarettes)
● To conceal illegal cutting of tress.
● As a mark of protest by locals/tribes over dissatisfaction on lands rights in
protected areas.
● Traditional practices like stubble burning or Jhum cultivation.
● Natural Causes:
● Lightening & Thunderstorm
● Some trees are more prone to fire. Eg: Chirpine
● Sparks created by rolling of stones down a slope
● Dry Leaves present on forest floor

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● Impact of forest fires on ecosystems:

 Loss of Ecosystems and Biodiversity:


 Wildfires damage the habitable and adaptable land for specific animal
and plant species.
 Can even lead to extinction for certain animals.
 Wildfires can be so severe that they decimate the habits and critical
relationships of plants and animals causing loss of ecosystem.
 Forest Degradation: Forest fires especially that commonly happen in dry
tropical forests are a major cause of forest degradation.
 Air Pollution: Living plant matter purifies the atmospheric air we depend on
for respiration. In addition, the huge clouds of smoke instigated by wildfires
lead to massive air pollution.
 Global Warming and change in micro climate of region: Trees and vegetation
when are burned, it means more greenhouse gases increases in the atmosphere,
resulting in global warming
 Soil Degradation: Forest fires kill beneficial soil microorganisms that are
responsible for breaking down the soil and promoting soil microbial activities.
 Destruction of Watersheds:. Whenever they burn, the natural protection
systems for water tables, streams, and rivers may be affected.

● Disaster Management for Forest Fires:


● Disaster risk reduction lies at the intersection of
Sendai, Paris framework and 17 SDGs.
● Method of DRR ->>>>
● Vulnerability Mapping ISFR 2019
● Forest Fire Alert System (FFAS) By FSI The
system will monitor wildfires in real-time.
 Forest fire geoportal- VAN AGNI (forest
fire) Geoportal
 Forest fire Danger rating for early
warning.
 Large Forest Forest Fire programme
based on SNPP-VIIRS
● Using the MODIS sensors (Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer) Real-time information of fire hotspots is collected and sent
to the Forest Survey of India.

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● National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control. Under this, the government
aims to introduce a coordinated and integrated fire-management programme.
The other provisions of the plan include-
 Fast-tracking the initial response.
 Introduction of forest fuel modification system
 Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental
modification
 Developing a National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) and Fire
Forecasting System for faster detection and control of fire.
● The FPM (Forest Fire Prevention and management) Scheme replaced the
(IFMS) in 2017. By revamping the IFMS, the FPM has increased the amount
dedicated for forest fire work.
● Suggestions:
● Fire could be prevented in the summer through the removal of forest litter all
along the forest boundary.
● Need to adopt safe practices in areas near forests viz. factories, coalmines, oil
stores, chemical plants and even in household kitchens.
● Empower communities and local authorities and integrate indigenous,
traditional, and contemporary fire management practices into policy.
● Also, to incorporate fire reducing and fire fighting techniques and equipment.
● Stop forest fire from spreading by:
● Cool Season Burn: - burn or collect dead leaves from forest before hot
seasons.
● Establish burn lines: - trenches/areas where forest is cleared to stop
spreading.
● Make water bodies or lakes within the forest to help in extinguishing fire.
● Adopt UNEP’s Fire Ready Formula to fund wildfire management.

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GS-1/3 Addendum—HO34 C-23-HO-34B

Forest Conservation (Amendment) Bill, 2023:


• Introduction:
• Recently, the government introduced the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Bill, 2023 in Lok
Sabha and proposed changes to the Forest (Conservation) Act, (FC) 1980.

• Features:
• Aim of the amendment is to build forest carbon stock by raising plantations. The Bill also seeks
to make land available for compensatory afforestation.
• Proposes to insert a preamble — preserving forests, their bio-diversity and tackling climate
change challenges within its ambit.
• Puts some restrictions on Activities in Forest:
• Ex: de-reservation of forest or use of forest land for non-forest purposes.
• Act adds more activities to this Non-forest purposes list.
• Ex: zoos and safaris under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 owned by the government or
any authority, in forest areas other than protected areas
• Bill adds that the central government may issue directions for the implementation of the Act
to any other authority/ organisation under or recognised by the centre, state, or union territory.
• Adds some exemptions.
• Ex: exempt all strategic linear projects of "national importance and concerning national
security" within 100 km of international borders, the LoC and LAC.
• Makes a way to insert the 1996 ruling within the ambit of the original act.

• Signi cance:
• Will help in creating forest-based carbon sinks for mitigating climate change and creating land
for compensatory afforestation to accommodate the diversion of forests for industrial and
infrastructure projects.
• Act, 1980 was insuf cient for these ends (pt1+3), as it did not incentivise private agro-forestry
and tree plantation activities.
• Clearly de nes the limits of the 1996 judgement — Only land recorded as ‘forest’ in any
government record on or after 1980 would invoke provisions of the Act. Forest land authorised
by States for non-forestry uses between 1980-1996 would not invoke provisions of the Act.
• Effectively mean States can no longer classify unclassi ed forest land, or patches of trees
with forest-like characteristics as ‘forest land’.
• Increased participation of private sector — grooming private forests — permanent carbon stock
market incentives exist to use them as ‘carbon credits’.

• Issues with amendments: act:


• Amendments do not really contribute to regenerating natural forest, but rather incentivise
afforestation for commercial ends.
• Further the terms like “strategic and security”, ’proposed’, ‘ecotourism facilities’, and ‘any other
purposes’ can be exploited or misused for activities damaging forests and ecosystems in forest
lands.
• Dilutes the 1996 ruling — every forest mentioned in government records gets legal protection
but act limits this to 1980-1996 only.

• Conclusion:
• Forest Governance

Sources: Hindu Wire

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GS-1/3 Addendum—HO34 C-23-HO-34A
Forest (Conservation) Rules, 2022:
• Introduction:
• Rules have been noti ed under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980.

• Features:
• Rules provides for constitution of advisory committee and Regional Empowered Committee by
central government and Project Screening Committee by State Government and Union territory
Administration — advise union and state governments/UT administration in matters involving
use of forest land for non-forest purposes.
• Compensatory Afforestation (CA): diverting forest land in a hilly or mountainous state with
green cover covering more than two-thirds of its geographical area, or in a state/UT with forest
cover covering more than one-third of its geographical area, will be able to take up
compensatory afforestation in other states/UTs where the cover is less than 20%.
• Accredited compensatory afforestation: The purpose is to encourage people to raise vegetation
on its land and sell it to persons who need to meet compensatory afforestation targets under the
Act.
• Creation of Land Bank: State/UT, may for purpose of Compensatory Afforestation create a
Land bank under the administrative control of the Department of Forest.
• No consent of Gram Sabha needed — once approved by the FAC, will then be passed on to the
State authorities who will collect the compensatory fund and land, and process it for nal
approval.
• Previously consent of gram sabha, or the governing body in villages in the area, was required
to give written consent to the diversion of the forest.
• Allows building in Forests — Right to construct structures for bona de purposes including
forest protection measures and residential units (up to an area of 250 sq meters as one-time
relaxation).

• Issues with rules:


• NCST asked to put rules on hold as they dilutes the power of Gram Sabha and weakens FRA.
• FCR 2022 has done away with the provisions to mandatorily seek consent of Gram
Sabhas before the Stage 1 clearance, leaving this process to be done later and even after
Stage 2 clearance.
• Contradicts with Forest Rights Act 2006 which requires governments to seek prior and
informed consent of forest dwellers before allowing a project on their traditional lands.
• Commodi cation of forest resources
• IPCC report says — Natural >> CA, Plantation ecosystem — monoculture
• New plantation cannot compensate for the loss of carbon stocks and other ecosystem services
provided by old-growth forests in any realistic timeframe.
• CA of land in another state — signi cant impact on local biodiversity and climate.
• Forest (Conservation) Act (FCA) of 1980 restricts the powers of the state in the de-reservation
of forests and the use of forestland for non-forest purposes. Under the new rules, that kind of
collective thinking might become a thing of the past.

• Conclusion:
• Forest Governance

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C-23-HO-62B

ESZs: Relevance:GS1/3
● Intro:
Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ) are ecologically
important and fragile areas around protected areas
designated under Environment protection act, 1986
(EPA).
Size- As per National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-
2016), land within 10 km of the boundaries of
national parks and wildlife sanctuaries is to be
notified as ESZ. However, its size can vary
depending on the location and specific needs of the
protected area.
● Benefits of ESZ:
● Reduce Human-Animal Conflict and Forest
Depletion: ESZs help in reducing human-
animal conflict by creating buffer zones.
● Reduce Externalities of Development
Activities: Protection of areas adjacent to the
protected areas.
● Minimise Damage to Ecosystems: Serves the
purpose of developing a ‘Shock Absorber’ for
the protected area. They also serve the function
of a transition zone.
● Conservation: ESZs are also helpful in
conservation of endangered species.
● The One-horned Rhino of Kaziranga
National Park, Assam.
● Issues related to creation of ESZs
● Opposition from States due to their impact on
developmental activities and state revenue.
● Lack of participatory planning exercises while
implementing the ESZ.
● Enforcing a one-size-fits-all ‘1 km’ buffer zone in all protected areas.
● Lack of ground investigation for proposals with areas being randomly marked on
topographic sheets Ex- In case of ESA mapping in maharashtra.
● ESZs restricts land-use change and affects livelihood prospects of people.
● Practical difficulties in ESZ implementation due to high density of human
population around the forest lands.

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● SC Order:
● The Supreme Court of India has modified its earlier judgement of 2022 that
mandated a minimum one-kilometre eco-sensitive zone around protected forests,
national parks, and wildlife sanctuaries across the country.
Aspect Previous 2022 Changed Order
Order
Minimum 1 km ESZ cannot be uniform across the country and has
ESZ to be “protected area-specific”.
distance
Applicabili Applied Not applicable to ESZs for which draft and final
ty of order universally to all notifications have been issued by MoEF&CC and
protected areas in respect of proposals.
Mining Not specified, but No mining is allowed, either within national parks
allowed implied to be and sanctuaries or in a 1 km radius.
allowed within
ESZ
Developm Not specified, but Any developmental activities undertaken within
ent subject to ESZs should follow the MoEF&CC 2011
activities restrictions guidelines and provisions of the 2022 Office
Memorandum by MoEF&CC
Exception Not specified Where national parks and sanctuaries are located
on inter-state borders or share common boundaries.

● Way Forward
● Community Engagement: This can be done through the formation of community-
based organisations, such as user groups or conservation committees.
● Conducting on-ground investigations to verify environmentally fragile zones
identified by satellite images.
● Building capacity among locals for eco-friendly livelihood practices such as natural
farming, agroforestry etc. in areas lying in notified ESZs.
● Building consensus among States though negotiations.
● Extensively studying the impact of infrastructural projects on the forest and
wildlife before giving permission.
● Conclusion:
Environment is a sensitive area, normal disturbance cause large scale destruction so
emphasis should be on sustainable devp with human growth.

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C-23-HO-62A

Miyawaki Method: Relevance:GS1/3

● Intro:
It was named after Japanese botanist Akira
Miyawaki, this method involves planting two to
four different types of indigenous trees within
every square metre with the basic objective to
densify green cover within a small parcel of land.
Ex- 64 Miyawaki forests have been planted in
Mumbai so far by BMC.

Some of the common indigenous plants that are


used for these forests include Anjan, Amala, Bel,
Arjun and Gunj.

● Process:
● Initially, native trees of the region are
identified and divided into four layers —
shrub, sub-tree, tree, and canopy.
● After that, the quality of soil is analysed and biomass is mixed with it.
● Biomass to enhance the perforation capacity, water retention capacity, and
nutrients.
● A mound is built with the soil and the seeds are planted at a very high density.
Furthermore, the ground is covered with a thick layer of mulch.
● Multi-layered saplings are planted close to each other.
● This blocks sunlight from reaching the ground and prevents weeds from growing.
It also keeps the soil moist.
● The close cropping also ensures that the plants receive sunlight only from the top.
It enables them to grow upwards rather than sideways.
● Significance:
● Faster Process and Dense Forest: This method creates mini forests. They grow
10 times faster and become 30 times denser and 100 times more bio diverse than
those planted through conventional methods.
● Faster Regeneration of Land: Miyawaki forests are designed to regenerate land
in far less time. It takes over 70 years for a forest to recover on its own.
● Self-Sustainable: The saplings become self-sustainable after the first three years.
● Environmental Benefits: These mini forests help lower temperatures in concrete
heat islands, reduce air and noise pollution, attract local birds and insects, and
create carbon sinks.

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● Significance for india:


● It will help india in achieving panchamrit goals.
● It will help in achieving the goal of National Forest Policy of India, to increase
forest cover to at least 33%
● Concerns:
● Forests created using the Miyawaki method lack some qualities of natural forests,
such as ability to bring rain and medicinal properties.
● Such fast-growing forests are actually wood lots ( i.e. for producing such as wood
fuel, sap, sawlogs, and pulpwood) as well as recreational uses like bird watching,
bushwalking, and wildflower exploration and cannot be termed as forests.
● Environmentalists have questioned the efficacy of this method that accelerates the
growth of trees and claims to match a forest’s complex ecosystem.
● Conclusion:

Recently PM Modi talked about Miyawaki method in his mann ki baat and urged
nation to employ miyawaki to increase green cover in country.

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C-23-HO-31
Coral Reefs:
Intro:Coral reefs are essentially just big limestone structures built by thousands of tiny coral creatures
called polyps.
Geographic Spread: India has three major
types of coral reefs:
a)Fringing Reefs: The coral reefs which
are found very near to the land and forms
a shallow lagoon.
b) Barrier Reefs: They are mostly found
parallel to the coastline at some distance.
c)Atolls: Atolls are formed on mid-oceanic
ridges. They are circular or elliptical in
shape and are surrounded by seas on all
four sides.
 All the three major reef types, atoll,
fringing, and barrier, occur in India.
 In India, Coral reefs are present in the
areas of Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar,
Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep
Islands, and Malva.
Significance of Coral Reefs:
• Coral reefs act like low-crested breakwaters and absorb 97% of wave energy>> reduces coastal
flooding and erosion.
• Economic>> According to WWF, 1 sq.km of well-managed coral reef can yield an average
of 15 tonnes of fish and other seafood annually
• Provide Nutrition and Habitat> provide shelter and function as nursery grounds for some
pretty commercially important fish, like grouper and snapper, as well as invertebrates like
the lobster.
• Medicinal use>The anticancer agent Ara-C, included on the WHO List of Essential
Medicines, is found in sea sponges on a Caribbean reef.
• Biodiversity: Coral reefs are often referred to as the "rainforests of the sea" > Despite
covering less than 1% of the ocean floor, they are home to about 25% of all marine species.
• Tourism and Recreation>>Snorkeling, scuba diving, and other recreational activities
centered around coral reefs generate substantial revenue for local economies.
Why are they Threatened:
• Mass coral
bleaching events and
infectious disease
outbreaks>>journal Science>
the global proportion of coral
being hit by bleaching per
year has increased from 8%
in the 1980s to 31% in 2020.
• Siltation and Eutrophication
due to developmental
activities have been the major
cause of bleaching of corals.
• Rising temperatures,
cyclones, pollution, crown-
of-thorn starfish (COTs)
attacks which prey on hard
corals.
• Coral Disease Outbreaks>>the stony coral tissue loss disease that has affected reefs in the
Caribbean since 2014 has led to extensive coral mortality and bleaching events.
• Marine Pollution: Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure Plastic and garbage at the seaside .
• Indiscriminate Exploitation of coral reefs for wildlife trade .
• Coral mining (for example in south and south-east Asia) which involves blasting of reefs and
coral being removed
Steps that are taken:
• International Coral Reefs Initiative>>partnership between Nations and organizations >
preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems around the world.
• Corals are included in Schedule I of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
• Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM) also takes up the issue of coral
reef habitat destruction
• Coral Triangle Initiative: The six governments of the Coral Trianglee have established
partnership to conserve coral reefs and the multitude of species and fisheries they support.
• Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (CRZ) 1991 under the EPA: It is the only law that
explicitly outlaws coral mining in India.
Way Forward:
• Limiting global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and
pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C, in line with the Paris Agreement
on climate change
• A transformation of mainstream economic systems and a move towards circular economic
practices>highlighted in SDG 8 (inclusive and sustainable economic growth) and SDG 12
(sustainable consumption and production patterns).
• Measures to combat local stressors causing coral bleaching:>regulate tourism,banning
quarrying of massive corals etc
• Coral Transplantation:>>Great Barrier Reef Foundation in Australia conducts large-scale
coral transplantation projects. They use techniques like "coral larval seeding".
• Planting of mangrove species in reef areas can be undertaken with the involvement and
support of the local community.
• Coral Nurseries>>The Coral Restoration Foundation (CRF) USA, use innovative techniques
like "coral gardening" and "tree nurseries" where coral fragments are attached to underwater
structures or suspended from floating ropes, allowing them to grow and multiply.
Case Study:
1) The Coral Reef Recovery Project pf Mithapur is a joint venture of WTI and the Gujarat
Forest Department, supported by Tata Chemicals Limited (TCL). It seeks to develop and
implement appropriate strategies for the conservation of the Mithapur Reef, situated in Gulf
of Kutch in Gujarat. The project, with initial support received from the World Land Trust, is
also working in the recovery of coral reefs in Gujarat’s Marine National Park.
2) ReefWatch was established in 1993 and started coral restoration work in 2018 using
the Mineral Accretion Technology in the Andamans, calling it the Re(ef) Generate
program.
Conclusion:
Coral reefs are an important part of the ecosystem. It has not only ecological significance but is an
important indicator of environmental health. Recent rise in coral bleaching has raised various
concerns and efforts have been made to restore the same.

Sources:
1. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/explained-the-great-barrier-
reefs-recovery-and-vulnerability-to-climate-threats/article65741674.ece
2. https://www.wti.org.in/projects/mithapur-coral-reef-recovery-project/
3. https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/coral-reefs-8474109/
C-23-HO-31
Kelp Forest:

Intro:
Kelp forests are large brown algae seaweeds. They grow in “underwater forests” in shallow
oceans and nutrient-rich waters.
Geographic Spread:
• These forests are found along the rocky shores of South America, South Africa, southern
Australia, and the western coast of North America.
• In Hudson Bay and eastern Canada, kelp forests have been scientifically documented between
Ellesmere Island and Labrador, and along coasts in Lancaster Sound, Ungava Bay, Hudson Bay,
Baffin Bay and Resolute Bay.
• The Canadian Arctic alone represents 10 per cent of the world’s coastlines.
• Kelp forests are usually found in arctic and temperate waters across the world.
Significance in Climate Mitigation:
• Kelp forests helps in Carbon Sequestration —by acting as “blue carbon” ecosystem.
IAS Exam Congress
Mains-2023
• Kelps provide critical habitats and nurseries for numerous marine species, including fish,
invertebrates, and marine mammals> maintain the balance of marine ecosystems,
enhances their resilience, and supports overall ocean health.
• Buffering Ocean Acidification>through their photosynthetic activity>remove CO2 >
reducing its acidity>more favorable environment for calcifying organisms such as corals
and shellfish
• Coastal Protection and Climate Adaptation>Their extensive root-like structures, known as
holdfasts>effectively reducing wave energy and protecting vulnerable coastlines.
• Seaweeds could play an essential role in the blue economy.
• Source of potash and iodine. Many kelp produce align, a complex carbohydrate useful in
industries such as tire manufacturing, and the ice cream industry.
Why are they Threatened:
• Climate Change>Rising See Surface Temperature>Marine Heatwave.
• Thawing permafrost and crumbling Arctic coasts are dumping sediments into coastal waters at
alarming rates, which blocks light and could limit plant growth.
• The run-off from melting glaciers will also lowers salinity and increase turbidity, which impacts
young kelp.
• Destructive fishing practices, coastal pollution, and accidental damage caused by boat
entanglement.
• Coastal Development and Habitat Destruction,Sedimentation >marinas, ports, and aquaculture
facilities, can cause physical damage to kelp beds through anchoring, dredging, and pollution.
• Invasive Species>>can out compete native kelp species, leading to declines in kelp abundance
and diversity.
• Pollution>>Eutrophication>• Nutrient enrichment from excessive fertilizers promotes the
growth of harmful algae, which can out compete kelp for space and light, hampering their growth
and productivity
Steps that needs to be taken:
• Establishing Marine Protected Areas specifically for Kelp Conservation to reduce
anthropocentric threats
• Sustainable Fishing Practices with engagement of Local Fishing communities.
• Legal protection>enact comprehensive legislation to safeguard kelp forests from destructive
activities such as bottom trawling, dredging, and excessive harvesting.
• Mitigating Climate Change Impacts>adaptation strategies such as restoring degraded kelp
forests, promoting the planting of kelp and seagrass beds, and exploring the potential of
assisted migration.
• Collaboration and Stakeholder Engagement>The Kelp Forest Challenge is calling upon
society to restore 1 Million and protect 3 Million hectares of kelp forest by the year 2040.
Conclusion:
Conservation of kelp forests necessitates a multi-faceted approach that integrates legal
protection,
scientific research, sustainable fishing practices stakeholder engagement. By implementing
these IAS Exam Congress
Mains-2023
steps, we can strive to ensure the long-term viability and ecological integrity of these crucial marine
ecosystems. Safeguarding kelp forests not only protects biodiversity but also contributes to
the
overall health and sustainability of our coastal
environments
Sources:
1. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/climate-change/kelp-forests-losing-unique-
traits-due-to-climate-change-says-study-87331
2. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/07/scientists-restore-worlds-kelp-forests/
3. .https://kelpforestalliance.com/kelp-forest-challenge

IAS Exam Congress


Mains-2023
GS1/3 C-23-HO-44
Mangroves:
• Introduction:
• Mangroves are salt-tolerant plant communities found in tropical and subtropical intertidal
regions.

• Distribution of Mangroves:
• As per Mangrove Alliance Report — mangrove
cover ~ 0.15% of the country’s total.
• IFSR report — increasing mangrove cover
trends

• Signi cance:
• First line of defence against natural disasters
• Act as a buffer zone and arrest winds,
slowing them down and hence minimising
impact on land.
• Roots of mangrove trees capture sediments,
resulting in the formation of new, fertile lands
• Ensures that offshore water is clearer,
allowing marine life to thrive.
• Promotes Edge Effect — large species diversity
in comparison to marine or terrestrial ecosystem.
• Productivity increases
• Ecosystem services
• Provides resources — timber and fuelwood, when collected sustainably.
• Medicinal Benefits — coastal communities collect medicinal plants from mangroves and use
mangrove leaves as animal fodder.
• Defence against climate change

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• Challenges:
• Over harvesting — overexploited for rewood, construction wood and pulp production,
charcoal production, and animal fodder.
• Ex: 40% of mangroves on west coast converted into farmlands in just 3 decades.
• Unauthorised developments taken place in restricted Coastal Regulatory Zone areas (CRZ I
and No Development Zone)
• Ex: CAG nds 117 hct of Mangroves destroyed in Kutch.
• Shrimp Farming — inverse relation
• Ex: Chennai mangroves revived when shrimp farming stopped
• Destructive shing practices such as dynamite shing and the unintentional catching of other
marine species (by-catch) — intensi es the anthropogenic stress.
• Ex: In India’s Sunderbans, salinisation, population pressure, and overexploitation are the
primary threats to mangroves and the area’s biodiversity.

• Steps taken:
• MISHTI — announced in Budget 2023-24 — Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats &
Tangible Incomes (MISHTI) will be taken up for mangrove plantation along the coastline and
on salt pan lands
• MISHTI will be implemented through convergence between the MGNREGS (Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme), CAMPA (Compensatory
Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority) Fund and other sources.
• Organisations that have been involved in mangrove plantation say that the initiative requires
extensive work with local communities.
• The survival rate of mangrove seed plantation is 50% and of saplings is about 60% and it
takes three years for a new plant to stabilise.
• A contract-based one-time plantation under MGNREGS and CAMPA may not work unless
the local communities take ownership of the forests.
• Discharge of untreated domestic and industrial ef uents into the rivers impede the natural
inter-tidal ow along the coast and the mixing of freshwater and saline water which help in
gradual formation of the mangrove forest.

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• SAIME launched in Sunderbans — Sustainable Aquaculture In Mangrove Ecosystem, farmers
have taken up cultivation of shrimp at 20 hectares at Chaital in West Bengal’s North 24
Parganas, and 10 hectares at Madhabpur in adjoining South 24 Parganas.
• Mangroves for Future Project by India — sustainable coastal development.
• BOBLME Project — India + 7 Bay of Bengal Countries to protect Mangroves
• The National Forest Policy, 1988 lists effective conservation and management of natural forest
ecosystems (including the mangrove ecosystem) as a priority area for forestry research.
• India joined Global Mangrove Alliance — educate and spread awareness worldwide on the role
of mangroves in curbing global warming and its potential as a solution for climate change.

• Role in Climate Change:


• ‘State of World Mangroves 2022’ points out that mangroves are estimated to hold up to four
times the amount of carbon as some other ecosystems.
• The loss of even 1% of remaining mangroves could lead to the loss of 0.23 gigatons of CO2
equivalent, equating to over 520 million barrels of oil,” the report states.
• Mangroves are one of the most carbon-rich forests of the tropics, storing carbon from the
atmosphere at up to four times the rate of terrestrial forests.
• Mangrove forests stabilise coastlines, reduce erosion, encourage biodiversity growth, and shield
coastal communities from sea-level rise

• What more:
• Mangroves Nursery Banks
• Integration of mangroves into the national programmes for reducing emissions
• Incentives for sustainable management of mangroves on private and village community land.
• Ex: Maharashtra Case Study — in 2016, the government declared 15000 hct of the
mangroves as reserve forest ==> ISFR 2019 showed that the overall increase in the
mangrove forest cover.
• Use of technology + nature based solutions
• Ex: ‘Connected Mangroves’ approach used in Malaysia

• Conclusion:
• The integration of mangroves into the national programmes for reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation is the need of the hour.
• India can contribute to the global knowledge base due to its extensive experience in mangrove
restoration, studies on ecosystem valuation and carbon sequestration.

References:
1. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/sustainable-shrimp-cultivation-provides-hope-for-
mangrove-restoration-in-sundarbans/article66324538.ece
2. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/explained-why-have-mangroves-got-a-budget-push/
article66472109.ece
3. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/explained-how-mangroves-help-in-averting-climate-
change-risks/article66127778.ece
4. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/cop27-technology-mangrove-reforestation-mitigate-climate-change/

-updated on 13th July

IAS Exam Congress Mains-2023


C-23-HO-55
Mission LiFE:

Relevance: GS 1/3/4

Intro :
India-led global mass movement that will nudge individual and collective action to protect
and preserve the environment.

Data:
As per UNEP,if 1 out of 8 billion people worldwide adopt environment friendly
behaviour global carbon emission could drop to 20%.

Objectives of Mission LiFE:


 Mobilise at least 1 billion Indians and
other global citizens to take individual
and collective action for protecting
and preserving the environment in the
period 2022 to 2027.
 At least 80% of all villages and urban
local bodies are aimed to become
environment friendly by 2028
 Focus on Individual Behaviours:
“Jan Andolan” by focusing on
behaviours and attitudes of
individuals and communities.
 Mindful choices such as cycling and using public transport, eating more plant-
based foods and wasting less.
 Co-create Globally: Crowdsource empirical and scalable ideas from the best
minds of the world, through top universities, think tanks etc.
 Leverage Local Cultures: Leverage climate-friendly social norms, beliefs
and daily household practices of different cultures.
 Replaces the ‘use-and-dispose’ economy with a circular economy.
 Global network of individuals: create a global network of individuals,
namely ‘Pro-Planet People’ (P3), who will have a shared commitment to adopt
and promote environmentally friendly lifestyles.

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C-23-HO-55
Significance/how Mission LiFE would be
helpful:
 LiFE can trigger a huge boost for the
sustainability market. Several green industries
and a large number of jobs are likely to be
initiated as a positive externality of LiFE.
 Net zero carbon footprint: This will help India
and many countries of the world to achieve
their goal of net zero carbon footprint.
 A circular economy: The LiFE Mission further
the adoption of the concept of ‘Reduce, Reuse
and Recycle’ which will help in striking a
balance between the development, economic
growth and sustainability.
 Mindless consumption of resources: human
race is plundering Planet Earth at a pace that far outstrips its capacity and
ability to support life.
 Small efforts, huge impact:
demonstrates the ability of tiny actions
to have a large influence. It believes in
the power of the person to alter the
world
 Leverage social networks: It aims to use
the power of social networks to impact
societal norms and behaviours in order to propel the campaign.

Steps taken by India in line with the objectives of LiFE:

 Individual-led programs such as Swachh Bharat Mission, GOBARdhan Scheme,


Ujjwala Scheme etc.
 Ban on single use plastic, right to repair framework etc
 India has revised its INDCs and Mission LiFE is made part of it to combat climate
change.
 Agni Tattva - Energy for LiFE campaign, to create awareness of the core concept of Agni
Tattva, an element that is synonymous with energy.
 Meri LiFE" (My Life) mobile application to empower young people and encourage their
participation in tackling climate change.
 Multiple global initiatives: The International Solar Alliance, the One Sun One World
One Grid initiative, and the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure.
 National Hydrogen Mission: India has advanced toward a more environmentally
friendly energy source through the National Hydrogen Mission.

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C-23-HO-55

Case Studies:
 Denmark: Denmark promotes the use of bicycles by limiting parking within the city
Centre and providing exclusive bike lanes.
 Japan: Japan has its unique “walk-to-school” mandate, which has been in practice
since the early 1950s.

Way forward:
 Emboldening the spirit of the P3 model, i.e. Pro Planet People.
 Governments and multilateral institutions have to ensure that regulations, laws
mandates pro-planet business practices and citizen behaviours.
 Making planet orientation personal value can instantly drive seemingly small but
highly impactful behaviour changes.
 Overconsumption needs to be controlled --cause of the triple world emergency of
pollution, biodiversity loss, and climate change.
 The triple bottom line strategy to be adopted to achieve environmental governance.

Conclusion: Through mission LiFE India is trying to portray climate crisis from
individual perspective. Mission LiFE has a potential to transform climate change
movement into the mass movement.

IAS Exam Congress Mains-2023


C-23-HO-14
India’s Net Zero/CN:
• Introduction:
• Carbon neutrality simply means counterbalancing CO2 emissions with carbon offsets without
necessarily having reduced emissions.

• Need:
• India’s commitment to global climate conventions.
• IPCC report — global cumulative emissions of carbon dioxide to be capped at the global
carbon budget
• Constitutional resolve
• Sustainable development
• Increasing trend of ESG and green nances — mobilisation of resources
• GDP Growth — by achieving net zero by 2050 — additional ~ 8% GDP growth and create
nearly 20 million additional jobs by 2032

• India’s path towards Net Zero:


• COP-26 — India’s Panchamrut Strategy — Net Zero by 2070
• Indian Railways plans to become Net Zero Carbon Emitter
by 2030
• Recently launched — India’s Long Term Strategy for Net
Zero
• Budget 2023-24 focus on green industrial and economic
transition needed
• Focus on EVs, Battery manufacturing ecosystem (VGF
proposed) etc.
• Long-Term Low-Carbon Development Strategy, as India
refers to it, underlines India’s right to an equitable and fair
share of the global carbon budget.

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• Challenges:
• Net zero emissions by 2070 would require an economy-wide investment of $10.1 trillion from
now; 2050 calls for $13.5 trillion.
• Conceptually awed:
• Against CBDR — India’s emissions are less than half of global average
• Doing so would be to accede to further over-appropriation of global carbon budget by a few
• Lack of nancial and technical support from Developed nations
• India is still in developing stage
• Negative emissions technology issues
• Absence of a carbon and emission trading mechanism in the country.
• No mechanism for environmental audits >> the degree of accountability is diluted.
• India’s long-term plan does not mention agriculture>>main source of methane emissions
• India risks being land-short for its dual goals of growth and decarbonisation> McKinsey estimates that
renewable power and forest carbon sinks need 18 million additional hectares of land.

• Steps taken:
• Solar Mission-solar parks and grid-connected solar rooftops.
• National Hydrogen Mission launched in 2021- aims to make India a green hydrogen hub.
• If India shifted to a predominantly renewable (and hydrogen)-based energy and materials
system, it could save as much as $3 trillion in foreign exchange by 2070 (largely crude oil and
coking coal).
• Leapfrogging Bharat Stage V emissions to directly reach Bharat Stage VI emissions.
• Ethanol blending — 20 per cent by 2025
• The National Electricity Mobility Mission Plan - FAME India scheme NITI Aayog.

• Way Ahead:
• Focus on orderly and planned decarbonisation.
• Set out ve-year, 10-year, and 25-year national decarbonisation plans — focus on the High-
emission industrial assets (like steel, iron, cement etc.)
• De ne a national land use plan. India risks being land-short for its dual goals of growth and
decarbonisation.
• Ex: McKinsey estimates that renewable power and forest carbon sinks need 18 million
additional hectares of land.
• Create an ecosystem of carbon pricing and carbon capping — abolish climate damaging
subsidies.
• International cooperation with like minded countries to further CBDR, Carbon budget planning
and fund—tech transfer.

Source:
1. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/going-green-the-hindu-editorial-on-budget-2023s-and-indias-net-
zero-commitment/article66467990.ece
2. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/net-zero-emissions-by-2050-can-boost-indias-gdp-by-73-by-2032-
report/article65813413.ece
3. https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/india-transition-to-net-zero-8364223/
4. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/why-india-shouldnt-sign-on-to-net-zero/article37180448.ece
5. h t t p s : / / b l o g s . a d b . o r g / b l o g / g l o b a l - w a r n i n g - a s i a - c r i t i c a l - a d d r e s s i n g - c l i m a t e - c h a n g e ?
gclid=EAIaIQobChMInu2tqfff_wIVTpJmAh0ylgxrEAMYASAAEgJ4bvD_BwE
6. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/explained-what-is-indias-future-strategy-on-
emissions/article66158502.ece
-updated on 26th June

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Plastic Pollution-Indian Efforts: Relevance:GS1/3

● Intro:
Plastic waste, or plastic pollution, is the accumulation of plastic objects (e.g:plastic
bottles and much more) in the Earth’s environment that adversely affects wildlife,
wildlife habitat, and humans.
● Facts: (CPCB Data)
● Size of plastic industry: Rs. 110,000crore.
● Plastic Consumption: 13 million tonnes/
year.
● Per Capita Consumption: 15kg (global
avg-28kg) US-139Kg/annum.
● Waste generated: 34.7 lakh tonnes/ year
● Amount of plastic waste recycled: 50%
● Types of Plastic Waste:
● Micro plastics: Plastics which are less than
five mm in diameter in size.
● Sources: cosmetics, clothing and
industrial processes.
● Impact: Ingestion is very dangerous
for humans as these contain toxic
material(polychlorinated biphenyl)
● Acc to IUCN micro plastic constitute
up to 30% of marine litter.
● Single-use plastic: Material that can be
used only once before it is either thrown away or recycled, like plastic bags,
water bottles.
● India SUP production in 8 million tonnes/year.
● Consume a huge amount of energy, water, and natural resources for single
use.
● Impact of plastic pollution:
● Economic Losses: Plastic waste along shoreline has a negative impact on
tourism revenue (creates an aesthetic issue).
● Ex- A&N Islands are facing plastic threat because of international dumping
of waste.
● Plastic wastes impacts animals in aquatic, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems.
● Plastic is main cause of coral reef pollution.
● WHO- Presence of plastic in 90% bottled water.
● Ingestion cause death due to intestinal blockage also acts as endocrine
disruptor.

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● Land: hazardous chemicals in plastic degrade land and makes soil infertile.
● Air: Burning of plastics
generates toxic emissions such
as Carbon Monoxide, Chlorine,
and Nitrides etc.
● Groundwater: When plastics are
dumped in landfills, the
hazardous chemicals present in
them seep underground when it
rains-> pollute groundwater.
● Drainage: Plastic bags choke
storm water drains and
underground drainage and can
lead to flooding during heavy
rains.

● Plastic waste management in india:


● The Plastic Waste Management
Rules, 2016:
● Urban local bodies (ULBs)
ban less than 50 micron thick
plastic bags.
● Introduced the concept of
EPR (Extended Producer
Responsibility).
● Amended in 2022(Additional
PDF)
● Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has ordered a ban on the use of single-
use plastic from July 2022.
● Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban 2.0
● Urban Local Bodies (ULB) is required to adopt 100% source segregation of
waste
● Access to a Material Recovery Facility (MRF) for sorting the dry waste
(including plastic waste)
● ULBs will need to identify SUP ‘hotspots’ and eliminate them.
● ULBs will need to identify SUP alternatives (such as cloth/jute)
● National Dashboard on Elimination of Single Use Plastic and Plastic Waste
Management - Connect all stakeholders from state to centre to track
implementation of elimination of SUP.
● India Plastics Pact (First in asia)-Stakeholders together to reduce, reuse and
recycle plastics.

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● Project REPLAN (stands for REducing PLastic in Nature) launched by


Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) aims to reduce
consumption of plastic bags.
● Challenges:
● Banning: banning plastic is of limited use, mobility of plastic waste make it
difficult to implement ban in all states.
● Waste Segregation: Not Properly Segregated at source, cities lack
processing plant with a sanitary landfill in it .->>> loss of revenue can earn
5.6k Cr by selling
● Recycling: Only 60%
● EPR Issue: lack of compliance, obligations are met on sporadic basis.
● Lack of alternative: Cost higher than plastics.
● Best Practices: China made it illegal
for vendors to give out plastic bags
for free. This has led to a drop in
their usage by roughly 50% in two
years.
● Way forward:
● Identifying Hotspots: key
hotspots of Plastic leakage
associated with production,
consumption, and disposal of
Plastic
● Designing Alternatives:
Promoting the use of Oxo-biodegradable plastics, that are manufactured to
be broken down by ultra-violet radiation and heat, more quickly than
regular plastics.
● Breaking down Plastic Waste: Plastic-eating bacteria, discovered in Japan,
have been cultivated and modified to digest polyester plastics (food
packaging and plastic bottles).
● Recycling through Technologies and Innovation: Thiagarajar College of
Engineering in Madurai has received a patent for manufacturing tiles and
blocks from waste plastic.
● Circular Economy for Plastic Management: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
approach.
● Multi-stakeholder collaboration: Participation from industrial firms, non-
governmental organisations and volunteer organisations.
● Conclusion:

IAS Exam Congress Mains-2023


C-23-HO-52A

Plastic Waste Management Rules 2022: Relevance:GS1/3


Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change announced the Plastic Waste
Management (Amendment) Rules, 2022, which notified the instructions on Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR) for plastic packaging.
● Features:
● Classification of Plastics: plastics into three categories:
● Rigid plastic packaging
● flexible plastic packaging of single layer or multilayer (more than one layer
with different types of plastic)
● Multi-layered plastic (at least one layer of plastic and other material).
● Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): It covers reuse, recycling, use of
recycled plastic content and end of life disposal by producers, importers and
brand-owners.
● Centralised Online Portal by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for the
registration, annual returns filing by producers, importers and brand-owners.
● Environmental compensation based on polluter pays principle, with respect to
non-fulfilment of EPR targets by producers, importers and brand owners.
Unfulfilled EPR obligations for a particular year will be carried forward to the
next year for a period of three years.
● Committee creation by the CPCB under the chairmanship of CPCB chairman for
effective implementation of EPR, including amendments to Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) guidelines.
● Extended Producer Responsibility Certificates: The guidelines allow for sale and
purchase of surplus extended producer responsibility certificates.
● Significance:
● Manage High Usage: New rules will help manage the increasing demand of plastic
and result in decreasing plastic pollution.
● Circular Economy.
● Domestic Targets: deadline for eliminating the single-use plastic waste is July
2022.
● Ease of Trading: These norms seek to create a market for the sale, purchase and
sharing of EPR.
● Substitute promotion: more environmentally friendly alternatives like jute.
● Landfill Reduction: The promising provisions of new rules will reduce their
creation.
● Challenges:
● Excessive amendments: has been amended five times — in March 2018, August
2021, September 2021, February 2022 and July 2022.
● Governance issues: With an EPR target of 70 per cent, CPCB is struggling to
even register all the PIBOs on its EPR portal.
● Industry orientation: The EPR has loopholes that benefit industry at the cost of
the environment.

IAS Exam Congress Mains-2023


C-23-HO-16
India’s Quest for Hydrogen:
• Introduction:
• Hydrogen energy is the energy derived from a system in which hydrogen is used as working
substance. Fuel cell is one way of hydrogen energy production.
• Green hydrogen is made by breaking down water using electricity from renewable sources,
which is considered crucial to decarbonize hard-to-abate heavy industries.

• Status:
• India’s hydrogen consumption was around 7 Mt in 2020 and according to TERI, it is expected to
leapfrog to about 28 Mt in 2050.
• Assuming 25% export capacity, we can expect a requirement of 35 Mt by 2050.
• India’s current output of the fuel is very low and comes from a handful of pilot projects.
• Indian Railways have announced the country’s rst experiment of a hydrogen-fuel cell
technology-based train by retro tting an existing diesel engine

• Signi cance of Hydrogen fuel for India:


• Curb its dependence on energy imports — supply shock, price shock, parity
• Wean the economy off fossil fuels to meet climate targets (third biggest emitter of GHGs)
• About 50 MMT per annum of CO2 emissions are expected to be averted by 2030.
• Adding REN capacity — NHM ~ adding REN capacity of about 125 GW
• Decarbonisation of different sectors
• India is a energy hungry nation — 3rd largest, diversi cation is key here.

• Advantages of Fuel over others?


• Readily Available: hydrogen available in abundance.
• Energy density almost three times that of diesel.
• Doesn’t Produce Harmful Emissions: only by-product or emission from the usage of hydrogen
fuel is water. It makes this fuel 100% clean.
• Versatility: can be transformed into electricity or synthetic gas and used for commercial,
industrial or mobility purposes.
• Environmentally Friendly: It is a non-toxic substance which is rare for a fuel source.
• Fuel-Ef cient: Compared to diesel or gas, it is much more fuel-ef cient as it can produce more
energy per pound of fuel.

• Steps taken?
• Launched National Green Hydrogen mission that aims to make India a ‘global hub’ for using,
producing and exporting green hydrogen. (~20000 crore)

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• Intent — incentivise the commercial production of green hydrogen and make India a net
exporter of the fuel.
• Mission will “facilitate demand creation, production, utilisation and export of Green
Hydrogen
• Target — develop green hydrogen production capacity of at least 5 MMT (Million Metric
Tonne) per annum.
• This will entail the decarbonisation of the industrial, mobility and energy sectors; reducing
dependence on imported fossil fuels and feedstock;
• Developing indigenous manufacturing capabilities; creating employment opportunities; and
developing new technologies such as ef cient fuel cells.
• NHM — mobilising funding for Hydrogen production ~ investments worth ₹8 trillion and
create over six lakh jobs.
• Two sub missions under NHM — rst is the Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen
Transition Programme (SIGHT), that will fund the domestic manufacturing of electrolysers
and produce green hydrogen. The second is to support pilot projects in emerging end-use
sectors and production pathways.
• States and regions capable of supporting large scale production and/or utilisation of
hydrogen will be identi ed and developed as Green Hydrogen Hubs.
• India is a part of the 'Hydrogen Valley Platform' that looks to create an integrated hydrogen
ecosystem covering production, storage, distribution and end-use.
• Kerala has set up a high-level working group for its own Hydrogen Economy Mission to devise a
strategic roadmap, policy formulations.

• Challenges:
• Majority of hydrogen produced is Grey or Black.
• Green hydrogen currently accounts for less than 1% of global hydrogen production due to it
being expensive to produce.
• India lacks necessary infrastructure yet to execute all these intermediary steps.
• Upward and downward linkages are missing
• A kilogram of black hydrogen costs $0.9-1.5 to produce while grey hydrogen costs $1.7-2.3
and blue hydrogen can cost anywhere from $1.3-3.6.
• Higher water footprint in hydrogen compared to other energy modes
• However, green hydrogen costs $3.5-5.5 per kg, according to a 2020 analysis by the Council
for Energy, Environment and Water.
• Another challenge is to compress or liquify the LH2 (liquid hydrogen); it needs to be kept at a
stable minus 253° C (far below the temperature of minus 163° C at which Liqui ed Natural Gas
(LNG) is stored; entailing its ‘prior to use exorbitant cost’.
• Very dif cult to store. Its transportation even in a small amount is very expensive.

• Way Ahead:
• International cooperation with like minded — Saudi Arabia developing one of the biggest
Hydrogen producing facility.
• Announce incentives to convince enough users of industrial hydrogen to adopt green hydrogen.
• It needs to develop supply chains in the form of pipelines, tankers, intermediate storage and last
leg distribution networks as well as put in place an effective skill development programme to
ensure that lakhs of workers can be suitably trained to adapt to a viable green hydrogen
economy.
• Mapping of underground hydrogen resources and identify potential exploration sites.
• Use mandates must be created for different industries — create constant demand

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• Conclusion:
• Hydrogen could lay the foundation of a new India which would be energy-independent; a global climate
leader and international energy power. Hydrogen will certainly play a decisive role in India’s Net Zero
ambition and in making India 'Atma Nirbhar in energy.

References:
1. https://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/explained-indias-plan-to-develop-green-hydrogen/
article66343637.ece
2. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/india-may-soon-export-green-hydrogen/articleshow/
95418550.cms?from=mdr
3. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/green-hydrogen-a-new-ally-for-a-zero-carbon-future/article62105515.ece
4. https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/specials/the-quest-for-white-hydrogen/article66409166.ece
5. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/india-sets-hydrogen-ammonia-consumption-targets-some-industries-
govt-2023-01-13/
-updated on 27th June
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C-23-HO-10

India’s Quest for Nuclear Energy:


Intro: India's nuclear power sector is saving 41 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions annually,
compared to emissions that would have been generated by equivalent electricity generation from coal-based
thermal power plants,
Status:

 Nuclear power currently comprises 3% of India's total electricity generation. Current policy targets a
three-fold rise in nuclear-installed capacity by 2032.
 India has the sixth-highest number of functional nuclear reactors in the world and the second-highest
number of reactors, including those under construction.
Potential:
 Present installed nuclear power capacity is set to increase from 6,780 MW to 22,480 MW by 2031 on
progressive completion of projects under construction and accorded sanction.
 In the next three years, capacity addition of 5,300 MW is planned on completion
 Department of Atomic Energy has been given the target of achieving 20 gigawatts (GW) capacity of
nuclear power generation by 2030, which will make India the third-largest producer of atomic energy
in the world after the US and France.
Present production
 The installed capacity for nuclear power generation was 6,780 MW (megawatt) from 22 reactors.
This includes the 700 MW pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR), unit 3 of the Kakrapar nuclear
power plant (KAPP) that was synchronised with the grid in January 2021.

Raw Material Availibility: Distribution of NPP


Distribution of Uranium and Thorium in India:
 According to the Department of Atomic Energy
(DAE), India has 10.70 million tonnes of
Monazite, which contains 9,63,000 tonnes of
Thorium Oxide (ThO2).
 The estimated 360,000 tonnes of thorium
deposits in India dwarf the 70,000 tonnes of
natural uranium deposits.
 The country's thorium reserves account for 25%
of the world's It can easily be used as a fuel,
reducing the need for Uranium imports from
various countries.

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India’s 3 Stage nuclear programme

Stage I – Pressurized Heavy Water


Reactor [PHWR]
 In the first stage of the programme,
natural uranium fuelled pressurized heavy
water reactors (PHWR) produce electricity
while generating plutonium-239 as by-
product.
 In PWHR, enrichment of Uranium to
improve concentration of U-235 is not
required. U-238 can be directly fed into the
reactor core
 Heavy water (deuterium oxide, D 2O) is
used as moderator and coolant in PHWR
 India correctly calculated that it would be
easier to create heavy water production
facilities (required for PHWRs) than
uranium enrichment facilities (required for
LWRs).

Stage II – Fast Breeder Reactor


 In the second stage, fast breeder reactors (FBRs)[moderators not required] would use plutonium-239,
recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the first stage, and natural uranium.
 In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, while the uranium-238 present in the
fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239.
 Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to “breed” more fuel than they consume.
 Once the inventory of plutonium-239 is built up thorium can be introduced as a blanket material in the
reactor and transmuted to uranium-233 for use in the third stage.
 The surplus plutonium bred in each fast reactor can be used to set up more such reactors, and might thus
grow the Indian civil nuclear power capacity till the point where the third stage reactors using thorium as
fuel can be brought online

Stage III – Thorium Based Reactors


 A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear power system involves a self-sustaining series of thorium-232-
uranium-233 fuelled reactors.
 This would be a thermal breeder reactor, which in principle can be refueled – after its initial fuel charge –
using only naturally occurring thorium.
 As there is a long delay before direct thorium utilisation in the three-stage programme, the country is now
looking at reactor designs that allow more direct use of thorium in parallel with the sequential three-stage
programme
 Three options under consideration are the Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS), Advanced Heavy Water
Reactor (AHWR) and Compact High Temperature Reactor

Why nuclear energy is required? Benefits:


 Cheaper to Operate: Estimates show that nuclear plants cost only 33-50% of a coal plant and 20-25%
of a gas combined-cycle plant.

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 Thorium availability makes nuclear energy a promising solution for India's energy needs. It is
considered the fuel of the future
 Reduce its import bills by up to $100 billion annually, which is currently spent on importing
petroleum and coal.
 Unlike solar and wind power, which are dependent on weather conditions, nuclear energy is firm
dispatachable power
 nuclear power provides a reliable, high-density source of energy that is widely available.
 Cleaner Form of Energy: A 1,000 megawatts plant operating at 90% plant load factor requires over
a year only 25 tonnes of low enriched uranium fuel.
Challenges?
 Foremost challenge of Nuclear technology is safety and waste management. Incidents like
Chernobyl, Fukushima are serious cause of concern. If nuclear energy is generated adhering to the
highest standards of safety, there is less possibility of catastrophic accidents.
 Availability of fissile material is also a cause of concern. Nuclear fuel is not available easily and need
diplomatic efforts.
 Land acquisition and selection of location for Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) is also major problem
in the country. NPP’s like Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu have met with several delays due to the land
acquisition related challenges.
 As India is not a signatory of NPT and NSG, nuclear supply is severely contained by sanctioned
against India. This situation has changed after 2009 waiver and bilateral civil nuclear energy
agreements with many countries.
 Reprocessing and enrichment capacity also required boost in India. For this India needs advanced
technology to fully utilise the spent fuel and for enhancing its enrichment capacity.

Steps taken:
 government was actively pursuing the process of acquiring uranium from different sources, including
exploration in new places like Bihar and Meghalaya.
 for the first time, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India has been allowed to go for setting up of joint
venture nuclear plants along with Public Sector Undertakings.
 Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and research organisations attached with DAE are engaged in various
R&D activities to address the utilisation of thorium in different types of reactors
 Resolution of issues relating to the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (CLND) Act and the
establishment of an Indian Nuclear Insurance Pool (INIP).
 Niti Aayog panel headed by PM has recommended changes to the Atomic Energy Act 1962 and to
India's foreign investment policies so that both domestic and foreign private companies can
complement nuclear power generation by public companies.
What more needs to be done:
 Open up the Market: other government companies like the NTPC to get into nuclear on their own to
break the monopoly NPCIL
 India should focus on a mix of supply-side and demand-side options, both within and outside the
nuclear sector such as solar and hydro energy.
 Instead of setting targets for nuclear energy growth, the government should focus on creating
frameworks and support mechanisms
 invest in research and development of advanced nuclear technologies, such as small modular
reactors, to improve efficiency

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 Small Modular Reactors present numerous advantages, such as the reduction of costs and
construction time. They also present a high level of inherent safety
Conclusion:
"Hon'ble Prime Minister in his statement at COP26 Summit held in Glasgow has stated that India will reach
its non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030 and India will meet 50 percent of its energy requirements
from Renewable Energy by 2030." Expansion of nuclear power capacity will help in the country’s energy
transition for meeting the goal of net zero economy.
References:
1. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/should-india-consider-phasing-out-nuclear
power/article66785072.ece/amp/
2. https://www.ibef.org/blogs/india-s-nuclear-energy-boom
3. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/india.aspx
4. https://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/why-nuclear-when-india-has-an-ocean-of-
energy/article28230036.ece/amp/
5. https://www.thehindu.com/business/india-plans-to-build-more-nuclear-power-
plants/article66235286.ece/amp/
6. https://www.thehindu.com/business/india-said-to-mull-allowing-foreign-investment-in-nuclear-
power/article66816937.ece/amp/
7. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/indias-targets-for-nuclear-energy-moving-closer/?amp
8. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-electricity-to-come-from-nuclear-sources-2047-
jitendra-singh-8548639/lite/
9. https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/how-india-triumphed-in-the-nuclear-debate-
101683635986018-amp.html
10. https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/express-view-indias-calculated-risk-of-nuclear-
weapons-paid-off-8602704/lite/
11. https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/small-nuclear-reactors-emerge-as-energy-
option-but-risks-loom-8143584/lite/

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Western Ghats Conservation: Relevance:GS1/3


● Intro:
The Western Ghats, also known as ‘Sahyadri’,
constitute a 1600 km long mountain chain along the
west coast of India.

● About:
● It covers a total area of 160,000 square kms and
traverses through six States viz. Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu.
● Western Ghats was declared as a world heritage
site in 2012 by the United Nations Education,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO).
● There are four major forest types in the Western Ghats: evergreen, semi-
evergreen, moist deciduous, and dry deciduous
● The western side of the Ghat receives more rainfall than the eastern side.

● Importance:
● Hydrological Functions: It feeds large number of perennial rivers of peninsular
India including the three major eastward-flowing rivers Godavari, Krishna, and
Kaveri.
● Role in monsoon:
● montane forest ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather patterns
that mediate the warm tropical climate of the region
● Intercepts the rain-laden monsoon winds that blow from the south-west
during late summer.
● Sequestration of atmospheric CO2 it is estimated that they neutralise around 4
million tonnes of carbon every year- around 10% of emissions neutralised by all
Indian forests.
● Biodiversity:
● Western Ghats along with its geographical extension in the wet zone of Sri
Lanka is 1 of 4 biodiversity hotspots of India.
● At least 325 globally threatened (IUCN Red Data List) species occur in the
Western Ghats.
● Economic importance:
● Rich in iron, manganese and bauxite ores in parts of their ranges
● Pepper and cardamom, taken up as plantation crops on a large scale. Other
large scale plantations include tea, coffee, oil palm and rubber

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● Important source of timber and support a large number of forest-based


industries such as paper, plywood, poly-fibres and matchwood.
● Home to Indigenous Tribes:
● Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups, constitute 44.2% of the tribal
population of 6.95% of Karnataka
● Tourism and Pilgrimage Centre:
● Tourist centres that have sprung up in the Western Ghats; example: Ooty,
Thekkady WS etc.
● Pilgrimage centres Sabarimala in Kerala, Madeveshwaramalai in Karnataka
and Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.

● Threat to western ghats:


● Mining:
● Especially in Goa and often in violation of all laws, resulting in serious
environmental damage and social disruption.
● Sand mining has emerged as a major threat in Kerala →vulnerability to
landslides, damaged water sources and agriculture.
● Livestock: Grazing: high densities of livestock grazing is a serious problem
causing habitat degradation across the Western Ghats.
● Human-wildlife conflict:
● For example, villagers living close to Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary in the State
of Karnataka, lose approximately 11 percent of their annual grain production
to raiding elephants annually (CEPF).
● Extraction of forest produce: With rising population and changing consumption
patterns, sustainability of NTFP is a critical issue.
● Plantations: It constitute an important source of fragmentation of natural habitat.
● Encroachment by human settlements
● Pollution: The unrestricted use of agrochemicals causes serious damage to
aquatic and forest ecosystems.
● Hydropower projects and large dams: Large dam projects in Western Ghats
have resulted in environmental and social disruption.
● Deforestation.
● Unplanned tourism- According to a case study on Kodaikanal, rise in the number
of tourists has gone beyond carrying capacity of the city.
● Climate change: Climate change has been considered as a cause of floods in many
regions in recent past.
● Initiatives/Committees:-
● Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru in 2023 launched the Western Ghats Spatial
Decision Support System (WGSDSS), a web portal that will help the forest
department and biodiversity management committees to manage Ghats.
● Establishment of Protected Area network, tiger reserves and biosphere reserves
→ 10 per cent area of ghats.

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● Gadgil Committee (2011): Also known as the Western Ghats Ecology Expert
Panel (WGEEP), it recommended that all of the Western Ghats be declared as the
Ecological Sensitive Areas (ESA) with only limited development allowed in
graded zones. No new dams based on large scale storage be permitted in
Ecologically Sensitive Zone
● Criticised for being too environment friendly and impractical to
implement.
● The states opposed the report citing that a complete eco-sensitive cover for
the Western Ghats would hamper the states on energy and development
fronts.
● Kasturirangan Committee (2013): The Kasturirangan committee recommended
that instead of the total area of Western Ghats, only 37% of the total area should
be brought under ESA and a complete ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining
be imposed in ESA.
● Criticised for replacing the the pro-people and pro-nature attitude of the
WGEEP report with an autocratic approach in terms of development
● Used remote sensing and aerial survey methods for zonal demarcation of
land led to many errors. For example, it included many villages under
Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) where there was no forest land at all
● Draft ESA by Centre on basis of Kasturirangan Committee:
● A Decision Support and Monitoring Centre for Western Ghats shall be
established by the Environment Ministry in collaboration with the state
governments.
● Challenges:
● Lack of knowledge of distributional patterns, habitat requirements and
conservation status of plants and animal species.
● Development vs. Conservation: The biggest challenge in conservation of western
Ghats has been the development vs. conservation dilemma.
● Environment ministry had made several attempts to finalise ESA for Western
Ghats but the previous drafts lapsed due to no response from the states, which
reflects poorly on the states and governance.

● Way Forward:
● There is a need of setting up of a national body for better cooperation and
coordination among states in which Western Ghats lie.
● Environment Impact Assessment should be strictly carried out before any project
can be carried out in the region.
● Adopt bottom-to-top approach and include local tribes in preservation of
Western Ghats, which will provide their indigenous knowledge as well as help in
their support in better implementation of plans and policies.

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Wetlands:

Relevance: GS 1/3

Intro:
A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, and it
takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem.

Status of Wetlands:
1) India has 4.6% of its land as wetlands, covering an area of 15.26 million hectares-National
Wetland Inventory and Assessment
2) Global Wetlands Outlook-World’s wetlands disappearing three times faster than forests.

Significance of Wetlands:
● Flood and storm buffer zone: Wetlands act as sponges in the upper parts of a basin,
reducing damages to affected areas.
● Water purifier: Floating plants like Water Hyacinth, Duckweed, and Azolla can store
iron and copper from wastewater in their tissues. Wetlands are referred to as “Kidneys
of the Earth”.
● Combat Climate Change: wetlands help in carbon sequestration, act as carbon
sinks and wetland soil contains a high amount of carbon.
● Economic benefits: Water supply, fisheries, timber, peat and plant matter; medicinal
plants.
● Habitats of migratory birds: The Central Asian and East Australasian Flyways are
linked by Indian wetlands.
Ex: Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary, Ashtamudi wetlands kerala .
● Biodiversity hotspots: Chilika is home to a robust population of and is one of only two
lagoons in the world where endangered Irrawaddy Dolphins can be found.

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● Wetland for research and education: Habitat diversity, ecosystem complexity, and
broad social and cultural ties make them ideal for multi-disciplinary study of nature-
society interactions.
● Recreation property of Wetlands: Wetlands are wonderful relaxation and tourism
sites because of their natural beauty and diversity of plant and animal life.
Ex: Mandawali village Delhi is a recreational site

Wetland degradation:

Data:
1) Data from Wetlands International shows India has lost nearly two of five wetlands in
the last 30 years, while 40% of them can’t support aquatic animals.
Reasons:
● Urbanization and land use changes: exerted tremendous pressure on wetlands and
flood plain areas for meeting water and food demand of growing population
Ex: Kanwar lake in Bihar, Asia’s largest freshwater oxbow lake, has shrunk to
one-third of its size due to encroachment, much like Jammu and Kashmir’s Dal
lake.
● Municipal and Industrial pollution: untreated industrial effluents have become a
major threat to the survival of wetlands.
Ex: Bellandur Lake in Bengaluru city was ‘on fire’ in May 2015 due to the discharge
of effluents by the surrounding industries.
● Climate Change: Increased air temperature; shifts in precipitation; increased frequency
of storms, could also affect wetlands.
● Agriculture and Aquaculture: resulted in the drainage and conversion of wetlands for
cultivation or fish farming.
Ex: The Vembanad-Kol wetland system in Kerala has been impacted by
encroachment for agricultural purposes.
● Invasive Species: Introduction and spread of invasive plant and animal species disrupt
the natural balance in wetland ecosystems.
Ex: The water hyacinth is a notorious invasive species that has affected Loktak Lake in
Manipur.
● Water Extraction and Diversions: Excessive withdrawal of water for irrigation etc.
Ex:Chilika lake in Odisha due to water diversion for irrigation impacted on ecological
health.

Govt Steps:

 Amrit Dharohar Scheme: aims to promote wetlands optimal use, the communities will
be at the centre stage with regard to wetland protection.
 National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP): enable conservation and
wise use of wetlands in the country so as to prevent their further degradation.
 Ramsar Convention: signed by India-aimed at augmenting national action and
international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources

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 Montreux Record: It is a register of wetland sites on the List of Ramsar wetlands of


international importance.
 Wetlands Conservation and Management Rules, 2017: It prohibits conversion for
non-wetland uses, setting up or expansion of industries in wetland areas.
 Centre for Wetland Conservation and Management (CWCM): to address specific
research needs and knowledge gaps in the conservation and management of wetlands.

Way Forward:

 Mega urban schemes like Smart Cities Mission and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation
and Urban Transformation need to add the aspects of sustainable management of
wetlands.
 A need for more scientific data, imagery, maps and other relevant tools to provide
knowledge on the status of wetlands.
 Ecosystem services of wetlands need to be highlighted in our development policies, urban
planning and climate change mitigation.
 Need to enhance the role of the community in wetland conservation.
 Effective collaborations among academicians, watershed management specialists,
planners and decision makers for overall management of wetlands.
 Need for stronger enforcement of rules: as regulatory bodies like the Central Wetland
Regulatory Authority only have advisory powers.

Case Studies:

 Delhi Master Plan 2041 is referred to as a ‘Green-Blue policy’--water bodies and


land are interdependent, growing with the help of each other, while offering environmental
and social benefits.
 A public-spirited individual named Ramveer Tanwar resurrected around 20
ponds and lakes in and around Noida with community support--used a five-point wetland
revival process.

Conclusion: A climate-resilient future for India demands smart and innovative ideas along with
increasing space for people’s participation in management and decision-making for their
wetlands as envisaged by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

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Land Reclamation:

Intro:
 It is the process of creating new land from oceans, seas, riverbeds or lake beds.

Status:
 Satellite imagery of coastal cities with
populations of at least 1 million discovered that
land reclamation projects have created
approximately 2,530 square kilometres) of
coastal land.
 China accounted for about 350 square
kilometres of the newly reclaimed land
between 2000 and 2020.

Causes Of Land Reclamation:

 Urban Development: The need for more space to accommodate growing populations
in urban areas .
Ex: The Navi Mumbai city, located in the state of Maharashtra, is a prime example of
land reclamation for urban development.
 Agricultural Expansion: Land reclamation can be used to increase agricultural land
to meet food production demands.
Ex: The Netherlands has a long history of land reclamation through the use of polders,
converting large areas of water into fertile agricultural land.
 Environmental Protection: to restore and protect coastal ecosystems from erosion
and sea-level rise.
 Tourism and Leisure: Artificial islands and coastal developments can be created to
cater to the tourism and leisure industries.
 Infrastructure Projects: For projects like airports, highways, and railways.
Ex: The Cochin International Airport was constructed on reclaimed land from the
Vembanad Lake.
 Industrial Expansion: As industries grow and require more space, they may
undertake land reclamation to extend their facilities.
Ex: GIFT City involves the reclamation of land from the Sabarmati River and the Gulf
of Khambhat to develop a modern and sustainable city with world-class facilities.

Impact of land Reclamation:

 Loss of Coastal Ecosystems: Land reclamation involves filling in coastal areas or


wetlands, leading to the destruction of critical ecosystems.
Ex: Reclamation of parts of the Ennore Creek in Tamil Nadu resulted in the loss of
valuable wetland habitats, affecting local flora and fauna.
 Land subsidence: Reclaimed lands are vulnerable to land subsidence during events

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such as earthquakes. This threatens the lives and properties of residents.


 Distortion of Seabed Ecosystem: Using materials like sand which are obtained from
the marine and river environment can mean the destruction of habitats and spawning
grounds of organisms.
 Impact on Agriculture: Land reclamation has been carried out to convert water
bodies, such as lakes or ponds, into agricultural land>affect the hydrological balance of
the region.
 Vegetation clearance loosens the earth and makes it susceptible to erosion.
 Species extinction: Land reclamation of Hussain Sagar Lake in Telangana. It is
detrimental for not only aquatic species but also for aerial fauna.
 Drinking water pollution: Encroachment of water bodies lead to concentration of
harmful chemicals such as arsenic, copper, chromium in the water table.
Ex: encroachment of water bodies in West Bengal have led to high level of arsenic
pollution.
 Increased incidence of flooding: Water bodies act as sponges for extra rainfall,
reclamation of water bodies, has led to higher incidences of floods.
Ex: A case in point is Mumbai, which lost 71% of its wetlands between 1970 to 2014.

Way forward:

 Strategic Coastal Planning: comprehensive coastal zone management plans that


consider the long-term effects of land reclamation.
 Green Engineering Solutions: employ innovative engineering techniques that
minimise the impact of land reclamation on coastal ecosystems.
Ex: adopting "soft" engineering solutions like permeable structures, floating
islands, and sand-filled geotextile containers.
 AI for Coastal Monitoring: AI and remote sensing techniques to monitor coastal
changes, predict erosion hotspots, and assess the effectiveness of coastal management
interventions.
 Restoration of degraded areas: Instead of reclaiming new land, focus on restoring and
rehabilitating degraded areas to their original ecological state.
 Brownfield redevelopment: Consider redeveloping brownfield sites, which are
abandoned or underused properties with potential for redevelopment.
 Smart urban planning: Encourage compact and efficient urban planning that
prioritizes infill development rather than extending into new areas

Conclusion: Water bodies play an important part in sustaining the ecology. In this light
their conservation through waste water treatment, non-encroachment,
reduced anthropogenic stress etc is an imperative.

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Cyclone:
● Intro:
Tropical cyclones also called typhoons or
hurricanes—are intense water-rotating systems
formed by strong winds around low-pressure
areas.
Acc to MHA around 8% of area is prone to
cyclone
● Conditions required:
The conditions favourable for the formation and
intensification of tropical storms are:
● Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C. CREDIT-INSIGHTS
● Presence of the Coriolis force.
● Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
● A pre-existing weak low- pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.
● Upper divergence above the sea level
system.
● Cyclones in India:
● April-May and October-December periods
are conducive for cyclones
● Experiences cyclones from two basins: The
Bay of Bengal basin and the Arabian Sea
basin.
● In comparison to the Bay of Bengal, the
proportion of Arabian sea cyclones
● Initially it was 1:4 but acc to new study
it has become 2:4 from 2001-2020.
● This change is attributed to climate
change (Sea surface temp of Arabian
Sea is increasing).
● Bay of Bengal (BoB) usually witnesses more
cyclones compared to Arabian sea because:
 Cyclones which are called typhoons
in the Pacific travels to the Bay of
Bengal without losing much of its energy.
 Arabian Sea experiences cyclones which are more often than not,
diverted from those in BoB. However, most cyclones in BoB move on to
hit the eastern coast of India.
 Rivers make sea water less saline

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 The larger surface area of the Bay of Bengal allows faster heating causing
higher evaporation.
● Difference in temperate and tropical cyclone:

● Impact of cyclone:
● Substantial loss of life and mass displacement.
● For example, the 1999 Odisha cyclone claimed over 10,000 lives.
● Significant infrastructure damage, impacting transportation, communication,
electricity, and water supply→ Impact on economy.
● Cyclones Amphan ($15.8 billion).
● Negatively impact livelihoods Ex- fishermen and farmers. Fishing vessels can
be destroyed, crops can be severely damaged, leading to loss of income and
food insecurity.
● Can lead to the spread of
waterborne diseases, creating
a public health crisis.
● Can result in the closure of
schools, impacting children’s
education.
● Cyclone Naming:
● This naming of cyclones in
Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal started in 2004, based
on WMO/ESCAP Panel on
Tropical Cyclones 2000
agreement to it.
Refer Info graphic

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● Cyclone disaster management:


● Disaster risk reduction lies at the
intersection of Sendai, Paris framework
and 17 SDGs.
● National Cyclone Risk Management
Project from MHA(with aid from World
Bank) have 4 components clubbing all of
● Component A- Improvement of early
warning systems through improved
cyclone forecasting (IMD and ISRO)
IMD launched colour coding warning system.
● Component B- Cyclone risk mitigation investment
through
● Building cyclone shelters and infrastructure (ISO
Standard) using schools and other buildings.
● Coastal management and conservation of through
(CRZ), Integrated Coastal Zone Management
(ICZM) and protection of bio-shields like
Mangroves (In budget 2023-24 India launched
MISHTI initiative).
● Building a community-based Disaster management system.
● Component C: Technical assistance for hazard risk management and
capacity building through Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment.
● Component D: Project management and institutional support through
National, State and District level institutional mechanism and coordination.
● NDMA Guidelines:
● Commissioning of Aircraft Probing of Cyclone (APC) facility and
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
● Using the services of Direct-To- Home (DTH) transmission in remote and
rural areas (Panchayats)
● Launching Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) activities

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similar to MHA has done.

● Case study of Orissa —>>


● At the forefront of this
change is Officer Pradeep
Kumar Jena (IAS),
● Way forward:
● Implement NDMA
Guidelines.
● Empower gram
panchayats to manage
natural disasters
effectively by granting
certain powers and
resources.
● Using advanced tools
such as satellites,
radars, numerical models, etc. to improve the accuracy, timeliness and
reliability of cyclone forecasts and warnings.
● Post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation
● Participating in regional and international initiatives for cyclone risk reduction
such as the (IORA), (SAARC), (BIMSTEC).

Conclusion:

https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/natural-disasters/why-cyclones-like-sitrang-
stoke-fear-loss-damage-worth-billions-due-to-indian-ocean-storms-85614
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/after-pakistans-gulab-india-
selects-13-names-for-upcoming-cyclones/articleshow/86568411.cms
https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/ready-for-the-worst-on-governments-
better-preparedness-for-cyclones/article66254900.ece

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Flash Floods: Relevance:GS1/3

● Intro:
Flash floods refers to a flood situation, that
occurs in a much shorter span of time, under
six hours, and is a highly localised
phenomenon.
Ex- Gujarat (2023),Himachal (2023).

● Vulnerability:
● According to government data, India is the
worst flood-affected country in the world,
after Bangladesh.
● ~40 million hectares of land (10%) in the
country are liable to floods annually.
(National Flood Commission).
● India accounts for one-fifth of the global
death count due to floods.
● Flash floods have been commonly witnessed in cities like Chennai and Mumbai.

● Causes:
● Heavy Rainfall: Nearly 75% of the total rainfall is concentrated over just four
months (June to September) → rivers witness a heavy discharge during these
months.
● Cyclones: Coastal areas of India are vulnerable to cyclones that bring torrential
rains and storm surges, leading to flash floods in low-lying regions near the coast.
● Cloudbursts or thunderstorms and overflowing glacial lakes (in Himalayan states
formed due to the melting of glaciers).
● Urbanisation and Deforestation: Can alter natural drainage patterns, reducing the
ground's ability to absorb water. This leads to increased surface runoff..
● Dam Failures and Breaches: Failure or breaches in dams and reservoirs can
release a massive volume of water downstream, causing sudden and destructive
flash floods.
● Landslides: Landslides triggered by heavy rainfall or seismic activity can block
rivers, leading to the formation of temporary dams →they can release a large
volume of water, causing flash floods downstream.

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● Climate Change: Climate change can exacerbate extreme weather events,


including intense rainfall and cyclones, leading to an increased frequency and
intensity of flash floods in India.
● Poor Drainage Infrastructure: Inadequate or poorly maintained drainage systems
in urban areas can exacerbate the impact of heavy rainfall, causing flash floods in
cities and towns.
● River Bank Erosion: River bank erosion can alter the course of rivers and cause
sudden breaches, leading to flash floods in nearby areas.
● Impact:
● Death or Serious Injury
○ Fast and very difficult to predict so people can be seriously injured or
killed by these natural disasters.
● Immediate Property Damage—>flash floods can carry large debris such as
boulders
○ Structural damage to bridges and roadways, making travel impossible.
○ Flood waters can disrupt or contaminate groundwater, making tap water
unfit for consumption.
● Deposited Sediment & Silt
○ Floods can leave behind large amounts of silt and other debris that can
make travel difficult and can be costly to remove.
● Economic LossesDepending on the damage caused, it may prevent local
businesses from opening or keep customers from getting to those businesses.
● Initiatives:
● Disaster risk reduction lies at the intersection of Sendai, Paris
framework and 17 SDGs
● Flash Flood Guidance Services: India Meteorological
Department (IMD) to provide the necessary products in
real-time to support the development of warnings for flash
floods about 6-12 hours in advance at the watershed level for
the flash flood-prone South Asian countries viz. India, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.
● South Asian Flash Flood Guidance System (FFGS): The
India Meteorological Department (IMD) launched the
South Asian FFGSs. Helps governments make timely
evacuation plans ahead of the actual event of flooding.
● Integrated Watershed Management Programme: by Min of Rural devp.
● Advance warning system : IFLOWs (Mumbai),CFLOWs (Chennai)
● NDMA Guidelines:

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● Some international models of flood management


● The Dutch Model of Flood Management– ‘Live with Water, Built with Nature’
sees cities as ‘waterscape’ and not ‘landscape’ as most of our cities are built along
water bodies like river banks or coastal areas. The model proposes nature-based
solutions for flood management in cities.
● Yongning River Park model– of china where artificial wetlands are created in and
around cities to allow periodic flooding in these parks and act as a buffer for cities
and thus preventing flooding.

● Way forward:
● NITI Aayog’s Committee Recommendations on Flood Management:
● Priority to non-structural measures: The committee held the view to provide
priority to non-structural measures to mitigate the floods and shall go for
long term and medium-term structural measures when and where those are
unavoidable.
● “In the majority of the places, less expensive non-structural measures like flood
forecasting, flood plain zoning, flood proofing etc should be adopted to
accommodate high spat of water,” the report said.
● Better dam management: The report also pitched for the policy to provide
flood cushion in the existing dams to accommodate peak time flood so that
the tragedy like the Kerala floods doesn’t repeat itself.
● Use of advanced technology: It stressed the use of advanced technology like
artificial intelligence, satellites, remote sensing and GIS for flood forecasting
and warning systems.
● Creation of a national water model– to feed information that can provide
support services by predicting precipitation and forecasting.
● Implement NDMA Guidelines.
● Replacing grey infrastructure with new Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI).
● Create Sponge Cities.

● Conclusion:
With growing climate change impacts, flooding in India is also all set to increase in
magnitude and intensity. Thus, the need of the hour is to adopt the Sendai framework’s
Disaster risk resilience approach in flood management in India.

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Urban Flooding: Relevance: GS1/3

● Intro:
Excessive runoff in developed urban areas, where the storm water doesn’t have
anywhere to go due to poor capacity of the drainage system, causing inundations.
● Ex- Delhi(2023),Bengaluru(2022)

 Causes:

 Direct Factors: Climate


change induced weather
pattern changes and
extreme rainfall;
Topography;
Unplanned
development and
encroachment of
floodplains; Increment
in impervious surfaces;
Improper drainage
infrastructure; etc.
 NITI->68% of Indian
cities do not have city
master plan
 Indirect Factors:
Improper and inadequate drainage infrastructure due to heavy siltation, poor
maintenance, outdated capacity
etc.; Improper waste management
causing waterlogging etc.
 Impact of urban flood:
 Socio- Economic impact:
 Damage to urban
infrastructure and temporary
disruption of utility services.
 Disruption in industrial
activity and supply chains
 Damage to vital
infrastructure and rebuilding
costs.
 Risk of epidemics due to
spread of waterborne

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diseases.
 Casualties due to accidental fires, electrocution.
 Can trigger mass migration or population displacement, especially of people
in low lying areas etc.
 Water-Scarcity
 Ex-Delhi(2023)
 Environmental:
 Destruction of biodiversity and wildlife habitats by floodwater and
contamination of rivers and habitats.
 Initiatives by govt:
 Disaster risk reduction lies at the
intersection of Sendai, Paris
framework and 17 SDGs
 Sponge Cities mission -abundant
natural areas such as trees, lakes and
parks or other good design intended
to absorb rain and prevent flooding-
Nature Based Solutions
 Ex-Chennai,Mumbai,Cochi
developing sponge city plan
 (SOP) for mitigating Urban
Flooding by the Central
Government under (AMRUT).
 Uniform System of Alerts and
Warnings by the Ministry of Home
Affairs- categorizing alerts in stages – Yellow, Orange and Red.
 IFLOWS-Mumbai similar system was also introduced in Chennai (C-
FLOWS) ->> estimate of the flood inundation three days in advance, along
with immediate weather updates.
 Delhi aims to rejuvenate 500 lakes within five years through its ‘City of
Lakes’ initiative.
 Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has released the first dedicated
storm water drainage manual Based on international practices
 NDMA Guidilens,2010 on urban floods:
 Create a National Hydro-meteorological Network.
 Doppler Weather Radars to be expanded to cover all urban areas
 Building in an urban area must have rainwater harvesting
 Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed
 Urban Flooding has to be dealt as a separate disaster

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 future road and rail bridges to be designed such that they do not
block the flows resulting in backwater effect

 Way forward:
 Implement NDMA Guidelines
 Replacing grey infrastructure with new Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI).
 Ex- Bhopal has blue-green smart city plan.
 Providing legal protection to lakes, remove encroachments.
 Effective Water-Shed Management: Construction of flood walls, raised
platforms along flood prone river basins
 Bioswales can be made along roadsides so that rainwater from the road
flows towards them and percolates into the ground.
 Strengthen WASH infrastructure.
 Master Plan of cities should include urban flood management
 Ex-Delhi master plan 2041.
 References:
1. https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/monsoon-
bengaluru-floods-rains-weather-8126932/
2. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/surge-in-monsoon-rainfall-
causes-flooding-and-landslides-in-northern-india-101688925112602.html
3. https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/bengaluru-to-mumbai-how-cities-
can-tackle-flooding-1234416.html

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Heat Budget of Earth,Role of Clouds: Relevance:GS1


● Intro:
The heat budget, also known as the Earth's energy budget, refers to the balance of
incoming and outgoing energy in the Earth's atmosphere and surface.
● The Earth's heat
budget is governed by
several components:
● Incoming Solar
Radiation: The
primary source of
energy is the Sun,
which emits solar
radiation. This
energy is in the form
of electromagnetic
waves and small
fraction is in the
ultraviolet and other
wavelengths.
● Albedo: When solar radiation reaches the Earth, some of it is reflected back into
space by clouds, aerosols, ice, snow, and the Earth's surface.
● For example, ice and snow have a high albedo.
● Greenhouse Effect: Some of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the
Earth's surface, warming it. The Earth then emits this energy back into space in
the form of infrared radiation. This process, known as the greenhouse effect,
helps keep the Earth's temperature within a habitable range.
● Sensible and Latent Heat Fluxes: The Earth's surface exchanges heat with the
atmosphere through two processes: Sensible heat flux is the transfer of heat
between the surface and the air when there is a temperature difference. Latent
heat flux, on the other hand, is the energy transferred due to evaporation and
condensation of water.

The heat budget is considered balanced when the incoming solar radiation is
equal to the sum of reflected solar radiation, outgoing infrared radiation, and heat
exchanged with the atmosphere and ocean.

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If this balance is disrupted—for example, due to increased greenhouse gas


concentrations, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect—the Earth's temperature
can rise, resulting in global warming and climate change.
● Significance
● The heat balance of the Earth is a critical component of what makes it liveable
and this is achieved by the Heat Budget of the Earth.
● It keeps our earth warm.
● It is critical for increasing the production of solar panels that capture and
convert this energy.
● It is responsible for temperature changes from the equator to the poles.
● It aids in the photosynthesis process and so the growth of plants.
● Role of Clouds:
Clouds are visible aggregations of tiny water droplets or ice crystals that form in
the Earth's atmosphere. They are an essential part of the water cycle and play a
significant role in the Earth's climate and weather systems.
● Here's how clouds form:
● Water Vapour: The starting point for cloud formation is water vapour, which
is the gaseous form of water present in the atmosphere.
● Condensation Nuclei: For water vapour to condense into visible droplets or
ice crystals, it needs tiny particles known as condensation nuclei. These
particles can be dust, pollen, salt crystals, or other atmospheric aerosols.
● Condensation: When the air containing water vapour cools sufficiently, it
reaches its dew point—the temperature at which the air becomes saturated and
cannot hold all the water vapour it contains. At this point, the excess water
vapour begins to condense around the condensation nuclei, forming tiny water
droplets or ice crystals.
● Cloud Formation: As more and more water droplets or ice crystals accumulate,
they become visible as clouds.
● Types of Clouds(By WMO):
● Cirrus Clouds: High-altitude clouds composed of ice crystals. They appear wispy
and feathery and are usually found at altitudes above 20,000 feet (6,000 metres).
● Cumulus Clouds: Puffy, white clouds with a flat base. They form at low to middle
altitudes and are associated with fair weather.
● Stratus Clouds: Low-altitude clouds that appear as a uniform layer covering the
sky. They often bring overcast conditions and light precipitation.

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● Nimbus (Nimbo) Clouds:


These clouds are associated
with significant precipitation,
such as rain (nimbostratus) or
thunderstorms
(cumulonimbus).
● There are also hybrid cloud
types, such as cirrostratus
(high-altitude, thin, sheet-like
clouds), altocumulus (middle-
altitude, puffy clouds), and
stratocumulus (low-altitude,
layered clouds).
● Clouds are constantly changing
and evolving as they are
influenced by atmospheric conditions. They play a crucial role in the Earth's
climate system by reflecting sunlight back into space, absorbing and emitting
heat, and influencing precipitation patterns.
● Here are some key aspects of the importance of clouds:
● Energy Balance: Clouds have a significant influence on the Earth's heat budget.
● Precipitation and Water Cycle: They hold and transport water vapour, which
eventually falls back to the Earth's surface as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
● Weather Patterns: Different cloud types and formations can signal changes in
atmospheric conditions.
● Climate Regulation: This moderating effect is particularly important in coastal
areas, where clouds can prevent extreme temperature variations.
● Ecological Impact: Regions where cloud cover is persistent or frequent, the
amount and distribution of sunlight play a vital role in determining the types of
plants and ecosystems that can thrive.
● Aviation and Transportation: Understanding cloud dynamics helps improve
flight planning and safety.
● Cultural and Aesthetic Value: They have inspired art, literature, and poetry
throughout human history.

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Heat Wave:
• De nition:
• Qualitatively heat wave is a condition of air temperature which becomes fatal to human body
when exposed.
• Quantitatively, it is de ned based on the temperature thresholds over a region in terms of actual
temperature or it’s departure from normal.
• Ex: if temperature departure from normal conditions is >4.5C

• Status:
• It is a silent disaster, many times it is under reported.
• NDMA reported ~ 25000 people died due to HW (1992-2016)
• Generally during March to June and sometimes in July also
• Recent study — 90% of India is in a “danger zone” from
heatwave impact and almost all of Delhi is at the risk of severe
heatwave impacts.
• Predominantly observed over two areas — central and
northwest India and coastal Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
• Climate change and global warming, current research suggests,
have increased the probability of heatwaves in the past three
decades.

• The report proposes a roadmap to support New Delhi’s India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP)
2019, through new investments in three major sectors: building construction, cold chains and
refrigerants.
• Ex: Adopting climate-responsive cooling techniques in PMAY

• Criteria to declare a Heat Wave:


• Either of the 2 below mentioned conditions must be true for at least 2
consecutive days over 2 meteorological stations)
• Departure from Natural Max Temp.
• Heat wave: Departure from Natural Max Temp. > 4.5°C
• Severe Heat wave:Departure from Natural Max Temp. > 6.4°C
• Based on absolute max Temp. (Only for plains)
• Heat wave: absolute max temp >= 45°C
• Severe Heat wave: absolute max temp >= 47°C

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• Favourable conditions:
• Transportation/prevalence of hot dry air over a region
• Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere
• The sky should be practically cloudless (to allow maximum insulation)
• Large amplitude anti cyclonic ow over the area.
• Particularly years succeeding an El Niño event are said to be linked to heat waves

• Causes:
• Anthropogenic Causes:
• Global Warming & climate change — more common, longer and hotter.
• GW is affecting the lapse rate (declining) — global warming tends to warm the upper
atmosphere faster than the air near the surface.
• Ex: Marine heat waves
• Increase in pollution — air traps heat
• Deforestation — trees keep temp. low
• Excessive urbanisation — urban heat islands
• Causes of urban heat islands:
• Excessive release of green house gases
• Lack of open & green areas
• Excessive concretisation(Buildings) and Asphalt Roads
• Tall buildings obstruct the movement of winds & hinder dissipation of heat.
• Dust dome hypothesis: warm air when rises and falls back, it traps all pollutants and
dust in urban area
• Natural Causes:
• Solar are & waxing phase phase of sun cycle.
• Air masses — their age and origin affects the temperature
• HW in peninsular India is mostly due to oceanic air mass
• Sustained high pressure over an area
• Topography of region — absence of water bodies in an area.
• Western disturbances, which bring rainfall and cloudy skies to northwest India and regulate
temperatures at this time of the year, have been feeble and lacked suf cient moisture, keeping
the temperature high.

• NDMA Guidelines:
• Plan document released in 2016 (updated 2019) — asked states to devise their own plan —
decentralisation is good
• Focus on heat wave observations, assessment and mapping
• Heat wave workshops organised by NDMA
• Community sensitisation, awareness (IEC material)
• Mandate to create an early warming system using modern technologies
• Focus on alternative roof cooling solutions
• Preparedness at local level for health eventualities and Hospital preparedness
• Identi cation and recording of causalities - proper database management
• Capacity building of stakeholders
• Ex: hospitals be trained, emergency health kits at
district level should be prepared etc.
• Coordination and cooperation among stakeholders
• Ex: learning from early movers — Ahmedabad
Plan as model plan
• 2019 added —Built Environment section — long
term adaptation and planning to mitigate the disaster
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• What more?
• Declare heat waves as a noti ed national disaster — improve preparedness and response
• Sendai framework could be used
• Understanding Heat Wave better- (Concurrent or Cascading disasters -Fire, Forest Fire,
Drought, Urban Heat Island)
• Develop a composite heat index (CHI) to quantify the impact of heat on its population and
generate impact-based heat wave alerts for speci c locations.
• IMD said it’s already working on one
• Climate change study and it’s Socio-economic impact
• Ex: India should set up a Climate Vulnerability Institution to do vulnerability mapping and
impact assessment of rising temperatures
• Focus on Early Warming System (EWS) — computational capabilities
• use a multi-model ensemble (MME) forecasting strategy — use satellites, soil moisture maps,
atmospheric circulation model etc — superconducting abilities
• Focus on the city region — urban heat island effect, emission heating etc.
• Increase green cover, conserve water bodies
• City cool down projects
• greater usage of permeable materials in civic infrastructure and residential construction and
enhancing natural landscapes in urban areas.
• Heat proo ng of cities — take a cue from Ahmedabad plan
• Climate responsive cities — Ex: Chandigarh (Mango trees — green cover, rivulet — Sukhna
lake, local architecture — mud houses retained etc)
• Developing a loss and damage framework for capturing Heat Wave Impact

• Conclusion:
• India needs a long-term vision where we have policies that help us in managing our work
hours, public infrastructure, schools, hospitals, workplaces, houses, transportation, and
agriculture to cope with the future heat waves.

Sources:
1. Kaptaan’s previous year notes (basics)
2. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/90-of-india-vulnerable-to-heatwave-impact-says-study/
article66756784.ece
3. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/explained-imd-is-already-sensing-heat-waves-what-are-they-and-why-
do-they-happen/article66556185.ece
4. https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/climate-scientist-india-heatwave-8475036/
5. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/dealing-with-extreme-heat/article66747491.ece
6. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/indias-early-warning-system-for-heatwaves-sees-
huge-improvement/article65977201.ece
7. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/over-160-200-million-indians-could-be-exposed-to-
lethal-heat-waves-annually-world-bank/article66205069.ece
8. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/mercury-rising/article65372899.ece
9. https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/ les/PDF/PPTs/TechnicalSession1/01_Kunal_Satyarthi.pdf
10. https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/ les/IEC/Booklets/HeatWave%20A5%20BOOK%20Final.pdf

-updated on 20th June

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High Seas Treaty/BBNJ:

Relevance: GS 2/3

Intro:
The High Seas Treaty is a new global treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of biological
resources on the high seas. The treaty is also known as the agreement on “biodiversity beyond
national jurisdictions” or BBNJ.

What are High Seas:


1) Area beyond a country’s EEZ (that extends up to 200
nautical miles from the coastline and till where a nation has
jurisdiction over living and non-living resources.
2) No country is responsible for the management and
protection of resources on the high seas.

Data:

 The high seas account for more than 60% of the world’s ocean area and cover about half of
the Earth’s surface, which makes them a hub of marine life.
Key features of Treaty:
● Rights over genetic resources – No State can claim its right over marine genetic
resources of areas beyond national jurisdiction.
● Funding – A special fund will be established which will be fixed by the conference of
parties who will also oversee the functioning of the treaty.
● Clearing House Mechanism (CHM) –established as part of the treaty, with details like
the objective of the research, geographical area of collection, names of sponsors, etc.
● Environmental impact assessments – Signatories will have to conduct
environmental impact assessments before the exploitation of marine resources.
● Benefit-sharing committee – The activities concerning marine genetic resources of
areas on high seas should be in the interests of all States and for the benefit of humanity.
Significance/Need of Treaty:
● Regulation of Human Activities: to ensure that ocean resources, including
biodiversity, are utilized in a sustainable manner.
● Protection of Biodiversity: The creation of MPAs will ensure that ocean systems,
including biodiversity, are under stress, either due to human activities or climate change
are protected.
● Achieving global targets: The treaty is significant in achieving the 30x30 target set at
UN CBD COP15 under which the countries agreed to protect 30% of oceans by 2030.
● Sustainable Use of Marine Genetic Resources: any benefits arising out of the use of
marine genetic resources, including monetary gains, are equitably shared amongst all.
● Environmental Impact Assessments: commercial or other activities that can have
significant impacts on the marine ecosystem to undergo an environmental impact

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assessment to be done.
● Access- and benefit-sharing committee: It will be formed to frame guidelines for
developing countries’ access to benefits from the commercialisation of resources extracted
from the ocean.
● Rights of Indigenous people and local communities: marine resources in areas
beyond national jurisdiction can only be accessed with their free, prior and informed
consent or approval and involvement

Impact of the Treaty:

 Promotes cooperation: It provides a legal framework


that allows nations to address common challenges and
ensure the sustainable use of marine resources.
 Provides legal certainty:It clarifies the rights and
obligations of coastal states, flag states, and other actors in
the marine environment, reducing the likelihood of
conflicts.
 Promotes economic development: It provides a legal
framework for the exploration and exploitation of mineral
resources in the international seabed area.
 Protects the marine environment: require nations to
protect the marine environment from pollution and other
harmful activities.
 Resolves disputes: The treaty provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between
nations over the use of the ocean and its resources.
 Facilitates scientific research: It allows for the free exchange of scientific information
and promotes the development of marine science and technology.

Challenges in implementing treaty:

 Fishing and industrial expansion: The treaty does not adequately address threats to
ocean biodiversity posed by fishing and deep-sea mining.
 Social inclusivity: The treaty focuses on the fair and equitable sharing of genetic
resources, but does not address the sharing of other resources.
 Enforcement: There is no identified international enforcement agency to
monitor and enforce the treaty’s regulations, and no financial commitment has been
negotiated.
 Ratification: The process of ratifying the treaty is expected to be difficult and time-
consuming.
 Conflicting interests: Conflicting interests among coastal states, flag states, and other
actors can impede the effective implementation of the treaty’s provisions.
 Unaddressed issues: The mechanisms for policing protected areas, the fate of heavily
polluting projects, and dispute resolution remain unaddressed.

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Implications of the High Seas treaty for India:

 Territorial waters: helps in resolving maritime disputes, as this treat proposes


framework for the delineation of maritime boundaries and the extent of territorial water.
 Sustainable “Blue Economy”: By regulating national and international fishing efforts
within and outside Exclusive Economic Zones.
 Security at sea: The treaty has rules about security at sea, including ways to stop piracy
and other illegal activities at sea. This could affect India’s efforts to keep the seas in
the Indian Ocean safe.
 Political stability: By implementing vessel-monitoring systems throughout
international fishing operations, could help secure fisheries and promote political stability.
 Pollution in the ocean: The treaty has rules to stop, reduce, and control pollution in the
ocean. This has an effect on India’s efforts to clean up pollution in the ocean, such as oil
spills and dumping trash in the Indian Ocean.

Way Forward:

 Implementation: Its ratification and implementation should be faster than other


erstwhile global treaties.
 Cooperation: Countries should cooperate with each other in the implementation of the
provisions of the treaty.
 Adjacent coastal states should have a role in decision-making mechanisms
pertaining to activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction that affect them.
 Other Initiatives: Apart from it, other initiatives such as sensitization drives need to be
taken.
 There is a need to have an effective, reliable mechanism to build capacity and transfer
marine technology to the developing nations
 Funding Mechanism: Sustainable approach should be followed rather than dependence
on developed countries.

Conclusion: If goodwill were currency, this treaty could be considered rich. Its actual impact
will depend on how practicality and goodwill meet, and whether future negotiations will address
some of the key shortcomings of this version of the treaty.

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Tourism and Mountain Ecosystem:
• Introduction:
• India has rich heritage of mountains. From Himalayas to Aravallis to Western Ghats, we have
different mountain ranges in different geographical settings.

• Status:
• Mountains act as natural defence and barriers to Indian Borders in West, North, East and
North East — need to develop infrastructure
• Mountain ranges host a unique geographical features and are rich in biodiversity — potential for
tourism
• Data from RBI tourism has been contributing more than 10% to the GDP in states such as
Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Assam, and Meghalaya.

• Impact:
• Land Use changes — construction, infrastructure development
• Ex: Char Dham marg project
• Loss of traditional habitat and occupation, migrations
• Ex: Rising ‘ghost villages’ in Uttarakhand
• Resource competition
• Ex: communal violence in Uttarakhand, Gorkhas in Bengal
• Changes in topography — stability?
• Ex: Western Ghats — Kerala oods, Karnataka Landslidesß
• Deforestation — landslides, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity.
• Impact on tribals
• Ex: Eastern India
• Impact on wildlife and biodiversity — habitat destruction, behavioural changes
• Disruption in the water cycle — mountain region lacks aquifers
• excessive water consumption vis a vis residential water use,
• discharge of untreated water, the generation of waste
• damage to local terrestrial and marine biodiversity
• Ex: Water crisis in Shimla, Kullu
• Cultural Erosion
• Ex: Ladakh — dilution of traditional culture
• Infrastructure development — impact on slope stability — landslides, earthquakes
• Ex: rail traf c may rely on electric locomotion, but constantly generated vibrations during
the train movements will keep the mountain slope eternally unstable and thus, make it
vulnerable to slide at the slightest trigger.
• Ex: The increased anthropogenic activities such as road construction have made the hill
slopes extremely unstable. That is why the recurring landslides have gone up in numbers in
the Himalayas.
• Land Subsidence — sinking hills
• Ex: town of Joshimath in Chamoli district — Tapovan-Vishnugad hydro project tunnel that
passes just below Joshimath, could be a contributing factor to this phenomenon.
• Demographic changes
• Impact on the climate and feedback loop — erratic rainfall and ecological degradation
associated with land use change for infrastructural development
• Impact on mountain aquifer systems
• Uncontrolled in ow of tourists
• Ex: Shimla water crisis, Kedarnath tragedy (2013)

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• Solutions:
• Mishra Committee Recommendations-
• strict regulations on tree cutting for the township’s timber and rewood needs.
• Construction should only begin after the soil’s weight-bearing capacity and site
stability have been assessed — not to dig too deep into slopes.
• In landslide areas, stones and boulders should not be removed from the bottom of the
hill because this would remove toe support, increasing the likelihood of landslides.
• Involving local community and local groups — participatory
• Leveraging traditional knowledge, rights, and practices can contribute to the sustainable
management of mountain ecosystems and foster a sense of ownership and stewardship.
• Ecosystem approach — biodiversity conservation, nature based solutions
• Shifting towards sustainable tourism
• An appropriate strategy for human well-being should use traditional knowledge, agricultural
practices, construction practices and local cultural aspects.
• Identify Sensitive areas — Western Ghats committee reports in this context

Case Studies/Best Practices:


• Mawlynnong is a village in Meghalaya, India. It is known as the "Cleanest Village in
Asia". There are a number of sustainable tourism options available such as homestays,
trekking, and visiting the village's natural attractions.
• Nanda Devi Glacier Incident: The recent breaking off of a portion of the Nanda Devi
glacier in Joshimath, Uttarakhand, resulted in signi cant ooding in parts of the state.
• Hydel Projects: Joshimath's foundation may have suffered more harm than any other
factor from the construction of the 520 MW NTPC Tapovan Vishnugad Hydro Power
Plant (Dhauli Ganga River)
• The challenge is to identify new and sustainable opportunities that can bring bene ts to
both highland and lowland communities and help to eradicate poverty without
contributing to the degradation of fragile mountain ecosystems (FAO, 2018).
• "Waste Warriors" in Dharamsala Town, which need to be backed up with a meticulous
plan to up-scale and out-scale.
• Sikkim — Eco Tourism model

Source:
1. Kaptaan’s notes
2. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/mountains-matter-are-the-indian-himalayas-tourism-
sustainable--62453
3. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/a-mountain-reeling-under-human-aggression/article66356312.ece
4. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/western-ghats-restless-mountains-shattered-lives/article37143597.ece
-updated on 9th July

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Sand Mining:
• Introduction:
• Sand mining is the extraction of sand usually from an open pit. It can also be mined from sand dunes,
beaches and even dredged from river and ocean beds.

• Status:
• Sand has been noti ed as a “minor
mineral” under Section 3(e) of the
Mines and Minerals (Development and
Regulation) Act of 1957.
• Legal and administrative control is with
the State govt.
• The sand mining business offers
employment to over 35 million people
and it is valued at over $126 billion per
annum.
• According to sand mining framework,
India requires 70 Mt of sand per year,
with demand increasing by 7% each year.
• Environment Ministry report → 1 lakh
incidents of illegal mining in the
country every year.
• According to one estimate, the annual
demand for sand in urban India alone
was 60 million metric tonnes in 2019.

• Need:
• Sand Utility: Used for various types of
manufacturing, such as concrete used in
the construction of buildings and other
structures.
• Cement-making in industrial projects has generated signi cant demand in India.
• The sand can also be used as an abrasive or can be mixed with salt and applied to icy roads to
reduce the melting point of ice.

• Impact of Sand mining:


• Environmental Consequences:
• River ecosystem — Water retention, change its course
• Ex: River Yamuna at many places, Cauvery
• Increased river erosion → increased ooding and causing a severe threat to biodiversity.
• World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)--> 90 per cent drop in sediment levels in major
Asian rivers, including the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna, Mekong and Yangtze.
• Groundwater Table Depletion: Sand functions as a link between the running river and the
water table.
• Ex- Papagani catchment area in Karnataka,
• Coastal sand mining devastates sheries, coral reefs, mangroves, and wetlands and has
resulted in the near-extinction of gharials.
• For example, Kihim Beach in Alibaug.
• Serious consequences of beach sand mining is the lack of protection against storm surges
caused by tropical storms and tsunamis.

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• Sand mining disturbs and completely removes the habitat from the mined zones.
• Ex- Aravallis in Haryana

• Social and Economic Consequences:


• Con icts among miners and between miners and the neighbouring populations.
• Con icts between fellow miners were reported from the early 1980s, headed by local
community leaders.
• Affects Livelihood: Agriculture and sheries are impacted, and a negative impact on either
can limit livelihood diversity and raise poverty level.
• Revenue Loss to the Exchequer: For example, it is estimated that the loss to the exchequer in
Noida and Greater Noida alone is around Rs.1,000 crore.
• Affects Tourism: Sand mining degrades the physical appeal of beaches and riverbank loss in
tourism potential.
• Villagers, media reporters, environment activists and government of cers are brutally harmed
and killed when taking any action against illegal sand mining.
• Workers operating in sand mines or stone quarries have an alarming exposure to several health
hazards.
• No proper safety gear and meagre compensation for workers.

• Steps taken?
• MoeFCC has released Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines, 2016 — Sand and
gravel mining in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner and
maintaining the river ecosystem and equilibrium.
• MoEFCC has brought forward the Enforcement and Monitoring Guidelines for Sand
Mining, 2020 —Effective monitoring of sand mining, identi cation of sources, dispatch,
uniform protocol and Constant monitoring by drones and night surveillance. Auditing of rivers
by the State.
• Some states like Kerala, UP, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh have brought in some state wise laws
and regulations respectively.
• To curb Illegal mining, there have been various judicial interventions by the Supreme Court
(SC) and National Green Tribunal (NGT).
• Ex: NGT in 2013 — order banning sand mining without proper environment clearance.
• Ex: SC created central monitoring committee for RJ

• Challenges:
• India’s sand mining problem is so prevalent that it has developed into black market, that continues
to exploit millions of tons of commodity annually, in the open loot of the riverbeds, canals and
beaches sand is being drained by illegal means.

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• Way Ahead:
• UNEP recommendations of 2018 report —
• Classifying sand as a ‘strategic resource’
• mapping and monitoring sand resources and
• adopting laws and policies to counter sand greed.
• Circular economy — 2022 UNEP report also suggests converting crop residue into building
material – which can also help North India manage its stubble burning problem at the end of the
rice season.
• Use of technology in monitoring and enforcement — GIS, Geotagging, Remote sensing, Drones
• River Vulnerability Index — compile and analyse the pattern
• Focus on the alternative soils —
• M Sand, P Sand, Green cement, Fly Ash —Demand management
• Sand requires good governance —
• Ma as, corruption etc, vested interest
• e-Gov should be used

• Conclusion:
• Sustainable land management and ecosystem approach, NbS

References:
1. https://thewire.in/environment/need-to-get-a-grip-on-sand-extraction-un-report-on-impending-global-sand-crisis
2. https://www.scconline.com/blog/post/2023/02/08/sand-mining-in-india-grain-of-despair-failure-of-regulatory-
machinery/
3. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/mining/these-satellite-images-of-indian-rivers-highlight-environmental-
i m p a c t s - o f - s a n d -
mining-88868#:~:text=In%20India%2C%20sand%20mining%20grew%20as%20a%20large%20and%2C%20
in,the%20riverbeds%20are%20constantly%20threatened
4. https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-73-why-is-illegal-sand-mining-harmful-.html
5. https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/how-sand-mining-impacts-ecosystem

-updated on 28th June

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Volcano-Distribution and Impact


A volcano is a vent (opening) in the earth’s crust through which molten material erupts suddenly
from a magma chamber below the surface.
Recent Volcanic Eruptions:
• Mt. Merapi-Indonesia
• Honga Tonga
• Mauna Loa- Hawaii
• Reykjavik-Iceland
Types of Volcanoes:
• Based on Type of Eruption: The nature of the eruption mainly depends on the
viscosity of the magma and are of two types:
o Basic: The basic magma is dark coloured like basalt, rich in iron and magnesium
but poor in silica. They travel far and generates broad shield volcanoes.
o Acidic: These are are light-coloured, of low density, and have a high percentage of
silica and therefore it makes a familiar cone volcano shape.
• Based on frequency of Eruption:
o Active volcanoes: They erupt frequently and mostly located around Ring of Fire.
E.g.: Mount Stromboli
o Dormant Volcano: These are not extinct but have not erupted in recent history.
The dormant volcanoes may erupt in future. E.g: Mount Kilimanjaro
o Extinct or inactive volcanoes have not worked in distant geological past. In
most cases the crater of the Volcano is filled with water making it a lake. E.g.:
Deccan Traps, India.
Distribution of Volacnoes:

• Most known volcanic activity occur along converging plate margins and mid-oceanic
ridges.

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• Only 10 per cent to 20 per cent of all volcanic activity is above the sea, and terrestrial volcanic
mountains are small when compared to their submarine counterparts.

Volcanism along the Pacific Ring of Fire


Circum-Pacific region popularly termed the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, has the greatest concentration
of active volcanoes.
Regions with active volcanism along ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’
• The Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan,
• the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra in particular),
• Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and North Island, New Zealand.
• Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and
right up to Alaska.
Mediterranean volcanism
• The volcanism of this broad region is largely the result of convergence between the Eurasian
Plate and the northward-moving African Plate.
• Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly associated with the Alpine folds,
e.g. Vesuvius, Stromboli (Light House of the Mediterranean) and those of the
Aegean islands.
• A few continue into Asia Minor (Mt. Ararat, Mt. Elbruz).
Other regions
Along the Atlantic coast
• In contrast, the Atlantic coasts have comparatively few active volcanoes but many dormant
or extinct volcanoes, e.g. St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands etc.
• But the volcanoes of Iceland and the Azores are active.
Great Rift region
• In Africa, some volcanoes are found along the East African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt.
Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya.
The West Indian islands
• The Lesser Antilles (Part of West Indies Islands) are made up mainly of volcanic islands, and
some of them still bear signs of volcanic liveliness.

Volcanism in India

• There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region due to continent-continent


convergence neither plate subducts, or slides under the other. This is because continental
plates are less dense than oceanic plates, so they do not sink as easily .
• Barren Island (only active volcano in India) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
became active in the 1990s.
• Narcondam, it is probably extinct.

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Impact of Volcano
Destructive Effects of Volcanism Constructive Effects of Volcanism

1. The collapse of the volcanic landforms 1. Volcanism creates new fertile landforms
in seas and oceans cause tsunamis. E.g. like islands, plateaus, volcanic mountains
2018 Sunda Strait tsunami. etc. E.g. Deccan traps.
2. The ash from a larger eruption 2. Although steep volcano slopes prevent
dispersing over a large area can lower extensive agriculture, forestry operations
temperatures at a regional or global on them provide valuable timber resources.
scale. This could trigger famines on a 3. Mineral resources, particularly metallic
large scale. E.g. 1815 eruption of ores are brought to the surface by
Mount Tambora volcanoes. Sometimes copper and other
3. Lahars can bury entire cities in a matter ores fill the gas-bubble cavities.
of minutes causing a high number of 4. The famed Kimberlite rock of South Africa,
causalities. E.g. 1985 eruption of the source of diamonds, is the pipe of an
Nevado del Ruiz volcano. ancient volcano.
4. The sudden collapse of lava domes can 5. In the vicinity of active volcanoes, waters in
cause violent volcanic flows that destroy depth are heated from contact with hot
everything on their path. E.g. the 1902 magma giving rise to springs and
eruption of Mount Pelée. geysers.
5. Powerful winds drive the gas plume 6. The heat from the earth’s interior in areas
higher into the atmosphere and carry it of volcanic activity is used to
to a greater distance disrupting air travel generate geothermal electricity. Eg:
Eg: Eruption of strato volcano in Puga valley in Ladakh region
Iceland and Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)
6. Locally, sulphur dioxide gas can lead 7. Lava rock is a source of crushed rock for
to acid rain and air pollution downwind concrete aggregate or railroad ballast
from a volcano. Eg: Tonga Volcano, 8. As scenic features of great beauty,
2022 attracting a heavy tourist trade. Eg: Yellow
Stone National Park

Volcanoes can have both positive and negative impacts on climate change.
Positive impacts:
• Inject large amounts of sulphur dioxide into the stratosphere that reacts with water vapour
to form sulfuric acid droplets, which can reflect incoming solar radiation and cool the planet
and promote depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer This is known as the volcanic
forcing.
• Release large amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere. Water vapor is a greenhouse gas,
but it is also a feedback mechanism for climate change. Volcanic eruptions can help to offset
this feedback mechanism.
Negative impacts:
• Volcanic eruptions can also release large amounts of carbon dioxide other greenhouse gases,
such as methane and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions can therefore
contribute to global warming.
References:
• Basic Static: PMF IAS Physical Geography & NCERT
• https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/tonga-volcanic-eruption-harm-
environment-7729996/
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Water Resources of India:

Intro:
India has nearly 18% of the world’s population and occupies about 2.4% of the
world’s geographical area. India consumes 4% of total water resources.

Statistics:
● Water Resources on Earth-

● Per Capita Water Availability-


India ranks 133rd out of 180 countries.
India identifies as a water-stressed country. per capita water availability declined
from 5,178 cubic metre (m3)/year in 1951 to 1,544 m3 in 2011. It is expected that it
will reach 1,140 cubic metres by 2050.

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● India Water Resources:

Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilisation, it
accounts for 89 per cent of the surface water and 92 per cent of the
groundwater utilisation. Industry around 2 to 3% .

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● Groundwater analysis/reforms/suggestion:
According to a Report by the CAG (2021), groundwater extraction in India
increased from 58% to 63%, between 2004-17, exceeding the groundwater recharge
rate.

Challenges associated with Groundwater Use in India:


● Rising Population:India is the largest user of groundwater accounting for ~25% of
the total global withdrawal.With the rise in population, groundwater use is expected
to rise further.
● Unplanned urbanisation: Increase in the built-up and paved area eliminates
infiltration of water into the ground.
● Agriculture Practices: Irrigation is increasingly shifting to tube-wells. Combined
with faulty crop cycles due to farm subsidy and subsidy on electricity has resulted in
over-use of groundwater, especially in the Northwest India.
● Institutional, Management Framework Vacuum:
(a) Fragmented regulation(Various bodies) and absence of an ‘integrated
and comprehensive’ approach to regulation;
(b) There is a lack of legal provisions regulating extraction of groundwater
resulting in overexploitation. Groundwater rights are still determined by the
archaic Indian Easement Act, 1882.
(c) The various organisations that manage India’s groundwater lack
accountability and responsibility.

(d) There is a lack of comprehensive data on groundwater e.g., there is a


lack of clarity on the aquifer boundaries

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● Groundwater Pollution: Infiltration and seepage from roads, industrial sites, waste
dump sites, effluent drains with heavy metals and micro-pollutants are
contaminating groundwater aquifers..
● Climate Change: Climate shocks are exacerbating the groundwater crisis
Steps taken to improve the status of Groundwater Use in India:
● Model Groundwater Bill: The Union Government has released Model
Groundwater Bills in 1970, 1992, 1996, 2005, 2011 and 2016-17.
● Groundwater Extraction Norms: 2020 prohibit new industry and mining projects
in over-exploited zones and noc for existing and concept of water conservation fee.
● Integration of Union Ministries: The Ministry of Jal Shakti was formed after the
merger of the erstwhile Ministries of Water Resources, River Development and
Ganga Rejuvenation along with Drinking Water and Sanitation.
● Initiatives:
(a) Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY) and the National Project on Aquifer Management
(NAQUIM) have been launched with the goal of ‘participatory groundwater
management’.
(b) Through the India-Groundwater Resource Estimation System (IN-GRES)
dynamic groundwater assessments will be done annually.
(c) Jal Shakti Abhiyan to transform Jan Shakti into Jal Shakti through asset
creation, rainwater harvesting (‘Catch the Rain‘ campaign) and extensive
awareness campaign.
(d)Amrit Sarovars: 50,000 water bodies (Amrit Sarovar), with an approximate area
of one acre, across the country by August 15 next year to conserve water.
Suggestions:
● Mihir Shah Committee Recommendations should be implemented:
(a) The Central Water Commission (CWC) and the Central Ground Water
Board (CGWB) should be unified to form a new National Water
Commission (NWC)
(b) Participatory Groundwater Management: Ground water needs to be
recognised as a common pool resource and its continuous, unchecked
extraction needs to be stopped.

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● For planning and management of groundwater, there is a need to focus on the


Integrated Water Resource Management framework..
● Water-sensitive urban design and planning should be adopted.
● Blue-Green Infrastructure approach. Green (trees, parks, gardens, playgrounds
and forests) and the blue (rivers, lakes, wetlands and water utilities) spaces can
play a vital role in waterbody and aquifer rejuvenation.
● Public awareness and participation as well as trust-building between formal water
sector institutions and communities.
● The cropping pattern should be according to the local agro-ecology.
● Farm subsidies on electricity should be scrapped

● Analysis of Water Usage/ Reforms/Suggestion:


● Agriculture:
“Agriculture is both the cause and victim of water scarcity”
Why agriculture caused water scarcity
● 60% irrigation water is wasted as canals carry higher flow and leave less
water downstream.
● Higher water requirement due to HYV seeds and chemical fertilisers(Green
Rev).
● Subsidised water to farmers lead to their misuse.
● Lack of sewage treatment and water recycling plan and plants.Israel
recycles 80% of its agricultural waste water.
● Use of water guzzling crops like wheat, rice,sugarcane etc(around 3,600
litres to 4,125 litres of water are required to grow one kg of rice for
sugarcane 1500-3000 lit)
● Improper crop cycle management due to high cost.

Agriculture how it is victim-

● Water pollution and lack of recycling makes less water available for it.
● Poor water conservation and harvesting measures. Water recycling plants
to ensure minimization of wastage.
● Changing climatic conditions leading to variation in monsoon pattern
leading to floods and droughts - both damaging crops.
● Encroachment in catchment areas leading to poor filling of dams and
lakes.
● Unequal irrigation facilities like more in North India but overall poor
irrigation area 48% leads to poor water resources.

India has implemented several schemes and initiatives to promote water


conservation in agriculture. Here are some notable examples:

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● Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Launched in 2015 It


includes three components: Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme
(AIBP), Har Khet Ko Pani (Water to Every Field), and Per Drop More Crop.
● National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
● Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): 2015, PKVY promotes organic
farming and encourages farmers to adopt eco-friendly practices.
● Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): 2016,By providing financial
support in case of crop loss, it enables farmers to invest in water-saving
technologies and sustainable agricultural practices.
● National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA):1990,
focuses on conserving rainwater and improving soil moisture for rainfed
agriculture.

Suggestions to improve-
● Rationalised water subsidies ex - Paani Bachao Paisa Kamao Scheme by
Punjab Gov
● Micro-irrigation and sprinkler subsidies and its promotion for small farmers and
community farming.
● Water conservation to be made mandatory right from school curricula and rain
water harvesting as done in Tamil Nadu which replenished groundwater levels.
● Promotion of zero budget natural farming.
● Proper dam and catchment area management and strict measures for controlling
water pollution.
● Canals to divert flood water for storage and filter. Connecting rivers to be
discussed with hydrological experts.
● River Interlinking:
NRLP envisions the transfer of water from water ‘surplus’ basins (perennial
Himalayan rivers) where there is flooding to water ‘deficit’ basins (rain-fed peninsular
rivers) where there is drought/scarcity, through inter-basin water transfer projects.

NRLP, formerly known as the National Perspective Plan, proposes to connect 14


Himalayan and 16 peninsular rivers with 30 canals and 3,000 reservoirs to form a
gigantic South Asian Water Grid.
In the past, several river linking projects have been taken up–,
– Under the Periyar Project, transfer of water from Periyar basin to Vaigai basin
was envisaged. It was commissioned in 1895.
– Similarly, other projects such as Parambikulam Aliyar, Kurnool Cuddapah
Canal, Telugu Ganga Project, and Ravi-Beas-Sutlej were undertaken.

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What are the advantages of Interlinking of Rivers?


● Hydrological Imbalance of India:. Some regions receive very high rainfall while
some face droughts. Interlinking flood prone → Drought Prone .
● Improve the inland navigation: Interlinking of rivers will create a network of
navigation channels. Water Transport is cheap
● The benefit of irrigation: potential to irrigate land in the water-scarce western
peninsula to help in achieving food security.
● Generation of power: potential to generate a total power of 34 GW. This will help
India to reduce coal-based power plant usage.
● Other benefits:
– Water supply: supply of clean drinking water
– Similarly, interlinking of rivers has the potential to provide 64.8 billion cubic metres
of water for industrial use.
– Apart from that, interlinking can help the survival of fisheries, protect wildlife in
the summer months due to water scarcity.

What are the issues/challenges in Interlinking of Rivers?


● Impact of the Climate change: meltdown of 1/3rd of the Hindu Kush Region’s
glaciers by 2100. Himalayan rivers might not have ‘surplus water’ for a long time.
● Human cost: Displacing people but also in the rehabilitation of people.
● Huge financial cost: NRLP is a highly capital-intensive project. In 2001, the total
cost for linking the Himalayan and peninsular rivers was estimated at Rs 5,60,000
crore
● Impact on ecology and biodiversity: The ecology of every river being unique,
letting the waters of rivers mix may affect biodiversity.
● International Challenges: Countries like Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh will be
impacted due to the NRLP. Bangladesh esp fears of water diversion from the
Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers
● Political Challenges: Water is a state subject in India. So the implementation of
the NRLP primarily depends on Inter-State co-operation.

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● Other Challenges:The maintenance of canals includes preventing sedimentation,


clearing logging of waters etc.

Way Forward
● Local solutions (like better irrigation practice) and watershed management, should
be focused on.
● The government should alternatively consider the National Waterways Project
(NWP) 3/4 which “eliminates” friction between states over the sharing of river
waters.
● The necessity and feasibility of river-interlinking should be seen on case to case
basis, with adequate emphasis on easing out federal issues

Conclusion :

References:
1. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/groundwater-management-the-visi
ble-crisis-of-an-invisible-resource-83163
2. https://prsindia.org/policy/report-summaries/restructuring-the-central-water-c
ommission-and-the-central-ground-water-board-4411
3. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/indias-groundwater-governance-is-i
n-better-shape/article66440954.ece
4. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/waterman-finds-gaping-holes-
in-ken-betwa-promise-says-project-wont-end-drought-curse/articleshow/6915
2228.cm

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Water Resources of India-2:

● Water Stress :

India is one of the most water-stressed countries in the world. According to a


report by the NITI Aayog, the country is facing a water crisis, with over 600
million people facing high to extreme water stress.

Reason for water stress :


● Common reasons already discussed in part 1 of pdf ( Population,
Unplanned Urbanisation , Agriculture Practices).
● Potential Rural-Urban Conflict: large influx of migrants from rural areas has
increased the per capita use of water in cities, which is causing water to be
transferred from rural reservoirs to urban areas to meet the deficit.
● River-Water Dispute: Majority of rivers flowing in two or more states in India
have been a subject to water sharing disputes between their states
regarding their use, distribution, and control. Ex- krishna,Narmada
● Ineffective Waste Water Management: In a highly water-stressed
environment, the inefficient use of wastewater is leaving India unable to make
the most economical use of its resources.
“Central Pollution Control Board (March 2021), India’s current water treatment
capacity is 27.3% and the sewage treatment capacity is 18.6%”
● Overexploitation of Groundwater: 256 of 700 districts in India have
reported critical or overexploited groundwater levels according to
CGWA.
● India is suffering from endemic hydro-schizophrenia, where the left hand of
surface water does not know what the right hand of groundwater is doing

Urban Water Stress : ( Reason we have discussed above they can be used)

By 2050, at least 30 Indian cities will face a grave water risk, according to the
WWF. According to a study by the Centre for Science and Environment, 48 per cent
of India’s urban water supply comes from groundwater, and in seven of India’s 10
most populous cities, groundwater levels have dropped.

The case of Ahmedabad :

● Ahmedabad More than 80% of water supply from groundwater sources till the
mid-1980s.groundwater level reached 67 metres in confined aquifers.The city

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depends on the Narmada canal for the bulk of its water supply.The shift is
from local groundwater to canal water receiving supply from an inter-State
and inter-basin transfer of surface water.
● Whatever be the source, surface or groundwater, cities largely depend on
rural areas for raw water supply, which has the potential to ignite the
rural-urban dispute.
● Available studies covering Nagpur and Chennai indicate the imminent
problem of rural-urban water disputes that the country is going to face.

Urban dwellers also face a crisis because:

● limited supply networks ,more than 34 per cent of India’s population lives in
cities; however, 31 percent of them, mostly those in unauthorised colonies
and slums, lack access to piped water or public tap water.
● Most Indian cities can’t meet the per capita water supply limit set by the
Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation, 135
litres per day.
● Even the quality of supplied water has been suspect.A NITI Aayog report says
that nearly 70 per cent of India’s water is contaminated, impacting three in
four people

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Rural Water Stress:

● 30% of rural Indians lack drinking water supply (World Bank, UNICEF).
● According to the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), 57% of the rural
women in India have to walk up to 5 km every day to fetch potable water
as compared to just 21% in Urban areas.
Drinking Water Crisis :
Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) report 2018 of NITI Aayog stated
that about two lakh people die every year due to inadequate access to safe
water

Effects of Water Stress :


● Health Problems: Heavy chemicals like fluoride, chloride,uranium, nitrate are
found in water. Hair of children has started greying prematurely, and many have
teeth and skin-related problems.
● Economic Loss:. Water scarcity, aggravated by climate change, could cost some
regions up to 6% of their GDP, according to a World Bank report.
● Greater Hardships of women: The household work is mainly managed by women
in our country. A rural woman in Rajasthan walks over 2.5 km to reach a water
source..
led to polygamy in one drought-prone village in Maharashtra. This
involves having more than one spouse to collect water. The arrangement is
termed as ‘water wives’.
● Biodiversity Loss: Many plants and animals are now on the verge of extinction
due to the rising Biological Oxygen demand of water bodies.

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● Food Security: The lower the Agri output, the greater would be the threat to India’s
food security.
● Inter-State Conflicts: Inter-State river conflicts are going on between Kaveri,
Krishna, Godavari, etc. Rivers. This would get amplified, and new conflicts may
emerge in the future.
Steps taken:
Many steps discussed in part one of the topic
Other Steps:.
● Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): It was started in 2019 as a movement for water
conservation, recharge, and rainwater harvesting The JSA now covers all 740
districts in the country. States are implementing it, while the Centre provides the
nudge.
● The Ministry of Rural Development has launched the “JALDOOT App” to
capture the Groundwater level in a better way.
● (AMRUT 2.0) universal coverage of water supply from 500 cities to all statutory
towns. AMRUT 2.0 focuses on making the cities ‘self-reliant’ and ‘water secure’
● National Water Mission campaign “Catch the Rain” with the tagline “Catch the
rain, where it falls, when it falls” to nudge the States and all stakeholders to
create Rain Water Harvesting Structures (RWHS).
● JalJeevan Mission (JJM) – HarGharJal potable water in adequate quantity of
prescribed quality on regular and long-term basis to every rural household,
through tap water connection, by 2024.
● The Ministry of Jal Shakti recently released the report of its first-ever census of
water bodies - providing crucial data for policymakers to make informed
decisions regarding water resource management and conservation.
● National Water Policy 2012 -
● Emphasis on the need for a national water framework law, comprehensive
legislation for optimum development of inter-State rivers and river valleys.
● Water,be treated as economic good so as to promote its conservation and
efficient use.
● A portion of river flows should be kept aside to meet ecological needs
ensuring that the proportional low and high flow releases correspond in time
closely to the natural flow regime.
● Adaptation strategies in view of climate change.
● Water footprints, and water auditing be developed to ensure efficient use
of water. Project financing as a tool to incentivize efficient & economic use of
water.
● Setting up of the Water Regulatory Authority has been recommended.
Incentivization of recycle and reuse has been recommended.

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● Water Users Associations should be given statutory powers to collect and


retain a portion of water charges, manage the volumetric quantum of water
● Removal of large disparity in stipulations for water supply in urban areas and
in rural areas has been recommended.
● Water resources projects and services should be managed with community
participation.the private sector can be encouraged.
● Grants to the States to update technology, design practices,preparation of
annual water balances,preparation of hydrologic balances for water
systems.
Suggestion: Many Covered in Part-1

● Need for Updated Water Policy


● Integration of Technology:such as remote sensing, Geographic Information
System (GIS)
● Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) system for reliable supply also
known as One Water Approach.

Credit- Insights IAS for Infographic

● Rain Water Harvesting :


The rainwater harvesting process incorporates collection and storage of collected
rainwater with the help of artificially designed systems.

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Significance of water harvesting in India:


● Storing rainwater helps in recharging the aquifers.
● It helps in preventing urban flooding due to excess rain.
● The stored water can be used for irrigation practices in farming regions.
● The water can be used for daily use and help in reducing water bills in the
towns and cities.
● Is a helpful way to tackle the scarcity of water in arid and dry regions.
● It helps in restoring the groundwater level.
Schemes By Govt:

● Jal Shakti Abhiyan


● Atal Bhuj Yojana
● Watershed Development Component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
Yojana (WDC-PMKSY) has got rainwater harvesting as one of the activities t.
● Surface Minor Irrigation (SMI) and Repair, Renovation & Restoration
(RRR) of Water Bodies
● Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater- 2020.
● Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) was
● Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(MGNREGS) includes water conservation and water harvesting structures as
one of the activities under its natural resource management (NRM)
component.
● Mission Amrit Sarovar
Some traditional water harvesting techniques:

● Kuls They are present in mountain areas Jammu, Himachal Pradesh.


● Tanka system: it is used in Rajasthan, which is a cylindrical ground pit
● Virdas-Virdas are shallow wells dug in low depressions called jheels (tanks) ,
they are found in Runn of Kutch area in Gujarat.
● Bamboo drip irrigation: used in the northeast.

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Water Pollution :
Causes of Water Pollution :

● Industrial discharge is a major contributor to water pollution. Many industries


release untreated or partially treated effluents into rivers, lakes, and
groundwater
● Secondly, agricultural practices, particularly the excessive use of fertilizers
and pesticides, lead to water pollution. While the desirable ratio of N-P-K
application is 4:2:1, it is 31.4:8:1 in Punjab.
● Inadequate sewage treatment and improper waste disposal systems in urban
areas are significant contributors to water pollution with only 30% water
treatment.
● Natural factors such as monsoon rainfall and flooding contribute to water
pollution by washing away pollutants from land surfaces into rivers and lakes.

Effects of Water Pollution :

Govt Steps :

● Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: This legislation


provides the legal framework for the prevention and control of water pollution
● EPA,1986

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● National Water Policy: It emphasises the need for water conservation, pollution
control, and sustainable management of water resources.
● National River Conservation Plan (NRCP): The NRCP was launched in 1985 to
address pollution in major rivers across the country.
● Namami Gange Programme: Launched in 2014, this flagship program aims to
rejuvenate the Ganga River by controlling pollution and maintaining its ecological
flow.
● National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP): The NLCP focuses on the restoration
and conservation of important lakes and wetlands in the country.
● Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): Launched in 2019,. This mission emphasises the
provision of clean drinking water, which reduces the reliance on polluted water
sources.
● Industrial Pollution Control: Industries are required to treat their wastewater
before discharge and comply with the prescribed effluent standards., Zero liquid
discharge
● National Green Tribunal (NGT): The NGT has been established as a specialised
judicial body to handle environmental disputes, including water pollution cases
● Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission): Launched in 2014
● Public Awareness and Education: The government conducts various
awareness campaigns and educational programs.

River Cities Alliance:


The Ministry of Jal Shakti along with the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
has launched the River Cities Alliance (RCA).It is a dedicated platform for river
cities in India to ideate, discuss and exchange information for sustainable
management of urban rivers.

Objectives:
● To provide the member cities with a platform to discuss and exchange
information on aspects that are vital for sustainable management of urban
rivers.
● To work towards adopting and localising national policies and instruments with
key river-related directions.
● To prepare cities urban river management plans and develop city-specific
sectoral strategies that are required for sustainable urban river management.
● Alliance will focus on three broad themes- Networking, Capacity Building
and Technical Support.
● Although the Alliance began with the Ganga basin cities, it was extended to
include cities beyond the basin as well

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Significance:

● enable cities to learn from each other’s successes and failures as well
as connect people with the rivers.
● crucial role in connecting cities with their rivers, and that it can be a
model for all cities in the Basin and beyond to emulate.

A Recent declaration was made during a two-day conference DHARA, during


the RCA’s first anniversary which saw representatives of over 100 cities participating
in the discussion to manage rivers..
● RCA will endeavour that no untreated used water flows into our river systems.
● RCA will strive to ensure the condition of our rivers — both in terms of quality
and quantity of water.
● RCA members will make dedicated efforts to rejuvenate and revive degraded
water bodies in their respective cities.
● RCA will invest in improving our technical and operational capacities to
manage diverse aspects of river management to ensure scientific rigour in
decision making.

Quotes Related to Water : “Jal hi Jivan Hai”


“The earth, the air, the land, and the water are not an inheritance from our
forefathers but on loan from our children. So we have to hand it over to them at
least as it was handed over to us.” – Gandhi

References :
1. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/a-one-water-approach-is-key-to-c
ombat-urban-challenges-manage-resources-84908#:~:text=IWRM%20is%20a
n%20%E2%80%9Cintegrated%20planning,research%20organisation%20Water
%20Research%20Foundation.
2. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/indias-growing-water-crisis-the-see
n-and-the-unseen/article65891233.ece
3. https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/two-day-conference-concludes-
with-pledge-for-holistic-management-of-rivers-flowing-through-cities-8445341
/

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