De of Co

The Institute of Space Technology
Design Of Compact Electro-Mechanical Actuator

For Thrust Vectoring
By
Sikandar Moten
Zeeshan Hasnatullah Shami
A PROJECT SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
Project Supervisor’s Name: Dr. Rashid Mahmood

Mr. Hamza G. Toor
Project Supervisor’s Signature: _____________________________
Project Supervisor’s Signature: _____________________________
Islamabad, Pakistan
June 2008
Design of Electromechanical Actuator -1- June 2008
Sikandar Moten
ABSTRACT
Design Of Compact Electro-Mechanical Actuator

For Thrust Vectoring
By
Sikandar Moten
B.Sc. Aerospace Engineering

Institute of Space Technology
June 2008
Electromechanical actuators have taken the place of hydraulic and pneumatic

actuators in many applications, especially for the purpose of Thrust Vector Control
(TVC). For many years engineers have been encouraging the investigation of
electromechanical actuators (EMA) to take the place of hydraulics for
spacecraft control/gimballing systems. The rationale is to deliver a lighter,
cleaner, safer, more easily maintained, as well as energy system. The aim of
this project is to design an electromechanical actuator for spacecraft applications
using the analytical formulae and/or Finite Element Analysis techniques.
This report presents the design of a Compact Electromechanical Actuator (EMA) for
the purpose of Thrust Vector Control. The major components of EMA are: Brushless
DC servo motor, belt drive and a roller screw, which converts rotational input
into linear output and column to which the nozzle will be attached and a power
supply. A pair of resolvers and associated electronics deliver position feedback
to the controller such that precise positioning is achieved. The design consists of
three phases, Conceptual, Preliminary and Detailed. After the design completion, the
3-D model of the EMA has been drawn which is then followed by the structural
analysis using state of the art software ABAQUS.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sikandar Moten
Although only our names are printed on the title page of the report, but a great many
others are important contributors to its development. First of all, we would like to
thank Almighty Allah, and then our parents whose love, affection and prayers have
always lead us out of difficulties.
Secondly, we wish to thank our Head of Department, Dr. Sarwar Naqvi who
encourages us to work on such project. We would like to express our gratitude
toward our advisors Dr. Rashid Mahmood & Mr. Hamza G. Toor as internal and Mgr.
Ashar Nomani from SUPARCO whose advices and support encouraged us to proceed
the project with our timeline. Finally, we are grateful to all our friends and colleagues
for their support, help and constructive criticism.
Sikandar Moten
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................2
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................2
1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................2
1.1 Executive Summary.......................................................................................2
1.2 Management Summary..................................................................................2
1.2.1 Schedule and Planning............................................................................2
1.2.2 Organizational Hierarchy and Division of Tasks.......................................2
1.2.3 Gantt Chart............................................................................................. 2
1.3 Design............................................................................................................ 2
1.3.1 Design and production............................................................................2
1.3.2 Typical steps........................................................................................... 2
1.4 Thrust Vector Control.....................................................................................2
1.4.1 Thrust Vector Control Mechanisms..........................................................2
2 PROBLEM STATEMENT........................................................................2
2.1 Outline of the Project.....................................................................................2
2.2 Design Constraints......................................................................................... 2
2.3 Motor Type..................................................................................................... 2
2.4 Linear Rod Speed...........................................................................................2
2.5 Push-pull Thrust.............................................................................................2
2.6 Required Stroke.............................................................................................2
3 MOTOR SELECTION.............................................................................2
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 2
3.2 Types Of Motors.............................................................................................2
3.2.1 Brushed and Brushless DC Motors...........................................................2
3.3 Selected Motor............................................................................................... 2
4 MOTION PROFILE SELECTION..............................................................2

4.1 Constant Velocity........................................................................................... 2
4.2 Trapezoidal.................................................................................................... 2
4.3 S-Curve.......................................................................................................... 2
4.4 Selected Motion Profile...................................................................................2
5 CONTROLLER SELECTION....................................................................2
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5.1 Physical Forms of Controllers.........................................................................2
5.1.1 Microcontrollers.......................................................................................2
5.1.2 PLCs........................................................................................................ 2
5.1.3 Motion Controllers...................................................................................2
5.2 Selected Controller......................................................................................... 2
6 SCREW SELECTION.............................................................................2
6.1 Roller Screw Technology................................................................................2
6.2 Comparisons With Other Technologies...........................................................2
6.3 Roller Vs Ball Screw Performance -- Comparisons..........................................2
6.3.1 Loads And Stiffness.................................................................................2
6.3.2 Travel Life............................................................................................... 2
6.3.3 Speeds.................................................................................................... 2
7 COLUMN SELECTION...........................................................................2
7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 2
7.2 Properties Of The Cross-Section Of Column...................................................2
7.3 End Fixity and Effective Length......................................................................2
7.3.1 Pinned-end Column.................................................................................2
7.3.2 Fixed-end Column...................................................................................2
7.3.3 Free-end Column.....................................................................................2
7.4 Efficient Shapes for Column Cross Sections...................................................2
7.5 Selected Column Cross section......................................................................2
8 BEARING SELECTION..........................................................................2
8.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 2
8.2 Types Of Rolling Contact Bearings.................................................................2
8.2.1 Single Row, Deep-groove Ball Bearing....................................................2
8.2.2 Double Row, Deep-groove Ball Bearing...................................................2
8.2.3 Angular Contact Ball Bearing...................................................................2
8.2.4 Cylindrical Roller Bearing........................................................................2
8.2.5 Needle Bearing........................................................................................ 2
8.2.6 Spherical Roller Bearing..........................................................................2
8.2.7 Tapered Roller Bearing............................................................................2
8.3 Comparison of Bearing types.........................................................................2
8.4 Selected Bearing for EMA...............................................................................2
9 DRIVE, BELT AND PULLEY SELECTION..................................................2

9.1 Drives............................................................................................................. 2
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9.1.1 Rigid Drive............................................................................................... 2
9.1.2 Flexible Drive.......................................................................................... 2
9.2 Belt Drive....................................................................................................... 2
9.3 Selection Of Belt-Cross-Section......................................................................2
9.3.1 Flat Belts................................................................................................. 2
9.3.2 V–Belts.................................................................................................... 2
9.3.3 Round Belts.............................................................................................2
9.3.4 Timing Belts............................................................................................2
9.4 Advantages [3]
of V-belts over Flat belts and Round belts...............................2
9.5 Disadvantages [3]
of Flat belts over V-belts.....................................................2
9.6 Selected Cross-Section...................................................................................2
9.7 Material Properties Of Belts............................................................................2
10 DESIGNING OF POWERSCREW.............................................................2
10.1 Principle...................................................................................................... 2
10.2 Objective.................................................................................................... 2
10.3 Material...................................................................................................... 2
10.4 Properties of AISI 4140 Steel......................................................................2
10.5 Design........................................................................................................ 2
10.5.1 Thread Selection For The Power Screw....................................................2
10.5.2 Minimum Length Of The Nut....................................................................2
10.5.3 Torque Required......................................................................................2
10.5.4 Rotational Speed.....................................................................................2
10.5.5 Power Required.......................................................................................2
10.5.6 Critical Speed..........................................................................................2
11 SELECTING THE REQUIRED MOTOR FOR EMA........................................2
12 DESIGN OF COLUMN...........................................................................2
12.1 Objective.................................................................................................... 2
12.2 Material...................................................................................................... 2
12.3 Properties of AISI 4140 Steel......................................................................2
12.4 Slenderness Ratio.......................................................................................2
12.5 Transition Slenderness Ratio......................................................................2
12.6 Long Column Analysis: The Euler Formula..................................................2
12.7 Short Column Analysis: The J.B.Johnson Formula........................................2
12.8 The Column Design.....................................................................................2
12.8.1 Design: Assuming the Column is Long....................................................2
12.8.2 Design: Assuming the Column is Short....................................................2
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12.8.3 Column Design Calculation......................................................................2
13 BEARING DESIGN AND SELECTION.......................................................2

13.1 Dynamic Load Carrying Capacity................................................................2
13.2 Equivalent Bearing Load.............................................................................2
13.3 Load Life Relationship.................................................................................2
13.4 Selection Of Bearing From Manufacturer’s Catalogue.................................2
13.5 Calculation and Selection Of Bearing For Our System................................2
14 V-BELTS CROSS-SECTION....................................................................2
14.1 V-Belts Drives (Mathematical Approach) [2,3]
...............................................2
14.2 Design and Selection Method of V-Belt For Our System..............................2
14.3 V-Belt Calculation.......................................................................................2
14.4 V- Grooved Pulley.......................................................................................2
15 SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND MODELLING..............................................2

15.1 Components Modeling and System Integration..........................................2
15.2 Isometric Views...........................................................................................2
15.3 Weight Analysis..........................................................................................2
15.4 Design Constraint of Sizing.........................................................................2
15.5 Lubrication.................................................................................................. 2
16 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS......................................................................2
16.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 2
16.1.1 Preprocessing (ABAQUS/CAE)..................................................................2
16.1.2 Simulation (ABAQUS/Standard or ABAQUS/Explicit)................................2
16.1.3 Postprocessing (ABAQUS/CAE)................................................................2
16.1.4 Modules................................................................................................... 2
16.2 Brief Concept of Von Mises Stresses...........................................................2
16.3 Column....................................................................................................... 2
16.3.1 Tension Analysis......................................................................................2
16.3.2 Compression Analysis..............................................................................2
16.4 Screw Analysis............................................................................................ 2
17 PROTOTYPE MANUFACTURING............................................................2
17.1 Prototype.................................................................................................... 2
17.2 General Idea............................................................................................... 2
17.3 Cause of Prototyping..................................................................................2
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17.3.1 Proof-of-Principle Prototype.....................................................................2
17.3.2 Form Study Prototype.............................................................................2
17.3.3 Visual Prototype......................................................................................2
17.3.4 Functional Prototype...............................................................................2
17.4 Our Case..................................................................................................... 2
17.5 Market Survey............................................................................................2
17.6 Material Availability and Cost Analysis........................................................2
17.7 Components Availability and Cost Analysis.................................................2
17.7.1 Bearings.................................................................................................. 2
17.7.2 Belt.......................................................................................................... 2
17.7.3 Motor and Controller...............................................................................2
17.7.4 Electric Circuit......................................................................................... 2
17.8 Manufacturing............................................................................................. 2
17.8.1 Size......................................................................................................... 2
18 CONCLUSION.....................................................................................2
18.1 Our Concern-Space Applications.................................................................2
18.1.1 Lighter..................................................................................................... 2
18.1.2 Cleaner.................................................................................................... 2
18.1.3 Safer........................................................................................................ 2
18.1.4 Energy Efficient.......................................................................................2
18.2 Future Prospects.........................................................................................2
18.2.1 Study of Deviations by Manufacturing Actual Model...............................2
18.2.2 Design and Manufacturing of Test Bed for EMA.......................................2
19 APPENDICES......................................................................................2
19.1 APPENDIX A................................................................................................ 2
19.2 APPENDIX B................................................................................................ 2
19.3 APPENDIX C................................................................................................ 2
20 NOMENCLATURE................................................................................2
21 REFERENCES......................................................................................2
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Timeline for the project...............................................................................2

Figure 1.2 Moments applied to a flying vehicle............................................................2
Figure 1.3 Pitching moment applied to vehicle............................................................2
Figure 1.4 Gimbals or Hinge, Universal Joint suspension for thrust chamber...............2
Figure 1.5 Jet vanes, four rotating heat resistant aerodynamic vanes in jet................2
Figure 1.6 Two or more gimbaled auxiliary thrust chambers.......................................2
Figure 1.7 Secondary fluid injection on one side at a time...........................................2
Figure 1.8 Jet tab......................................................................................................... 2
Figure 1.9 Flexible nozzle............................................................................................. 2
Figure 3.1 DC Motor(left)and AC Motor (right).............................................................2
Figure 3.2 Chart showing the different types of motors...............................................2
Figure 4.1 Constant Velocity motion profile.................................................................2
Figure 4.2 Trapezoid Motion Profile..............................................................................2
Figure 4.3 S-Curve Motion Profile.................................................................................2
Figure 6.1 Roller Screw................................................................................................ 2
Figure 6.2 Contact points for Ball and Roller Screw.....................................................2
Figure 6.3 Lifetime comparison for the Roller and Ball Screw......................................2
Figure 6.4 Contact of balls limits the speed in Ball Screw............................................2
Figure 7.1 Buckling of a Thin Rectangular Column.......................................................2
Figure 7.2 Pinned-end Column.....................................................................................2
Figure 7.3 Fixed-end column........................................................................................2
Figure 7.4 Free-end Column.........................................................................................2
Figure 7.5 Different Cross sections of Column.............................................................2
Figure 8.1 Single Row, Deep groove, Ball Bearing.......................................................2
Figure 8.2 Double Row, Deep-groove Ball Bearing.......................................................2
Figure 8.3 Angular Contact Ball Bearing......................................................................2
Figure 8.4 Cylindrical Roller Bearing...........................................................................2
Figure 8.5 Needle Bearing............................................................................................ 2
Figure 8.6 Spherical Bearing........................................................................................2
Figure 8.7 Tapered Roller Bearing................................................................................2
Figure 9.1 Flat Belt....................................................................................................... 2
Figure 9.2 V–Belt.......................................................................................................... 2
Figure 9.3 Round Belt.................................................................................................. 2
Figure 9.4 Timing Belt.................................................................................................. 2
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Figure 10.1 Forms of Power Screw Threads.................................................................2
Figure 10.2 Preferred Acme Screw Threads (per inch length of engagement).............2
Figure 10.3 Variation of Support configurations...........................................................2
Figure 11.1 Selected motor highlighted in the table....................................................2
Figure 11.2 Speed versus torque plot of required motor..............................................2
Figure 12.1 Transition Slenderness ratio Cc vs. Yield Strength for Steel......................2
Figure 12.2 Transition Slenderness ratio Cc vs. Yield Strength for Aluminum..............2
Figure 12.3 Flow diagram of Colum Design..................................................................2
Figure 14.1 V-Belt cross-section...................................................................................2
Figure 14.2 Speed and power for which different cross-sections are suitable..............2
Figure 14.3 Dimensions of V-Grooved Pulley...............................................................2
Figure 15.1 3-D view of Lead Screw.............................................................................2
Figure 15.2 Detailed view of Lead Screw.....................................................................2
Figure 15.3 2-D views of Lead Screw...........................................................................2
Figure 15.4 Lead Screw with Thrust Bearings..............................................................2
Figure 15.5 2-D views of Thrust Bearing......................................................................2
Figure 15.6 Addition of Nut on Lead Screw..................................................................2
Figure 15.7 2-D views of Nut........................................................................................2
Figure 15.8 Addition of Column on Lead Screw............................................................2
Figure 15.9 2-D views of Column.................................................................................2
Figure 15.10 Addition of Linear Bearing.......................................................................2
Figure 15.11 2-D views of Linear Bearing....................................................................2
Figure 15.12 Attachment of Key on Nut.......................................................................2
Figure 15.13 2-D views of Key.....................................................................................2
Figure 15.14 Attachment of Housing No.03.................................................................2
Figure 15.15 2-D views of Housing No.03....................................................................2
Figure 15.16 Addition of Housing No.02.......................................................................2
Figure 15.17 2-D views of Housing No. 02...................................................................2
Figure 15.24 Attachment of Motor...............................................................................2
Figure 15.25 2-D views of Motor..................................................................................2
Figure 15.26 Addition of Housing No.06 (End plate)....................................................2
Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 10 - June 2008
Sikandar Moten
Figure 15.28 Attachment of Up and Down Pulleys.......................................................2
Figure 15.29 2-D views of Up Pulley.............................................................................2
Figure 15.30 2-D views of Down Pulley........................................................................2
Figure 15.31 Attachment of Supports (Side Sheets)....................................................2
Figure 15.32 2-D views of Supports.............................................................................2
Figure 15.33 Attachment of Sheet No.01.....................................................................2
Figure 15.34 2-D views of Sheet No.01........................................................................2
Figure 15.35 Attachment of Sheet No.02.....................................................................2
Figure 15.36 2-D views of Sheet No.02........................................................................2
Figure 15.37 South-East View......................................................................................2
Figure 15.38 South-West View.....................................................................................2
Figure 15.39 North-West View.....................................................................................2
Figure 15.40 North-East View.......................................................................................2
Figure 15.41 System within the sizing constraints.......................................................2
Figure 15.42 Size constraints (Side views)...................................................................2
Figure 15.43 EMA packed in cylinder with desired parameters....................................2
Figure 16.1 Three stages in ABAQUS...........................................................................2
Figure 16.2 Column Geometry imported from AutoCAD...............................................2
Figure 16.3 Application of material properties.............................................................2
Figure 16.4 Instance formation of column....................................................................2
Figure 16.5 Load applied to Column............................................................................2
Figure 16.6 Boundary conditions applied to Column....................................................2
Figure 16.7 Boundry Condition options........................................................................2
Figure 16.8 Mesh Generation.......................................................................................2
Figure 16.9 Global Seeds options.................................................................................2
Figure 16.10 Mesh Controls option...............................................................................2
Figure 16.11 Mesh Control option on Hex element shape............................................2
Figure 16.12 Undeformed Column...............................................................................2
Figure 16.13 Cross-section of undeformed Column......................................................2
Figure 16.14 Deformed Column and its Results...........................................................2
Figure 16.15 Cross-section of deformed column..........................................................2
Figure 16.16 Displacement in U3.................................................................................2
Figure 16.19 Surface of load application......................................................................2
Figure 16.20 Deformed shape of Column.....................................................................2
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Figure 16.21 Deformed cross-section of column..........................................................2
Figure 16.25 Screw Geometry imported from AutoCAD...............................................2
Figure 16.26 Application of material properties on screw............................................2
Figure 16.27 Material properties options.....................................................................2
Figure 16.28 Instance part........................................................................................... 2
Figure 16.29 Create Step options.................................................................................2
Figure 16.30 Boundary conditions applied...................................................................2
Figure 16.31 Boundary Conditions...............................................................................2
Figure 16.32 Pressure Force applied on Screw.............................................................2
Figure 16.33 Load applied due to moment..................................................................2
Figure 16.34 Mesh Generation of Screw......................................................................2
Figure 16.35 Global Seeds Options..............................................................................2
Figure 16.36 Mesh Controls option...............................................................................2
Figure 16.37 Mesh Control option on Hex element shape............................................2
Figure 16.38 Undeformed Screw..................................................................................2
Figure 16.39 Deformed screw with different values of stresses...................................2
Figure 16.40 Deformed Screw cross-section................................................................2
Figure 17.1 Universal Testing Machine........................................................................2
Figure 17.2 Tensile test results of Steel 4140..............................................................2
Figure 17.3 Tensile test results of Steel D2..................................................................2
Figure 17.4 Control system diagram with electrical circuit..........................................2
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Figure of Merits of DC and AC Motor................................................................2

Table 2 Figure of Merits of DC Motors..........................................................................2
Table 3 Comparison of key technologies to convert rotary into linear motion.............2
Table 4 Comparison of Bearings..................................................................................2
Table 5 Comparison of different Belts..........................................................................2
Table 6 Service Factor under different conditions........................................................2
Table 7 Extracted Volume and Mass of components....................................................2
Table 8 Mass of Off-Shelf Components.........................................................................2
Table 9 Comparison of Actual and Von Mises Stresses................................................2
Table 10 Comparison of Actual and Von Mises Stresses for screw...............................2
Table 11 Switching Logic.............................................................................................2
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Executive Summary
The project of design of compact electromechanical actuator for thrust vectoring was
assigned to us by Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
(SUPARCO), the national space agency of Pakistan. SUPARCO continually develops
new technologies and electromechanical actuator is a part of such developments.
This report describes the design process that we used for the design of a compact
electromechanical actuator for a certain mission fulfillment of spacecraft gimballing
systems. A project of this nature requires extensive planning and organization. Our
goal was to provide design solution with in the given design constraints.
To have the design completed by the deadline, the process of design was split up
into three phases: conceptual design, preliminary design, and detailed design. The
conceptual design analysis was focus on selecting the configuration that would
optimize the above mentioned and many other requirements.
During the conceptual design phase, many design alternatives were considered and
screened using the Figure of Merits (FOM’s). These alternatives include types of
bearings, motor, belts etc.
The preliminary design phase was focus on analyzing the chosen conceptual
configurations and optimizing for the best outcome. Material was selected as this was
a crucial step in preliminary design. After the evaluation of conceptual design, we
investigated different combinations of design parameters and sizing trades along
with determining the sizing of the actuator components. After the preliminary design
phase we found the design of an actuator that can carry the load of 12kN.
During the detailed design phase, inclusion of the necessary components was made
and complete 3D models were developed along with the 3D models of the
components individually. Then, three views of each component were extracted using
AutoCAD 2008 for the fabrication of the prototype. For the fabrication of the
prototype, market survey was performed for the material availability and cost
analysis. A proof of principle prototype was decided to manufacture. In this regard, a
control system was designed which includes the design of electric circuit to control
the motor. Final design weigh approximately 13 kg and was met the sizing
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parameters of design constraints. Finally, structural analysis of the two main
components i.e. screw and hollow cylindrical rod were performed using the software
ABAQUS 6.5 which was a major part of the project and then compared to the material
yield strength to validate the analytical design.
1.2 Management Summary
1.2.1 Schedule and Planning
To meet the assigned deadline, the design process had to progress at a rapid pace.
During the course of the design several milestones were identified and implemented
as deadlines for different phases of the process. The design process was divided into
the conceptual design, preliminary design and detail design phases. Manufacturing of
the prototype is set in the plan although this was not the part of the assigned project.
Market survey was the performed as this was the crucial step for the fabrication of
prototype .The final design report was developed concurrently with the design
process and marked as an important milestone that to be accomplished.
1.2.2 Organizational Hierarchy and Division of Tasks
The project was supervised by two internal and one external advisors as shown in the
given block diagram and the tasks were distributed homogeneously among us.
Dr. Rashid Mahmood Mr. Hamza G. Toor Mr. Ashar Nomani

(Internal Advisor-IST) (Internal Advisor-IST) (External Advisor-SUPARCO)
Sikandar Moten Zeeshan Hasnatullah Shami

(Student Aerospace Engg.-IST) (Student Aerospace Engg.-IST)
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1.2.3 Gantt Chart
A detailed Gantt chat is shown below which shows the start and finish date of each
task along with the subtask. This timeline was made at the start of the project. The
overall project was completed well before time.
Figure 1.1 Timeline for the project

1.3 Design
In engineering, design refers to the process of originating and developing a plan for a
product, structure, system, or component. More recently, processes (in general) have
also been treated as products of design, giving new meaning to the term "process
design".
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1.3.1 Design and production
The relationship between design and production is one of planning and executing. In
theory, the plan should anticipate and compensate for potential problems in the
execution process. Design involves problem-solving and creativity. In contrast,
production involves a routine or pre-planned process. A design may also be a mere
plan that does not include a production or engineering process, although a working
knowledge of such processes is usually expected of designers.
1.3.2 Typical steps
A design process may include a series of steps followed by designers. Depending on

the product or service, some of these stages may be irrelevant, ignored in real-world
situations in order to save time, reduce cost, or because they may be redundant in
the situation.
Typical stages of the design process include:
 Pre-production design
o Design brief - a statement of design goals
o Analysis - analysis of current design goals
o Research - investigating similar design solutions in the field or related
topics
o Specification - specifying requirements of a design solution for a
product (product design specification[2]) or service.
o Problem solving - conceptualizing and documenting design solutions
o Presentation - presenting design solutions
 Design during production
o Development - continuation and improvement of a designed solution
o Testing testing a designed solution
 Post-production design feedback for future designs
o Implementation - introducing the designed solution into the
environment
o Evaluation and conclusion - summary of process and results, including
constructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements
 Redesign - any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections
made) at any time before, during, or after production
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1.4 Thrust Vector Control
In addition to providing a propulsive force to a flying vehicle, a rocket

propulsion system can provide moments to rotate the flying vehicle which can
cause the flying vehicle to change its attitude and also its flight path. it is possible
to control a vehicle's pitch, yaw, and roll motions by controlling the direction of
thrust vector mechanisms which will be described later. Thrust vector control is
effective only while the propulsion system is operating and creating an
exhaust jet. During a time, when a rocket propulsion system is not firing and
therefore its thrust vector control (TVC) is inoperative, a separate mechanism
needs to be provided to the flying vehicle for achieving control over its
attitude or flight path.[1]
The reasons for TVC are:
 to willfully change a flight path or trajectory

 to rotate the vehicle or change its attitude during powered flight
 to correct for deviation from the intended trajectory or the attitude
during powered flight
 to correct for thrust misalignment of a fixed nozzle in the main
propulsion system during its operation, when the main thrust vector
misses the vehicle's center of gravity
Figure 1.2 shows the different moments applied to a flying vehicle. Pitch moments
are those that raise or lower the nose of a vehicle; yaw moments turn the
nose sideways; and roll moments are applied about the main axis of the flying
vehicle. Usually, the thrust vector of the main rocket nozzle is in the direction
of the vehicle axis and goes through the vehicle's center of gravity. Thus it is
possible to obtain pitch and yaw control moments by the simple deflection of
the main rocket thrust vector; however, roll control usually requires the use of
two or more rotary vanes or two or more separately hinged propulsion system
nozzles.[1]
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Figure 1.2 Moments applied to a flying vehicle
[Courtesy: Rocket Propulsion Element by P. Sutton]
Figure 1.3 explains the pitch moment obtained by a hinged thrust chamber or
nozzle. The side force and the pitch moment vary as the sine of the effective
angle of thrust vector deflection. The pitch moment is applied through the centre
of Gravity. Thus the moment about C.G. would be
Moment = F x L Sin θ
Θ = Deflection angle
F = Thrust
L = Distance from C.G. to hinge point
Figure 1.3 Pitching moment applied to vehicle

[Courtesy: Rocket Propulsion Element by P.Sutton]
All chemical propulsion systems can be provided with one of several types of
thrust vector control (TVC) mechanisms. They can be applied to solid, liquid or
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hybrid propellant rocket propulsion system. Two types of thrust vector control
concept. [1]
 For an engine or a motor with a single nozzle

 For those that have two or more nozzles
1.4.1 Thrust Vector Control Mechanisms
There are several TVC mechanisms [1] which are being used presently in the vehicles.
Each mechanism will be discussed one by one and it would be analyzed that which
method would be most appropriate for which sort of systems.
1.4.1.1 Gimbals or Hinge
In the hinge or gimbals scheme hinge permits rotation about one axis only,
whereas a gimbals is essentially a universal joint, the whole engine is pivoted on a
bearing and thus the thrust vector is rotated as shown in figure 1.4 below. For
small angles this scheme has negligible losses in specific impulse and is used in
many vehicles. It requires a flexible set of propellant piping (bellows) to allow
the propellant to flow from the tanks of the vehicle to the movable engine. The
Space Shuttle has two gimbaled orbit maneuver engines, and three gimbaled
main engines.
Figure 1.4 Gimbals or Hinge, Universal Joint suspension for thrust chamber
[Courtesy: Rocket Propulsion Element by P.Sutton]
1.4.1.2 Jet Vanes

Jet vanes are pairs of heat-resistant, aerodynamic wing-shaped surfaces
submerged in the exhaust jet of a fixed rocket nozzle. They were first used about
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55 years ago. They cause extra drag (2 to 5% less Is; drag increases with
larger vane deflections) and erosion of the vane material. It is shown in figure 1.5
Figure 1.5 Jet vanes, four rotating heat resistant aerodynamic vanes in jet
1.4.1.3 Small Control Auxiliary Thrust Chambers
Small auxiliary thrust chambers were used in the early version of Atlas missiles.
They provide roll control while the principal rocket engine operates. They are fed
from the same feed system as the main rocket engine. This scheme is still
used on some Russian booster rocket vehicles.
Figure 1.6 Two or more gimbaled auxiliary thrust chambers

1.4.1.4 Slide Injection
The injection of secondary fluid through the wall of the nozzle into the main gas
stream has the effect of forming oblique shocks in the nozzle diverging
section, thus causing an unsymmetrical distribution of the main gas flow, which
produces a side force. The secondary fluid can be stored liquid or gas from a
separate hot gas.
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Figure 1.7 Secondary fluid injection on one side at a time
1.4.1.5 Jet Tab
The jet tab TVC system shown in figure 1.8 has low torque, and is simple for
flight vehicles with low-area-ratio nozzles. Its thrust loss is high when tabs are
rotated at full angle into the jet, but is zero when the tabs are in their neutral
position outside of the jet. Jet tabs can form a very compact mechanism and
have been used successfully on tactical missiles. The vanes are driven by four
linear small push-pull hydraulic actuators with two servo valves and an automatic
controller.
Figure 1.8 Jet tab

1.4.1.6 Flexible Nozzle Joint

The flexible nozzle, shown in figure 1.9 , common type of TVC used with solid
propellant motors. It uses the deformation of a stacked set of doubly curved
elastomeric (rubbery) layers between spherical metal sheets to carry the loads
and allow an angular deflection of the nozzle axis. The flexible seal nozzle has
been used in launch vehicles and large strategic missiles, where the
environmental temperature extremes are modest. [1]
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Figure 1.9 Flexible nozzle
2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
2.1 Outline of the Project
The aim of the project is to design an Electro-mechanical actuator for Spacecraft

control and gimballing system. Design structurally design using analytical formulae
and/or state of the art Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software ABAQUS, selection of
electric motors, power transmission system designing, servo mechanism and
mechanism to convert rotational motion into linear motion.
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2.2 Design Constraints
 Fold Back
 Feedback required
 Max actuator length from Rod clevis to End Clevis = 400 mm while actuator
at mean position (including motor)
 Outer diameter < 220 mm
2.3 Motor Type
 Brushless DC Servo motor

 Current limiting: Yes
 Voltage: In multiple of 28V or 56V
2.4 Linear Rod Speed
 Speed required at 12KN Load  240 mm/sec

 Reproducible intermediate positions
 Position Accuracy = 0.1 mm
 Linear rod speed adjustable
 One axis positioning
2.5 Push-pull Thrust
 Load direction: Pushing and Pulling
2.6 Required Stroke
 120 mm
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CONCEPTUAL
DESIGNING
3 MOTOR SELECTION
3.1 Introduction
Electric motors are used to efficiently convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Magnetism is the basis of their principles of operation. They use permanent
magnets, electromagnets, and exploit the magnetic properties of materials in order
to create these amazing machines.
There are several types of electric motors available today. The following outline gives
an overview of several popular ones. There are two main classes of motors: AC and
DC. AC motors require an alternating current or voltage source (like the power
coming out of the wall outlets in your house) to make them work. DC motors require
a direct current or voltage source (like the voltage coming out of batteries) to make
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them work. Universal motors can work on either type of power. Not only is the
construction of the motors different, but the means used to control the speed and
torque created by each of these motors also varies, although the principles of power
conversion are common to both. They range in power ratings from less than 1/100 hp
to over 100,000 hp. The rotate as slowly as 0.001 rpm to over 100,000 rpm.
3.2 Types Of Motors
There are several types of motors used in industrial, commercial and residential
applications:
Figure 3.10 DC Motor(left)and AC Motor (right)

[Courtesy: Britannica and Hyperphysics]
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Figure 3.11 Chart showing the different types of motors
[Courtesy: Wikipedia]
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Among the two main types given above in the flow chart in figure 3.2, i.e. DC motor
and AC motor, we would select the DC motor for the design of our Electromechanical
Actuator. This is mainly due to the following advantages [2] of DC motors.
 The speed is adjustable by using a simple rheostat to adjust the voltage

applied to the motor
 The direction of rotation is reversible by switching the polarity of the voltage
applied to the motor
 Automatic control of speed is simple to provide for matching of the speeds of
two or more to program a variation of speed as a function of time
 Acceleration and deceleration can be controlled to provide the desired
response time or to decrease jerk
 Torque can be controlled by varying the current applied to the motor.
 DC motors typically have quick response, accelerating quickly when voltage is
changed, because they have a small rotor diameter giving them a high ratio
of torque to inertia
The following are the main disadvantages [2]

of the AC motors which cannot make it
suitable for our Electromechanical Actuation System.
 AC motors which are used, they operate at a fixed speed. To achieve a

variability of speed require extra cost and complexity of control system,
multiple windings or gear boxes
 Rough speed control can also be achieved by reducing the motor voltage at
the expense of a large increase in motor energy losses which cause the motor
to run hot(sometimes dangerously hot) and increases the running cost
 Inability to operate at low speeds
 Positioning control is expensive and crude. Even a vector drive is very crude
when controlling a standard AC motor
Since after considering the above advantages of DC motor and disadvantages of AC

motors, we can develop a table of figure of merits which summarizes and justify our
selection of the DC motor.
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Table 1 Figure of Merits of DC and AC Motor
Figure Of Merits Weights DC Motor AC Motor
Speed Control 0.4 0.9 0.5

Position Control 0.4 0.8 0.4
Cost 0.2 0.8 0.7
Total 0.84 0.50
3.2.1 Brushed and Brushless DC Motors
The above flow chart shows the two types of DC motors, i.e. Brushed and Brushless
DC motors. The brushless DC motor has no type while the Brushed DC motor
includes, shunt wound, series wound, compound wound, permanent magnet,
servomotor and Universal.
Brushed DC motors are able to provide variable speeds. However, the brushes wear
out and need replacement which is undesirable and can be expensive for the
consumer. The process of brush wear also creates dust. Finally these motors are
subject to 'arcing', which is both a safety hazard and also produces Radio Frequency
Interference (RFI) that may interfere with the operation of electronic equipment.
Brushless DC motors provide the advantages of Brushed DC motors in terms of
variable speed operation but without the drawbacks of brushes. An electronic
controller is used to control the electrical currents flowing in the motor. Brushless
DC (BLDC) motors are in widespread use in computer disc drives and are also used
in high performance motion control products, such as machine tools. The general
trend of falling costs of electronic products and the increased use of microprocessors
to control the performance of machines and appliances is leading to increased
interest in the use of brushless DC motors [a].
The brushless DC motor has following advantages [a] which makes it suitable for the
operation of Electromechanical Actuation System.
 No appreciable heat is generated in the rotor and hence heat conducted to
the shaft is minimized
 Higher efficiency and reliability, reduced noise, elimination of ionizing sparks
from the commutator, and overall reduction of electromagnetic interference
(EMI)
 Due to lack of brushes, motor can be operated at high torque

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 No brushes to wear out or contaminate the surroundings
 Brushless DC motors are considered to be more efficient than brushed DC
motors. This means that for the same input power, a Brushless DC motor will
convert more electrical power into mechanical power than a brushed motor,
mostly due to the absence of friction of brushes
The Brushed DC motor has the following drawbacks[a] as compared Brushless motors,
 Heat is generated in rotor winding which is primarily conducted away through

the rotor shaft
 Harder to keep cool
 The brushes wear, the wear producing small particles which can affect the
cleanliness of surrounding operations
 High current through the brushes can cause them to burn out rapidly
3.3 Selected Motor
After considering the above advantages of Brushless DC motor and disadvantages of

Brushed DC motors, we can develop a table of figure of merits which summarizes and
justify our selection of the brushless DC motor.
Table 2 Figure of Merits of DC Motors
Figure Of Merits Weights Brushless DC Brushed DC Motor

Motor
Min. Heat Generation 0.2 0.8 0.5
Wear and tear 0.1 0.9 0.6
Efficiency 0.3 0.8 0.7
Noise 0.1 0.7 0.2
Operation at high torque 0.3 0.9 0.7
Total 0.83 0.60
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4 MOTION PROFILE SELECTION
All servo systems consist of some kind of movement of a load. The method in which
the load is moved is known as the motion profile. A motion profile can be as simple
as a movement from point A to point B on a single axis, or it may be a complex move
in which multiple axes need to move precisely in coordination. An example profile is
shown in Figure 1.The slope of the velocity curve represents the acceleration or
deceleration at that particular instant. There are several types of motion profiles used
with servo control systems. The most often used are,
 Constant Velocity motion profile
 Trapezoid motion profile
 S-Curve motion profiles
4.1 Constant Velocity
This motion profile maintains a constant velocity between points (see Figure 4.1).
This is the most basic motion profile because only a velocity command is used.
Precision positioning machines do not use the constant velocity profile because a real
world machine cannot change velocity instantly. There will be a time delay that will
fluctuate with changes in the load and system. In figure 4.1, the dotted line
represents the actual velocity path the load will take. Ta and Td represent the time
required to accelerate and decelerate. These times may vary with fluctuations in the
load.[b]
Figure 4.12 Constant Velocity motion profile

[Courtesy: Advanced Motion Controls]
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4.2 Trapezoidal
The trapezoidal motion profile slopes the velocity curve to create predictable
acceleration and deceleration rates. A trapezoidal motion profile is shown in figure
4.2. The time to accelerate and decelerate is precise and repeatable. Ta and Td still
exist, but they are now specified values instead of random values. [b]
Figure 4.13 Trapezoid Motion Profile

4.3 S-Curve
The S-curve motion profile shown in figure 4.3 allows for a gradual change in
acceleration. This helps to reduce or eliminate the problems caused from overshoot,
and the result is a great deal less mechanical vibration seen by the system. The
minimum acceleration points occur at the beginning and end of the acceleration
period, while the maximum acceleration occurs between these two points. This gives
a motion profile that is fast and accurate.[b]
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Figure 4.14 S-Curve Motion Profile
4.4 Selected Motion Profile
After the thorough study of the above three motion profiles, the most suitable motion
profile which can support the motion of electromechanical actuation system is the
Trapezoid Motion Profile. This is mainly because of the following advantages [b],
 Overshoot is almost negligible.

 The motion profile can be easily divided into three phases (constant
acceleration, constant velocity and constant deceleration), moreover if equal
time intervals used for each phase, the overall power used is minimum.
 Acceleration and Deceleration rates are predictable.
 In S-Curve Motion Profile, although the accuracy is a little greater than
Trapezoid motion but the acceleration varies at every instant, which needs
costly controllers.
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5 CONTROLLER SELECTION
The controller is the "brains" of a servo system. It is responsible for generating the
motion paths and for reacting to changes in the outside environment. Controllers can
be something as simple as an ON/OFF switch or a dial controlled by an operator. They
can also be as complex as a multi-axis controller that actively servos several drives
as well as monitors I/O and maintains all of the programming for the machine.
The block diagram below shows the general role of a controller in a servo system.
Typically, the controller sends a signal to the drive; the drive provides power to the
motor; and the feedback from the motor is sent back to the controller and drive.
Feedback from the load is also routed to the controller. The controller analyzes the
feedback signal and sends a new signal to the amplifier to correct for errors. The
controller is considered to be the intelligent part of the servo, closing the velocity
and/or position loops while the amplifier closes the current loop. However, many
amplifiers will close the velocity and/or position loops allowing less demand from the
controller.[b]
5.1 Physical Forms of Controllers
Controllers come in a variety of forms, which people choose based on cost,

performance, convenience, and ease of use. Most controllers fall into the category of
Microcontrollers, PLCs, and Motion Controllers. Each is described below. [b]
5.1.1 Microcontrollers
This is a small and low-cost type of computer that runs a program stored in non-
volatile memory. Configuring a microcontroller for a system generally requires an
experienced programmer, and closing loops such as position and velocity can be
quite difficult. Often, when one designs a servo system using a microcontroller, one
will have the amplifier/drive close the desired loops, while the microcontroller simply
sends particular commands back to the amplifier. These commands may be
dependent on inputs into the microcontroller (sensors, switches, etc). [b]
5.1.2 PLCs
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In the late 1960’s, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) were first used to eliminate
the mess of wires and troubleshooting nightmares associated with sequential relay
circuits. PLCs can take the place of mechanical relays, which have limited lifetimes.
These controllers are more expensive than microcontrollers, but with good reason.
PLCs have a processor and memory to allow for commands to be programmed, saved
and executed. It also has a rack and I/O slots so that I/O modules may be added to
the PLC as needed. The modules may add such features as high-speed counters, real-
time clocks, or servo control capabilities.
The benefits of PLCs include expandability and resistance to harsh environments. The
price is generally lower than that of motion controllers. [b]
5.1.3 Motion Controllers
Motion controllers are built specifically for the control of motion (hence the name).
Therefore commands and I/O are specific to the needs of those in the servo industry.
Unlike the others, motion controllers are PC based, allowing for a graphical user
interface. Usually, there are advanced features that allow ease of tuning,
commutation sensing, and other functions. A motion controller, in general, will make
your life easier than a PLC or microcontroller. Because of the added features, they
are typically more expensive.[b]
5.2 Selected Controller
Since our system involves motion control at very high accuracy, therefore the Motion
Controller would be the best option among the above three stated controllers.
Moreover, its advanced features would make things a lot easier to handle as
compared to the other two motion controllers.
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6 SCREW SELECTION
6.1 Roller Screw Technology

A roller screw is a mechanism for converting rotary torque into linear motion, in a similar
manner to acme screws or ball screws. But, unlike those devices, roller screws can carry
heavy loads for thousands of hours in the most arduous conditions. This makes roller
screws the ideal choice for demanding, continuous-duty applications.
The difference is in the roller screw's design for transmitting forces. Multiple threaded
helical rollers are assembled in a planetary arrangement around a threaded shaft (shown
left), which converts a motor's rotary motion into linear movement of the shaft or nut. [c]
Figure 6.15 Roller Screw

[Courtesy: EXLAR corp.]
Designers have five basic choices when it comes to achieving controlled linear motion.
The table below gives you a quick overview of what general advantages are associated
with each technology.
6.2 Comparisons With Other Technologies
In applications where high loads are anticipated or faster cycling is desired, roller screw
actuators provide an attractive alternative to the hydraulic or pneumatic options. With
their vastly simplified controls, electro-mechanical units using roller screws have major
advantages. They do not require a complex support system of valves, pumps, filters and
sensors. Thus, units take up much less space and deliver extremely long working lives
with virtually no maintenance. Hydraulic fluid leaks are non-existent. Noise levels are
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reduced significantly. Additionally, the flexibility of computer programmed positioning
can be very desirable in many applications.[c]
Table 3 Comparison of key technologies to convert rotary into linear motion
xx ROLLER ACME BALL HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC

SCREWS SCREWS SCREWS CYLINDERS CYLINDERS
LOAD RATINGS Very High High High Very High High
LIFETIME Very long, Very low, due Moderate Can be long Can be long
many times to high friction with proper with proper
greater and wear maintenance maintenance
than ball
screw
SPEED Very high Low Moderate Moderate Very high
ACCELERATION Very high Low Moderate Very high Very high
ELECTRONIC Easy Moderate Easy Difficult Very Difficult

POSITIONING
STIFFNESS Very high Very high Moderate Very high Very low
SHOCK LOADS Very high Very high Moderate Very high High
RELATIVE SPACE Minimum Moderate Moderate High High

REQUIREMENTS
FRICTION Low High Low HIgh Moderate
EFFICIENCY >90% approx 40% >90% <50% <50%
INSTALLATION Compatible User may have Compatible Complex, Very

with to engineer a with requires complex,
standard motion/actuator standard servo-valves, requires
servo interface servo high servo-valves,
electronic electornic pressure plumbing,
controls controls plumbing, filtering,
filtering compressors,
pumps, linear
linear positioning
positioning and sensing
and sensing
MAINTENANCE Very low High due to Moderate Very high High

poor wear
characteristics
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6.3 Roller Vs Ball Screw Performance -- Comparisons
6.3.1 Loads And Stiffness
Due to design factors, the number of contact points in a ball screw is limited by the ball size.
Roller screw designs provide many more contact points than possible on comparably sized
ball screws. Because this number of contact points is greater, roller screws have higher load
carrying capacities, plus improved stiffness.
In practical terms, this means that typically a roller screw actuator takes up much
less space to meet the designer's specified load rating.
Figure 6.16 Contact points for Ball and Roller Screw

6.3.2 Travel Life
As you would expect, with their higher load capacities, roller screws deliver major
advantages in working life. Usually measured in "Inches of Travel", the relative travel lives
for roller and ball screws are displayed in the chart above. As you can see there, in a 2,000
average load application applied to a 1.2 inch (approximate) screw diameter with a 0.2 inch
(approximate) lead, you can predict that the roller screw will have an expected service life
that is 15 times greater.
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Figure 6.17 Lifetime comparison for the Roller and Ball Screw
6.3.3 Speeds
Typical ball screw speeds are limited to 2000 rpm and less, due to the interaction of the
balls colliding with each as the race rotates. In contrast, the rollers in a roller screw are
fixed in planetary fashion by journals at the ends of the nut and therefore do not have this
limitation. Hence, roller screws can work at 5000 rpm and higher -- producing comparably
higher linear travel rates.
Figure 6.18 Contact of balls limits the speed in Ball Screw

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7 COLUMN SELECTION
7.1 Introduction
A column is a structural member that carries an axial compressive load and that
tends to fail by elastic instability, or buckling. Elastic instability is the condition of
failure in which the shape of the column is insufficiently rigid to hold it straight under
load. At the point of buckling, a radical deflection of the axis of the column occurs
suddenly. Then, if the load is not reduced, the column will collapse.
7.2 Properties Of The Cross-Section Of Column
The tendency of a column to buckle is dependent on the shape and dimensions of its
cross-section and manner of attachment to adjacent members or supports. The
important cross-section properties are,
 The cross sectional area, A

 The moment of inertia of the cross section, I, with respect to the axis about
which the value of I is minimum
 The least value of the radius of gyration of the cross section, r
The radius of gyration is computed from,
r =√ I / A
Figure 7.19 Buckling of a Thin Rectangular Column

[Courtesy: Machine Elements in Mechanical Design]
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A column tends to buckle about the axis for which there is minimum value of radius
of gyration, and the moment of inertia. One such example is given in Figure 7.1 that
has a rectangular cross section. The expected buckling axis is y-y because both ‘I’
and ‘r’ are much smaller for that axis than for the x-x axis. [2]
7.3 End Fixity and Effective Length
The term ‘end fixity’ refers to the manner in which the ends of the column are
supported. The most important variable is the amount of restrained offered at the
ends of the column to the tendency for rotation. There are three forms of end
restraints [2]
,
 Pinned restraint
 Fixed restraint
 Free restraint
In the figures described below, the first value of the ‘K’ is theoretical values which are
mainly based on the shape of the deflected column. The second value is the practical
values, which takes into account the expected fixity of the column ends in real,
practical structures.
7.3.1 Pinned-end Column
Figure 7.20 Pinned-end Column

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A pinned-end column shown in figure 7.2 is guided so the end cannot sway from side
to side, but it offers no resistance to rotation of the end. The best approximation of
the pinned end would be a frictionless ball and socket joint. A cylindrical pin joint
offers little resistance about one axis, but it may restrain the axis perpendicular to
the pin axis.
7.3.2 Fixed-end Column
Figure 7.21 Fixed-end column

A fixed end is one that is held against rotation at the support. An example is a
cylindrical column inserted into a tight-fitting sleeve that itself is rigidly supported.
The sleeve prohibits any tendency for the fixed end of the column to rotate. A column
end securely welded to a rigid base plate is also a good approximation of a fixed-end.
7.3.3 Free-end Column
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Figure 7.22 Free-end Column
The fixed-free column supports a moment and a force at its base and thus controls
the deflection. It can be visualized by the example of a flagpole. The top end of a flag
is unrestrained and unguided, the worst case for column loading.
The different types of supports at the both ends of the column affect the ‘effective
length’ of the column, this can be defined as,
Le = K x L
Where,
K = Constant dependent on end fixity

L = Actual length of the column between supports
To conclude, the way by which the column in our system would be attached is ‘Free
end Column’. This is due to the fact that one end of the column in our EMA design is
attached to the load (nozzle), while the other end would be fixed, therefore this is the
best choice.
After selecting the end fixity, now the cross-section of the column would be
considered and the most suitable will be selected for the design. [2]
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7.4 Efficient Shapes for Column Cross Sections
An efficient shape of the cross section of column is one that provides good
performance with a small amount of material. The shape of the cross section and its
dimensions determine the value of the radius of gyration, r. From the definition of
the slenderness ratio, KL/r, we can see that as ‘r’ gets larger, the slenderness ratio
gets smaller. It is desirable to maximize the radius of gyration to design an efficient
column cross section.
According to the definition of the radius of gyration,
r =√ I / A
Unless end fixity varies with respect to the axes of the cross section, the column
would tend to buckle with respect to the axis with the least radius of gyration. So a
column with equal values for the radius of gyration in any direction is desirable. This
indicates that for a given area of material we should try to maximize the moment of
inertia to maximize the radius of gyration. A shape with a high moment of inertia has
its area distributed far away from its centroidal axis. [2]
Figure 7.23 Different Cross sections of Column

[Courtesy: Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by Robert L. Mott]
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Figure 7.5 shows the different column cross section of desirable characteristics. This
includes, circular hollow pipes and tubes, square hollow tubing, and fabricated
column sections made from structural shapes placed at the outer boundaries of the
sections. Figure (a) and (b), are hollow shapes which means that the moment of
inertia would be same on X-X and the Y-Y axis. In case of figure (c), the angle
sections at the corners provide the greatest contribution to the moment of inertia.
The buildup section in (d) approximates the hollow square tube. The H-column in (e)
has an equal depth and width. The moment of inertia with respect to Y-Y axis is still
smaller than for the X-X axis. Figure (f) and (g) are solid circular and solid square
respectively, which is not desirable very much for columns. [2]
7.5 Selected Column Cross section
Keeping the design consideration of electromechanical actuator in mind, the best

suitable cross section for our design is either hollow cylindrical or hollow square. This
is due to the fact that our column has to slide on the roller screw to and fro, which
means that we need to have a hollow cross section. For the purpose of less
complexity in manufacturing, we select circular cross-section.
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8 BEARING SELECTION
8.1 Introduction
The purpose of a bearing is to support a load while permitting relative motion

between two elements of a machine. The term rolling contact bearings refers to the
wide variety of bearings that use spherical balls or some type of roller between the
stationary and the moving elements. Rotating shaft is being supported by most
common bearing, which resists purely radial loads or sometimes combination of
radial and axial (thrust) loads. Some bearings are designed to carry only thrust loads.
Most bearings are used in applications involving rotation, but some are used in
linear motion application.
The components of a typical rolling contact bearing are,

 the inner race
 the outer race
 the rolling elements.
Figure 8.24 Single Row, Deep groove, Ball Bearing

[Courtesy: Hoover-NSK]
Figure 8.1 shows the common single-row, deep-groove ball bearing. The inner race is
pressed onto the rotating shaft and thus rotates with it, while the outer race is
stationary and is held with the housing. Then the balls roll between the outer and
inner races. The load which is applied on it, travels from the shaft, to the inner race,
to the balls, to the outer race, and finally to the housing. The presence of the balls
allows a very smooth, low-friction rotation of the shaft. The typical coefficient of
friction for a rolling contact bearing is approximately 0.001 to 0.005. [2,3]
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8.2 Types Of Rolling Contact Bearings
8.2.1 Single Row, Deep-groove Ball Bearing
The single-row, deep-groove ball bearing is shown in Figure 8.1. The inner race is
typically pressed on the shaft to ensure that it rotates with the shaft. The radius of
the ball is slightly smaller than the radius of the groove to allow free rolling of the
balls. The contact between a ball and the race is a small circular area because of the
deformation of the elements, because the load is carried on a small area, very high
local contact stresses occur to increase the capacity of a single-row bearing, a
bearing with a greater number of balls, or larger balls operating in larger diameter
races should be used.[2,3]
8.2.2 Double Row, Deep-groove Ball Bearing
Figure 8.25 Double Row, Deep-groove Ball Bearing

[Courtesy: Shenhe Bearings]
Adding a second row of balls Figure 8.2 increases the radial load-carrying capacity of
the deep-groove type of bearing as compared with the single-row design because
more balls share the load. Thus a greater load can be carried in the same space or a
given load can be carried in a smaller space. [2, 3]
8.2.3 Angular Contact Ball Bearing

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Figure 8.26 Angular Contact Ball Bearing
[Courtesy: Bardenbearings]
In angular contact bearing, the grooves in inner and outer races are so shaped, that
the line of reaction at the contact between balls and races makes an angle with the
axis of the bearing. This reaction has two components – radial and axial. Therefore,
angular contact bearing can take radial and thrust loads.
They are often used in pairs, either side by side or at the opposite end of the shafts.
This reaction has two components – radial and axial. Therefore, angular contact
bearing can take radial and thrust loads. They are often used in pairs, either side by
side or at the opposite end of the shafts. Angular contact bearing offers following
advantages: [2,3]
 They can take both radial and axial loads.

 The load carrying capacity of angular contact bearing is more than that of
deep groove ball bearing.
The disadvantages of angular contact bearings are as follows:
 Two bearings are requires to take thrust in either direction.

 It must be mounted without axial play.
8.2.4 Cylindrical Roller Bearing
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Figure 8.27 Cylindrical Roller Bearing
[Courtesy: Thomasnet]
When maximum load carrying capacity is required in a given space, the point contact
in ball bearing is replaced by the line contact of the roller bearing. Cylindrical roller
bearing consists of relatively short rollers that are positioned and guided by the cage.
Cylindrical roller bearing offers following advantages:
 Due to line contact between rollers and races, the radial load carrying
capacity of cylindrical roller bearing is very high.
 It is more rigid than ball bearing.
The disadvantages of cylindrical roller bearing are as follows:
 In general, cylindrical roller bearing cannot take thrust load.

 It generates more noise.
 It is not self-aligning. It cannot tolerate misalignment. It needs precise
alignment between axis of the shaft and the bore of the housing.
8.2.5 Needle Bearing
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Figure 8.28 Needle Bearing
To carry a given load a smaller radial space is typically required for needle bearings
than for any other type of rolling contact bearing. This makes it easier to design
pumps, universal joints, precision instruments, and household appliances. As with
other roller bearings, thrust and misalignment capability is poor. [2]
8.2.6 Spherical Roller Bearing
Figure 8.29 Spherical Bearing

[Courtesy: marcbearings]
The spherical roller bearing (Figure 8.6) is also called as self-aligning bearing because
there is actual relative rotation of the outer race relative to the rollers and the inner
race when angular misalignments occur. They use rollers that are thicker in the
middle and thinner at the ends; the race is shaped to match. Spherical roller bearings
can thus adjust to support misaligned loads. However, spherical rollers are difficult to
produce and thus expensive, and the bearings have higher friction than a
comparable ball bearing since different parts of the spherical rollers run at different
speeds on the rounded race and thus there are opposing forces along the
bearing/race contact.[d]
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8.2.7 Tapered Roller Bearing
Figure 8.30 Tapered Roller Bearing

[Courtesy: marcbearings]
The taper roller bearing consists of rolling elements in the form of frustum of cone.
They are arranged in such a way that the axes of individual rolling elements intersect
in a common apex point on the axis of the bearing. In this bearing, the line of
resultant reaction through the rolling elements makes an angle with the axis of the
bearing. Therefore, taper roller bearing can carry both radial and axial (thrust) loads.
Taper roller bearings are always used in pair to balance the thrust component. Taper
roller bearing offers following advantages: [d]
 It can take heavy radial and thrust loads

 It has more rigidity
 It can be easily assembled and disassembled due to separable parts
8.3 Comparison of Bearing types
Table 4 gives a comparison of the performance of the above seven different bearings
described. Radial loads act toward the center of the bearing along a radius. Thrust
loads are those that act parallel to the axis of the shaft. The axial components
Bearings supporting shafts with vertical axes are subjected to thrust loads due to the
weight of the shaft and the elements on the shaft as well as from axial operating
forces. Misalignment refers to the angular deviation of the axis of the shaft at the
bearing from the true axis of the bearing itself. An excellent rating for misalignment
in Table 4 indicates that the bearing can accommodate up to 4.0o of angular

deviation. A bearing with a fair rating can withstand up to 0.15° while a poor rating
indicates that rigid shafts with less than 0.05° of misalignment are required. [2]
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Table 4 Comparison of Bearings
Radial Load Thrust load Misalignmen

Bearing Type
Capacity Capacity t Capability
Single row, deep-groove ball Good Fair Fair
Double row, deep-groove

Excellent Good Fair
ball
Angular Contact Good Excellent Poor
Cylindrical roller Excellent Poor Fair
Needle Excellent Poor Poor
Spherical Roller Excellent Fair/Good Excellent
Tapered Roller Excellent Excellent Poor
8.4 Selected Bearing for EMA

Since due to the translator motion of the column, the system would create a thrust
force. In order to cater with this problem and to make our system safe from failure, a
bearing used must have a high thrust load capacity.
After the thorough study of different types of bearing as above and considering their
advantages and disadvantages, the most suitable bearings can be either ‘Angular
Contact’ or ‘Tapered Roller.’ But due to the easy availability of Tapered Roller, also its
easiness in assembling and disassembling and being more rigid, this has been
selected as the most suitable bearing for EMA.
9 DRIVE, BELT AND PULLEY SELECTION
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9.1 Drives
There are two types of drives which are mainly used in electric motors, automobiles,
machine tools and conveyors.
 Rigid Drives
 Flexible Drives
9.1.1 Rigid Drive
Gear drives are called rigid or non-flexible drives. In gear drives, there is direct
contact between the driving and the driven shafts through the gears. In gear drives,
rotary motion of driving shaft is directly converted into rotary motion of driven shaft
by means of pinion and gear.
9.1.2 Flexible Drive
In flexible drives, there is an intermediate link such as belt or chain, between the
driving and driven shafts. Since this link is flexible, the drives are called flexible
drives. In flexible drives, the rotary motion of driving shaft is first converted into
translator motion of belt or chain and then again converted into rotary motion of
driven shaft. [3]
The advantages of flexible drives over rigid drives are as follows:

 Flexible drives transmit power over a comparatively long distance due to
intermediate link between driving and driven shaft
 Flexible drives provide considerable flexibility in the location of driving and
driven shafts
 Flexible drives are cheap compared with gear drives. Their initial and
maintenance costs are low
The disadvantages of flexible drives are as follows:

 They occupy more space
 The velocity ratio is relatively small
9.2 Belt Drive
Belts are used to transmit power between two shafts by means of friction. A belt
drive consist of three elements,
 Driving
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 Driven pulleys
 Endless belt which envelopes them
Belt drives offer following advantages [3]

compared with chain drives:
 They can transmit power over considerable distance between the axis of
driving and driven shafts.
 The operation of belt drive is smooth and silent
 They can transmit only a definite load, thus protecting the parts of drive
against overload
 They have the ability to absorb the shocks and damp vibration
 They are simple in design
 They have low initial cost
The disadvantages [3]

of belt drives compared with other drives are as follows
 They impose heavy loads on shafts and bearing
 There is considerable loss of power resulting in low efficiency
 Belt drives have comparatively short service life
Since flexible drive is cheaper and easily available as compared to the rigid drives,
therefore it is decided to use the ‘Flexible drive’ for the design of EMA. Moreover, in
the category of ‘Flexible drive’ the component which is most suitable is ‘Belt Drive’ as
compared to ‘Chain Drive’ as belts drive have more advantages. Chains can also
make the system not only expensive but also increases the weight of system
because of the special pulleys used for this.[3]
After the selection of the flexible and Belt drive, the next thing which is to be
selected is the cross-section of the belt. The belts come in many cross-sections,
suitable for different purposes. Different cross-section belts are discussed below from
them the best will be selected.
9.3 Selection Of Belt-Cross-Section
Depending upon the shape of the cross-section, belts are classified as flat-belts and
V-belts. Flat belts have a narrow rectangular cross-section, while V-belts have a
trapezoidal cross-section.
9.3.1 Flat Belts

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Figure 9.31 Flat Belt
[Courtesy: mysimon]
Flat belts (figure 9.1) were used early in line shafting to transmit power in factories. It
is a simple system of power transmission. Flat belt pulleys need to be carefully
aligned to prevent the belt from slipping off. Because flat belts tend to slip towards
the higher side of the pulley, pulleys were made with a slightly convex face (rather
than flat) to keep the belts centered. The flat belt also tends to slip on the pulley face
when heavy loads are applied.[e]
9.3.2 V–Belts
Figure 9.32 V–Belt

[Courtesy: www.global-b2b-nework.com]
V belts (also known as V-belt or wedge rope) shown in figure 9.2 are an early solution
that solved the slippage and alignment problem. The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a
mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt cannot slip off.
The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increases — improving
torque transmission and making the V belt an effective solution. They can be
supplied at various fixed lengths or as a segmented section, where the segments are
linked (spliced) to form a belt of the required length. The strength of these belts is
obtained by reinforcements with fibers like steel, polyester etc. [e]
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9.3.3 Round Belts
Figure 9.33 Round Belt

[Courtesy: unifit]
Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a circular
groove. They are for use in low torque situations and may be purchased in various
lengths or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, gluing or welding (in the case
of polyurethane). Early sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a
metal staple or glued, to great effect. [e]
9.3.4 Timing Belts
Figure 9.34 Timing Belt

[Courtesy: Germes]
Timing belts (figure 9.4), also known as Toothed, Notch or Cog belts are a positive
transfer belt and are used where constant speed is required. These belts have teeth
that fit into a matching toothed pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no
slippage and are often used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes
(hence their name). Camshafts of automobiles and stepper motors often utilize these
belts. [e]
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9.4 Advantages [3]
of V-belts over Flat belts and Round belts
 The force of friction between surface of the belt and V-grooved pulley is high
due to wedge action. This wedging action permits a smaller arc of contact,
increases the pulling capacity of the belt and consequently results in increase
in the power transmitting capacity.
 The have short centre distance that results in compact construction
 Flat belts are hinged, while V-belts are endless which results in smooth and
quiet operation, even at high operating speeds.
 It can operate in any position, even when the belt is vertical
9.5 Disadvantages [3]

of Flat belts over V-belts
 The power transmitting capacity of flat-belt drive is low

 The velocity ratio of flat-belt is lower than V-belt drive
 Flat belts drives have large dimensions and occupy more space compared
with V-belt drives
 Flat-belts generate more noise than V-belt
 In general, flat belt drives are horizontal not vertical.
Table 5 Comparison of different Belts
Flat Belts V-Belts Round Belts
Power Transmission Low High Low

Noise High Low Low
Efficiency High High Low
Working Positions Horizontal All positions Many positions
Space Required Large Small Large
Creep Low High Low
9.6 Selected Cross-Section
After the study of different belts and summarizing their pros and cons in the table
above, it is concluded that the ‘V-Belts’ would be the most suitable to use in the EMA.
This is mainly due to less noise, high power transmission and small space required.
Although creep factor is high in V-belts but since the duty cycle of our system is very
small (5 minutes), therefore this factor would not be taken into consideration.
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9.7 Material Properties Of Belts
The following are the desirable properties [3]

of the belt materials:
 The material should have high coefficient of friction with the pulleys
 The belt material should have high tensile strength to withstand belt tensions
 The belt material should have high wear resistance
 The belt material should have higher flexibility and low rigidity in bending in
order to avoid bending stresses while passing over the pulley
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PRELIMINARY
DESIGNING
10 DESIGNING OF POWERSCREW
10.1 Principle
Power screws are designed to convert rotary motion to linear motion and to exert the
necessary force to move a machine element along a desired path.
10.2 Objective
To design a power screw for compact Electro-mechanical actuator to be used for

thrust vectoring.
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10.3 Material
Before going to design the power screw, we must select the material for that screw.
The selection of material is based on the type of application. AISI 4140 steel can be
used for gears, shafts and power transmitting components. So we select, Heat
Treated AISI 4140 Steel.
10.4 Properties of AISI 4140 Steel
From Appendix 3 of Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by Robert L Mott (2 nd

Ed), properties of selected material are,
Condition: OQT 1300
Density, ρ= 0.283 lb-in3 = 7680 kg-m3
Tensile yield strength, σy = 690 MPa
Shear yield strength, ζy = 0.5 σy = 345 MPa

(i.e. Rule of thumb because shear yield strength is normally not reported)
10.5 Design
According to the given condition, we have to design the power screw for the
Load = 12 kN
Using the factor of safety (f.s) of 1.25,
Allowable Load = 12 1.25

F = 15 kN = 3372.134 lb
Now we limit the tensile yield strength and shear yield strength and including the
effect of impact in our design. According to thumb rule, the impact stresses gets
double of the original stresses. Therefore, we limit our design limit stresses to half of
the original.
We are not taking into account the value of ‘Endurance Strength’, since the duty
cycle time of actuator is only 5 minutes, which means that there would be very less
number of cycles of loading which can be ignored, therefore the system is not taken
under condition of time varying load and only the case of impact is considered, which
can also be the worst case and this can also cater the dynamic loading if here would
be any in our system.
Limit σyl = 345 MPa
Limit ζyl = 172.5 MPa
10.5.1 Thread Selection For The Power Screw
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Figure given below shows three types of screw threads[2] i.e.
 Square Thread
 Acme Thread
 Buttress Thread
Figure 10.35 Forms of Power Screw Threads

[Courtesy: Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by R.L. Mott (2 nd Ed)]
Although, the square and buttress threads are most efficient i.e they require the least
torque to move a given load along the screw. However, the Acme thread is not
greatly less efficient and it is easier to machine. Buttress thread is not desirable
because it is used when forces is to be transmitted in only one direction. So, we will
use Acme thread for the designing of Power Screw.
All the formulas and the design method used below is according to the text book
‘Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by R.L. Mott.’
Required Tensile Stress Area, At for the load to be move is
F
At =
σ yl
15 000
At = 6
345 ×10
−5 2 2
At =4.348× 10 m =0.0674 ¿
From figure 10.2 on pg-729 of Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by R.L. Mott,
(and re-presented here for reference) corresponds to the value of At =¿0.09720¿2 ,
the other parameters are quoted below.
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Figure 10.36 Preferred Acme Screw Threads (per inch length of
engagement)
[Courtesy: Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by R.L. Mott (2 nd Ed)]
Major Diameter = 0.4375 in = 11.11 mm

Minor Diameter= D r = 0.3253 in = 8.2626 mm
Minimum Pitch Diameter ¿ D p= 0.3783 in = 9.6088 mm

Thread per inch, ‘n’ = 12
Pitch, p = 1/n = 0.0833in = 2.116 mm
Shear Stress Area= A s = 0.6396 in2 = 0.0004126 m2
This means that for this screw, each inch of length of a nut would provide 0.6396 in 2
shear stress area.
Shear Area Required, As
Allowable Load
A s=
ζ yl
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15 000
A s= 6
172.5× 10
−5 2 2
A s=8.7 ×10 m =0.1356 ¿
10.5.2 Minimum Length Of The Nut
Required Length of Nut ,h=0.1356 × ( 0.6396

1.0
)
h=0.212∈¿ 5.34 mm
This is the minimum length of the nut required for the screw.
As, Lead = L =2 x p = 0.1666 in = 4.23 mm
Therefore, the lead angle is,
λ=tan−1
L
πDp
=tan−1 (
0.332
3.14 × 0.3783 )
λ=7.98 ° = 0.14 radians
tanλ=0.14
10.5.3 Torque Required
Now, there is a need to know that how much torque is provided to the screw to move
the load. The torque required to raise the load can be computed,
FL
T u=
2 πe
where e = 0.85
(2697.6)(0.1666)
T u=
2 π ( 0.85)
Tu(min) = 84.18 lb-in = 9.52 N-m
Torque required to lower the load can be computed,
FLe
T d=
2π
(2697.6) ( 0.1666 ) (0.85)
T d=
2π
T d=60.8lb .∈¿ 6.88 N . m
10.5.4 Rotational Speed

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From motion profile,
V1(max) = 300 mm/sec
To achieve the required linear speed screw must be revolve with the rotational speed
given below.
Linear Speed (mm /min)
Rotationl speed , rpm ( ω )=
Lead (mm)
300× 60
ω= =4255 rpm
4.23
10.5.5 Power Required
If the torque required to rotate the screw is applied at constant rotational speed, then
power required to drive the screw is:
Power=Torque ¿ ¿
105.17 × 2127
Power=
63000
Power=7.1 hp=5.31 kW
10.5.6 Critical Speed
The critical speed[3] of a lead-screw shaft is the maximum speed (rpm) before the
screw will become dynamically unbalanced. This results when the forced frequency of
the rotating screw corresponds to its natural frequency. This value is dependent on
the length of the screw, the diameter of the thread, and the support configuration.
That is,
6 d
Critical Speed =(K C ×10 )× 2
D
where
K` = End support Factor
C =Material factor= 4.57 (For stainless and alloy steel), 1.6 (For aluminum)
d = Root Diameter = 8.2626 mm = 0.3253 in
D = 150 mm = 5.9 in (Setting the distance between bearing supports to be 150 mm)
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For the value of K, consider the following figure,
Figure 10.37 Variation of Support configurations

[Courtesy: Electromechanical Design Handbook by Ronald A. Walsh (3 rd Ed)]
The value of K across the configuration:

a) 0.36
b) 1.00
c) 1.47
d) 2.23
We use K=1.47 across the configuration ‘c ‘. So, the

Critical Speed =62779 rpm
The MATLAB code for the screw designing is shown in Appendix A, which can be used
to calculate the above parameters for different materials
11 SELECTING THE REQUIRED MOTOR FOR EMA
After the screw has been designed, the next step is to select the motor which can
drive the actuator according to our design criteria. Since the motor has to rotate the
screw, therefore we must consider the parameters of screw which we have calculated
above and select the motor on its bases.
The calculated screw parameters on which the motor should be selected are as
follows:
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 Rotational Speed = 4255 rpm
 Peak Torque Required = 9.52 N-m
The following table is used to select the required motor.

Figure 11.38 Selected motor highlighted in the table

[Courtesy: Kollmorgen]
Keeping the above three screw parameters into consideration and using figure 11.1,
the most suitable motor which can safely meet our requirements is highlighted in the
table above with the model no. B-206-C. The motor have following characteristics,

These values, compared with above screw speed and torque are higher, which shows
that this motor can be used in the Electromechanical Actuator.
The complete performance specifications of the selected motor and speed torque
curve is given below in figure 11.2.
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Figure 11.39 Speed versus torque plot of required motor
[Courtesy: Duffnorton]
12 DESIGN OF COLUMN
12.1 Objective
To design a column for Electromechanical actuator EMA, which can withstand the
static load of 12kN.
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12.2 Material
Before going to design the column, we must select the material for that column. The
selection of material is based on the type of application. AISI 4140 steel can be used
for gears, shafts and power transmitting components. So we select, AISI 4140
Steel.
12.3 Properties of AISI 4140 Steel
From Appendix 3 of Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by Robert L Mott (2 nd

Ed), properties of selected material are,
Condition: OQT 1300
Density, ρ= 0.283 lb-in3 = 7680 kg-m3
Tensile yield strength, σy = 690 MPa
Shear yield strength, ζy = 0.5 σy = 345 MPa

(i.e. Rule of thumb because shear yield strength is normally not reported)
Before proceeding further, it is to be reminded that the column end fixity and the
column cross-section has already been selected in the section of CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN.
12.4 Slenderness Ratio

The slenderness ratio is the ratio of the effective length of the column to its least
radius of gyration[2]. Mathematically,
Slenderness ratio = Le/rmin = KL/rmin
12.5 Transition Slenderness Ratio
In the following sections, two methods for analyzing straight, centrally loaded
columns are presented: the Euler formula for long, slender columns; and the J. H.
Johnson formula for short columns.
The choice of which method to use depends on the value of the actual slenderness
ratio fur the column being analyzed in relation to the transition, slenderness ratio, or
column constant, Cc, defined as
Where,
C C=
√ 2 π2 E
Sy
E = Modulus of elasticity of the material at the column

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Sy = Yield strength of the material
The use of the column constant is illustrated in the following procedure for analyzing
straight, centrally loaded columns,
1. For the given column, compute its actual slenderness ratio.
2. Compute the value of Cc
3. Compare Cc with KL/r. Because Cc represents the value of the slenderness ratio
that separates a long column from a short one, the result of the comparison indicates
which type at analysis should be used.
4. If the actual KL/r Is greater than Cc, the column Is long. Use Euler’s equation as
described in heading 12.6.
5. If KL/r, is less than Cc, the column is shorter. Use the J. B. Johnson formula,
described in heading 12.7.
The value of the column constant, or transition slenderness ratio, is dependent on the
material properties, of modulus of elasticity and yield strength. For any given class of
material, say steel, the modulus of elasticity is nearly constant. Thus, the value of Cc
varies inversely as the square root of the yield strength. Figures 12.1 and 12.2 show
the resulting values for steel and aluminum, respectively, for the range of yield
strengths expected for each material. The figure shows that the value of Cc decreases
as the yield strength increases. [2]
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Figure 12.40 Transition Slenderness ratio Cc vs. Yield Strength for Steel
[Courtesy: Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by R.L. Mott]
Figure 12.41 Transition Slenderness ratio Cc vs. Yield Strength for

Aluminum
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12.6 Long Column Analysis: The Euler Formula
The analysis of the long column employs the following formula,
2
π EA
Pcr = 2
(KL/r )
Where,
r2 = I/A
Therefore,
2
π EI
Pcr = 2
(KL)
The above equation is used in design problems in which the objective is to specify a
size and shape of a column cross section for carrying a certain load. The concept of
design factor is also applied, rather than applying the design factor to the yield
strength or the ultimate strength of the material, it is applied to the critical load. For
machine design applications, a design factor of 3 is used. For stationary column with
well known loads and end fixity, a lower factor can be used, such as 2.0. Conversely,
for very long columns, where there is some uncertainty about the loads or the end
fixity, or where special dangers are presented, larger factors are used. [2]
In summary, the objective of column analysis and design is to ensure that the load
applied to the column is safe, well below the critical buckling load. The following
definition of terms must be understood,
Pcr = Critical buckling load
Pa = Allowable load
P = Actual applied load
N = Design factor
Then,
Pa = Pcr/N
The actual applied load P, must be less than Pa.
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12.7 Short Column Analysis: The J.B.Johnson Formula
When the actual slenderness ration, KL/r, is less than the transition value, C c, then the
column is short and the J.B. Johnson formula should be used, which is given as,
[ ]
2
s y (KL/ R)
Pcr = A s y 1−
4 π2 E
12.8 The Column Design
During the design phase, the expected load on the column would be known along
with the length required by the application. The designer would then specify the
following,
 The manner of attaching the ends to the structure that affects the end fixity
 The general shape of the column cross section (for example, round, square,
rectangular, and hollow tube)
 The material for the column
 The design factor, considering the application
 The final dimensions for the column
It may be desirable to propose and analyze several different designs to approach an

optimum for the application. A computer program facilitates the process.
It is assumed that first four points are specified by the designer for any given trial.
In a design situation, the unknown cross-sectional dimensions make computing the
radius of gyration and therefore the slenderness ratio, KL/r, impossible. Without the
slenderness ratio, it cannot be determined whether the column is long (Euler) or
short (Johnson). Thus, the proper formula to use is not known.
We overcome this difficulty by making an assumption that the column is either long
or short and proceeding with the corresponding formula. Then, after the dimensions
are determined for the cross section, the actual value of KL/r will be computed and
compared with Cc. This will show whether or not the correct formula has been used. If
so, the computed answer is correct. If not, the alternate formula must be used arid
the computation repeated to determine new dimensions. Figure below shows a
flowchart for the design logic described here. [2]
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Start
Specify
, N, L, K, E, and shape
Compute
Assume column is long
Compute
(Euler’s Equation)
Solve for dimensions of shape
Compute
Yes Is No
?
Column is long Contd.
(Dimensions are correct) A
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Contd.
A
Column is short
(Use Johnson Equation)
Solve for dimensions of shape such that
Re-compute
Is
Yes ? No
Column is short Result from either Euler’s equation or Johnson equation wi

(Dimensions are correct)
Figure 12.42 Flow diagram of Colum Design
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12.8.1 Design: Assuming the Column is Long
Euler’s formula is used if the assumption is that the column is long. The following
equation is the most convenient form because it can be solved for the moment of
inertia, I:[2]
2 2
P cr (KL) N Pa (KL)
I= 2
= 2
Π E Π E
Pa = Allowable load
I = Moment of Inertia
Suppose, for hollow circular cross section, the moment of inertia can be written as,
4 4
π (D −d )
I=
64
Where,
d = Internal diameter
D = Outer diameter
Substituting in above equation,
2
π (D4 −d 4 ) N Pa (KL )
I= = 2
64 Π E
The above equation can then be solved to get the diameter of the column.
12.8.2 Design: Assuming the Column is Short
The J.B. Johnson formula is used to analyze a short column. It is difficult to derive a
convenient form for use in design. It is possible to solve the Johnson formula for the
characteristic dimension, the diameter,[2]
[ ]
2
s y (KL/ R)
Pcr = A s y 1−
4 π2 E
But,
π 2 2
A= ( D −d )
4
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r=
√ 4 4
(D +d )
4
Pcr = NPa
Then,
[ ]
2
πD
2
s y ( KL )
4 N P a= s y 1−
4 4π2E
Solving for D gives,
[ ]
2 1 /2
4 N Pa 4 s y ( KL )
D= − 2
π sy π E
12.8.3 Column Design Calculation
In calculation we would follow the flow chart drawn above.

We have,
Pa = Allowable load = 15kN
N = Design factor = 4
L = Length of Column = 150 mm
K = End fixity constant = 2.0
E = Modulus of Elasticity = 207 x 109 Pa
Sy = Tensile yield strength = 345 MPa
Note that the value of ‘K’ is selected from the four different cases of the end
connections of the columns. Our case is ‘Fixed-free’ as shown in figure 7.4 and value
of ‘K’ is corresponding to that.
Now computing the value of Cc, using,
C c=
√ 2 π2 E
σy
C c=
√ 2 π 2 (207 x 10 9)
345 x 106
C c =193.22
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Before going on to the next step, we first assume that the column is long. Now using
this assumption, we compute, ‘I’ moment of inertia of column, using
2 2
P cr (KL ) N Pa (KL)
I= 2
= 2
Π E Π E
2
4 × 15000×(2.0 × 0.150)
I=
Π 2 (207 x 10 9)
−10 4
I =6.606 ×10 m
Our next step is to specify the dimension of shape of the column. In our case the
shape of the column is hollow cylindrical. In order to find the diameter of the column,
we use the formula of its moment of inertia, which is given as,
4 4
π (D −d )
I=
64
where,
D = Outer diameter
d = Inner diameter
Sine it’s a one equation but the unknowns variables are two, but they are both
dependent on each other, therefore we define another variable ‘t’ thickness, assume
its value and substituting,
D=d+t
Therefore,
I =π ¿ ¿
Considering our design, we give an educated guess to the thickness as t = 5 mm.

Therefore, above equation becomes,
4
d =¿
Substituting the values of ‘t’ and ‘I’, we get,
4
d =¿
Solving the above equation using MATLAB, we get

d = 6.02 mm
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D = 6.02 + 5.0 = 11.02 mm
Now computing the value of ‘r’, i.e. the radius of gyration. For hollow circular section
it is given as
r=
√(D 4 +d 4 )
4
r = 0.00314 mm
Now,
KL/r = (2.0)(0.150)/(0.00314)
KL/r = 95.54
Since KL/r < Cc, therefore our assumption of ‘long column’ is wrong. Hence, now we
will now assume the condition of ‘short column’ and proceed with the calculations.
Using the equation,
[ ]
2
π (d +t)
2
s ( KL )
4 N P a= s y 1− y 2
4 4π E
Now again giving the thickness of t = 5 mm to the column and solving the above
equation in MATLAB, we get,
t = 5.0 mm
d = 25.0 mm
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13 BEARING DESIGN AND SELECTION
13.1 Dynamic Load Carrying Capacity
The life of a ball bearing is limited by the fatigue failure at the surfaces of balls and
races. The dynamic load carrying capacity of the bearing is, based on the fatigue life
of the bearing. “The life of an individual ball bearing is defined as the number of
revolutions (or hours of service at some given constant speed), that the bearing runs
before the first evidence of fatigue crack in balls or races”.[3]
Since the life of a single bearing is difficult to predict, it is necessary to define the life
in terms of the statistical average performance of a group of bearings. Bearings are
rated on one of the two criteria --- the average life of a group of bearings or the life,
that 90% of the bearings will reach or exceed. The second criterion is widely used in
bearing industry. “The rating life of a group of apparently identical ball bearings is
defined as the number of revolutions that 90% of the bearings will complete or
exceed before the first evidence of fatigue crack”.[3]
There are number of terms used for this rating life. They are minimum life, catalogue
life, L10 life or B10 life. These terms are synonyms for rating life. In our report we will
use the term L10 life. The life of an individual ball bearing may be different from rating
life, which 50% of a group of bearings will complete or exceed, is approximately five
times the rating or L10 life. This means that for majority of bearings the actual life is
considerably more than the rated life.
The dynamic loading carrying capacity of a bearing is defined as the radial load in
radial bearings (or thrust load in thrust bearings) that can be carried for a minimum
life of one million revolutions. The minimum life in this definition is this is the L 10 life
that 90% of the bearing will reach or exceed before fatigue failure. The dynamic load
carrying capacity is based on the assumption that the inner race is rotating while the
outer race is stationary.[2,3]
13.2 Equivalent Bearing Load
The equivalent bearing load is defined as the constant radial load inn radial bearings
(or thrust load in thrust bearings), that if applied to the bearing would give same life
as that which the bearing will attain under actual condition of forces. The expression
for the equivalent dynamic load is written as,
P = XVFx + YFa
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Where,
P = equivalent dynamic load (N)

Fr = Radial load (N)
Fa = Axial or thrust load (N)
V = race rotation factor
X and Y are radial and thrust factors respectively and their values are given in the
manufacturer’s catalogues.
The race-rotation factor depends upon whether the inner rotating or the outer race,
The value of ‘V’ is one, when the inner race rotates while the outer race is held
stationary in the housing. The value of ‘V’ is 1.2, when outer rotates with respect to
load, while the inner load remains stationary. In most of the applications, the inner
race rotates and the outer race is fixed in the housing. Assuming ‘V’ as unity, the
general equation for equivalent dynamic load is given by, [2,3]
P = XFr + YFa
When bearing is subjected to pure radial load, Fr,
P = Fr
When bearing is subjected to pure thrust load, Fa
P = Fa
For tapered roller bearing, the Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturers; Association

(AFBMA) recommends the following approach in computing the equivalent loads on a
tapered roller bearing:
PA = 0.4FrA + 0.5YAFrB/YB + YATA

PB = FrB
Where,
PA = Equivalent radial load on bearing A
PB = Equivalent radial load on bearing B
FrA = Applied radial load on bearing A
FrB = Applied radial load on bearing A

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TA = Thrust load on bearing A
YA = Thrust factor for bearing A
YB = Thrust factor for bearing B
13.3 Load Life Relationship
The relationship[2,3] between the dynamic load carrying capacity, the equivalent
dynamic load, and the bearing life is given by,
( )
p
C
L10=
P
Where,
L10 = Rated bearing life (in million revolutions)
C = Dynamic Load Capacity (N)
P = 3 (for ball bearing)

P = 10/3 (roller bearing)
This equation can also be written as,
1/ p
C=P(L¿¿ 10) ¿
For all types of ball bearings,
1/ 3
C=P( L¿¿ 10) ¿
For all types of roller bearings,
0.3
C=P( L¿¿ 10) ¿
The relationship between life in million revolutions and life in working hours is given
by,
60 n L10 h
L10= 6
10
Where,
L10h = rated bearing life (hours)
n = speed of rotation (rpm)
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13.4 Selection Of Bearing From Manufacturer’s Catalogue
The basic procedure for the selection of bearing from the manufacturer’s catalogue
consists of the following steps.
Step 1: Calculate the radial and axial forces acting on the bearing and determine the
diameter of the shaft where the bearing is to be fitted.
Step 2: Select the type of bearing for the given application.
Step 3: Determine the values of ’X’ and ‘Y’.
Step 4: Calculate the equivalent dynamic load from the equation given above.
Step 5: Select the design life and using that, calculate the rated life in millions of
revolutions.
Step 6: Calculate the required dynamic loading using the equation,
1/ p
C=P(L¿¿ 10) ¿
Step 7: Using dynamic loading, the suitable bearing would be selected from
manufacturer’s catalogues.
13.5 Calculation and Selection Of Bearing For Our System
As it is already been stated that tapered roller bearing is selected for the design of
electromechanical actuator. Now we would follow the above step for the selection of
the specific tapered roller bearing.
Since or system only have the thrust load, i.e. there are no radial loads, therefore,
FrA = 0 lb
FrB = 0 lb
TA = 3372 lb
The diameter of the screw around which the bearing is to b fitted Is about 12 mm.
From the equivalent load equations, given above as,
PA = 0.4FrA + 0.5YAFrB/YB + YATA

PB = FrB
Substituting values from above, assuming YA = 1.70 we get,
PA = 5732.4 lb
PB = 0 lb
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Now selecting design life for our system to be 120 min or 2.0 hours, then the rated
life in millions of revolutions would be,
L10 = (2.0 hr)(4600 rpm)(60 min/h)/106

L10 = 5.52 x 10-1 rev
The required dynamic loading can now be calculated by the following equation, using
p = 3.33,
1/ p
C=P(L¿¿ 10) ¿
C = 5732.4 (0.552)0.3
C = 4796.4 lb
OR
C = 21335 N
From the manufacturer’s catalogue (see Appendix C) the most suitable bearing we
can select is HR30302J with C = 5310 lb and d = 15 mm.
14 V-BELTS CROSS-SECTION
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Figure 14.43 V-Belt cross-section
[Courtesy: Design of Machine Elements by Bhandari]
The dimensions for the cross-section of V-belt are shown in figure 14.1 above. [3]
Pitch width (Wp): It is the width of the belt at its pitch zone. This is the basic
dimension for standardization of belt and corresponding pulley groove.
Nominal top width (W): It is the top width of the trapezium outlined on the cross-
section of the belt.
Nominal height (T): It is the height of the trapezium outlined on the cross-section
of the belt.
Angle of belt (A): It is the included angle obtained by extending the sides of the
belt. The standard value of the belt angle is 400.
Pitch length (Lp): Its is the length of the pitch line of the belt. This is the
circumferential length of the belt at the pitch width.
There are six basic symbols belts. Z-section belts are occasionally used for low power
transmission and small pulley diameters, while A, B, C, D and E section belts are
widely used as general purpose belts. V-belts are designated by the symbol of cross-
section followed by nominal pitch length along with symbol length L p. The selection of
the cross-section depends upon two factors, namely the power to be transmitted and
speed of the faster shaft as shown in figure 14.2. Depending upon the power and
speed of the faster pulley, a point can be
plotted on this diagram and the
corresponding cross- section selected. [3]
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[Courtesy: www.mech.uwa.edu.au]
Figure 14.44 Speed and power for which different cross-sections are suitable
The cross-section of a V-belt is selected on the values of the design power and the
speed of the faster shaft in rpm. Under the section of preliminary design of screw, we
have obtained our design value to be 5.31kW and since we have selected the same
diameter for our system, therefore the speed calculated for screw is around
4200rpm. With the help of these two values, the ‘A’ cross-section is the one which
our values of design power and shaft speed falls. So finally, our selected cross-
section area of V-belt is ‘A’.
14.1 V-Belts Drives (Mathematical Approach) [2,3]
The pulley, with circumferential groove carrying the belt, is called a sheave. The size
of a sheave is indicated by its pitch diameter, slightly smaller than the outside
diameter of the sheave.
The speed ratio between the driving and the driven sheaves is inversely proportional
to the ratio of the sheave pitch diameter. Thus the liner speed of the pitch line of
both sheaves is the same and equal to the belt speed, v. Then,
V = dp ω1/2 = Dp ω2/2
dp = pitch diameter of small pulley

Dp = pitch diameter of large pulley
The angular velocity ratio is,

ω1 D
=
ω2 d
The relationship between the pitch length, L, centre distance, C, and the sheaves
diameters are,
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2
π (D p + d p) (D p−d p )
L=2 C+ +
2 4C
C = Centre distance between the two pulleys
Dp = Pitch diameter of larger pulley
dp = Pitch diameter of smaller pulley
The angle of contact of the belt on each sheave is,
α 1=180−2sin−1 ( D−d
2C )
α 2=180+2 sin−1 ( D−d

2C )
Contact angle of 180 degrees will only occur if the drive ratio is 1 (no speed change).
The length of the span between the two sheaves, over which the belt is unsupported
is,
√ [ ]
2
D−d
2
Lus= C −
2
This is important for two reasons. The proper belt tension can be checked by
measuring the amount of force required to deflect the belt at the middle of the span
by a given amount. Also, the tendency for the belt to vibrate is dependent on this
length.
The contributors to the stress in the belt are,
 The tensile force in the belt, maximum on the tight side of the belt
 The bending of the belt around the sheaves, maximum as the tight side of the
belts bends around the smaller sheave.
 Centrifugal forces created as the belt moves around the sheaves.
The design value of the ratio of the tight side tension to the slack side tension is 5.0
for V- belt drives. The actual value may range as high as 10.0.
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14.2 Design and Selection Method of V-Belt For Our System
In practice, the designer has to select a V-belt from the catalogue of the
manufacturer. Following information is requires for the selection,
 Type of driving unit
 Type of driven machine
 Operational hours per day
 Power to be transmitted
 Input and output speeds
 Approximate centre distance depending upon the availability of space
Table 6 Service Factor under different conditions
The basic procedure for the selection of V-belts consists of the following steps: [3]
Step 1: Determine the correction factor according to service (Fa), from table 6. It
depends upon the type of driving unit, the type of driven machine and the
operational hours per day.
Step 2: Calculate the design power by following relationship,
Design power = Fa (transmitted power)
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Step 3: Plot a point with a design power as X coordinate and input speed as Y
coordinate in figure 14.2. The location of this point decides the type of cross-section
of the belt.
Step 4: Determine the recommended pitch diameter of smaller pulley from table. It
depends upon the cross-section of the belt. Calculate the pitch diameter of the bigger
pulley by following relationship,
D=d
[ speed of smaller pulley
speed of bigger pulley ] [
=d
input speed
output speed ]
Step 5: Determine the pitch length of belt L by following relationship,
2
π (D+ d) (D−d )
L=2 C+ +
2 4C
Step 6: Calculate the arc of contact for both pulleys by following relationship,
α 1=180−2sin−1 ( D−d
2C )
α 2=180+2 sin−1 ( D−d

2C )
Step 7: Calculate the unsupported length using the formula,
√ [ ]
2
D−d
S= C 2−
2
Step 8: Many design decisions depend on the application and space limitations. A
few guidelines are given below, which should be checked after the selection of the
belt drive.
 The nominal range of centre distances should be:

D < C < 3(D + d)
 The angle of wrap on the smaller sheave should be greater than 120 o
 Most commercially available sheaves are cast iron, which should be limited to
6500 ft/min belt speed
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 Avoid elevated temperatures around belts
14.3 V-Belt Calculation
Before proceeding to the calculations, we first consider the specifications of our

application, under which we are required to design our V-belt.
Driver power = 5.3 kW
Driver operational speed (input speed) = 4300 rpm (app.)
Speed of driven component (screw) = 4300 rpm
Service time = 5 min = 300 seconds
Centre distance,C = 78mm (selected by keeping the constrained into considerations)
Step 1:
From table 6, under the column of less than 6hrs per day, the most suitable value of
service factor is selected to be,
Service factor, Fa = 1.0
Step 2:
Design Power = Fa x (transmitted power)
= 1.0 x (5.3)
Design Power = 5.3 kW
Step 3:
From the plot shown in figure 14.2, taking X coordinate value as 5.3 kW and Y
coordinate value as 4300 rpm, this locates the point in the area of ‘A’ cross-section of
V-belt.
Step 4:
Keeping the size limit of our system, the size limit of pitch diameter of smaller pulley
is selected using the table in Appendix C. Therefore,
Recommended pitch dia. of smaller pulley = 31.8 mm
D = d x (speed ratio)
D = 31.8 x (1.0)
D = 31.8 mm
Step 5:
The pitch length of belt L, can be calculated by,
2
π (D+ d) (D−d )
L=2 C+ +
2 4C
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2
π (31.8+31.8) (31.8−31.8)
L=2(78)+ +
2 4(71)
L=255 mm=10.05 inch
Step 6:
Arc of contact of smaller pulley,
α 1=180−2sin−1 ( D−d
2C )
α 1=180−2sin−1
( 31.8−31.8
2(78) )
α 1=180 degrees
Since both the pulleys have the same diameter values, therefore,
α 1 ¿ α 2=180 degrees
Step 7:
The length of the span between the two sheaves, over which the belt is unsupported
is,
√ [ ]
2
D−d
S= C 2−
2
√ [ ]
2
31.8−31.8
2
S= (78) −
2
S=78 mm
Step 8:
Verifying the condition,
D < C < 3(D + d)
Substituting values from above, we get,
31.8 < 78 < 190.8
This satisfies that the value of centre distance is correct.
Now, calculating the linear speed, v, of the belt,
Using,
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v = dω1/2
v = (31.8 x 10-3)(4300 x 2π)/2 x 60
v = 7.16 m/sec
OR
v = 1409 ft/min < 6500 ft/min
Also,
α 1 ¿ α 2=180 deg ¿ 120 deg
14.4 V- Grooved Pulley
The dimensions of V-grooved pulleys [3] for V-belts are shown in figure 14.3. Such
pulleys are usually made of grey cast iron. In some cases the pulleys are made of
carbon steel casting. The notations used in the table are as follows:
Ip = Pitch width of pulley groove or pitch width of belt

b = Minimum height of groove above the pitch line
h = Minimum depth of groove below the pitch line
e = Centre to centre distance of adjacent grooves
f = Distance of the edge of pulley to first groove centre
α = Groove angle
g = Minimum top width of the groove
dp = Pitch diameter of pulley. It is diameter of pulley measured at the
pitch width of groove
Figure 14.45 Dimensions of V-Grooved Pulley

[Courtesy: Design of Machine Elements by V.B. Bhandari]
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DETAILED
DESIGNING
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15 SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND MODELLING
In this chapter, the 3-D modeling of each component of an electromechanical

actuator is performed using the software AutoCAD 2008.Furthermore, the 2-D views
are also generated of each component in order to have a proper dimensions for the
purpose of manufacturing. Each component is then integrated step by step to
generate complete isometric views.
15.1 Components Modeling and System Integration
In order to draw a complete model of EMA, the systems is broken into different
components. Each component is modeled in the AutoCAD and integrated step by
step. The main components of the system includes,
 Lead Screw
 Thrust Bearings
 Nut
 Column
 Key
 Housings
 Motor
 Linear Bearing
 Pulleys
 Supports
 Sheets
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Figure 15.46 3-D view of Lead Screw
Figure 15.1 shows the 3-D view of the lead screw. The detailed drawing of the screw
is shown in figure 15.2 on next page. This figure shows the complete dimensions of
every part of the screw. The total length of the screw is 250 mm. This has two start
thread with threaded part has a length of 150 mm with major diameter of 11.11 mm.
Figure 15.3 shows the complete 2-D views of the screw.
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Figure 15.47 Detailed view of Lead Screw
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Figure 15.48 2-D views of Lead Screw
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Figure 15.49 Lead Screw with Thrust Bearings
Figure 15.4 shows the screw with the addition of two thrust bearings on it. Figure
15.5 shows the 2-D views of the thrust bearing with the complete dimensions.
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Figure 15.50 2-D views of Thrust Bearing
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Figure 15.51 Addition of Nut on Lead Screw
Figure 15.6 shows the previous figure with the addition of nut (green color). The nut
is moved linearly on the screw and is to be attached to the column. The complete
dimensions and the 2-D views of the nut is shown in figure 15.7 next page.
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Figure 15.52 2-D views of Nut
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Figure 15.53 Addition of Column on Lead Screw
The next step in the 3-D modeling is to add the column drawing. This is shown in
figure 15.8 above. The column is attached to nut, which moves linearly on the screw.
The complete 2-D views of the column is shown in figure 15.9 next page.
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Figure 15.54 2-D views of Column
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Figure 15.55 Addition of Linear Bearing
After the addition of the column, the next step is to add a linear bearing in order to
give support to the column and also to ensure that the column is moving smoothly.
The addition of linear bearing (white color) is shown in figure 15.10 and its 2-D views
with dimensions are shown in figure 15.11 on next page.
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Figure 15.56 2-D views of Linear Bearing
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Figure 15.57 Attachment of Key on Nut
Figure 15.12 shows the attachment of the key with the nut. The function of fixing the
key is to prevent the nut from rotating while moving linearly over the screw. The fast
rotation of the screw will otherwise cause the screw to transfer torque to the nut and
cause it to rotate. The 2-D views of the key along with its dimensions are shown in
figure 15.12.
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Figure 15.58 2-D views of Key
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Figure 15.59 Attachment of Housing No.03
The next step is to attach one of the housing for the purpose of covering the nut.
Furthermore, the sides of the nut is adjusted into the slots of the housing which is
made on its inner surface. This will constraint the nut from rotation. Figure 15.15 on
next page gives the 2-D views of the housing along with complete dimensions.
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Figure 15.60 2-D views of Housing No.03
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Figure 15.61 Addition of Housing No.02
Figure 15.16 shows the addition of housing no.02 (yellow color). It’s a circular plate
with a hole and has a thickness of 5.0 mm. It is used to give support to the linear
bearing. The 2-D views of the housing are shown in the figure 15.16 on next page.
The circular plate has a outer diameter of 62.0 mm and inner diameter of 30.0 mm.
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Figure 15.62 2-D views of Housing No. 02
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After the addition of circular plate, the next step is to add another housing right next
to the plate. This is shown in figure 15.18. The separate drawing of the housing with
its 2-D views and dimensions are shown in figure 15.19 on next page. The housing
has a largest diameter of 62.0 mm, while the internal diameter is 30.40 mm.
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Figure 15.20 again shows the addition of similar circular plate (yellow) as in figure
15.16. Here it has been added in order to give support to the thrust bearings. The 2-D
views are shown on next page.
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After the addition of circular plate for supporting the thrust bearing. The next
component to be added is another housing in which both the thrust bearings can fit
properly. It is that part on which all the thrust loading would be transferred through
the bearings, therefore it has to be enough strong. The 2-D views of this housing is
shown ob next page.
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Figure 15.69 Attachment of Motor
After completing the screw, column and the attachment of all its different housings.
The next step comes is the addition of motor which is our main component for driving
the actuator. The details of the motor used have already been discussed previously.
Figure 15.25 only shows the 2-D views of the motors and its main dimensions
required for us.
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Figure 15.70 2-D views of Motor
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Figure 15.71 Addition of Housing No.06 (End plate)
After the attachment of the motor, the next step to follow is to attach the shaft of the
motor with the help of another housing. The separate diagram of this housing is
shown in figure 15.27. The plate has two holes in which the shaft and screw will will
be supported. Each hole has a diameter of 14.0 mm.
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Figure 15.73 Attachment of Up and Down Pulleys
Figure 15.28 shows the addition of up and down pulley. Each pulley has been drawn
according to the diameter of the motor shaft and screw. The V-belt will be rolled over
the pulleys for the transmission of power. The 2-D views of both pulleys have been
shown in figure 15.28 and 15.29.
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Figure 15.74 2-D views of Up Pulley
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Figure 15.75 2-D views of Down Pulley
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Figure 15.76 Attachment of Supports (Side Sheets)
Figure 15.31 shows the addition of two supports for the actuator. The support has a
diameter of 10.0 mm as can be seen from the 2-D views on next page. This hole is
used to pass a screw through it in order to restrain the actuator from the moment
which will be generated during its working.
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Figure 15.77 2-D views of Supports
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Figure 15.78 Attachment of Sheet No.01
Figure 15.33 is simply the addition of the two simple rectangular sheets in order to
cover the pulleys and especially the belt from heating. The 2-D views are shown in
figure 15.34.
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Figure 15.79 2-D views of Sheet No.01
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Figure 15.80 Attachment of Sheet No.02
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Figure 15.81 2-D views of Sheet No.02
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15.2 Isometric Views
Below are the four isometric views of the electromechanical actuator.
Figure 15.82 South-East View
Figure 15.83 South-West View
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Figure 15.84 North-West View
Figure 15.85 North-East View
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15.3 Weight Analysis
After the completion of 3-D drawing of actuator, the weight analysis was carried. The
volume of each single component as shown above are calculated using AutoCAD.
This calculated volume was then multiplied with the density of the material to
calculate the mass of each component. Finally the mass of each component is added
to get the total mass of our system. The table below shows all these information.
Mass of Steel-made Components
Density of the Steel is 7860 kg/m3
Table 7 Extracted Volume and Mass of components
Item Quantit Volume / Mass / piece Total Mass

y piece ‘kg’ ‘kg'
‘mm3’
Screw 1 24250 0.186 0.186
Nut 1 19114 0.147 0.147
Up pulley 1 10387 0.080 0.08
Down pulley 1 11339 0.087 0.087
Housing1 1 44659 0.343 0.343
Housing2 1 11561 0.089 0.089
Housing3 1 190278 1.461 1.461
Housing4 1 14076 0.108 0.108
Housing5 1 127967 0.983 0.983
Housing6 1 69301 0.532 0.532
Cylindrical 1 82378 0.633 0.633
Rod
Sheet1 2 6930 0.053 0.106
Sheet2 1 14476 0.111 0.111
Key 2 7750 0.060 0.12
Total Mass Steel-made Components 4.986
Table 8 Mass of Off-Shelf Components
Item Quantit Mass State

y ‘kg’
Motor 1 7.6 Exact
Thrust Bearing 2 0.4 Estimated
Linear Bearing 1
Belt 1
Total Mass of Off-Shelf 8
Components
Total Mass = Mass of Steel-made Components + Mass of Off-Shelf Components

Total Mass = 4.986 + 8.000 ≈ 13 kg
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15.4 Design Constraint of Sizing
Figure 15.86 System within the sizing constraints
As mentioned in the chapter of ‘Problem statement’ at the start, about our sizing
constraints. The cylindrical shape shown above has a length of 400 mm and a
diameter of 220 mm. It can be seen from the figure that the complete 3-D model of
actuator completely fulfills our design constraints of sizing. Figure 15.42 shows the
side views of the cylinder, which gives another view of the satisfactory results of the
sizing constraints. Finally, figure 15.43 shows the picture of completely packed
compact electromechanical actuator inside the cylinder with its latches.
Figure 15.87 Size constraints (Side views)
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Figure 15.88 EMA packed in cylinder with desired parameters
15.5 Lubrication
The duty cycle for which we required to design our system is only 5 min. Therefore,
the system does not require any sort of regular lubrication. The main lubrication is
required at the slots in which the keys as shown in drawing above would move within
the housing slots. Other main component which needs lubrication is screw and nut
system, since they are required to move smoothly at high speed. Furthermore, some
lubrication is also required for bearings. At all such points, lubrication just once
before it is being started to operate is enough for the system to work properly.
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16 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
16.1 Introduction
The state of the art FEA software used for the structural analysis is ABAQUS 6.5.
ABAQUS is a suite of powerful engineering simulation programs, based on the finite
element method that can solve problems ranging from relatively simple linear
analysis to the most challenging nonlinear simulations. ABAQUS analysis usually
consists of three different stages
 Preprocessing
 Simulation
 Postprocessing
These three stages are linked together by files as shown in the flow chart below:
Figure 16.89 Three stages in ABAQUS
16.1.1 Preprocessing (ABAQUS/CAE)
Preprocessing consists of defining the model of the physical problem and create an
ABAQUS input file. The model is usually created graphically using ABAQUS/CAE or
another preprocessor.
16.1.2 Simulation (ABAQUS/Standard or ABAQUS/Explicit)
The simulation is the stage in which ABAQUS/Standard or ABAQUS/Explicit solves the

numerical problem defined in the model which is a background process,. Examples of
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output from a stress analysis include displacements and stresses that are stored in
binary files ready for postprocessing. Depending on the complexity of the problem
being analyzed and the power of the computer being used, it may take anywhere
from seconds to days to complete an analysis run.
16.1.3 Postprocessing (ABAQUS/CAE)
Postprocessing consists of the evaluation of the result. The evaluation is generally

done interactively using the Visualization module of ABAQUS/CAE or another
postprocessor. The Visualization module, which reads the neutral binary output
database file, has a variety of options for displaying the results, including color
contour plots, animations, deformed shape plots, and X–Y plots.
16.1.4 Modules
ABAQUS/CAE consists of the following modules which help in creating and analyzing a
model.
 Part module
 Property module
 Assembly module
 Step module
 Interaction module
 Load module
 Mesh module
 Job module
 Visualization module
 Sketch module
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16.2 Brief Concept of Von Mises Stresses
In an elastic body that is subject to a system of loads in 3 dimensions, a complex 3
dimensional system of stresses is developed. At any point within the body there are
stresses acting in different directions, and the direction and magnitude of stresses
changes from point to point. The Von Mises criterion is a formula for calculating
whether the stress combination at a given point will cause failure.
There are three principal stresses that can be calculated at any point, acting in the x,
y, and z directions. Even though none of the principal stresses exceeds the yield
stress of the material, it is possible for yielding to result from the combination of
stresses. The Von Mises criterion is a formula for combining these three stresses into
an equivalent stress, which is then compared to the yield stress of the material. The
yield stress is a known property of the material, and is usually considered to be the
failure stress.
The equivalent stress is often called the Von Mises Stress, a scalar stress value that
can be computed from the stress tensor. If the Von Mises Stress exceeds the yield
stress, then the material is considered to be at the failure condition.
The formula for equivalent stress is given below:

2 2 2 2
(σ ¿ ¿ 1−σ 2) +(σ ¿ ¿ 2−σ 3 ) +(σ ¿ ¿ 3−σ 1 ) =2 σ e ¿ ¿ ¿
Where, σ 1, σ 2 and σ 3 are the principal stresses and σ e is the equivalent stress, or "Von
Mises Stress".
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16.3 Column
16.3.1 Tension Analysis
Figure 16.90 Column Geometry imported from AutoCAD
Figure 16.2 shows the geometry of the column which has been imported from the
software AutoCAD 2008. The details of the column dimensions have already been
mentioned in previous chapter. The figure shows three axis, the axis labeled ‘3’ is
along the longitudinal direction of the column, axis labeled ‘2’ is in the upward
direction and the axis labeled ‘1’ direction is outside the plane (paper).
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Figure 16.91 Application of material properties
Figure 16.3 shows the model of column after the material properties have been
applied to it. This is done by working in the property module of ABAQUS. The type
of the material to be selected is ‘isotropic’. The material properties include the
values of Young’s Modulus to be 207 x 103 MPa and Poisson’s ratio 0.27. After
applying properties, the section has been created and assigned.
Figure 16.92 Instance formation of column
Under the assembly module, the part of the column is instanced as shown in figure
16.4 using the option of Instance Part. In the step module, the type of analysis is
selected to be Static,General and the step time is given as 0.25.
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Figure 16.93 Load applied to Column
Figure 16.5 shows the application of the load on the column. The red color in the
figure shows that internal surface where the load has been applied. In the Load
module, the type of force selected is Pressure, with Uniform distribution. In order
to enter the value of the pressure magnitude, first the internal surface area is
calculated using the formula
A=πrh
where,
r =¿ Radius of hole
h = Length of cylindrical hole
The uniform pressure is then calculated using the formula,

F
P=
A
where,
F = Force applied = 12kN
Using this formula, the value of pressure is calculated to be,
P=47.77 MPa
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Figure 16.94 Boundary conditions applied to Column
Figure 16.6 shows the application of the boundary conditions. As it can be seen in the
figure, the boundary conditions have been applied in the internal surface at the end
of the column. The type of the boundary condition selected is
Displacement/Rotation with Uniform distribution. All the displacements and
rotation value is selected to be zero as shown in the figure below.
Figure 16.95 Boundary Condition options
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Figure 16.96 Mesh Generation
In Mesh module, first of all under the option of Seed Part Instance, the value of
global size is selected as 3.4 shown in figure 16.9. The global size defines how much
fine mesh is required. The other values are selected to be as default.
Figure 16.97 Global Seeds options
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Next under the option of Assign Mesh Control, the element shape is selected to be
tetra as shown in figure 16.10. The other element shapes are not selected since the
software itself gives message for having no techniques of meshing on other element
shapes. This is shown in figure 16.11.
Figure 16.98 Mesh Controls option
Figure 16.99 Mesh Control option on Hex element shape
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Figure 16.100 Undeformed Column
Figure 16.101 Cross-section of undeformed Column

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Figure 16.102 Deformed Column and its Results
Figure 16.103 Cross-section of deformed column
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Figure 16.12 and 16.13 shows the undeformed column and cross-section of
undeformed column respectively. The results of the deformed shape with its cross-
section are shown in figure 16.14 and 16.15. The maximum stress is at around the
point where the load is applied. Its value is 35.47 MPa. This value is less than the
tensile yield strength of the our selected material, which is 345 MPa.
Actual Limit Yield Von Mises Von Mises as

Tensile Yield Strength Stress percentage of Yield
Strength Strength
690 345 35.47 10.28
Figure 16.16 to 16.18 shows the displacement of column in three different directions
after the application of load. The displacement in U3, i.e. in the longitudinal direction,
increases linearly with time. After 0.25sec the maximum displacement reached is
approximately 0.01 mm. The displacement U2 decreases with time while the
displacement U1 increases with time. As compared to the increase in U3
displacement, the increase in U1 displacement is very less.
Figure 16.104 Displacement in U3
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16.3.2 Compression Analysis
Figure 16.107 Surface of load application
The compression analysis of the column is almost same as tension analysis, except
that the surface where the load is applied will be slightly different as shown in figure
16.19. The magnitude of the pressure applied and other conditions are same as used
for tension analysis.
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Figure 16.108 Deformed shape of Column
Figure 16.109 Deformed cross-section of column

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Figure 16.20 shows the undeformed column. The results of the deformed shape with
its cross-section are shown in figure 16.21. The maximum stress is at around the
tensile yield strength of the our selected material, which is 345 MPa.
Table 9 Comparison of Actual and Von Mises Stresses

Strength Strength
690 345 32.27 9.35
Figure 16.22 to 16.24 shows the displacement of column in three different directions
after the application of load. The displacement in U1, decreases linearly with time.
The displacement U2 increases linearly with time while the displacement U1
decreases with time. As compared to the decrease in U3 displacement, the decrease
in U1 displacement is very less.
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16.4 Screw Analysis
Figure 16.113 Screw Geometry imported from AutoCAD
Figure 16.25 shows the geometry of the screw which has been imported from the
software AutoCAD 2008. The details of the screw dimensions has already been
mentioned in previous chapter. The figure shows three axis, the axis labeled ‘3’ is
along the longitudinal direction of the screw, axis labeled ‘2’ is in the upward
direction and the axis labeled ‘1’ direction is outside the plane (paper).
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Figure 16.114 Application of material properties on screw
Figure 16.26 shows the model of screw after the material properties have been
applied to it. This is done by working in the property module of ABAQUS. The type
of the material to be selected is ‘isotropic’. The material properties include the
values of Young’s Modulus to be 207 x 10 3 MPa and Poisson’s ratio 0.27 as shown in
figure 16.27. After applying properties, the section has been created and assigned.
Figure 16.115 Material properties options
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Figure 16.116 Instance part
Under the assembly module, the part of the screw is instanced as shown in figure
16.28 using the option of Instance Part. In the step module, the type of analysis is
selected to be Static, General and the step time is given as 0.25 sec.
Figure 16.117 Create Step options
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Figure 16.118 Boundary conditions applied
Figure 16.30 shows the application of the boundary conditions. As it can be seen in
the figure, the boundary conditions have been applied in the internal surface at the
end of the column. The type of the boundary condition selected is
Displacement/Rotation with Uniform distribution. The boundary conditions have
been applied at two positions as shown in the figure above. The boundary conditions
entered are shown in figure 16.31.
Figure 16.119 Boundary Conditions
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Figure 16.120 Pressure Force applied on Screw
Figure 16.32 shows the application of the load on the screw. The load has ben
applied on the surface shown in figure. In the Load module, the type of force
selected is Pressure, with Uniform distribution. In order to enter the value of the
pressure magnitude, first the surface area is calculated using the formula
2
A=π r
where,
r =¿ Radius of screw
The uniform pressure is then calculated using the formula,

F
P=
A
where,
F = Force applied = 12kN
Using this formula, the value of pressure is calculated to be,
P=70 MPa
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Figure 16.121 Load applied due to moment
Figure 16.33 shows the load applied at the end of the screw due to moment created
from the effect of pulley motion. This moment is broken into eight equal components
of forces and then applied at the end.
Figure 16.122 Mesh Generation of Screw
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In Mesh module, first of all under the option of Seed Part Instance, the value of
global size is selected as 2.3 shown in figure 16.35. The global size defines how much
fine mesh is required. The other values are selected to be as default.
Figure 16.123 Global Seeds Options
Next under the option of Assign Mesh Control, the element shape is selected to be
tetra as shown in figure 16.36. The other element shapes are not selected since the
software itself gives message for having no techniques of meshing on other element
shapes. This is shown in figure 16.37.
Figure 16.124 Mesh Controls option
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Figure 16.125 Mesh Control option on Hex element shape
Figure 16.126 Undeformed Screw
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Figure 16.127 Deformed screw with different values of stresses
Figure 16.128 Deformed Screw cross-section
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After the mesh generation, the next step is to submit the job in the Job module.
Figure 16.38 shows the undeformed screw. The results of the deformed shape with
its cross-section are shown in figure 16.40. The maximum stress is at around the
tensile yield strength of our selected material, which is 345 MPa.
Table 10 Comparison of Actual and Von Mises Stresses for screw

Strength Strength
690 345 67.29 19.50
Figure 16.41 to 16.43 shows the displacement of screw in three different directions
after the application of load. The displacement in U1, decreases linearly with time.
The displacement U2 also decreases linearly with time while the displacement U3
increases with time reaching a maximum deformation of 0.004 mm after 0.25 sec.
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17 PROTOTYPE MANUFACTURING
So far we have completed our required task i.e. design of a compact

electromechanical actuator by using analytical formulae and/or the software
ABAQUS. Manufacturing of the designed system is not included in our project.
Although, our design is structurally sound but to validate our mechanical design we
planned to fabricate the actuator. Fabrication of the actual model is not possible
under the circumstances discussed later in this chapter. So, we planned to
manufacture the prototype of the actuator.
17.1 Prototype
A prototype is an original type, form, or instance of something serving as a typical

example, basis, or standard for other things of the same category.
17.2 General Idea

There is great uncertainty as to whether a new design will actually do what is
desired. New designs often have unexpected problems. A prototype is often used as
part of the product design process to allow engineers and designers the ability to
explore design alternatives, test theories and confirm performance prior to starting
production of a new product. Engineers use their experience to tailor the prototype
according to the specific unknowns still present in the intended design.
17.3 Cause of Prototyping

There is no general agreement on what constitutes a prototype. In general,
prototypes fall into four basic categories:
17.3.1 Proof-of-Principle Prototype
This type of prototype is used to test some aspect of the intended design without
attempting to exactly simulate the visual appearance, choice of materials or intended
manufacturing process.
17.3.2 Form Study Prototype
This type of prototype will allow designers to explore the basic size, look and feel of
a product without simulating the actual function or exact visual appearance of the
product.
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17.3.3 Visual Prototype
This type of prototype will capture the intended design aesthetic and simulate the
color and surface textures of the intended materials.
17.3.4 Functional Prototype
This type of prototype also called a working prototype will to the greatest extent
practical, attempt to simulate the final design, aesthetics, materials and functionality
of the intended design.
17.4 Our Case
Fabrication of any of the above four types of prototype depends not only upon what
you desire but also depends upon real world constraints. Under such constraints the
best suited prototype in our case is “Proof-of-Principle Prototype”.
Advantages
 Provide the proof of concept necessary to attract funding
 Early visibility of the prototype gives users an idea of what the final system
looks like
 Cost effective (Development costs reduced)
 Increases system development speed
 Helps to refine the potential risks associated with the delivery of the system
being developed
 Various aspects can be tested and quicker feedback can be got from the user
 Helps to deliver the product in quality easily
Disadvantages
 Producer might produce a system inadequate for overall organization needs
 Structure of system can be damaged since many changes could be made
17.5 Market Survey
Market survey is very crucial for developing the prototype. This not only includes
survey of the local and international market for the checking availability of the
required materials, components but also includes the lead time (time required for the
availability i.e. this includes the order placement manufacturing of the component at
the company, shipping time etc) and the cost analysis as cost is a major factor
especially for academia projects.
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17.6 Material Availability and Cost Analysis
As the result of the market survey we found that our selected material for the design
i.e. AISI Steel 4140 is easily available in the local market. Heat treatment of the steel
significantly increases its yield strength. In our case, AISI Steel 4140 is Oil Quenched
and Tempered (OQT). It is easily available and not costly. Therefore, tensile test of
the material was conducted in the Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC), Taxila. Figure
17.1 shows the universal testing machine used to conduct this experiment. The
results obtained from the experiments are shown in figure 17.2 and 17.3 below,
Figure 17.132 Universal Testing Machine
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Figure 17.133 Tensile test results of Steel 4140
In order to compare the above material, the tensile test of another material, Steel D2
was also conducted since this was easily available in the market, results are shown
on next page.
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Figure 17.134 Tensile test results of Steel D2
The results shows that the yield strength of steel 4140 is slightly greater than that of
Steel D2, therefore Steel 4140 was selected as the suitable material for the
manufacturing of our prototype.
17.7 Components Availability and Cost Analysis
17.7.1 Bearings
Selected thrust and linear bearings are easily available in the local market and are
cost effective.
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17.7.2 Belt
Selected belt size is not available in the local market. It is available in the
international market but import from any other country takes two or three months
and it is very expensive. So, we make a compromise on the belt size.
17.7.3 Motor and Controller
Our selected Kollmorgen® Goldline Motor B-206-C with Servo Star Amplifier SR10 is
only available in the international market. This is the most expensive component of
the design. So, we decided to use a simple DC brushed motor (Buhler Motor 24VDC)
instead of the servo. In this regard, we will design a controller using the software
National Instrument (NI) Labview® along with an electric circuit which amplifies the
voltage and current up to the required level of the motor and also control the
direction of the motor.
17.7.4 Electric Circuit
Electric Circuit for the control system consists of the amplification process (by
amplifier) which amplifies the control signal from the National Instrument ® Data
Acquisition Card (NI-DAC) and the directional control process (H-Bridge).
17.7.4.1 Amplifier
Amplifier consists of the two operational amplifiers (Operational Amplifier-LM741),

npn transistor, resistors and power supplies as shown in the figure. The purpose of
the operational amplifiers is to scale up the 0 -10 V (coming from the control) to 0- 24
−2.4 kΩ
V (for the motor range). First operational amplifier sets the gain of -2.4 ( ) and
1 kΩ
−10 kΩ
the second amplifier works as an inverter setting the gain of -1 ( ). Thus, the
10 kΩ
overall gain become 2.4 (-2.4x-1). This voltage cannot be used directly for the motor
because it has very low current. To increase the current we make use of the simple
npn-transistor. Now, 0.5 V is added to the input of the first amplifier because of the
fact that transistor will not work up till 0.5 V (actual) or 0.7 (ideal).
17.7.4.2 H-Bridge
H-Bridge is used here for changing the motor rotation direction. H-Bridge works on
the simple switching principle. This switching will be made by the Digital output come
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from the Data Acquisition Card. For H-bridge working Dual Full-Bridge Driver- L298 is
used. Following switching logic is used for controlling the direction.
Table 11 Switching Logic
DIRECTION SWITCH
A B C D
Clockwise 1 0 0 1
Counter-clockwise 0 1 1 0
Brake 0 1 0 1
17.7.4.3 Potentiometer
Potentiometer will be used for feedback the position of the actuator rod. As the screw
rotates, rod moves and the potentiometer gives the feedback of the position.
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Figure 17.135 Control system diagram with electrical circuit
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17.8 Manufacturing
For manufacturing of the mechanical components, complete detailed drawings were
given in the chapter “System Integration and Modeling”.
17.8.1 Size
Size of the prototype actuator will be set same as of the real design. This will be set
to ensure the early visibility of the prototype which gives an idea of how the final
system looks like.
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18 CONCLUSION
After the thorough study and the literature survey, first of all the different
components of actuator was considered and then selected the most suitable one
conceptually. In preliminary design phase, the components selected were designed
and its different parameters were calculated. After the completion of preliminary
design phase, we moved on to the detailed designing, in which complete 3-D drawing
of each component is drawn using AutoCAD. State of the art FEA software ABAQUS is
used for the structural analysis of column and screw. Finally, the results were
analyzed which satisfies the design of EMA.
On the same design lines we can design the EMA for any type of application such as
for the deployment of solar panels in satellite, movement of the door of the industrial
oven, movement of the aircraft or rockets control surfaces or even in the dental
chair.
18.1 Our Concern-Space Applications
Electromechanical actuators are best suited for space applications due to the
following distinguishing advantages of it over hydraulic and pneumatic actuators.
18.1.1 Lighter
Electromechanical actuators are very much lighter as comparable to hydraulic and

pneumatic actuators for same loading conditions due to simple working mechanism
and less working components.
18.1.2 Cleaner
There is no threat of leakage of any type of gas or oil in electromechanical actuator

as in hydraulic and pneumatic actuators. Space system are very sensitive to any
kind of these leakages.
18.1.3 Safer
No leakage, simple working mechanism and less working components make the
electromechanical actuators safer than hydraulic and pneumatic actuators and
reduce the chances of failure.
18.1.4 Energy Efficient

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Electromechanical actuators are very energy efficient as these systems have not any
type of compression mechanism as in hydraulics and pneumatics.
In a nutshell, we can say that electromechanical actuators are best suited for space
applications.
18.2 Future Prospects
In future, following projects can be done related to electromechanical actuator.
18.2.1 Study of Deviations by Manufacturing Actual Model
Manufacturing of the prototype just shows the working principle. Manufacturing of

the actual model shows the real insight of the actuator design deviations (if any).
This can help to reduce such deviations. Study of these design problems is very vital
and crucial. The problems must be rectify or removed before using it for the space
application. The aim of this project is to study the theoretical and actual performance
of the actuator.
18.2.2 Design and Manufacturing of Test Bed for EMA
Design and manufacturing of the test bed for validate the design of
electromechanical actuator requires the actuator design and manufacturing of the
actuator as a pre-requisite. Before using the actuator in real time application,
actuator must be test on the test bed to check the working and design parameters.
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19 APPENDICES
19.1 APPENDIX A
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%% SCREW DESIGN %%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% MATERIAL PROPERTIES
clc
roh_e = input('Enter density in English units = ');
roh_s = 27137.81*roh_e;
t_stress_s = input('Enter Tensile Stress in SI units = ');
s_stress_s = 0.5*t_stress_s;
limit_t_stress_s = t_stress_s/4;
limit_s_stress_s = s_stress_s/4;
load_s = 12;
loadall_s = load_s*1.25;
loadall_e = loadall_s*224.809;
fi = input('Enter thread angle in radians, fi = ');
f = input('Enter friction constant, f = ');
vmax_s = 361;
K1 = 1.47;
C1 = 4.57;
K2 = 2;
C2 = 13.4;
e = 0.9;
D_e = input('Enter distance b/w bearing in inches = '); %Length
b/w bearing support
At_s = loadall_s*1000/(limit_t_stress_s*10^6)
At_e = At_s*1549
As1_s = loadall_s*1000/(limit_s_stress_s*10^6)
As1_e = As1_s*1549
maj_dia_e = input('Major diameter in English units = ');

maj_dia_s = maj_dia_e*25.4;
n = input('Thread per inch, n = ');
p_e = input('Pitch of the thread in English Units, p = ');
p_s = p_e*25.4;
min_dia_e = input('Minor diameter in English units = ');
min_dia_s = min_dia_e*25.4;
min_pdia_e = input('Min pitch diameter in English units = ');
min_pdia_s = min_pdia_e*25.4;
As_e = input('Enter Shear Stress Area in English Units = ');
%Required length of nut

h1 = As1_e*(1/As_e);
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%Lead Angle
lead_e = 1/n;
lead_s = lead_e*25.4;
lambda = atan(lead_e/pi/min_pdia_e);
%%Torque required to raise the load

Tu_e = loadall_e*lead_e/(2*pi*e)
% Tu_e = (loadall_e*min_pdia_e/2)*(((cos(fi))*(tan(lambda))+f)/((cos(fi))-
f*(tan(lambda))));
Tu_s = Tu_e*0.113;
%% Efficiency
% e = loadall_e*lead_e/(2*pi*Tu_e);
%%Torque required to lower the load
Td_e=(loadall_e*min_pdia_e/2)*((f((cos(fi))*(tan(lambda))))/((cos(fi))
+f*(tan(lambda))));
Td_s = Td_e*0.113;
%%Motion Profile
omega = vmax_s*60/lead_s;
%%Power
power_e = Tu_e*omega/63000;
power_s = Tu_s*omega/9550;
%%Critical Speed
cs_rpm = (K1*C1*10^6)*min_dia_e/D_e^2;
%Max Column Load

cload_e = (K2*C2*10^6)*min_dia_e^4/D_e^2;
cload_s = 0.004448*cload_e;
19.2 APPENDIX B
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Datasheet Of Servo Mechanism
System Summary
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System Interconnect Diagram
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19.3 APPENDIX C
Manufacturer’s Catalogue of Bearing

AST Tapered Roller Bearings
Basic Load Ratings Limiting Speed
(kN) (rpm)
Dimensions mm Reference No. Set Numbers Series
d D T Cone Cup Bower Timken Cr Cor Grease Oil
15.000 35.000 11.750 30202 Metric 11.90 13.50 9,000 13,000

15.000 42.000 14.250 30302 Metric 22.90 21.70 9,000 13,000
17.000 40.000 13.250 30203 Metric 20.70 22.20 9,000 13,000
17.000 47.000 15.250 30303 Metric 28.30 27.40 8,500 12,000
19.050 45.237 16.630 7804Y Metric 29.70 30.80 9,000 12,000
20.000 42.000 15.000 32004 Metric 28.00 30.00 8,000 11,000
20.000 47.000 15.250 30204 Metric 28.20 30.90 8,000 11,000
20.000 47.000 14.000 30204BE Metric 26.40 27.50 8,000 11,000
20.000 47.000 19.250 32204 Metric 36.50 39.50 8,000 11,000
20.000 52.000 16.250 30304 Metric 33.20 33.30 8,000 11,000
20.000 52.000 16.250 30304C Metric 31.10 32.00 7,200 9,800
25.000 47.000 15.000 32005 Metric 27.00 32.50 8,000 11,000
25.000 52.000 16.250 30205 Metric 33.70 39.40 7,500 10,000
25.000 52.000 19.250 32205 Metric 42.00 47.00 7,500 10,000
25.000 52.000 19.250 32205 P6 Metric 42.00 47.00 75,000 10,000
25.000 52.000 22.000 33205 Metric 47.30 56.00 6,700 9,000
25.000 52.000 16.250 30205R Metric 47.00 39.00 75,000 10,000
25.000 62.000 18.250 30305 Metric 47.00 48.30 6,700 9,000
25.000 62.000 18.250 30305X2B Metric 39.60 41.70 6,500 8,700
25.000 62.000 18.250 31305 Metric 40.70 46.00 5,600 7,500
25.000 62.000 25.250 32305 Metric 61.70 68.90 6,000 8,000
26.000 47.000 15.000 320 26 Metric 27.60 33.60 8,000 11,000
26.000 57.150 17.460 7805Y Metric 37.20 45.90 7,000 9,000
28.000 52.000 16.000 320 28A Metric 27.00 33.60 6,000 7,000
30.000 72.000 28.575 32306 Metric 81.70 97.60 5,300 7,000
30.000 55.000 17.000 32006 Metric 35.80 44.00 6,700 9,000
30.000 62.000 17.250 30206 Metric 43.30 50.60 6,300 8,500
30.000 62.000 21.250 32206 Metric 51.80 63.90 6,300 8,500
30.000 62.000 25.000 33206 Metric 64.40 76.50 5,600 7,500
30.000 72.000 20.750 30306 Metric 59.00 63.90 5,600 7,500
30.000 72.000 20.750 30306X2B Metric 57.80 76.00 5,600 7,500
30.000 72.000 20.750 31306 Metric 47.30 50.00 5,000 6,700
32.000 58.000 17.000 320/32A 32A Metric 36.90 46.50 4,900 6,300
35.000 62.000 18.000 32007 Metric 42.90 54.00 6,000 8,000
35.000 72.000 18.250 30207 Metric 48.00 58.00 5,300 7,000
35.000 72.000 18.250 30207EN Metric 48.00 58.00 5,300 7,000
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35.000 72.000 18.250 30207P6X Metric 48.00 58.00 5,300 7,000
35.000 72.000 24.250 32207 Metric 70.60 89.70 5,300 7,000
35.000 72.000 28.000 33207E Metric 70.00 89.70 5,300 7,000
35.000 80.000 22.750 30307 Metric 75.40 83.60 5,000 6,700
35.000 80.000 22.750 31307 Metric 61.60 67.00 4,500 6,000
35.000 80.000 32.750 32307 Metric 99.10 119.00 4,800 6,300
35.000 80.000 32.750 32307C Metric 99.10 119.00 4,800 6,300
40.000 68.000 19.000 32008 Metric 52.80 71.00 5,300 7,000
40.000 68.000 19.000 32008 P6X Metric 52.80 71.00 5,300 7,000
40.000 80.000 19.750 30208 Metric 63.00 74.10 4,800 6,300
40.000 80.000 24.750 32208 Metric 77.00 97.00 4,800 6,300
40.000 80.000 24.750 32208 P6 Metric 77.00 97.00 4,800 6,300
40.000 80.000 32.000 332082 Metric 1.50 132.00 4,300 5,600
40.000 85.000 19.750 30208AR Metric 63.00 74.00 4,800 6,300
40.000 90.000 25.250 30308 Metric 90.00 108.00 4,500 6,000
40.000 90.000 25.250 31308 Metric 81.00 96.00 4,000 5,300
40.000 90.000 35.250 32308 Metric 115.00 149.00 4,000 5,300
45.000 75.000 20.000 32009 Metric 58.00 80.00 4,800 6,300
45.000 85.000 20.750 30209 Metric 67.00 84.00 4,500 6,000
45.000 85.000 24.750 32209 Metric 80.00 105.00 4,500 6,000
45.000 85.000 32.000 33209E Metric 80.00 105.00 4,500 6,000
45.000 90.000 30.000 7809K Metric 88.00 123.00 4,500 6,000
45.000 100.000 27.250 30309 Metric 108.00 120.00 4,000 5,300
45.000 100.000 27.250 30309X2B Metric 108.00 120.00 4,000 5,300
45.000 100.000 27.250 31309 Metric 91.00 102.00 3,400 4,500
45.000 100.000 38.250 32309 Metric 145.00 191.00 3,600 4,800
45.000 120.000 38.250 32309BR Metric 140.00 183.00 4,500 5,600
47.000 100.000 43.000 306 47 Metric 90.00 100.00 4,500 5,600
50.000 80.000 20.000 32010 Metric 60.00 88.00 4,500 6,000
50.000 90.000 21.750 30210 Metric 76.00 97.00 4,300 5,600
50.000 90.000 21.750 30210AR Metric 76.00 97.00 4,400 5,500
50.000 90.000 24.750 32210 Metric 76.00 97.00 4,300 5,600
50.000 90.000 32.000 33210E Metric 76.00 97.00 4,300 5,600
50.000 90.000 21.750 35210 Metric 76.00 97.00 4,300 5,600
50.000 100.000 35.000 33910E Metric 76.00 97.00 4,300 5,600
50.000 110.000 29.250 30310 Metric 130.00 159.00 3,600 4,800
50.000 110.000 29.250 31310 Metric 106.00 120.00 3,200 4,300
50.000 110.000 42.250 32310 Metric 177.00 239.00 3,200 4,300
55.000 90.000 23.000 32011 Metric 80.00 116.00 4,000 5,300
55.000 100.000 26.750 32211 Metric 108.00 144.00 3,800 5,000
55.000 100.000 35.000 33211 Metric 138.00 190.00 3,400 4,500
55.000 120.000 31.500 30311 Metric 153.00 190.00 3,200 4,300
55.000 120.000 31.500 31311 Metric 130.00 158.00 2,800 3,800
Sikandar Moten
55.000 120.000 31.500 31311 YA Metric 130.00 158.00 2,800 3,800
Pulley Selection Table
a = Available Bore Size, no

Dimensions (mm)
keyway
OD Pitch k = Available, has keyway* WidthFlangeOffsetCenterHub
Part Dia 6.4 7.9 9.5 12.7 15.9 19.1 25.4 W
Type(mm) (mm) F C L H
No.
3L-Sec (also called O-Sec) V-Pulley
P 100 -O 25.4 22.9 a a 22.2 12.7 9.5 15.9 19.1
P 150 -O 38.1 35.6 a a a a 25.4 12.7 12.7 19.1 23.8
P 200 -O 50.8 48.3 a a a a a 25.4 12.7 12.7 19.1 25.4
P 250 -O 63.5 61 a a a 25.4 12.7 12.7 19.1 28.6
P 300 -O 76.2 73.7 a a a 25.4 12.7 12.7 19.1 28.6
P 350 -O 88.9 86.4 a a a 25.4 12.7 12.7 19.1 28.6
P 400 -O 101.6 99.1 a a a 25.4 12.7 12.7 19.1 28.6
A-Sec V-Pulley
P 150 -A 38.1 31.8 a a 28.6 15.9 12.7 20.7 22.2
P 175 -A 44.5 38.1 a a k k 29.4 16.7 12.7 20.7 31.8
P 200 -A 50.8 44.5 a a k k 27 14.3 12.7 19.8 27
P 225 -A 57.2 50.8 a a k k 30.2 17.5 12.7 20.7 28.6
P 250 -A 63.5 57.2 a a k k 30.2 17.5 12.7 20.7 28.6
P 275 -A 69.9 63.5 a a k k 31.8 19.1 12.7 22.2 28.6
P 300 -A 76.2 69.9 a k k 30.2 17.5 12.7 20.7 28.6
P 325 -A 82.6 76.2 a k k 30.2 17.5 12.7 20.7 28.6
P 350 -A 88.9 82.6 a k k 31.8 19.1 12.7 22.2 28.6
P 400 -A 101.6 95.3 a k k 31.8 19.1 12.7 22.2 28.6
P 450 -A 114.3 108 a k k 31.8 19.1 12.7 22.2 28.6
P 500 -A 127 120.7 a k k k 31.8 19.1 12.7 22.2 28.6
P 550 -A 139.7 133.4 a k k k 38.1 15.9 22.2 30.2 39.7
P 600 -A 152.4 146.1 a k k k 34.9 19.1 15.9 25.4 41.3
P 700 -A 177.8 171.5 a k k k 38.1 15.9 22.2 28.6 41.3
P 800 -A 203.2 196.9 a k k k 34.9 19.1 15.9 25.4 36.5
P 900 -A 228.6 222.3 a k k k 33.4 17.5 15.9 25.4 41.3
P 1000 -A 254 247.7 a k k k 33.4 17.5 15.9 25.4 41.3
P 1100 -A 279.4 273.1 a k k k 33.4 17.5 15.9 25.4 41.3
P 1200 -A 304.8 298.5 a k k k 33.4 17.5 15.9 25.4 41.3
P 1400 -A 355.6 349.3 a k k k 33.4 17.5 15.9 25.4 41.3
A-Sec No-Hub V-Pulley

H 200 -A 50.8 44.5 a k k 15.9 15.9 none 8 22.2
H 250 -A 63.5 57.2 a k k k 15.9 15.9 none 8 25.4
H 300 -A 76.2 69.9 a k k k 15.9 15.9 none 8 27
B-Sec V-Pulley
P 200 -B 50.8 44.5 a k 33.4 20.7 12.7 23 27.8
P 225 -B 57.2 50.8 a k k 31.8 22.2 9.5 20.7 31.8
P 250 -B 63.5 57.2 a k k 31.8 19.1 12.7 22.2 28.6
Sikandar Moten
P 275 -B 69.9 63.5 a k k 31.8 19.1 12.7 22.2 28.6
P 300 -B 76.2 69.9 a k k 33.4 20.7 12.7 23 28.6
P 325 -B 82.6 76.2 a k k 31.8 19.1 12.7 22.2 31.8
20 NOMENCLATURE
ρ Density
σy Tensile Yield Strength
ζy Shear Yield Strength
At Tensile Stress Area
As Shear Stress Area
F Load
Dr Minor Diameter
Dp Minimum Pitch Diameter
λ Lead Angle
Tu Torque Required to raise the Load
Td Torque Required to Lower the Load
ω Angular speed
V Linear Speed
K` End Support Factor
C Material Factor
E Modulus of Elasticity
Sy Yield Strength of Material
Pcr Critical Load
Pa Allowable Load
P Actual Applied Load
I Moment of Inertia
r Radius of gyration
K End fixity constant
Fr Radial load
Sikandar Moten
Fa Axial or thrust load
PA Equivalent radial load on bearing A
PB Equivalent radial load on bearing B
FrA Applied radial load on bearing A
FrB Applied radial load on bearing A
TA Thrust load on bearing A
YA Thrust factor for bearing A
YB Thrust factor for bearing B
V Race rotation factor
L10 Rated bearing life (in million revolutions)
L10h Rated bearing life (in hours)
Lus Unsupported belt length
α Arc of contact of pulley
Sikandar Moten
21 REFERENCES
Books and Papers
[1] George P. Sutton, Rocket Propulsion Elements, Seventh edition, A Wiley-

Interscience Publication, 2001.
[2] Robert L. Mott, Machine Elements in Mechanical Design, Second edition, Prentice-
Hall, 1992.
[3] V. B. Bhandari, Design of Machine Elements, Second edition, McGraw-Hill, 2007.
[4] Robert L. Norton, Machine Design-An Integrated Approach, Pearson Education,
Prentice-Hall, 2003.
[5] Ronald A. Walsh, Electromechanical Design Handbook, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill,
2000.
[6] Joseph E. Shigley, R. Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design, Sixth Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 2001.
[7] J. R. Cowan and Rae Ann Weir, “Design and Test of Electromechanical Actuators
for Thrust Vector Control,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Marshal
Space Flight Centre.
[8] Mary Allen Roth, “Electromechanical Actuation for Thrust Vector Control
Applications,” NASA Technical Memorandum 102548, May 21-25, 1990.
[9] Thomas L. Nickens, John L. Sutton, Lionel H. Erickson and Phillip C. Sottosanti,
“Thrust Vector Control Study for Large Rocket Motor Applications,” April 1970.
Websites
[a] http://www.me.ua.edu/me465/PDF/Motor_Selection_Sizing1.pdf
[b] http://www.a-m-c.com/content/m101/mco.html
[c] http://exlar.com/prod_PRS_oview.html
[d] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roller_bearing#Needle_bearing
[e] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_belt
[f] http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au
[g] http://www.durabelt.com
[h] http://www.wikipedia.en
[i] http://www.duffnorton.com
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The Institute of Space Technology

Design Of Compact Electro-Mechanical Actuator

Project Supervisor’s Name: Dr. Rashid Mahmood

Project Supervisor’s Signature: _____________________________

Project Supervisor’s Signature: _____________________________

Design of Electromechanical Actuator -1- June 2008

Design Of Compact Electro-Mechanical Actuator

B.Sc. Aerospace Engineering

Electromechanical actuators have taken the place of hydraulic and pneumatic

Design of Electromechanical Actuator -3- June 2008

4 MOTION PROFILE SELECTION..............................................................2

Design of Electromechanical Actuator -4- June 2008

9 DRIVE, BELT AND PULLEY SELECTION..................................................2

Design of Electromechanical Actuator -5- June 2008

11 SELECTING THE REQUIRED MOTOR FOR EMA........................................2

Design of Electromechanical Actuator -6- June 2008

13 BEARING DESIGN AND SELECTION.......................................................2

15 SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND MODELLING..............................................2

Design of Electromechanical Actuator -8- June 2008

Figure 1.1 Timeline for the project...............................................................................2

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 12 - June 2008

Table 1 Figure of Merits of DC and AC Motor................................................................2

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 13 - June 2008

1.1 Executive Summary

1.2 Management Summary

1.2.1 Schedule and Planning

1.2.2 Organizational Hierarchy and Division of Tasks

Dr. Rashid Mahmood Mr. Hamza G. Toor Mr. Ashar Nomani

Sikandar Moten Zeeshan Hasnatullah Shami

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 15 - June 2008

Figure 1.1 Timeline for the project

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 16 - June 2008

1.3.2 Typical steps

A design process may include a series of steps followed by designers. Depending on

Typical stages of the design process include:

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 17 - June 2008

In addition to providing a propulsive force to a flying vehicle, a rocket

The reasons for TVC are:

 to willfully change a flight path or trajectory

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 18 - June 2008

Figure 1.3 Pitching moment applied to vehicle

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 19 - June 2008

 For an engine or a motor with a single nozzle

1.4.1 Thrust Vector Control Mechanisms

1.4.1.1 Gimbals or Hinge

1.4.1.2 Jet Vanes

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 20 - June 2008

1.4.1.3 Small Control Auxiliary Thrust Chambers

Figure 1.6 Two or more gimbaled auxiliary thrust chambers

1.4.1.4 Slide Injection

1.4.1.5 Jet Tab

Figure 1.8 Jet tab

1.4.1.6 Flexible Nozzle Joint

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 22 - June 2008

2.1 Outline of the Project

The aim of the project is to design an Electro-mechanical actuator for Spacecraft

Design of Electromechanical Actuator - 23 - June 2008

2.3 Motor Type

 Brushless DC Servo motor