CLEAPPS Student Safety Sheets

Student Safety Sheets DLSSS
November 2009 November 2009 DLSSS Customisable template document to assist in teaching safety to students. For use in conjunction with CLEAPSS Student Safety Sheets. It is provided as a Microsoft Word document to permit modification to reflect local requirements. CLEAPSS 2009.
Strictly Confidential. Circulate to Members and Associates only.

Student Safety Sheets Please note that you must install the CLEAPSS font (E252) for the hazard symbols in this document to display correctly.
Supporting practical science & technology

- in schools & colleges
CLEAPSS , The Gardiner Building, Brunel Science Park, Uxbridge UB8 3PQ
Tel: 01895 251496; Fax: 01895 814372; E-mail: [email protected]; Web site: www.cleapss.org.uk
For further information, consult the latest edition of the CLEAPSS Hazcards or Laboratory Handbook
CLEAPSS 2007
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
Microorganisms
Source
Samples from the environment
Hazard
Comment
Air, water and soil samples could be used, but not samples from high-risk areas, eg, toilets or the floors of changing rooms. All environmental samples could be contaminated with pathogens (organisms which cause disease). Finger dabs could be used or hair from clean areas, eg, the scalp. Samples could, however, be contaminated with pathogens (see above). Any uncooked animal product (eggs, meat, cheese etc) may be contaminated with bacteria, especially Salmonella and Escherichia coli (E. coli) from the gut, which can cause food poisoning. Take care to prevent cross contamination between cooked and uncooked foods. Thorough cooking will destroy bacteria. Cultures bought from reputable suppliers (but not those from hospitals, etc) should be safe but may have become contaminated. E. coli is often studied in schools, but this is not the same strain of bacterium that causes food poisoning.
b
BIOHAZARD
Samples from humans Foods
b
BIOHAZARD
b
BIOHAZARD
Purchased cultures
(ie, samples of microorganisms bought from suppliers)
b
BIOHAZARD
Tp acnom sr soeuei k yi l ot l e u t r dc rs c r a e
When culturing, if possible, grow bacteria and fungi on solids (agar) rather than liquids (broth) to avoid spills and aerosol formation. Choose culture media, eg, nutrient agar, that do not favour the growth of pathogens. Incubate at temperatures which do not encourage growth of pathogens (ie, not normally around 37 C). Do not seal cultures completely before incubation (otherwise hazardous anaerobic bacteria are encouraged) but make sure they cannot be opened accidentally. After incubation, seal completely agar plates containing microbial samples taken from the environment or human skin before they are examined. Incubated cultures taken from the environment or humans must never be opened. Use sterile equipment and procedures (eg, by flaming loops and mouths of bottles, etc). Avoid draughts (from open windows and doors) which could contaminate cultures and cause spores from fungi (eg, mould) to spread. Work near Bunsen-burner flames so that the updraught helps to prevent contamination of cultures. After work is complete, treat surfaces using a suitable disinfectant, for a sufficient length of time. Dispose of all cultures (including mould on food) by sterilisation in an autoclave (pressure cooker). Always wash hands after handling cultures and before handling food. Wear a clean lab. coat or overall to protect cultures and food from microbes on the skin, clothing, etc. In cooking, ensure that food is heated to at least 70 C for at least 2 minutes. Do not reheat cooked food; prepare, store and display cooked and uncooked foods separately.
Assessing the risks

What are the details of the activity to be undertaken? What are the hazards? What is the chance of something going wrong?
Eg, Could a food or a culture be, or become, contaminated? Could microorganisms or their spores escape?
CLEAPSS 2007
How serious would it be if something did go wrong?

Eg, Could material pathogenic to humans be released? Could food poisoning result?
How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Eg, Can it be done safely? Does the procedure need to be altered?
Emergency action
Spilt on the floor, bench, etc For spills of cultures, place paper towels over the spill, pour disinfectant (eg, Virkon) on top and leave for at least 15 minutes. Bleach is usually suitable in the home.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
Enzymes
includes Amylase, Catalase, Cellulase, Diastase, Lipase, Proteases (eg, pepsin, trypsin), Urease
Substance
Enzymes
Powders Biological detergents contain enzymes.
Hazard
Comment
All enzymes may be sensitisers (see below) and may produce allergic reactions. They can cause asthma and irritate the eyes, nose and skin. All enzymes may be sensitisers (see below) and may produce allergic reactions. They can cause asthma and irritate the eyes, nose and skin. The enzymes at these concentrations are unlikely to offer any significant risk.
H
HARMFUL
Enzymes
Concentrated solutions
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Enzymes
Dilute solutions Biological systems are, of course, rich sources of enzymes, eg, liver (catalase), saliva (amylase).
Note: Some people are allergic to particular substances; their bodies immune system reacts to these substances to an unusual extent. Asthma is one type of allergy which results in breathing difficulties. A sensitiser is a substance that may produce only a small or even no allergic reaction when humans are first exposed to it (sometimes over an extended period of time) but can produce a much more severe reaction on subsequent occasions, even when the body is exposed to much smaller amounts.
Use the lowest concentration/smallest amount possible. Reduce the risk of skin contact by wearing disposable gloves. Wear eye protection. Avoid powdered enzymes escaping into the air; use a fume cupboard when handling enzyme powders.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could enzyme dust be breathed in?
How serious would it be if something did go wrong? How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?
Emergency action
For further information, consult the latest edition of the CLEAPSS Hazcards or Laboratory Handbook CLEAPSS 2007
In the eye Swallowed Dust breathed in Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc
Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Wash out the mouth. Give a glass of water to drink. Do not make the casualty vomit. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. See a doctor if breathing is difficult. Remove contaminated clothing. Wash off the skin with soap and plenty of water. Rinse contaminated clothing. Scoop up powders (take care not to raise dust). Wipe up solution spills or any traces of powders with a damp cloth.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
includes
Human body fluids & tissues

Cheek cells, blood, saliva, sweat & urine
Comment
There is a very tiny risk of transmission of HIV or hepatitis virus but only if contact is made with samples other than your own. Sampling may be banned in some schools although this is very unlikely. There is some risk of transmission of HIV or hepatitis virus if contact is made with blood other than your own. Taking blood samples is possible if stringent precautions are taken and may not be permitted in some schools. Never share hypodermic needles or become blood brothers. There is a negligible risk of transmission of HIV or hepatitis virus even if you come into contact with saliva other than your own. Kissing is rarely banned for reasons of hygiene! There is a negligible risk of transmission of diseases even from contact with sweat other than your own, but this is no excuse for poor hygiene. There is a very tiny risk of transmission of various diseases if you come into contact with urine other than your own, although urine is normally sterile. In investigations involving urine, take care when obtaining and transporting samples. Wash hands after using the toilet.
Source
Cheek cells
Hazard
b
BIOHAZARD
Blood
b
BIOHAZARD LOW HAZARD LOW HAZARD
Saliva Sweat Urine
b
BIOHAZARD
Only handle samples from your own body. After use, hygienically dispose of samples, disinfect by immersion for 30 minutes in a solution of sodium chlorate(I) (hypochlorite, eg, Milton) or Virkon (for 10 minutes) and rinse contaminated containers; treat benches for a sufficient length of time with a suitable disinfectant (Virkon is preferred) and wash hands. Any swabs, slides or other equipment contaminated with blood should be collected in a suitable container, then autoclaved. Use a sharps container if necessary. Treat clinical thermometers, mouthpieces, etc in Milton for 30 minutes before and after use. In first aid, minimise contact with blood by wearing disposable surgical gloves or by asking the casualty to carry out her/his own treatment, eg, by applying pressure to a wound using a pad of cloth.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could somebody else come into contact with samples from your body, or vice versa? If first-aid treatment was not applied, could the casualtys condition put his or her life at risk?

Eg, Could HIV or hepatitis virus or other pathogens be transmitted?

Emergency action
Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Disposal of bloody tissues, etc For spills of most body fluid samples, place paper towels over the spill, pour disinfectant (eg, Virkon) on top and leave for at least 15 minutes. For blood, wear disposable gloves and use sodium chlorate(I) (hypochlorite, bleach) containing at least 10 000 ppm chlorine. Leave in contact for 15-30 minutes. Wash hands thoroughly. Avoid skin contact with tissues etc contaminated with blood. In school, place in a container for sanitary towels, etc. Then incinerate or use a clinical wastecollection service. At home, flush down the toilet or wrap carefully and place in the refuse.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
Food testing (1)

Substance
Food
Hazard
Comment
Uncooked samples of food may be contaminated with microbes. (See Student Safety Sheet 1, Microorganisms.) Some people are allergic to some foods, especially peanuts. See Student Safety Sheets 31 and 40. Solution A contains slightly-acidic copper sulfate solution, but at concentrations which present only a LOW HAZARD. Solution B contains sodium hydroxide solution which is CORROSIVE. As the mixture has to be heated in a test tube, there is a risk of alkali spitting out. See Student Safety Sheet 40. Contains slightly-alkaline copper sulfate solution, but at concentrations which present only a LOW HAZARD. Some risk of spitting when heating test tubes. See Student Safety Sheet 60. If Bunsen burners are being used nearby for other food tests, there is a serious fire risk. See Student Safety Sheet 56. Wear eye protection, though the solution in water is dilute and only presents a LOW HAZARD. See Student Safety Sheets 31 and 40. Uses very dilute copper sulfate solution (LOW HAZARD) and sodium hydroxide solution which is IRRITANT (not CORROSIVE) if kept dilute (below 0.5 M).
b
BIOHAZARD
Fehlings solution
Used to test for reducing sugars.
C
CORROSIVE LOW HAZARD
Benedicts solution
Used to test for reducing sugars.
Ethanol
Used to test for fats (lipids).
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE LOW HAZARD
Iodine solution
Used to test for starch.
Biuret test
Used to test for proteins.
I
IRRITANT
Do not taste foods in laboratories; avoid using products containing peanuts etc if there is a known allergy. Wear eye protection and use the smallest possible amounts of chemicals. Use Benedicts solution rather than Fehlings solution and heat with a water bath. Do not use ethanol if there are naked flames nearby.
CLEAPSS 2007
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could chemicals spit out of a test tube? Might somebody using a Bunsen burner be unaware that a nearby person was using ethanol?

Could ethanol catch fire or alkali splash into the eye?
Eg, Can it be done safely? Does the procedure need to be altered? Should goggles or safety spectacles be worn?
Emergency action
In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. SwallowedDo no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area skin is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. or clothing Clothing Smother flames on clothing or skin with a fire blanket or other material. Cool any catches burnt skin with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. fire Other Allow fires in sinks, etc to burn out. Fires at the top of test tubes, beakers, etc ethanol should be smothered with a damp cloth or heat-proof mat if this can be done safely. fires Spilt on For small amounts, use a damp cloth. Rinse well. For larger amounts, cover with floor, mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise alkali with bench, citric acid. Rinse with water. etc
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
Food testing (2)

Substance
Millons reagent
Hazard
Comment
It contains a high concentration of a mercury compound and concentrated nitric acid (see Student Safety Sheets 21 and 44,). Coles modification (Millons reagent A) is somewhat less hazardous because it contains less-concentrated sulfuric acid, but it is still classed as VERY TOXIC and CORROSIVE. It also uses sodium nitrate(III) (nitrite) solution which is HARMFUL. Careful disposal is required. There is a risk of spitting when it is heated in a test tube. The test involves mixing three solutions which contain sodium hydroxide solution (CORROSIVE), napthalen-1-ol (HARMFUL) dissolved in ethanol (HIGHLY FLAMMABLE) and sodium chlorate(I) (hypochlorite) (CORROSIVE). See relevant Student Safety Sheets. Despite these hazards, it is safer to use than either form of Millons reagent because it does not need to be heated and only a few drops are required. The biuret test is safer still (see Sheet 4).
T C
VERY TOXIC
CORROSIVE
Sakaguchi test
T C
TOXIC
CORROSIVE
F H
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE HARMFUL
/ See Student Safety Sheet 70, Dyes and indicators. (Also known as PIDCP.) See Student Safety Sheet 3, Human body fluids and tissues. Negligible risk.
DCPIP
Used to test for Vitamin C.
LOW HAZARD
Saliva
Used to break down starch.
LOW HAZARD
CLEAPSS 2007
Clinistix
Used to test for glucose.
LOW HAZARD
The tip of the stick contains a minute amount of a known carcinogen and should not be touched. The sticks should be stored and disposed of safely. It is normally used for testing urine. This will not detect all proteins. It is normally used for testing urine.
Albustix
LOW HAZARD
Wear eye protection and use the smallest possible amounts of chemicals. Use the least-hazardous substance that achieves the required effect.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could chemicals spit out of the test tube?

Could ethanol (in the Sakaguchi test) catch fire, or acid splash into the eye?
Emergency action
In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large skin area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. or clothing Clothing Push the casualty to the floor, roll the body or smother flames on clothing or skin catches with a fire blanket or other material. Cool any burnt skin with gently-running tap fire water for 10 minutes. Other Allow fires in sinks, etc to burn out. Fires at the top of test tubes, beakers, etc ethanol should be smothered with a damp cloth or heat-proof mat if this can be done fires safely. Spilt on Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth. Rinse well. For larger amounts, cover the floor, with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise alkali bench, etc with citric acid or acid with sodium carbonate. Rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
10
Electricity
Situation
Electric power distribution
230 V ac and above at high currents (over 5 mA).
Hazard
Comment
In non-school contexts: over-head power lines and local sub-stations could cause accidents if children behave foolishly.
/
s
ELECTRIC SHOCK BURN
Home and school

Above 28 V ac or 40 V dc and at currents over 5 mA. This includes the 230 V ac mains supply.
s
ELECTRIC SHOCK BURN
In school science: problems may arise from terminals of high voltage (high tension, HT) supplies or low-voltage units with an HT outlet (as some supply 150 mA); also in activities involving electrophoresis, model transformers or conductivity of molten glass. In non-school contexts: problems arise due to poor insulation (damaged wiring and plugs), incorrect wiring, over-loaded circuits, poor earthing or vandalism.
CLEAPSS 2007
School science investigations

Less than 28 V ac or 40 V dc and at currents over 5 mA. This includes almost all work with batteries in school or elsewhere.
LOW ELECTRICAL HAZARD
Most school circuit work, including electrolysis, is in this category (although problems could arise if currents over 10 A were used). Some cells, batteries and accumulators contain CORROSIVE materials.
TOXIC
T C
TOXIC
or
CORROSIVE
Everywhere: eg, static electricity

Any voltages at very low currents (well below 5 mA)
LOW HAZARD
Examples include the van de Graaff generator (but not induction coils which may give over 5 mA). Electronic equipment nearby may be damaged by static discharges or electromagnetic fields.
Use the lowest voltage possible (and, for electrolysis, the lowest current and concentration that gives good results). Avoid exposed conductors which are live above 28 V. Avoid the possibility of water coming into contact with conductors which are live above 28 V. Check that primary and secondary insulation (ie, both layers of plastic coating) are in good condition. Avoid over-loaded circuits, too many plugs in one socket, etc. Check that plugs are correctly wired with appropriate fuses. Ensure good earth connections where necessary.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Accidentally touching a live component through poor design or poor maintenance.

Eg, Could a current flow through the heart? How large a voltage and/or current?

Emergency action
Electric shock Take care for your own safety. Break contact by switching off or removing the plug. If this is not possible, use a wooden broom handle or wear rubber gloves to pull the casualty clear. See a doctor. If the casualty is unconscious, check that airways are clear and that the casualty is breathing and has a pulse. If so, place the casualty in the recovery position. If a pulse is found but the casualty is not breathing, artificial ventilation is necessary. If no pulse is found and the casualty is not breathing, cardio-pulmonary resuscitation is necessary.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
11
Radioactive materials
Substance
Alpha sources ( radiation)
Low-activity sources are used in domestic smoke alarms.
Hazard
Comment
Produce heavy ionisation (see Additional Information, below) but range is less than 1 mm in living tissue. Little problem if source is kept outside body. Produce medium ionisation (see Additional Information, below) but the range is a few centimetres in living tissue. There is little problem if source is kept away from the body.
r
IONISING RADIATION
Beta sources (
radiation)
All samples of potassium and its compounds (including granite rocks, clays, etc) contain very small amounts of a natural emitter.
r
IONISING RADIATION
CLEAPSS 2007
Gamma sources (
Very active sources are used in hospitals for killing cancer cells. Domestic smoke alarms emit a little radiation.
radiation)
r
IONISING RADIATION
Produce little ionisation (see Additional Information, below) but the range is long in living tissue, some passing right through the body. In schools, use a weak source and keep well away from the body.
Additional information: When (ionising) radiation is absorbed by living tissue, mostly it results in a few extra hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in the cytoplasm of cells. These rapidly recombine to form water. Some radiation is absorbed by more-complex molecules and the ions from these can result in the death of the cell. Low levels of ionising radiation have little noticeable effect because biological organisms are continually replacing cells which die for other reasons anyway. High doses of radiation can result in skin burns (like sunburn) or radiation sickness (where so many cells have been killed that an organ ceases to function properly). Ionising radiation can also affect DNA in cells and change the genetic code. In reproductive organs, this could cause abnormal offspring but has never been confirmed in humans. Modified DNA may allow cells to reproduce out of control and form a cancer.
Use the lowest-activity source possible (only low-level sources are permitted in schools). Keep as far away from the source as possible (For school sources, use a handling tool which keeps the source at least 10 cm from the hand. Observers of demonstrations should generally keep at least 2 m away.). Have a clear set of local rules, including Sources must not be handled by under-16s. When radioactive solids, liquids or gases (open sources) are in use, prevent contamination of people (by use of lab coats and disposable plastic gloves), of benches (by use of trays and sheets of absorbing paper) and apparatus (by handling equipment with disposable tissues).
Assessing the risks

Eg, Source is dropped, spilt or stolen or somebody moves too close to the source.
Emergency action
Sealed source dropped Spilt on the skin or swallowed Open source spilt on the floor, bench, etc Do not look directly at a source; use a mirror to examine a source for damage. Check the area for radioactivity where a source was dropped. Wash the affected area thoroughly and check for radioactivity. If swallowed, go to a hospital specialising in radiation incidents. Wipe up small amounts with damp tissues. Wipe the area until count rate is less than 50% above background. Place tissues in a plastic bag and dispose of it in solid waste.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
12
Electromagnetic radiation
Type of radiation
Radio waves
Wavelength 103 m.
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
They are strong sources produce local heating. Microwave ovens should be operated and maintained according to instructions, so that microwaves cannot leak out. Using mobile phones is safe if the power is less than 100 W m-2. CLEAPSS 2007
Microwaves
Wavelength 10 m.
-2
n
NON-IONISING RADIATION
Infra red
Wavelength 10 m.
-5
n
-6
It can produce skin burns and strong sources (eg, furnaces for melting iron) may damage the cornea of the eye. It may ignite combustible materials. Intense sources (eg, from the Sun and narrow beams from class 3 & 4 lasers) may damage the retina. Class 1 lasers (eg, in laser printers) are totally enclosed. Class 2 lasers are low power (less than 1 mW) and safe unless the blink response is over-ridden or ignored. Laser pointers are class 3 lasers (typical power 3 mW) and are more dangerous, especially if misused. Direct observation of eclipses of the Sun often results in blindness. It can cause sunburn. There is a risk of skin cancer. Do not sunbathe without adequate protection. UV-A is used in sun beds. UV-B can damage the eyes; it is produced in electric-arc or oxy-acetylene welding. Wear snow goggles when skiing. X-rays are produced in low-pressure systems by sparks and discharges at more than 6 kV. Large doses cause burns and may induce cancer. See Student Safety Sheet 11, Radioactive materials.
Visible
Wavelength 0.5 x 10 m.
n
l
LASER RADIATION
Ultra violet
Wavelength 10 m. UV-A, long-wave UV; UV-B, short-wave UV
-8
n
X-rays
Wavelength 10-10 m.
r
IONISING RADIATION
Gamma ()
rays
Wavelength 10-12 m.
r
IONISING RADIATION
Additional information: There is no evidence that electric and magnetic fields at ordinary intensities affect the human body. Microwaves and infra-red radiation have both been used medically to give relief from pain. X-rays are used in medicine for diagnosis and treatment (but should be avoided during pregnancy).
X-ray sets are permitted in schools only where there are suitably-qualified staff. Ultra-violet lamps must be screened or personal protective equipment used (also for welding). Lasers for use in schools must be class 1 or class 2, when the rule is Do not stare down the beam. Use sun lotions with a suitable protection factor and do not sunbathe without adequate protection. Never look directly at the Sun (even during an eclipse) or through a lens, filter or pin hole.
Assessing the risks

What are the details of the activity to be undertaken? What are the hazards? What is the chance of something going wrong? How serious would it be if something did go wrong? How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?
Emergency action
Radiation burns to the skin Suspected eye damage Treat as for a heat burn, ie, cool burnt skin under gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if more than an area the size of a small coin is affected. Cover and see a doctor.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
also applies to
20
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen chloride gas
CLEAPSS 2007
Substance
Hydrogen chloride
Gas
Hazard
Comment
It is toxic if breathed in. It causes severe burns and irritates the lungs. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 8 mg m-3.
T
TOXIC
C
CORROSIVE
Concentrated hydrochloric acid

(If 6.5 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE
It causes burns. The vapour irritates the lungs.
Moderatelyconcentrated hydrochloric acid

(If less than 6.5 M but 2 M or more)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
It may irritate the eyes and skin.
Dilute hydrochloric acid

(If less than 2 M)
This includes stomach acid. Dilute acid may still cause harm in the eyes or in a cut.
Use the lowest concentration possible. Use the smallest volume possible. Wear eye protection for all but the most-dilute solutions. Wear protective gloves if anything more than tiny amounts of concentrated acid are handled. Avoid breathing the gas or fumes from concentrated solutions, eg, by use of a fume cupboard.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Hazardous products (such as chlorine) produced as a result of a reaction with the acid or choking fumes produced if concentrated acid is over-heated.

NB There are occasional reports of pupils being taken to hospital as a result of breathing in chlorine.
Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is difficult.
Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on the Remove contaminated clothing. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. If skin or clothing a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. Spilt on the For release of gas, consider the need to evacuate the laboratory and floor, bench, open all windows. etc For large spills, and especially for (moderately) concentrated acid, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise with sodium carbonate. Rinse with plenty of water. Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well.
CLEAPSS 2007
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
21
Nitric(V) acid
Substance
Concentrated nitric(V) acid
Hazard
Comment
It causes severe burns; skin is stained yellow and then peels. For a 15-minute exposure, the vapour concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 2.6 mg m-3. If over 11 M, the acid may cause fire in contact with combustible materials.
C
CORROSIVE
O
OXIDISING
Moderatelyconcentrated nitric(V) acid

(If 0.5 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE
It causes severe burns.
Moderatelydilute nitric(V) acid

(If less than 0.5 M but 0.1 M or more)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
It is irritating to the eyes and skin.
Dilute nitric(V) acid

(If less than 0.1 M)
It may still cause harm in the eyes or in a cut.
Use the lowest concentration possible. Use the smallest volume possible. Wear eye protection, including when making or disposing of solutions. Wear protective gloves if concentrated acid is handled on anything larger than a test-tube scale. Ensure good ventilation if oxides of nitrogen could be formed.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Hazardous products are formed in reactions with the acid (such as oxides of nitrogen) or corrosive fumes are produced if concentrated acid is over-heated.

Eg, Peeling skin, from burns caused by concentrated acid, may be very painful.
Emergency action
In the eye Fumes breathed in Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Keep him/her warm. If more than a sniff is inhaled, see a doctor even if no symptoms are apparent. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Quickly use a dry cloth or paper towel to wipe as much liquid off the skin as possible. Then drench with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it well.
CLEAPSS 2007
Spilt on the floor, bench, etc
Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well. For larger amounts, and especially for (moderately) concentrated acid, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise with sodium carbonate. Rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
22
Sulfuric(VI) acid
Substance
Concentrated sulfuric(VI) acid
Hazard
Comment
It causes severe burns. It reacts violently, becoming very hot, when mixed with water. For a 15-minute exposure, the vapour concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 3.0 mg m-3. It causes severe burns.
C
CORROSIVE
Moderatelyconcentrated sulfuric(VI) acid

(If 1.5 M or more) Includes acid used in car batteries.
C
CORROSIVE
Moderately-dilute sulfuric(VI) acid

I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Dilute sulfuric(VI) acid

Use the lowest concentration possible. Use the smallest volume possible. Wear eye protection, including when making or disposing of solutions. Wear protective gloves if concentrated acid is handled on anything larger than a test-tube scale. Add the concentrated acid slowly to cold water (or preferably ice) when diluting, never the reverse; stir frequently to ensure good mixing.
Assessing the risks

What are the details of the activity to be undertaken? What are the hazards? What is the chance of something going wrong? How serious would it be if something did go wrong?
Eg, Skin and eyes can be seriously burned if not treated quickly.
Eg, Hazardous products are formed in reactions with the acid or corrosive fumes are produced if concentrated acid is over-heated.
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.
CLEAPSS 2007
Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc
Remove contaminated clothing. Especially with concentrated acid, quickly use a dry cloth or paper towel to wipe as much liquid as possible off the skin. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well. For larger amounts, and especially for (moderately) concentrated acid, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise with sodium carbonate. Rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
also applies to
Substance
Ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
Pure liquid, glacial Also methanoic (formic) acid. Concentrated
23
Ethanoic (acetic) acid

Methanoic (formic) acid
Comment
It causes severe burns and irritates the lungs. For a 15minute exposure, the concentration of the vapour in the atmosphere should not exceed 37 mg m-3 (28.8 mg m-3 for methanoic acid). Some descalers for kettles, irons etc use methanoic acid. It causes burns. Also methanoic (formic) acid.
Hazard
C
CORROSIVE FLAMMABLE
ethanoic (acetic) acid

Solution in water (If 4 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE
Moderatelyconcentrated ethanoic (acetic) acid

(If less than 4 M but 1.7 M or more)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
It is irritating to the eyes and skin. Also methanoic (formic) acid, including ant venom.
Dilute ethanoic (acetic) acid

It may still cause harm in the eyes or in a cut. This includes vinegar.
Use the lowest concentration possible. Use the smallest volume possible. Wear eye protection for all but the most-dilute solutions. Wear protective gloves if anything more than tiny amounts of concentrated acid are handled. Avoid breathing gas or fumes from concentrated solutions, eg, by use of a fume cupboard.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Choking fumes if concentrated acid is over-heated.

NB We put vinegar on chips!
CLEAPSS 2007
Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is difficult. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See doctor. Remove contaminated clothing. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well. For large spills, and especially for (moderately) concentrated acid, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into bucket. Neutralise with sodium carbonate. Rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
also known as
Substance
Concentrated phosphoric(V) acid
24
Phosphoric(V) acid
Orthophosphoric acid
Comment
It causes burns. It reacts violently, becoming very hot, when mixed with water. It decomposes if heated strongly, forming toxic oxides of phosphorus. It causes burns. This includes phosphoric acid used in most descaling and rust treatments.
Hazard
C
CORROSIVE
Moderatelyconcentrated phosphoric(V) acid

(If 2.5 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE
Moderately dilute phosphoric(V) acid

I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Dilute phosphoric(V) acid

It may still cause harm in the eyes or in a cut. This includes acid used in cola drinks, etc. Over long periods of time, the acid may attack teeth.
Use the lowest concentration possible. Use the smallest volume possible. Wear eye protection, including when making or disposing of solutions. Wear protective gloves if concentrated acid is handled on anything larger than a test-tube scale. Add the concentrated acid slowly to cold water when diluting, never the reverse; stir frequently to ensure good mixing.
Assessing the risks

What are the details of the activity to be undertaken? What are the hazards?
CLEAPSS 2007
What is the chance of something going wrong? How serious would it be if something did go wrong?
Eg, The skin and eyes can be seriously burned if not treated quickly.
Eg, Hazardous products are formed in reactions with the acid or corrosive fumes are produced if concentrated acid is over-heated.
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on the Remove contaminated clothing. Especially with concentrated acid, quickly use a skin or dry cloth or paper towel to wipe as much liquid as possible off the skin. Then clothing drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. Spilt on the Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well. floor, For larger amounts, and especially for (moderately) concentrated acid, cover bench, etc with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise with sodium carbonate. Rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
25
Citric, Oxalic & Tartaric acids

2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid, Ethanedioic acid & 2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid
Substance
Citric acid
Solid and concentrated solutions (If 1.0 M or more)
Hazard
Comment
(2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid) It is irritating to eyes. It is an approved food additive, E330. Concentrated lemon juice may contain citric acid up to 1.7 M. Even dilute solutions will cause discomfort in the eye. It is found in citrus fruits, eg, lemons, oranges, grapefruit. Lemons contain citric acid up to about 0.25 M. It is harmful in contact with the skin and if swallowed. It is quite close to the limit at which it would be classed as TOXIC rather than HARMFUL . It removes calcium ions from the blood, forming insoluble calcium oxalate; this can block kidneys. Soluble salts of oxalic acid (eg, sodium, potassium) are as hazardous as the acid. It is found in rhubarb, especially in the leaves and in unripe leaf stalks (ie, the part which is eaten). Cases of poisoning have been reported, although very rarely fatal. The toxic effects of rhubarb may be due to other substances. Even dilute solutions will cause discomfort in the eye.
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Dilute citric acid

Oxalic acid (ethanedioic acid)

Solid and most solutions (If 0.5 M or more)
H
HARMFUL
Dilute oxalic acid

LOW HAZARD
CLEAPSS 2007
Tartaric acid (2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid)

Solid and concentrated solutions (If 1.4 M or more)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
It is used in baking powder and is found in many food products. It is an approved food additive, E334.
Dilute tartaric acid

Even dilute solutions will cause discomfort in the eye.
Use the lowest concentration possible. Wear eye protection for all but dilute solutions. Avoid the possibility of swallowing oxalic acid or its salts, eg, by using a safety pipette filler.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Specks of solid acid transferred into the eye, by rubbing with a contaminated finger.

NB We do eat rhubarb!

Eg, Can it be done safely? Does the procedure need to be altered? Should eye protection be worn?
Emergency action

Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if pain persists. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips Swallowed of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on the skin or Remove contaminated clothing. Then drench the skin with plenty of water.
In the eye
clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc
Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well. For large spills, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise with sodium carbonate. Rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
also applies to
Substance
Ammonia (gas)
30
Ammonia (gas & solution)

Ammonium hydroxide
Comment
It is irritating to the eyes and lungs; breathing it can lead to severe poisoning. However, the human nose can detect ammonia at well below danger levels. For a 15minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 25 mg m-3. (It is also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because it is very toxic to aquatic organisms.) 880 ammonia, (ammonium hydroxide solution). It causes burns; it is dangerous to the eyes (goggles should be worn). It causes severe internal damage if swallowed. Ammonia gas will be present and the pressure of gas builds up on hot days. (It is also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because it is very toxic to aquatic organisms.)
Hazard
T
TOXIC
Concentrated ammonia solution

(If 6 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE
CLEAPSS 2007
Moderatelyconcentrated ammonia solution

(If less than 6 M but 3 M or more)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
(Ammonium hydroxide solution). This includes household ammonia. It is irritating to the eyes and skin. Its odour can cause distress.
Dilute ammonia solution

(If less than 3 M)
(Dilute ammonium hydroxide solution) It may still cause harm in eyes or in a cut.
Use the lowest concentration and smallest volume possible. Wear suitable eye protection, including when making or disposing of solutions. Use a fume cupboard for all but test-tube amounts of the gas and more-concentrated solutions (including opening bottles); ensure good laboratory ventilation. If smelling the gas, follow the safe technique for sniffing gases: use your hand to waft the gas towards your nose.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Solution spurting out of test tubes when being heated; release of ammonia gas as a product of a chemical reaction; possibility of the ammonia gas concentration reaching dangerous levels.

NB Alkali in the eye causes more damage than acid of equivalent concentration.

Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc
Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 20 minutes (for alkalis). See a doctor. If it is necessary to go to hospital, continue washing the eye during the journey in an ambulance. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is difficult. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. Consider the need to evacuate the laboratory and open windows if large amounts are spilt and especially for (moderately) concentrated solutions. Cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise with citric acid. Rinse with plenty of water. Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
also applies to
31
&
Sodium hydroxide
Soda lime Potassium hydroxide
Substance
Sodium hydroxide Solid
Also potassium hydroxide (solid)
Hazard
Comment
(Caustic soda and potash) Also soda lime. It causes severe burns; it is particularly dangerous to the eyes. It gives out heat when added to water. It is used in the home for clearing drains.
C
CORROSIVE
CLEAPSS 2007
Sodium or potassium hydroxide solution

(If 0.5 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE
It causes severe burns; it is particularly dangerous to the eyes. Fehlings solution contains sodium hydroxide of this concentration. It is used in the home as an oven cleaner. It is irritating to the eyes and skin.
Dilute sodium or potassium hydroxide solution

I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Very dilute sodium or potassium hydroxide solution

Use the lowest concentration possible; avoid the solid if possible. Use the smallest amount possible. Wear eye protection, including when making or disposing of solutions. Goggles (or a face shield) rather than safety spectacles will be necessary if the chemical is classed as CORROSIVE at the concentration used. Wear protective gloves if the concentrated solution is handled in more than tiny amounts. If possible, use a safer alternative, eg, sodium carbonate when making salts or Benedicts solution rather than Fehlings solution for food tests.
Assessing the risks

Eg, The solution spurting out of a test tube when being heated.

Emergency action
In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 20 minutes. See a doctor. If a visit to hospital is necessary, continue washing the eye during the journey in an ambulance. Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on the Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large skin or area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. clothing Spilt on the Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well. floor, For larger amounts, and especially for (moderately) concentrated solutions, bench, etc cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise with citric acid. Rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
including
32
& Limewater
CLEAPSS 2007
Calcium hydroxide & oxide

Slaked lime, Quick lime
Substance
Calcium oxide
Solid
Hazard
Comment
It causes burns. There is a risk of serious damage to the eyes. It is irritating to the skin, lungs, etc. It reacts violently with water, becoming very hot - dust particles may shoot out. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration of the powder in the atmosphere should not exceed 6 mg m-3. It is not officially classified, but there is a risk of serious damage to the eyes. It is irritating to the skin, lungs, etc. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration of the powder in the atmosphere should not exceed 15 mg m-3. Even a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is so dilute that it is not classed as IRRITANT. However, limewater is usually made in schools by adding excess solid calcium hydroxide (or oxide) to water. Undissolved solid will remain and that is irritating to the eyes and skin (but any solid present might well be calcium carbonate, LOW HAZARD).
Quick lime
(Old samples of calcium oxide are mostly calcium hydroxide.)
C
CORROSIVE
Calcium hydroxide
Solid Slaked lime, garden lime
(IRRITANT)
I I
Calcium hydroxide
Solution Limewater (Limewater is a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide, less than 0.02 M.)
(IRRITANT)
Wear eye protection when handling solids. Eye protection is advisable when using limewater, especially if blowing into it.
Assessing the risks

NB Alkali in the eye causes more damage than acid of an equivalent concentration.
Eg, Solid particles spitting when adding water, dust blowing around or liquid splashing into the eye when blowing into limewater.
Emergency action
In the eye Solids: flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 20 minutes. See a doctor. If a visit to hospital is necessary, continue washing the eye during the journey in an ambulance. Limewater is unlikely to cause serious problems; flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor if there are any concerns. Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. Limewater is unlikely to cause serious problems. Wash out the mouth. See a doctor if there are any concerns. Spilt on the Brush off the solid. Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with skin or plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. clothing For limewater, wash with water. Spilt on the Wipe up limewater or small amounts of solid with a damp cloth and rinse it floor, bench, well. etc For larger amounts of solid, scoop into a bucket, add water to the area followed by mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter).
CLEAPSS 2007
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
33
Sodium & Calcium carbonates

including Hydrogencarbonates (bicarbonates) & Potassium
/Magnesium salts
Substance
Sodium & potassium carbonate
Hydrated or anhydrous solid
Hazard
Comment
They are irritating to the eyes but the anhydrous solid presents a bigger risk because it is finely powdered, whereas the hydrate is crystalline (usually large crystals). Soda ash is an impure (industrial) form. Hydrated sodium carbonate is used as washing soda. They are approved food additives, E500 & E501. This is almost a saturated solution.
I
IRRITANT
Sodium & potassium carbonate

Concentrated solution (If 1.8 M or more)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Sodium & potassium carbonate Dilute

solution (If less than 1.8 M)
They are used as a dilute solution in bath salts.
Sodium & potassium hydrogencarbonat e (bicarbonate)

Solid and solution Also Sodium
LOW HAZARD
They liberate carbon dioxide on gentle heating (or with acids). Sodium hydrogencarbonate is an approved food additive, E500, and is used as baking soda. Bicarb or bicarbonate of soda are old-fashioned names. Bath salts contain sodium sesquicarbonate, (sodium carbonate hydrogencarbonate), Na2CO3.NaHCO3.H2O. Calcium carbonate occurs naturally as marble, chalk and limestone. It decomposes if heated above 800 C and gives carbon dioxide with acids (unless the calcium salt is insoluble). It is an approved food additive, E170. Blackboard chalk may be calcium carbonate but is more likely to be calcium sulfate. Magnesium carbonate also occurs naturally. It decomposes more easily and is also an approved food additive, E504. The solid does not exist. The solution is the cause of temporary hardness of water. On warming, calcium (or magnesium) carbonate (limescale, fur) is deposited. The solution reacts with soap to produce insoluble calcium (or magnesium) salts (scum).
sesquicarbonate Calcium & magnesium carbonate

Solid
LOW HAZARD
Calcium & magnesium hydrogencarbonat e (bicarbonate)

Solution
LOW HAZARD
Wear eye protection when handling irritant solids and avoid raising dust. Avoid contact with acids, especially in sealed containers, because large volumes of carbon dioxide will be formed.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Specks of solid transferred into the eye, by rubbing with a contaminated finger.
CLEAPSS 2007
Emergency action
In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if pain persists. Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on the skin or Brush solid off contaminated clothing. Rinse clothing or the skin as necessary. clothing Spilt on the floor, Brush up solid spills, trying to avoid raising dust, then wipe with a damp cloth. bench, etc Wipe up solution spills with a cloth and rinse it well.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
34
Sodium & Potassium salts

Substance
Sodium chloride, bromide and iodide
Also potassium chloride, bromide and iodide
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
Although regarded as low hazard, there have been cases of people killed through consuming a very large amount of sodium chloride. Even at normal levels it can cause high blood pressure and hence heart disease. Adults should not eat more than 6 g per day, children even less. Potassium chloride is an approved food additive, E508, sometimes used as a low-salt substitute. Hydrated sodium sulfate(VI), Na2SO4.10H2O is known as Glaubers salt. Sodium sulfate(VI) is an approved food additive, E514, as is the potassium salt, E515. It is strongly acidic because of acidic hydrogen in NaHSO 4. It causes burns and is irritating to the respiratory system. It is used in some toilet cleaners.
Sodium sulfate(VI)
Also potassium sulfate(VI)
LOW HAZARD
Sodium hydrogensulfate(VI) (bisulfate)

Solid and concentrated solution (If 0.8 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE

Fairly dilute solution (If 0.3 M or more but less than 0.8 M)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
It is strongly acidic because of acidic hydrogen in NaHSO 4.

Solution (If less than 0.3 M)
It is strongly acidic because of acidic hydrogen in NaHSO 4.
Only the solid is considered hazardous although the solution does have oxidising properties. Sodium Also potassium nitrate(V) nitrate(V) is an approved food additive, E251, as is the potassium salt, E252. OXIDISING Sodium or potassium carbonate and hydrogencarbonate See Student Safety Sheet 33. Sodium chlorate(I) (hypochlorite) See Student Safety Sheet 41. Sodium or potassium chromate(VI) or dichromate(VI) See Student Safety Sheet 47. Sodium or potassium manganate(VII) (permanganate) See Student Safety Sheet 48. Sodium or potassium oxalate (ethanedioate) See Student Safety Sheet 25.
Sodium nitrate(V)
Wear eye protection when handling hazardous solids and solutions. Avoid raising dust.
Assessing the risks

CLEAPSS 2007
What is the chance of something going wrong?

Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed
Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if pain persists. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Brush solid off contaminated clothing. Rinse clothing or the skin as necessary.
Spilt on the skin or clothing Brush up solid spills, trying to avoid raising dust, then wipe with a damp cloth. Spilt on the floor, Wipe up solution spills with a cloth and rinse it well. bench, etc
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
Sodium sulfites, thiosulfate & persulfate

including metabisulfite & Potassium salts
Hazard Comment
They are harmful if swallowed. There is a risk of serious damage to the eyes. With acids, produce sulfur dioxide (SO2) (a TOXIC & CORROSIVE gas, see Sheet 52); do not inhale. Smell of SO2 due to acidification by CO2 in air. An approved food additive, E221, as a preservative. They smell of sulfur dioxide due to acidification by carbon dioxide in the air; do not inhale.
35
Substance
Sodium & potassium sulfite [sulfate(IV)]
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
Sodium & potassium sulfite [sulfate(IV)]

Dilute solution (If less than 0.25 M)
Sodium & potassium hydrogensulfite [hydrogensulfate( IV)] Sodium & potassium metabisulfite [disulfate(IV)]
Solid and most solutions (If 0.25 M or more)
LOW HAZARD
The pure solid NaHSO3 does not exist. Products sold as bisulfite contain metabisulfite. Sodium and potassium hydrogensulfites are approved food additives, E222 and E228, as preservatives. They are harmful if swallowed. There is a risk of serious damage to the eyes. With acids, they produce sulfur dioxide (SO2) (TOXIC & CORROSIVE gas, see Sheet 52); do not inhale. They smell of SO2 due to acidification by CO2 in air. Sodium & potassium metabisulfites are approved food additives, E223 and E224, as preservatives. Although sodium metabisulfite solid is Na2S2O5, it behaves as sodium hydrogensulfite, NaHSO 3, in solution.
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
Sodium & potassium metabisulfite [disulfate(IV)]

Dilute solutions (If less than 0.25 M)
CLEAPSS 2007
Sodium & potassium thiosulfate Sodium & potassium persulfate [peroxodisulfate( VI)]
Solid and solutions
LOW HAZARD
They produce sulfur (see Sheet 82) & sulfur dioxide (TOXIC & CORROSIVE gas, see Sheet 52) with acids, including carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide may cause solutions to go cloudy. Na2S2O8 is used as an oxidising agent, eg, for bleaching hair, etching printed-circuit boards and to initiate polymerisation reactions. (If less than 0.04 M, the solutions are
LOW HAZARD
OH
OXIDISING HARMFUL
.)
(If 0.04 M or more)
Sodium sulfate(VI) and hydrogensulfate(VI)
See Student Safety Sheet 34.
Use the smallest quantity or concentration possible. Wear eye protection when handling hazardous solids and solutions. Take care not to inhale sulfur dioxide; asthmatics should be especially careful. Avoid exposure to sulfur dioxide, eg, by using a fume cupboard.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Accidental inhalation of sulfur dioxide when opening a bottle or dissolving a solid in water.
Emergency action
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
36
Magnesium & Calcium salts

Substance
Magnesium chloride Calcium chloride
Anhydrous and hydrated solid and concentrated solution (If 1 M or more)
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
It is an approved food additive, E511. It is an approved food additive, E509. Anhydrous calcium chloride is often used as a drying agent.
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Calcium chloride
Dilute solution (If less than 1 M)
Magnesium sulfate(VI)
LOW HAZARD
Hydrated magnesium sulfate, known as Epsom salts, is used as a medicine (a purgative). It is a cause of permanently hard water.
CLEAPSS 2007
Calcium sulfate(VI)
LOW HAZARD
It is used as Plaster of Paris, for setting broken bones: CaSO4.H2O absorbs water, becomes hot and expands slightly forming CaSO4.2H2O (gypsum). It is not safe to attempt to make a cast of the whole hand or encase any other part of the body. Unlike magnesium sulfate(VI), calcium sulfate(VI) is only sparingly soluble. It is commonly used as blackboard chalk. It is a cause of permanently-hard water. It is an approved food additive, E516. Only the solid is considered hazardous, although the solution does have oxidising properties. -
Magnesium nitrate(V) Calcium nitrate(V)

Solid
O
OXIDISING
O I
OXIDISING
IRRITANT
Calcium nitrate(V)
Concentrated solution (If 0.8 M or more)
I
IRRITANT
The solution has oxidising properties.
Calcium nitrate(V)
LOW HAZARD The solution has oxidising properties. Dilute solution (If less than 0.8 M) Calcium (and magnesium) carbonate and hydrogencarbonate See Student Safety Sheet 33. Calcium oxalate (ethanedioate) See Student Safety Sheet 25.
Wear eye protection when handling hazardous solids and solutions. Avoid raising dust.
Assessing the risks

Emergency action
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
37
Ammonium salts
Substance
Ammonium chloride
Hazard
Comment
Once called sal ammoniac. It decomposes on heating to form ammonia gas (see Sheet 30) and hydrogen chloride gas (see Sheet 20) but they recombine on cooling. Warming with alkali will generate ammonia gas.
H
HARMFUL
CLEAPSS 2007
Ammonium chloride
LOW HAZARD
Warming with alkali will generate ammonia gas (see Sheet 30).
Ammonium sulfate(VI)
Solid
LOW HAZARD
It decomposes on heating to form ammonia gas (see Safety Sheet 30) and sulfuric acid gas (see Sheet 22) but they recombine on cooling. It is an approved food additive, E517. Warming with alkali will generate ammonia gas. Also known as sal volatile or smelling salts. The solid decomposes, even at room temperature, to ammonia (see Sheet 30) and carbon dioxide (see Sheet 58). It is an approved food additive, E503. Warming with alkali generates ammonia gas. Warming with alkali generates ammonia gas (see Sheet 30). It may decompose explosively if heated; many industrial accidents have occurred in this way. Warming with alkali will generate ammonia gas (see Sheet 30). The solution does have oxidising properties. Warming with alkali will generate ammonia gas (see Sheet 30). Heating the solution to dryness produces fumes of nitrogen dioxide. See Student Safety Sheet 47.
Ammonium carbonate
Solid
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
Ammonium carbonate
Solution
Ammonium nitrate(V)
Solid
O
OXIDISING LOW HAZARD
Ammonium nitrate(V)
Solution
Ammonium dichromate(VI)
Wear eye protection when handling hazardous solids and solutions. Do not heat solid ammonium nitrate(V) and do not heat ammonium nitrate(V) solution to dryness. Avoid exposure to hazardous decomposition products if ammonium carbonate, chloride or sulfate(VI) are heated, eg, by using a fume cupboard. Avoid exposure to ammonia gas when reacting ammonium salts with alkalis, eg, by using a fume cupboard.
Assessing the risks

Emergency action

In the eye Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if pain persists. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Brush solid off contaminated clothing. Rinse clothing or the skin as necessary. Brush up solid spills, trying to avoid raising dust, then wipe with a damp cloth. Wipe up solution spills with a cloth and rinse it well.
CLEAPSS 2007
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
38
Iron & its compounds

including Iron(II) and iron(III) oxides, carbonates, sulfates(VI), chlorides, bromide Note: iron(II) compounds are often called ferrous and iron(III) compounds ferric
Substance
Iron metal
(filings, sheets or bars of metal)
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
Iron filings or powder in the eye are very painful because the iron oxidises rapidly in the saline environment. Samples of iron are often not very pure and on reacting with dilute acids may produce toxic hydrogen sulfide gas (smelling of bad eggs). Iron is often coated with zinc (galvanised) to protect it from corrosion. For reaction with sulfur, see Sheet 82. Applies to all iron oxides: iron(II) oxide, iron(III) oxide (haematite), iron(II) iron(III) oxide (magnetite). Iron(II) carbonate is usually sold mixed with a sugar (saccharated), to slow down oxidation. Harmful if swallowed. Usually solutions are made up in dilute sulfuric acid (which may itself be hazardous see Sheet 22) to slow down oxidation. Ammonium iron(II) solutions are more stable but are still made up in acid to limit oxidation. Irritating to eyes and skin. . Usually solutions are made up in dilute sulfuric acid (which may itself be hazardous see Sheet 22) to slow down formation of iron oxide. Ammonium iron(III) sulfate is sometimes known as ferric alum. Solutions which have been made up in sulfuric acid may be hazardous if the acid is more than 0.5 M (see Sheet 22).
Iron metal
(powder)
F
Iron oxides or iron(II) carbonate
Iron(II) sulfate(VI) or ammonium iron(II) sulfate

Solid or concentrated solutions (If 1 M or more)
H
HARMFUL
Iron(III) sulfate(VI) or ammonium iron(III) sulfate

Solid or concentrated solutions (If 0.3 M or more)
H
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Iron(II) or iron(III) sulfate(VI) or ammonium iron(II) or iron(III) sulfate

Dilute solutions [If less than 1 M iron(II) or 0.3 M iron(III)]
Iron(II) or iron(III) chloride

Hydrated or anhydrous solid or concentrated solutions (If 0.2 M or more). Includes etching solution (about 2 M).
H
HARMFUL
IRRITANT
Harmful if swallowed, irritating to skin, risk of serious damage to eyes. The solutions are classed as IRRITANT, the solids as HARMFUL. Some suppliers classify anhydrous solid iron(III) chloride as CORROSIVE . Usually solutions are made up in hydrochloric acid (see Sheet 20) to slow down oxidation. -
Iron(II) or iron(III) chloride

LOW HAZARD
Use the lowest possible quantities and concentrations. Take care not to rub the eye with fingers contaminated with iron filings or powder. Wear eye protection.
Assessing the risks

What are the details of the activity to be undertaken? What are the hazards? What is the chance of something going wrong? Eg, Solutions spurting out of test tubes when heated or solutions heated to dryness and decomposing. How serious would it be if something did go wrong? How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity? Eg, Can it be done safely? Does the procedure need to be altered? Should goggles or safety spectacles be worn?
Emergency action
In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor.
CLEAPSS 2007
Swallowed
Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Dust breathed in Remove the casualty to fresh air. See a doctor if breathing is difficult. Spilt on the skin or Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Wash off the skin with plenty of clothing water. Spilt on the floor, Scoop up solid (take care not to raise dust). Wipe up small solution spills or any bench, etc traces of solid with cloth; for larger spills use mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter).
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
40
Copper & its compounds

including Copper oxides, sulfate(VI), chloride, nitrate(V),
carbonate
Substance
Copper (metal) Copper(I)/(II) oxides
Cuprous or cupric oxide Copper(II)
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
They are harmful if swallowed; dust irritates the lungs and eyes.
H
HARMFUL
sulfate(VI) or nitrate(V)
Solid or concentrated solutions (If 1 M or
more)
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
They are harmful if swallowed (especially saturated solutions for crystal-growing); the solid may irritate the eyes and skin. Water added to anhydrous solid sulfate(VI) produces heat.
Copper(II)
sulfate(VI) or nitrate(V)
Dilute solutions
(If less than 1 M)
Benedicts solution and Fehlings solution both contain dilute copper(II) sulfate(VI) but Fehlings solution has other hazards.
Copper(II) carbonate
Solid (Malachite)
H
HARMFUL
It is harmful if swallowed; dust irritates the lungs and eyes.
Copper(II) chloride
Solid or concentrated solutions
(If 1.4 M or more)
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
It is harmful if swallowed; solid may irritate the eyes and skin.
Copper(II) chloride
Dilute solutions
Use the lowest possible quantities and concentrations. Avoid the use of copper(II) chloride if possible (except for electrolysis of the solution). Avoid raising dust (eg, by dampening powders). Take care if evaporating solutions to dryness. Wear eye protection.
Assessing the risks

CLEAPSS 2007
Eg, Solutions spurting out of test tubes when heated or solutions heated to dryness and decomposing.

Eg, Are there hazardous reaction products (such as chlorine from the electrolysis of copper chloride)?
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Dust breathed in Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. See a doctor if breathing is difficult. Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Wash off the skin with plenty of water. Scoop up solid (take care not to raise dust). Wipe up small solution spills or any traces of solid with cloth; for larger spills use mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter).
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
also known as
Substance
Concentrated sodium chlorate(I)
Solution (If more than 1.4 M or more than 10% (w/v) available chlorine)
41
Sodium chlorate(I)
Sodium hypochlorite
Comment
It causes severe burns; it is especially dangerous to the eyes, similar to sodium hydroxide solution. It produces a toxic gas (chlorine) with acids. Pressure may build up in bottles during storage, due to slow decomposition. It removes the colour from many dyes.
Hazard
C
CORROSIVE
Moderatelydilute sodium chlorate(I)

Solution (If between 1.4 M and 0.7 M or between 10% and 5% (w/v) available chlorine) Dilute sodium
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
This includes most domestic bleach. It is irritating to eyes and skin. It produces a toxic gas (chlorine) with acids. It removes the colour from many dyes.
chlorate(I)
Solution (If less than 0.7 M or less than 5% (w/v) available chlorine)
It may still cause harm in eyes or in a cut. Microbiological spills can be dealt with using a 10% solution diluted 100 times (ie, 0.1%), but it is quickly made inactive by organic matter and so a 10 times dilution (ie, 1%) is often preferred.
Use the lowest concentration possible. Use the smallest volume possible. Wear eye protection, including when making or disposing of solutions. Wear protective gloves if the concentrated solution is handled on anything larger than a testtube scale.
Never mix domestic bleach with other household cleaners, because these could be acidic.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Hazardous products of reaction (such as chlorine gas) are formed if sodium chlorate(I) is mixed with acid.
Emergency action
In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 20 minutes. See a doctor. If a visit to hospital is necessary, continue washing the eye during the journey in an ambulance. Chlorine Remove the casualty to another room to rest. If more than a sniff is breathed in inhaled, see a doctor. Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on the skin Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with plenty of water. If a or clothing large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. Rinse contaminated clothing with water. Spilt on the Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well. For larger floor, bench, etc amounts, open the windows and, especially for quite-concentrated solutions, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
42
Barium compounds
Substance
Barium chloride
Solid
Hazard
Comment
Until recently, it was classed as HARMFUL if swallowed or if dust is breathed in. It is irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs etc. Until recently, it was classed as HARMFUL if swallowed. It is irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs etc.
T
TOXIC
Barium chloride
Solution (If 1 M or more)
T
TOXIC
Barium chloride
Solution (If 0.1 M or more but less than 1 M)
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
It is harmful if swallowed and irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs, etc.
Barium chloride
Solution (If less than 0.1 M)
Barium nitrate(V)
Solid
OH
OXIDISING HARMFUL
It is harmful if swallowed and inhaled.
Barium nitrate(V)
Solution
LOW HAZARD
CLEAPSS 2007
Barium sulfate(VI)
Solid
LOW HAZARD
Unlike most barium compounds, barium sulfate(VI) is LOW HAZARD because it does not dissolve in water or acids. Hence it is safe to eat a barium (sulfate) meal, before being Xrayed.
Use the lowest concentration possible. Use the smallest quantity possible. Wear eye protection. Wash hands after handling barium compounds.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Somebody drinking a toxic solution by mistake.
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Brush off any solid. Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. Rinse contaminated clothing with water. Scoop up any solid. Rinse the area with water, diluting greatly. Solutions should be treated with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter).
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
43
Lead & its compounds

including Lead oxides, bromide, nitrate(V),
ethanoate (acetate) etc

Substance
Lead (metal) Lead compounds
Solids
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
Wash hands after handling lead metal. These are harmful if swallowed or dust is breathed in. They may accumulate over time. They may harm unborn children (ie, act as teratogens). Lead ethanoate (acetate) may reduce fertility & may cause cancer. Lead chromate(VI) (used in the yellow lines on roads) may cause cancer. Young children may be at risk if they chew old objects painted with a lead-based paint. When burnt in cars, leaded petrol produces particles of lead compounds. (They are also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because they are very toxic to aquatic organisms.)
T
TOXIC
Lead compounds
Solutions of lead salts in water
(If 0.01 M or more)
T
TOXIC
They are harmful; there is a danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure if swallowed. They may accumulate over time. They may harm unborn children (teratogens). Lead ethanoate (acetate) may reduce fertility & may cause cancer.
CLEAPSS 2007
Lead compounds
Extremely-dilute solutions of lead salts in water (If less than 0.01 M)
LOW HAZARD
They may accumulate over time. In soft-water areas, lead pipes may very slowly dissolve.
Wear eye protection; use the lowest possible amounts and concentrations. Preferably, heat lead compounds in a fume cupboard; avoid raising dust (eg, by dampening powders). Less-volatile compounds (eg, oxides) may be heated in small amounts in a well-ventilated room (but not if those who are, or who might be, pregnant are present). Use lead nitrate rather than lead ethanoate (acetate) when a soluble lead salt is needed.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Solution spurts out of a test tube when heated or dust is breathed in.

Eg, Could anybody be exposed to dangerous lead levels for long periods of time?
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Brush off as much solid as possible. Remove contaminated clothing. Wash the skin and clothes with large quantities of water.
Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the Scoop up solid. Rinse the area with water, diluting very greatly. Solutions floor, bench, should be treated with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter). etc
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
including
44
Mercury & its compounds

Mercury(I/II) oxides, chlorides, nitrates(V), etc
Comment
Its vapour is toxic if breathed in over long periods of time. Spills should be cleared up promptly, but there is no reason to panic. One thermometer contains little mercury and dangerous levels rarely arise in schools. Wear gloves when handling mercury. It forms alloys with gold, silver, etc (eg, jewellery) - remove rings. (It is also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because it is very toxic to aquatic organisms.)
Substance
Mercury
Liquid metal
Hazard
T
TOXIC
CLEAPSS 2007
Mercury compounds
Solid
T
VERY TOXIC
These are very toxic if dust is breathed in, in contact with the skin or if swallowed. They may irritate the eyes and skin. Vomiting and feeling sick are early signs of poisoning. Mercury (button) batteries contain mercury oxide and should be recycled. (They are also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because they are very toxic to aquatic organisms.) They are toxic if in contact with the skin or if swallowed. They may irritate the eyes and skin. Vomiting and feeling sick are early signs of poisoning. Mercury compounds used in making Victorian hats caused disease, as in the Mad hatter of Alice in Wonderland. They are harmful in contact with the skin or if swallowed. They may irritate the eyes and skin. Pollution by mercury compounds in a Japanese river in the 1950s caused serious poisoning of humans who ate fish from the river (Minimata disease). This only applies to extremely-dilute solutions in water.
Mercury compounds
Solution s in water
T
TOXIC
(If 0.04 M or more)
Mercury
compounds Soluti ons in water (If less than 0.04 M but 0.004 M or more)
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
Mercury compounds
Wear eye protection and suitable gloves; use the lowest possible concentration. Avoid the use of mercury compounds where possible (eg, avoid Millons reagent). Handle liquid mercury over a tray to contain spills; do not leave mercury surfaces exposed to the air. Avoid raising dust (eg, by dampening powder); work in a fume cupboard. Clear up spills promptly and with care.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Solution spurts out of a test tube when heated, mercury metal spills on the floor or a thermometer is broken.

Eg, Could anybody be exposed to dangerous mercury levels for long periods of time?

Emergency action

Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. There is little problem with mercury metal (but see a doctor). For compounds, do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Dangerous only if large amounts of vapour are breathed in over a short period of time Vapour breathed in (eg, when heating metal) or from long-term exposure. See a doctor. For mercury metal, remove contaminated clothing and wash off the skin. Check jewellery Spilt on the for damage. For mercury compounds, flood the area with large amounts of water. skin or clothing Remove and repeatedly rinse clothing. See a doctor for large areas affected or if blistering occurs. For mercury metal, remove jewellery, collect up mechanically (eg, with asyringe). Mop Spilt on the floor, bench, up the remainder with a hot paste of 1:1 calcium oxide/sulfur mixture in water. Spread etc the same (dry) mixture over cracks and other inaccessible areas. For compounds, scoop up the solid. Rinse the area with water, diluting very greatly. For solutions, use mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter). In the eye Swallowed
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
including
45
Aluminium & its compounds

Aluminium oxide, hydroxide, sulfate(VI) and chloride; also Potash alum
CLEAPSS 2007
Substance
Aluminium (metal)
Solid (large pieces, sheets, etc)
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
It is used in cooking utensils and is generally considered safe. There were suggestions at one time that aluminium might cause Alzheimers disease but these are now considered unlikely. Eg, it is used as a food additive E173. Under suitable conditions, it may react with water to produce hydrogen, an extremely flammable gas (see Sheet 50). A dust explosion is possible if it is exposed to flame. Although difficult to ignite, it is difficult to extinguish. It is used in indigestion tablets.
Aluminium (metal)
Fine powder
F
Aluminium oxide (alumina), or aluminium hydroxide Aluminium sulfate(VI) or aluminium potassium sulfate(VI) (potash alum)
Solid or solution
LOW HAZARD
Solutions are acidic. They are added in small amounts to cloudy water in reservoirs to coagulate clay particles. When large amounts were accidentally added to a reservoir at Camelford in Cornwall, some ill effects were reported. It is used as a mordant in dyeing.
Aluminium chloride
Anhydrous solid
C
CORROSIVE
It causes burns. It reacts violently and exothermically with water to produce fumes of hydrogen chloride (see Sheet 20). Pressure may build up in a closed container due to absorbed moisture. The solution is acidic. It is irritating to the eyes and skin.
Aluminium chloride
Hydrated solid or moderately-concentrated solution (If 0.8 M or more)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Aluminium chloride
In antiperspirants and deodorants, it is mixed with other substances and is not classed as hazardous. However, it may be an IRRITANT to people with sensitive skin.
Use the lowest possible concentration; wear eye protection. Avoid the use of aluminium powder or anhydrous aluminium chloride if possible. Avoid raising dust and keep aluminium powder away from naked flames.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Solution spurts out of a test tube when heated or a solution decomposes when heated to dryness.
Eg, Are there hazardous reaction products, eg, hydrogen chloride gas from the action of water on anhydrous aluminium chloride?
Emergency action
In eye Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Dust breathed in Remove the casualty to fresh air. See a doctor if breathing is difficult. Spilt on the skin or Remove and rinse contaminated clothing. Wash off the skin with plenty of water. clothing Spilt on the floor, Scoop up the solid (take care not to raise dust). Wipe up small solution spills or bench, etc any traces of solid with a cloth. Fire Powdered aluminium fires should be extinguished by smothering with clean, dry sand.
CLEAPSS 2007
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
46
Silver & its compounds

including Silver bromide, chloride, iodide, nitrate(V) and
oxide
Substance
Silver (metal)
Solid
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
It is used in jewellery. It is an approved food additive, E174. They are widely used in photographic emulsions. They are decomposed by light to give silver metal and the halogen.
Silver halides, ie, silver bromide, silver chloride and silver iodide
Solids
LOW HAZARD
Silver nitrate(V)
Solid and fairlyconcentrated solutions (If 0.5 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE
It causes burns and is dangerous to the eyes. If swallowed, it causes internal damage due to absorption into the blood, followed by deposition of silver in various tissues. It produces black stains on the skin, which, however, wear off in a few days. The solid explodes dangerously with magnesium powder and a drop of water. (It is also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because it is very toxic to aquatic organisms.) It may produce black stains on the skin, which, however, wear off in a few days.
Silver nitrate(V)
Fairly-dilute solutions (If less than 0.5 M but 0.2 M or more)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Silver nitrate(V)
Very dilute solutions are adequate for most school work when testing for halides in solution. It is used for aldehyde tests and should be prepared only on a test-tube scale, when needed, and discarded into plenty of water within hour, otherwise explosives may form. It is used in some batteries, eg, button cells for watches and calculators.
Silver nitrate(V)
Ammoniacal solution (Tollens Reagent)
IE
IRRITANT
EXPLOSIVE
Silver oxide
Solid
LOW HAZARD
Use the lowest possible concentration; wear eye protection. Avoid keeping solutions of silver compounds and ammonia for more than a few minutes. Avoid handling solid silver nitrate.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Silver nitrate accidentally coming into contact with the skin.

Eg, Are there hazardous reaction products, eg, from solutions of silver compounds with ammonia?
Eg, Can it be done safely? Does the procedure need to be altered? Should goggles or safety spectacles be worn? Are gloves needed?
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.
CLEAPSS 2007
Spilt on the skin Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Wash off the skin with plenty of water. If or clothing the silver nitrate produces more than small burns, see a doctor. Spilt on the Wear eye protection and gloves. Scoop up the solid. Rinse the area with water and floor, bench, wipe up, rinsing repeatedly. Rinse the mop or cloth thoroughly. etc
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
47
Chromium & its compounds

including Chromium(III) salts, chrome alum, chromates and
dichromates
Substance
Chromium (metal) Solid Chromium(III) oxide Solid Chromium(III) salts Solid and most solutions (If 0.5 M or more) Chromium(III) salts Dilute solutions (If less than 0.5 M) Potassium/sodium chromate(VI)/dichromate(VI ) Solid and most solutions (If 0.2 M or more) All chromates(VI)/ dichromates(VI) Solutions less than 0.2 M but 0.003 M or more. All chromates(VI)/ dichromates(VI) Ammonium dichromate(VI) Solid Lead chromate(VI) Solid
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
It is used (as chromium plate) to give a shiny, protective surface on steel, eg, on cars and bicycles. It is used as a green pigment, eg, in pottery. These include chromium potassium sulfate(VI) (chrome alum). They are harmful if swallowed and irritating to the eyes and skin. These include chromium potassium sulfate(VI) (chrome alum). These are very toxic by inhalation or if swallowed. They may cause sensitisation and/or ulcers in contact with the skin. They may cause cancer by inhalation but inhalation is unlikely in most school uses. Oxidation, eg, of alcohols, may be quite violent. (They are also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because they are very toxic to aquatic organisms.) They are toxic by inhalation or if swallowed. They may cause sensitisation and/or ulcers in contact with the skin. They may cause cancer by inhalation but inhalation is not at all likely in most school uses. This only applies to any solutions less than 0.003 M. In addition to the hazards of potassium/sodium salts, this decomposes if heated and will explode in confined spaces. It is used in indoor fireworks. It is used as the pigment for yellow lines on roads. There is limited evidence of carcinogenic effects. It may cause harm to the unborn child. See Sheet 43.
LOW HAZARD
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
TO
VERY TOXIC OXIDISING
TO
TOXIC
OXIDISING
LOW HAZARD
TE
VERY TOXIC EXPLOSIVE
T
TOXIC
Use the lowest possible concentration; wear eye protection; consider the use of gloves for chromates/dichromates. For the volcano experiment, prevent exposure to dust by the use of a fume cupboard or mineral-wool plug in the vessel. Avoid inhaling chromate/dichromate dust or spray (eg, during electrolysis).
Assessing the risks

Eg, Chromate or dichromate dust or solution are accidentally inhaled.

Eg, Are there hazardous reactions, eg, violent oxidations or decompositions?
CLEAPSS 2007
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc
Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it until no colour remains. Wash off the skin with plenty of water. If skin contamination is more than small, see a doctor. Wear eye protection and gloves. Scoop up the solid. Rinse the area with water and wipe up, rinsing repeatedly until no colour remains. Rinse the mop or cloth thoroughly.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
48
Manganese & its compounds

including Manganese(IV) oxide (dioxide) & Potassium manganate(VII) (permanganate)
Substance
Manganese (metal)
Solid
Hazard
Comment
It is harmful by inhalation, hence exposure to dust or fume would present a risk but not bulk metal.
H
HARMFUL
Manganese(II) salts
Solid and concentrated solutions (If about 1 M or more)
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
These include manganese(II) chloride and sulfate(VI). Manganese(II) carbonate is considered LOW HAZARD.
Manganese(II) salts
Dilute solutions (If less than about 1 M)
These include manganese(II) chloride and sulfate(VI).
Manganese(IV) oxide (Manganese dioxide)

Solid
H
HARMFUL
It is harmful by inhalation or if swallowed. It is often used as a fine powder. Many hazardous reactions occur with reducing agents or concentrated acids. It is used in dry cells (batteries). It is harmful if swallowed and stains the hands and clothing. Many hazardous reactions occur with reducing agents or concentrated acids. On heating, it liberates oxygen gas and releases a fine dust of potassium manganate(VI). They stain hands and clothing.
Potassium manganate(VII) (permanganate)

Solid
HO
HARMFUL
OXIDISING
All manganates(VII) (permanganates)

Solutions
LOW HAZARD
Wear eye protection. Avoid inhaling dusts. Avoid skin contact, especially with manganates(VII). Avoid contact between manganates(VII) or manganese(IV) oxide and concentrated acids or reducing agents.
Assessing the risks

CLEAPSS 2007
Eg, Dust is accidentally inhaled.

Eg, Are there hazardous reactions, eg, violent oxidations or decompositions?
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Wash off the skin with plenty of water. [Manganate(VII) will give permanent stains to clothing and the skin.] If skin contamination is more than small, see a doctor. Wear eye protection and gloves. Scoop up the solid. Rinse the area with water and wipe up, rinsing repeatedly. [Manganate(VII) will give permanent stains.] Rinse the mop or cloth thoroughly.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
49
Zinc & its compounds

including Zinc oxide, carbonate, sulfate(VI), chloride, bromide
Substance
Zinc metal
(granulated or sheets of metal)
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
Pure zinc does not react readily with dilute acids, without a catalyst [usually copper(II) sulfate]. Iron or steel is often coated with zinc (galvanised) to protect it from rusting. Under suitable conditions may react with water to produce extremely flammable gas (see Sheet 50). Can ignite spontaneously in air or react violently with iodine, sulfur and copper(II) oxide. Most school samples have a surface coating of zinc oxide, making reactions unpredictable. The zinc oxide fumes (philosophers wool) formed when zinc dust burns in air are regarded as hazardous dust. Harmful if swallowed (especially saturated solutions for crystalgrowing). There is a risk of serious damage to the eyes. When preparing zinc sulfate by reacting zinc and sulfuric acid, the reaction can be slow and is often incomplete.
Zinc metal
(powder or dust)
F
Zinc oxide or carbonate Zinc sulfate(VI)

H
HARMFUL
IRRITANT
Zinc sulfate(VI)
LOW HAZARD
Zinc chloride or bromide

C
CORROSIVE
These cause burns and are harmful if swallowed. The anhydrous solids are especially dangerous. The solids absorb water from the atmosphere. Electrolysis of molten zinc chloride/bromide or solutions produce chlorine or bromine. -

Fairly dilute solutions (If less than 0.7 M but more than 0.3 M)
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD

Use the lowest possible quantities and concentrations. Only electrolyse zinc chloride/bromide solutions briefly, unless in a fume cupboard (essential for the molten compounds). Assume zinc powder/dust is fresh and not partially oxidised on the surface.
CLEAPSS 2007
When reacting zinc and acid, check no acid remains before evaporating solutions (pH should be 4 or higher). Wear eye protection.
Assessing the risks

What are the details of the activity to be undertaken? What are the hazards? What is the chance of something going wrong? Eg, Solutions spurting out of test tubes when heated or solutions heated to dryness and decomposing. How serious would it be if something did go wrong? Eg, Are there hazardous reaction products (such as chlorine from the electrolysis of zinc chloride)? How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity? Eg, Can it be done safely? Does the procedure need to be altered? Should goggles or safety spectacles be worn?
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Dust breathed in Remove the casualty to fresh air. See a doctor if breathing is difficult. Spilt on the skin or Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Wash off the skin with plenty of water. clothing Spilt on the floor, Scoop up solid (take care not to raise dust). Wipe up small solution spills or any bench, etc traces of solid with cloth; for larger spills use mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter).
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
50
Hydrogen
Substance
Hydrogen Gas
Hazard
Comment
It forms explosive mixtures with air and oxygen. Mixtures with air between 4% and 74% hydrogen by volume are explosive. Explosive mixtures will ignite below 500 C and well below this temperature in the presence of catalysts such as transition metals and their oxides. The explosion with oxygen produces a very loud noise which can damage hearing. Mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen can arise when recharging a car battery (or model cells in schools); ensure good ventilation, avoid sparks and naked flames.
F
EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE
If preparing the gas in test- tube reactions, use the smallest possible amounts. Wear eye protection and stand well back. Use safety screens for all but test-tube amounts of the gas; ensure good laboratory ventilation. If preparing the gas on anything larger than a test-tube scale, make sure the apparatus has the smallest possible volume, so that only a little air has to be flushed out. If lighting the gas at a jet, test a sample to make sure that all the air has been flushed out and light from a distance. If possible, use a gas cylinder rather than generate your own hydrogen, because the cylinder produces a more-rapid flow which flushes air more quickly from the apparatus. When reducing, eg, metal oxides, consider alternative reducing agents such as methane or ammona gas.
Assessing the risks

CLEAPSS 2007
Eg, Could the hydrogen be ignited accidentally? How easy is it to make sure that all the air has been flushed out?

NB There are occasional reports of pupils being taken to hospital (for treatment to cuts or for splashes of chemicals) as a result of damage to apparatus in hydrogen explosions.
Emergency action
Gas escape Explosion Open all the windows. Make sure there are no naked flames. If there are cuts from flying glass, apply pressure using a clean pad of cloth. Do not attempt to remove large pieces of embedded glass, etc. If there is arterial bleeding, the casualty should be laid down and the injured limb raised up. Send for a doctor.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
51
Oxygen & Ozone

Substance
Oxygen
Gas
Hazard
Comment
Air contains about 21% oxygen. Contact between oxygen and combustible material may cause fire. Combustible substances burn much more fiercely in air which has been only slightly enriched with oxygen (eg, 25%). Products of combustion are often strongly acidic or basic (alkaline) oxides. If the amount of oxygen in the air becomes too low, headaches, unconsciousness and death may result. First effects may be noticed when the percentage drops to 18%. Similar effects may be observed on high mountains due to lower pressure.
O
OXIDISING
CLEAPSS 2007
Ozone
Gas
O
OXIDISING
T
TOXIC
I
IRRITANT
It is toxic if breathed in. It irritates the eyes and respiratory system. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 0.4 mg m-3. It is not normally made or used in school science. In the presence of sunlight, traces of hydrocarbons in the air react with nitrogen oxides (see Sheet 53), eg, from car exhausts, to form ozone. This causes photochemical smog in certain hot weather conditions. Small amounts of ozone are also formed in some photocopiers but this is only likely to be a problem in a small room with poor ventilation. Although dangerous if breathed in, ozone in the upper atmosphere performs a very important safety role, where it absorbs much of the ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth, thus preventing dangerous exposures (see Sheet 12). There is considerable concern that pollution by certain chlorinated hydrocarbons (see Sheet 62) is destroying the ozone layer.
Wear eye protection when preparing oxygen or burning substances in oxygen. Avoid looking directly at the very bright light from magnesium burning in oxygen. Avoid inhaling products when non-metals are burning in oxygen. Use safety screens when burning substances in oxygen on anything larger than a test-tube scale. If using cylinders of oxygen, do not lubricate controls with oil or grease as this might catch fire.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could substances burn much more fiercely than expected?

Eg, Would there be widespread health effects if the ozone layer is damaged by pollution?
Emergency action
Gas escape Clothing catches fire Other fires If a large quantity is released, open all windows. Extinguish all naked flames. Smother flames on clothing or the skin with a fire blanket or other material. Cool any burnt skin with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if the area of burn is larger than a small coin. Allow fires in sinks etc to burn out. Fires at the top of test tubes, beakers, etc should be smothered with a damp cloth or heat-proof mat.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
52
Sulfur dioxide
CLEAPSS 2007
Substance
Sulfur dioxide
Gas
Hazard
Comment
It is toxic if breathed in. It may cause burns and it irritates the eyes and respiratory system. It is a choking gas and may trigger an asthma attack (even some hours after exposure). For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere should not exceed 2.7 mg m-3. It is produced naturally in large amounts by volcanoes. Most fossil fuels contain traces of sulfur compounds. When burnt, these result in sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere, causing acid rain. It may be produced in the laboratory by the action of heat or dilute acid on sulfites or thiosulfates. It is used in small amounts as a preservative in some foodstuffs and wines.
T
TOXIC
Sulfur dioxide
Dilute solution in water
LOW HAZARD
(BUT BEWARE
OF
TOXIC GAS GIVEN OFF)
The gas is very soluble in water and may cause suck back. Alternatively, a sulfur dioxide solution can be prepared using sodium metabisulfite and adding sulfuric acid. The gas escapes easily from solution, especially if this is warmed, and should not be inhaled.
If preparing the gas in test-tube reactions, use the smallest amounts possible. Wear eye protection. Take steps to prevent suck back of water, eg, by the use of Bunsen valves. Use a fume cupboard for anything larger than test-tube amounts of gas; ensure good laboratory ventilation and quickly dispose of solutions containing sulfur dioxide. If testing for the gas by its smell, follow the safe technique for sniffing gases: use your hand to waft the gas towards your nose. Do not expose asthmatics to the gas. Use fuels which are naturally low in sulfur, remove sulfur compounds before use or use scrubbers to absorb sulfur dioxide from the exhaust gases of coal- or oil-burning power stations.
Assessing the risks

Eg, A leak of gas into the laboratory from apparatus or a warmed solution, or suck back.
Emergency action
In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Vapour Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is difficult. breathed in Gas escape in a Open all windows. If over 1 litre of gas is released, evacuate the laboratory. laboratory
CLEAPSS 2007
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
53
Nitrogen oxides
includes Nitrogen monoxide, Nitrogen dioxide, Dinitrogen tetroxide & Dinitrogen oxide Substance
Nitrogen monoxide (Nitric oxide; NO)
Gas
Hazard
Comment
It is very toxic if breathed in and irritates the eyes and respiratory system. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 1.4 mg m-3. It reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere to form nitrogen dioxide (see below). It may be formed by the reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air, especially in car engines. This is a major contributor to acid rain and photochemical smog. The mixture of NO and NO2 formed in this way is often referred to as NOX. These are very toxic if breathed in. They may cause dizziness, headaches and coldness. They also irritate the eyes and respiratory system. Serious effects may be delayed until after apparent recovery. They may trigger an asthma attack. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 1.9 mg m-3. They are formed as air pollutants from nitrogen monoxide (see above). They are formed in the laboratory by the action of heat on many nitrates and by the reaction of nitric acid on some metals. They are very soluble in water; there is a risk of suck back. This is an anaesthetic in large amounts. It has been used as a general anaesthetic, eg, by dentists.
T
VERY TOXIC
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) Gases
T
VERY TOXIC
C
CORROSIVE
Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) Laughing gas
O
OXIDISING
If preparing gases in test-tube reactions, use the smallest possible amounts and take steps to avoid suck back. Wear eye protection. Use a fume cupboard for anything larger than test-tube amounts of gas; ensure good laboratory ventilation. If testing for the gases by their smell, follow the safe technique for sniffing gases: use your hand to waft the gas towards your nose. Prevent exposure to the gases by asthmatics. Use catalytic converters in car exhausts to reduce the amount of nitrogen oxides released into the air.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Leak of a gas from apparatus into the laboratory atmosphere.
Emergency action
In eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Vapour Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is difficult. breathed in Gas escape in a Open all windows. If over 1 litre of gas is released, evacuate the laboratory. laboratory
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
includes
Substance
Chlorine
Gas
54
Chlorine
Chlorine water
Hazard Comment
This is toxic if breathed in, causing severe lung damage. It irritates the eyes, skin and respiratory system. It may trigger an asthma attack and the effects of exposure may be delayed for some hours. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere should not exceed 1.5 mg m-3. It is very toxic to the aquatic environment and is used to kill microbes in public water supplies, at a concentration between about 0.1 and 1.0 mg per litre. It is also used to treat swimming pool water at a concentration between about 1.4 and 4.0 mg per litre. It may be formed in the laboratory by electrolysis and the oxidation of some chlorides. It may be formed in the laboratory, in the home or at work by the action of acid on bleaches; see Sheet 41. It can be made in a fume cupboard by diluting a saturated solution with a little more than its own volume of water. Chlorine gas escapes easily from the solution, especially if it is warmed.
T
TOXIC
DANGEROUS
N
FOR THE
ENVIRONMENT
Chlorine water
Solution in water
LOW HAZARD
(BUT BEWARE
OF
TOXIC GAS GIVEN OFF)
If preparing the gas in test-tube reactions, use the smallest possible amounts; where possible, absorb excess gas with a soda lime tube. Wear eye protection. Use a fume cupboard for anything larger than test-tube amounts; ensure good laboratory ventilation. If testing for the gas by its smell, follow the safe technique for sniffing gases: use your hand to waft the gas towards your nose. Prevent exposure to the gas by asthmatics. Even with chlorine water, take care not to breathe in chlorine.
Assessing the risks

NB There are occasional reports of pupils being taken to hospital as a result of breathing in chlorine.
Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is even slightly affected.
CLEAPSS 2007
Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc
Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. For chlorine water, remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. Open all windows. For a release of more than 1 litre of chlorine gas, evacuate the laboratory. Mop up chlorine water and rinse with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
includes
Substance
Bromine
Liquid
55
Bromine
Bromine water
Hazard Comment
It produces a vapour which is very toxic if breathed in. The liquid causes severe burns to the eyes and skin. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration of the vapour in the atmosphere should not exceed 1.3 mg m-3. It produces a vapour which is very toxic if breathed in. The solution causes severe burns to the eyes and skin. There may also be hazards associated with the organic solvent; see relevant Student Safety Sheets. It produces a vapour which is very toxic if breathed in. The solution causes severe burns to the eyes and skin. A saturated solution in water is about 0.25 M. There may also be hazards associated with the organic solvent; see relevant Student Safety Sheets.
TC
VERY TOXIC
CORROSIVE
Concentrated bromine solution,

in organic solvents (If 0.3 M or more)
TC
VERY TOXIC
CORROSIVE
Moderatelyconcentrated bromine solution, in water

or organic solvents (If 0.06 M or more but less than 0.3 M)
TI
TOXIC
IRRITANT
Moderatelydilute bromine solution,

in water or organic solvents (If 0.006 M or more but less than 0.06 M)
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
There may be hazards associated with the organic solvent; see relevant Student Safety Sheets.
Very dilute bromine solution, in water

or organic solvents (If less than 0.006 M)
There may be hazards associated with the organic solvent; see relevant Student Safety Sheets. This concentration is suitable for testing alkenes for unsaturation.
Use the lowest concentration and smallest volume possible. Wear eye protection and protective nitrile gloves for all but the most-dilute solutions. Avoid breathing the fumes from concentrated solutions, eg, by the use of a fume cupboard. When bromine liquid is in use, have plenty of sodium thiosulfate solution available to deal with spills.
Assessing the risks

CLEAPSS 2007
What is the chance of something going wrong? How serious would it be if something did go wrong? How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?
Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Swallowed
Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is even slightly affected. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. For liquid bromine or the moderately-concentrated solution, immerse in sodium thiosulfate solution (20%, 1 M). Remove contaminated clothing, soak it and drench the skin with plenty of water. See a doctor.
Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the For spills of all but a few drops of liquid bromine, open windows and evacuate floor, bench, the laboratory. For small bromine spills, add sodium thiosulfate solution (20%. 1 M) and leave for 1 hour. Mop up and rinse with plenty of water. etc
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
includes
Substance
Iodine
Solid
56
Iodine
Iodine solutions
Hazard Comment
It is harmful if breathed in or by contact with the skin. It causes burns to the skin if left for some time. It is easily vapourised if heated - the violet vapour is dangerous to the eyes. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 1.1 mg m-3. (It is also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because it is very toxic to aquatic organisms.) There may be hazards associated with the organic solvent; see relevant Student Safety Sheets. Ethanol is often used; it is HIGHLY FLAMMABLE.
H
HARMFUL
Iodine solution,
in potassium iodide / water or in organic solvent (If 1 M or more)
H
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
Dilute iodine solution,

in potassium iodide / water or in organic solvent (If less than 1 M)
There may be hazards associated with the organic solvent; see relevant Student Safety Sheets. Ethanol is often used; it is HIGHLY FLAMMABLE. Tincture of iodine, used as a mild antiseptic, is a dilute solution in ethanol (about 0.1 M).
Use the lowest concentration and smallest amount possible. Wear eye protection for all but the most-dilute solutions. Handle iodine solid using forceps or, better, wear protective gloves as well. Avoid breathing iodine vapour, eg, by the use of a fume cupboard.
Assessing the risks

NB Iodine vapour can crystallise painfully on the eye.
CLEAPSS 2007
Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is even slightly affected. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Spilt on the Brush off solid iodine and immerse in sodium thiosulfate solution (20%, 1 M). skin or clothingRemove contaminated clothing, soak it and drench the skin with plenty of water. See a doctor if a large area is affected or blistering occurs. Spilt on the Scoop up any solid iodine, add sodium thiosulfate solution (20%, 1 M) to the floor, bench, remaining spill and leave for 1 hour. Mop up and rinse with plenty of water. etc
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
57
Hydrogen peroxide
Substance
Concentrated hydrogen peroxide solution
[If less than 13.6 M, ie, 170 volume strength (50%) but 2.3 M or more, ie, over 28 volume strength (8%)]
Hazard
Comment
It is harmful if swallowed. There is a risk of serious damage to the eyes. The most-concentrated solution found in schools is normally in this category. It decomposes slowly to produce oxygen gas (see Sheet 51); pressure may build up and care needs to be taken when opening a bottle. It should be stored in the dark. Decomposition is speeded up by catalysts such as some metal oxides and some enzymes. The oxygen formed will assist fires. It irritates the eyes and skin. The typical concentration used in school science practical work. It decomposes slowly to produce oxygen gas (see Sheet 51); pressure may build up and care needs to be taken when opening a bottle. It should be stored in the dark. Decomposition is speeded up by catalysts such as some metal oxides and some enzymes. It is used for bleaching hair. It decomposes slowly to produce oxygen gas (see Sheet 51); pressure may build up and care needs to be taken when opening a bottle. It should be stored in the dark. Decomposition is speeded up by catalysts such as some metal oxides and some enzymes. Old stock may have insufficient peroxide molecules for the intended activity.
H
HARMFUL
Dilute hydrogen peroxide solution

[If less than 2.3 M but 1.5 M or more, ie, less than 28 volume strength (8%) but 18 volume strength (5%) or more]
I
IRRITANT LOW HAZARD
Very dilute hydrogen peroxide solution

[If less than 1.5 M, ie, less than 18 volume strength (5%)]
Use the lowest concentration and smallest volume possible. Wear eye protection for all but the most-dilute solutions. Store concentrated solutions away from heat and light, in bottles with special vented caps. Beware of a rapid release of pressure when opening a bottle.
CLEAPSS 2007
Avoid accidental contamination of solutions which may speed up the formation of oxygen and pressure build-up.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could an impurity / catalyst cause rapid decomposition and frothing?

Eg, If the solution splashes onto the skin, is it sufficiently concentrated to cause burns?
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Flood the area with plenty of water. Remove contaminated clothing and soak it. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor.
Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the For large spills, and especially for (moderately) concentrated solutions, cover floor, bench, with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Dilute with at etc least ten times its own volume of water. Rinse the floor etc with plenty of water. Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
58
Carbon & its oxides

including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide
Substance Hazard Comment
It can cause asphyxiation if the proportion of carbon dioxide in the air becomes too high, eg, as a result of the rapid evaporation of the solid in a confined space or, in some African lakes, it is released from decaying organic matter. Because it is denser than air, it may build up in low areas, eg, in caves. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 27,000 mg m-3. About 0.04% is present in normal air, as compared with about 0.03% fifty years ago. This increase is a result of burning fossil fuels in motor vehicles, power stations, etc. This in turn is believed to be contributing to a very gradual rise in the temperature of the Earth (global warming) as a result of the greenhouse effect. It causes frostbite (burns) and needs careful handling. If it evaporates rapidly in a closed vessel, it may cause an explosion or, in a confined space, it may cause asphyxiation as the air is forced out. It is toxic if breathed in, with the danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure. It may cause harm to the unborn child. As little as 0.01% can cause headaches. The gas has no taste or smell. It is often formed when hydrocarbon fuels burn in a limited supply of air, eg, car engines especially in confined spaces, or gas-powered water heaters with poor ventilation. Every year, this causes many deaths in the home. Traces also occur in cigarette smoke and are implicated in heart and artery diseases. It also contributes to the greenhouse effect. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 232 mg m-3. It forms explosive mixtures with air and oxygen. Mixtures with air between 12% and 74% carbon monoxide by volume are explosive. Applies to lampblack, charcoal, activated carbon, decolourising charcoal. Soot is also mainly carbon but may be contaminated with carcinogenic chemicals. This was a cause of cancer amongst chimney sweeps in Victorian times. The hazards of buckminsterfullerene nanotubes are not fully known. Hot charcoal (carbon blocks), even if not glowing red, can slowly combust and stay hot for many hours.
Carbon dioxide
Gas
!
DANGER
Carbon dioxide
Solid dry ice
*
COLD
Carbon monoxide
Gas
T
TOXIC
F
EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE
Carbon
Graphite, diamond, buckminsterfullerene
LOW HAZARD
CLEAPSS 2007
Wear protective thermal gloves or use tongs for handling solid carbon dioxide. Use energy-efficient vehicles and power stations and/or non-fossil fuels to limit the amount of carbon dioxide or monoxide emitted. Use a ducted fume cupboard (not a recirculatory filter fume cupboard) for handling carbon monoxide. Have gas appliances serviced regularly. Use catalytic converters in car exhausts to reduce the amount of carbon monoxide released into the air. After use, allow hot charcoal blocks to cool in air; store them in air-tight metal containers.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Leak of gas from apparatus into the laboratory.

Eg, Global warming causing rising sea level and resultant flooding of low-lying areas.

Emergency action
Solid in the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if solid carbon dioxide. Solid on the skin Brush off quickly and immerse the affected area in cold water. If there are any signs or clothing of burning from solid carbon dioxide, call a doctor. Vapour breathed inFor carbon monoxide, or carbon dioxide in large quantities, remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if carbon monoxide was inhaled or if breathing is difficult. Gas escape in a Open all windows. For large amounts of carbon monoxide, evacuate the laboratory. laboratory
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
59
Hydrogen sulfide & other sulfides

including carbon disulfide, ammonium, sodium, potassium, zinc, copper and iron sulfides Substance Hydrogen sulfide Gas Hazard Comment
Mixtures of hydrogen sulfide with air containing between 4% and 45% hydrogen sulfide are explosive. It is very toxic if breathed in (more toxic than hydrogen cyanide). For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere should not exceed 14 mg m-3. In an average school laboratory, that level would be reached by the action of 200 cm3. 1 M hydrochloric acid on excess sulfide. It has a very strong smell of rotten eggs and the human nose can detect as little as 0.01 mg m-3, ie a drop or two 1 M hydrochloric acid on excess sulfide in an average school laboratory. At higher concentrations it anaesthetises (deadens) the sense of smell and so the danger may not be realised. It may sometimes be found in coal mines (stinkdamp) and is produced by rotting seaweed and is the commonest cause of death in sewer workers. Use of solutions of hydrogen sulfide or ammonium, potassium or sodium sulfides is safer than using the gas, although the gas will escape readily from the solutions, especially on warming.
F T
EXTREMELY
FLAMMABLE VERY TOXIC
Hydrogen sulfide
Solution in water (if 0.3 M or more)
T
TOXIC
Hydrogen sulfide
Dilute solution in water (if less than 0.3 M but 0.03 M or more)
I
HARMFUL LOW HAZARD
Hydrogen sulfide
Very dilute solution in water (if less than 0.03 M)
Carbon disulfide
Liquid
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
T
TOXIC
This is highly flammable and toxic. There is a danger of serious damage to health through prolonged exposure by inhalation. It may harm the unborn child and may impair fertility. It is irritating to eyes and skin. Use of this is not recommended in schools. The demonstration involving the reaction with nitrogen monoxide is very dangerous, especially if the oxide is not pure.
CLEAPSS 2007
Sodium & potassium sulfide

solid or solution (if 0.4 M or more) & ammonium sulfide solution (if 0.7 M or more)
C
CORROSIVE
Dilute acid reacts to produce hydrogen sulfide. The solids absorb moisture from the atmosphere, producing hydrogen sulfide. The solutions are strongly alkaline.
Sodium & potassium sulfide

dilute solution (if less than 0.4 M but 0.2 M or more) & ammonium sulfide dilute solution (if less than 0.7 M but 0.2 M or more)
I
IRRITANT
Sodium, potassium & ammonium sulfide
LOW HAZARD
very dilute solution (if less than 0.2 M)
Copper sulfide, copper pyrites, iron sulfide, iron pyrites, zinc sulfide solids
LOW HAZARD
These are insoluble in water. Dilute acid reacts to produce hydrogen sulfide. If heated strongly in air, may produce toxic sulfur dioxide (see Sheet 52) and the metal oxide. Iron pyrites is known as fools gold.
If producing the gas in the lab, use the smallest amounts possible, eg no more than a few drops of acid on excess sulfide. Wear eye protection. Use a fume cupboard if adding more than a few drops of dilute acid to excess sulfide; ensure good laboratory ventilation and quickly dispose of solutions containing hydrogen sulfide. If smelling the gas, follow the safe technique: use your hand to waft the gas towards your nose.
Assessing the risks

What are the details of the activity to be undertaken? What are the hazards? What is the chance of something going wrong? Eg, A leak of gas into the laboratory from apparatus or a warmed solution. How serious would it be if something did go wrong? How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity? Eg, Can it be done safely? Does the procedure need to be altered? Should goggles or safety spectacles be worn?
Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Gas escape in a laboratory Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is difficult. Open all windows. If over 1 litre of gas is released, evacuate the laboratory.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
also applies to
60
Ethanol
Denatured alcohol and Methylated spirit
Comment
There is a serious risk of liquid catching fire; its vapour may catch fire above 13 C. The vapour / air mixture is explosive (from 3.3 to 19% ethanol). Breathing vapour may result in sleepiness: the concentration in the air should not exceed 5,760 mg m-3. It is more hazardous than pure ethanol because of the presence of 5% (v/v) methanol which is TOXIC. It is often used as a solvent, eg, for chlorophyll and for indicators, eg, Universal indicator, phenolphthalein and in chromatography.
Substance
Ethanol
Pure
Hazard
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
Industrial denatured alcohol (IDA) [formerly Industrial methylated spirit (IMS)]
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
CLEAPSS 2007
Completely denatured alcohol (CDA) Surgical spirit

(It contains small amounts of castor oil, methyl salicylate and diethyl phthalate)
H
HARMFUL
It contains methanol, pyridine and a purple dye. CDA has a bad odour and is not suitable for use indoors.
F
It is suitable for demonstrating the cooling effect of evaporation. It can be applied to the skin on the back of the hand. It is used for medical purposes, eg, foot infections, cleaning the skin. It must not be swallowed. Alcoholic drinks contain ethanol, typically 3 to 7% (beers), 11 to 14% (wines), 30 to 40% (spirits). Although chemical hazards are low, there may be considerable effects on the body leading to a loss of judgement, slower reaction times, etc. Consumption is dangerous if driving a vehicle or operating machinery.
Ethanol
Dilute solution in water
Use the smallest volume possible; wear eye protection. Make sure the room is well ventilated. Check that equipment for extinguishing fires is nearby, eg, damp cloth, bench mat, fire blanket. Do not use near naked flames; if heating is necessary, use an electrically-heated water bath or hot water from a kettle.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Does ethanol need to be heated? Could quantities of the vapour be breathed in? Might there be practical jokes or fooling around? Are any reaction products hazardous?

NB Some of the most serious accidents in school science have involved ethanol fires, including clothing fires, and badlyburnt skin needing grafts.
How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity? Can it be done safely? Does the procedure need to be altered?
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Floodtheeyewithgentlyrunningtapwaterfor10minutes.Seeadoctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. NB: The casualty may show signs of drunkenness. Spilt on the skin or Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Wash the affected area and clothing clothing with plenty of water. Clothing catches Smother flames on clothing or the skin with a fire blanket or other material. Cool fire any burnt skin with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. Other ethanol Allow fires in sinks, etc to burn out. Fires at the top of test tubes, beakers, etc fires should be smothered with a damp cloth or heat-proof mat. Spilt on the floor, Extinguish all Bunsen-burner flames. Wipe up small amounts with a cloth and bench, etc rinse it well. For larger amounts, open all windows, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter), scoop into a bucket and add water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
also known as
61
Propanone
Acetone
CLEAPSS 2007
Substance
Propanone (acetone)
Liquid Used as nail polish (varnish) remover [but ethyl ethanoate (ethyl acetate) is more usual].
Hazard
Comment
There is a serious risk of the liquid catching fire. Its vapour may catch fire above -20C. It can cause severe eye damage and will degrease the skin. For a 15-minute exposure, the concentration in the atmosphere should not exceed 3620 mg m-3. The smell can be detected by most people at about 47 mg m-3, well below the level which could cause harm.
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
I
IRRITANT
Wear eye protection. Make sure the room is well ventilated or, in a laboratory, use a fume cupboard if possible. Check ways of putting out any fires. Do not use near naked flames; if heating is necessary, use an electrically-heated water bath or hot water from a kettle.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Does propanone need to be heated? Could there be high levels of vapour, perhaps as a result of chromatograms drying?
Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Swallowed Clothing catches fire Other propanone fires Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Keep him/her warm. See a doctor if breathing is difficult. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Smother flames on clothing or the skin with a fire blanket or other material. Cool any burnt skin with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. Allow fires in sinks, etc to burn out. Fires at the top of test tubes, beakers, etc should be smothered with a damp cloth or heat-proof mat. Remove contaminated clothing. If more than a test-tube amount was involved, wash the affected area and clothing with plenty of water. Put out all Bunsen-burner flames. Wipe up small amounts with a cloth and rinse it well. For larger amounts, open all windows, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter), scoop into a bucket and add water.
CLEAPSS 2007
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
62
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Substance
Dichloromethane (Methylene dichloride) Trichloromethane (Chloroform)
Hazard
Comment
It is harmful if breathed in, with a possible risk of effects which cannot be reversed, eg, liver damage. Breathing high concentrations causes headaches. It degreases the skin. There is limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect. It is used in some paint strippers. It is harmful, with a danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation and if swallowed. There is limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect. It is irritating to the skin. It has been used as an anaesthetic. It is toxic if swallowed, from skin contact and if breathed in, with the danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation. There is limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect. It damages the ozone layer and is harmful to aquatic organisms in the environment. It can no longer be legally bought and existing stocks should not be used in work with open test tubes. 1,1,1-trichloroethane is harmful if breathed in. It damages the ozone layer. It damages the ozone layer. It can no longer be legally bought and existing stocks should not be used in work with open test tubes. There is limited evidence that tetrachloroethene is a carcinogen. It is toxic to aquatic organisms in the environment. It is used in dry cleaning. It may cause cancer with possible risk of effects which cannot be reversed. It is irritating to the eyes & skin and its vapour may cause drowsiness and dizziness. It was used in dry cleaning but has been replaced by tetrachloroethene.
H
HARMFUL
H
HARMFUL
Tetrachlorometha ne (Carbon tetrachloride)
T
TOXIC
N
DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT
1,1,1trichloroethane (Methyl chloroform) and Tetrachloroethene (Tetrachloroethyle ne) Trichloroethene (Trichloroethylene )
H
HARMFUL
N
T
TOXIC
Use the smallest volume possible and wear suitable eye protection. Use a fume cupboard for anything larger than test-tube amounts; ensure good laboratory ventilation. When choosing a solvent, pick the safest one with suitable properties - cyclohexane, Volasils or Lotoxane are safer than chlorinated hydrocarbons and usually work satisfactorily.
Assessing the risks

Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if more than a sniff is breathed in. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.
CLEAPSS 2007
Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc
Remove contaminated clothing. Wash the skin with soap and water. Take contaminated clothing outside for the solvent to evaporate. Open windows if large amounts are spilt. Consider the need to evacuate the laboratory for large spills of the more-hazardous solvents. Cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Add washing-up liquid and work into an emulsion. Wash to waste with plenty of water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
63
Hydrocarbons
Substance
Methane (Natural gas) Ethane Propane (Calor gas, camping gas) Butane (Lighter fuel) Pentane, hexane, heptane Petroleum spirits (ethers) Cyclohexane, cyclohexene Petrol (gasoline) Methylbenzene (Toluene) Dimethylbenzene (Xylene) Benzene and products containing more than 0.1% benzene Paraffin (Kerosene) Diesel fuel Engine oil Naphthalene
Hazard
Comment
These gases form explosive mixtures with air and oxygen. Mixtures by volume of between 6% and 12% methane with air are explosive. Such mixtures may ignite below 650 C. Butane is easily liquefied under pressure (it normally boils at 0 C) and is denser than air.
F
EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE
F
EXTREMELY
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
H
HARMFUL
Hexane, petroleum ether (60-80 C) and methylbenzene are harmful to health by prolonged exposure. For long-term exposure, the concentration in the air should not exceed 72 or 191 mg m-3. Other hydrocarbons are harmful if inhaled or swallowed. Many are irritating to the skin and most have vapours that cause drowsiness/dizziness. Petrol should not be used in schools; see Benzene below. (Most except methylbenzene and dimethylbenzene are also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because they are toxic to aquatic organisms.) Benzene causes cancer. There is a serious danger to health from breathing it in or from skin contact over the long term, or from swallowing it. Use of benzene or products containing more than 0.1% benzene is banned in all educational laboratories. This includes the use of unleaded petrol, which contains benzene. Some oils may contain substances which cause cancer. After oil has been used in car engines, some parts may have degraded into more-hazardous products. It is harmful if swallowed, with limited evidence of carcinogenic effects. It is used in moth balls. If heated, the concentration of the vapour in the air increases considerably. (It is also DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT because it is toxic to aquatic organisms.)
TF
TOXIC
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
H
HARMFUL
H
HARMFUL
Use the smallest amount possible; wear eye protection; avoid skin contact; ensure the room is well ventilated. Use a fume cupboard or prevent escape of vapour, eg, with mineral-wool plugs in test tubes. Check gas supplies for leaks; store bottled gas in a cool place; use spirit burners with care. Check that equipment to put out fires is nearby, eg, damp cloth, bench mat, fire blanket. Do not use highly flammable liquids near naked flames; if heating is necessary, use an electrically-heated water bath or hot water from a kettle.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Do hydrocarbons need to be heated? Could quantities of the vapour be breathed in?
CLEAPSS 2007
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Clothing catches fire Other fires Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Remove contaminated clothing. Wash the affected area and clothing with plenty of water. Smother flames on clothing or skin with a fire blanket or other material. Cool any burnt skin with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. Allow fires in sinks, etc to burn out. Fires at the top of test tubes, beakers, etc should be smothered with a damp cloth or heat-proof mat. Put out all Bunsen-burner flames. Wipe up small amounts with a cloth and rinse it well. For larger amounts, open all windows, cover with mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter), scoop into a bucket and add water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
64
Carbohydrates
Substance
Sucrose
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
This is ordinary table sugar. It is cane sugar (also obtained from sugar beet). Acids formed by bacterial decomposition of sugar in the mouth cause tooth decay. Excess sugars in the diet, coupled with a lack of exercise, cause obesity and diabetes, leading to heart disease. Eating in laboratories is usually illegal under the COSHH Regulations because of the risk of contamination. It is also known as dextrose. Acids formed by bacterial decomposition in the mouth cause tooth decay. Excess sugars in the diet, coupled with a lack of exercise, cause obesity and diabetes, leading to heart disease. It is also known as laevulose or fruit sugar. Acids formed by bacterial decomposition in the mouth cause tooth decay. Excess sugars in the diet, coupled with a lack of exercise, cause obesity and diabetes, leading to heart disease. It is also known as malt sugar. It is also known as milk sugar. Starch is broken down by saliva and stomach acids into simple sugars. It is an approved food additive, E460. Cellulose is derived from the cell walls of fruit, vegetables and cereals. It is not digested. Dietary fibre (roughage) is an important part of the diet, helping prevent various diseases. See Student Safety Sheet 4.
Glucose
LOW HAZARD
Fructose
LOW HAZARD
Maltose Lactose Starch Cellulose
LOW HAZARD LOW HAZARD LOW HAZARD
LOW HAZARD
Food testing on carbohydrates
Wear eye protection when handling hazardous solids and solutions, eg, when food testing. Do not consume sugars or indeed any food or drink in laboratories; taste-testing investigations must be done outside laboratories unless scrupulous hygiene and no contamination can be ensured.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Small amounts of contaminants entering the mouth during taste-testing activities.
CLEAPSS 2007
Eg, Can it be done safely? Where? Does the procedure need to be altered? Should eye protection be worn?
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if pain persists. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Brush solid off contaminated clothing. Rinse clothing or the skin as necessary. Brush up solid spills, trying to avoid raising dust, then wipe with a damp cloth. Wipe up solution spills with a cloth and rinse it well.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
70
Dyes & Indicators

Note: Many dyes and indicators are used in school science, in the home and in industry. This Sheet applies to those listed below, which include those likely to be found in schools. Be warned that some dyes are toxic and may cause cancer, some may contain hazardous impurities or are made up in hazardous solvents, many have not been well researched because they are not much used in industry and suppliers often vary in the hazard classifications they use.
Substance
Congo red, Methyl orange
Hazard
Comment
Congo red is a carcinogen. Methyl orange is toxic if swallowed.
T
TOXIC
Dyes and indicators, solid, including:

Acridine orange, Alizarin red S, Aluminon, Aniline blue, Cresol red, Crystal violet (Methyl/Gentian violet), Direct red 23, Disperse yellow 3/7, Dithizone, Eosin, Eriochrome black (Solochrome black), Indigo, Magenta (Basic fuchsin), Malachite green, May-Grunwald stain, Methyl green, Methyl red, Methylene blue, Procion dyes, Resazurin, Rosaniline, Sudan I, II and IV, Xylene cyanol FF.
I
HARMFUL
& / OR
IRRITANT
Skin contamination will be very obvious. This should be avoided and dusts of most dyes can irritate the eyes and lungs while some may act as sensitisers. Dyes for use in the home (eg, Dylon) may be classed as IRRITANT. Dust from Procion dyes may be a sensitiser, but the M-X dyes present a greater risk than the H-E dyes.
Dyes and indicators, solid, including:

Acid blue 40, Alizarin, Blue dextran, Brilliant yellow, Bromocresol green, Bromophenol blue, Bromothymol blue, Carmine, DCPIP (PIDCP), Diazine green (Janus green B), Fluorescein (Dichlorofluorescein), Indigo carmine, Litmus, Methyl blue, Murexide, Neutral red, Nigrosin, Orcein, Phenol red, Phenolphthalein, Rhodizonic acid, Sudan black, Sudan III, Thymol blue, Thymolphthalein, Toluidine blue, Xylenol orange.
LOW HAZARD
The substances listed here are not usually classified as hazardous but note the comments in the box at the top of the sheet. They should therefore be used with caution. Skin contamination should be avoided.
Dyes and indicators

Dilute aqueous solutions of the above (except Congo red) which include Full-range pH indicator, Screened methyl orange and Universal indicator.
LOW HAZARD
Dyes & indicators in dilute solutions are unlikely to offer significant risk because most are less than 1% by mass. However, some are made up in solvents other than water and the hazards may be greater, eg, ethanol [HIGHLY FLAMMABLE if more than 25% (v/v)] or ethanoic acid which may be CORROSIVE. CLEAPSS 2007
Use the lowest concentration possible and wear eye protection for all but the most-dilute solutions. Reduce the risk of skin contact by wearing disposable gloves. Avoid powdered dyes & indicators escaping into the air; use a fume cupboard when handling the more hazardous ones. Avoid naked flames if using flammable solvents.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could dust from a dye or indicator be breathed in?

Eg, Would the problem be more serious than the skin being stained for a few days?

Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Dust breathed in Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Removethecasualtytofreshair.Seeadoctorifbreathingisdifficult. Remove contaminated clothing. Wash off the skin with soap and plenty of water. Rinse contaminated clothing. Scoop up solids (take care not to raise dust). Wipe up solution spills or any traces of solid with a damp cloth and rinse it well.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
includes
Substance
Lithium
Solid
80
&
Alkali metals
Lithium, Sodium
Comment
It reacts rapidly with water to produce hydrogen, an extremely flammable gas (see Sheet 50). Although difficult to ignite, once lit, it burns readily in air and is difficult to extinguish. It causes burns. Contact with moisture produces lithium hydroxide which is irritant to the skin and eyes. It reacts violently with many substances. It reacts violently with water to produce hydrogen, an extremely flammable gas. It burns vigorously and is difficult to extinguish. It causes burns. Contact with moisture produces sodium hydroxide which is corrosive (see Sheet 31). It reacts violently with many substances. It reacts very violently with water to produce hydrogen, an extremely flammable gas. It burns vigorously and is difficult to extinguish. It causes burns. Contact with moisture produces potassium hydroxide which is corrosive (see Sheet 31). It reacts violently with many substances. Over a period of years, it may develop a coating of yellow superoxide. Under slight pressure, eg, from a knife blade, this may explode.
Potassium
Hazard
Sodium
Solid
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
Potassium
Solid
C
CORROSIVE
CLEAPSS 2007
Store alkali metals under liquid paraffin. Check potassium samples regularly for signs of yellowing. Handle sample using forceps, wear eye protection and use safety screens. Conduct all investigations on a small scale - generally use a rice grain-sized piece. Make sure everybody involved (eg, technicians clearing away) understands the hazards. Take steps to prevent theft.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could molten, corrosive metal spit out of a container?

NB There are occasional reports of pupils being taken to hospital (for treatment to cuts or as a result of chemical splashes) as a result of explosions of apparatus involving sodium.
Emergency action
In the eye Swallowed Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 20 minutes. See a doctor. If it is necessary to go to hospital, continue washing the eye during the journey in an ambulance. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Remove any pieces of solid with forceps. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor.
Spilt on the skin or clothing Metal catches For sodium and potassium, smother with dry sand, anhydrous sodium fire carbonate or mineral absorbent (eg, cat litter). For lithium, smother with dry sodium chloride. Spilt on the Scoop up as much metal as possible into a dry container. Cover the area with floor, bench, dry sand or anhydrous sodium carbonate (or, for lithium, sodium chloride) and etc scoop into a dry bucket for further treatment. Rinse the area with plenty of water and mop.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
includes
Substance
Magnesium
Solid (ribbon, turnings, powder)
81
&
Group II metals
Magnesium
Comment
It is moderately difficult to ignite but, once burning, it does so very vigorously and is difficult to extinguish. Ordinary fire-fighting methods are not suitable, but dry sand may be used. The flame is very bright and may damage eye sight. It reacts readily with acids to produce hydrogen, an extremely flammable gas. (See Sheet 50.)
Calcium
Hazard
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
Calcium
Solid
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
It reacts readily with water (or acids) to produce hydrogen, an extremely flammable gas. (See Sheet 50.) Contact with moisture forms calcium oxide or hydroxide which are IRRITANT to the eyes and skin. It is difficult to ignite but, once burning, does so vigorously.
Conduct all experiments on a small scale.
CLEAPSS 2007
Keep careful control of stocks to prevent theft. Wear eye protection and avoid looking directly at the flame from burning magnesium.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Is there the possibility of theft or foolish behaviour?
Emergency action
In the eye If magnesium powder or calcium contaminate the eyes, flood with gentlyrunning tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor. Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. Skin burnt by Remove any pieces of solid with forceps. Then drench the skin with plenty of burning metal water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. or by moist calcium Burning metal Smother with dry sand. fire Spilt on the Scoop up as much metal as possible into a dry container. Wipe the area with a floor, bench, damp cloth which (for calcium) should then be placed in a bucket of water. etc
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
82
Sulfur & Phosphorus

Substance
Sulfur
Solid
Hazard
LOW HAZARD
Comment
Yellow crystals of sulfur occur in volcanic regions. In Victorian times, children were fed a mixture of brimstone (sulfur) and treacle, to do them good! Sulfur burns to form sulfur dioxide gas (TOXIC). See Sheet 52. Asthmatics are particularly vulnerable. When melting sulfur or heating it, eg, with iron, insert a plug of mineral wool in the mouth of the test tube to prevent sulfur vapour escaping and igniting. It is highly flammable and explosive when mixed with oxidising substances. It has been used in some match heads.
Phosphorus (red)
Solid
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
CLEAPSS 2007
Phosphorus
(yellow / white)
Solid
FT
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE VERY TOXIC
It is very toxic by inhalation and if swallowed. It has a long history of poisoning, eg, amongst workers using phosphorus to make matches. It causes severe burns. When handling it, have copper(II) sulfate(VI) solution available to remove specks on the skin, clothing, bench, etc. It catches fire spontaneously in air. It is used in incendiary bombs. When it burns, corrosive fumes are formed. Phosphorus fires are difficult to extinguish; smother with dry sand. It must be stored under water (or under an inert gas). When cutting phosphorus, do this under water, otherwise friction ignites it. It is hard to cut; do this in a strong container, eg, a mortar.
Wear eye protection when handling phosphorus or when heating or burning sulfur. Use small amounts. Avoid breathing fumes of sulfur dioxide, eg, use a fume cupboard or prevent sulfur vapour from igniting by using a mineral-wool plug in the mouth of a test tube. Wear protective gloves if handling yellow/white phosphorus; store and handle it in the absence of air.
Assessing the risks

Eg, Could sulfur vapour form? Could it ignite?

Eg, Could people be exposed to sulfur dioxide gas?
Emergency action
In the eye Vapour breathed in Swallowed Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc Flood the eye with gently running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor unless only a small amount of sulfur is involved. Remove the casualty to fresh air. Call a doctor if breathing is even slightly affected. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor. For sulfur or red phosphorus, brush or wash off the solid. For yellow/white phosphorus, immerse in copper(II) sulfate(VI) solution for 15 minutes. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. See a doctor. For sulfur or red phosphorus, brush up. For yellow/white phosphorus, cover with sand to prevent ignition. Soak in copper sulfate solution until there is no further reaction, then brush up.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
90
Vocabulary
Aerosol Allergy Asthma Biohazard
Very tiny droplets of liquid floating in a gas (usually air). Diseases are often spread by coughing and sneezing, which results in an aerosol containing microorganisms. Some people are allergic to particular substances. Their bodies immune system reacts to these substances to an unusual extent, resulting in skin rashes, runny noses, wheezing or even shock. One type of allergy, which results in breathing difficulties. May cause disease or harm in humans.
CLEAPSS 2007
Carcinogen Corrosive COSHH EHT Explosive Eye protection Flammables Harmful HT
Ionising radiation Irritant
A substance which may cause cancer, if breathed in, swallowed or absorbed via the skin. A substance which may destroy living tissue, causing burns. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations which aim to limit the exposure of employees and others in the workplace to hazardous substances which may damage their health. Extra High Tension. See HT. Substances that may explode as a result of heat, fire, friction or shock. This includes safety spectacles, goggles and face shields. Goggles (or face shields) give better protection against chemical splashes and should always be used for anything classed as CORROSIVE or TOXIC. Substances which burn easily. There are three groups: EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE, HIGHLY FLAMMABLE and FLAMMABLE , depending on how easily a liquid vapourises. Similar to the effects of toxic substances, but larger quantities are needed to produce an effect. High Tension (high voltage); power packs used in schools may deliver more than 40 V at a current of more than 5 mA. These are less safe than EHT power packs, which have an output of up to 5 or 6 kV but the current is limited to 5 mA or less. Radiation which, when absorbed by a substance, including living tissue, causes some of the molecules to turn into ions.
A substance (including a dust) which behaves in a similar way to corrosives but, instead of destroying living tissue, causes significant inflammation (reddening) through immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with the skin or a mucous membrane (eg, eyes, lungs, etc). Molarity - a way of measuring concentration. Also written as mol dm-3 or moles M per litre. An ammonia solution which is 2 M has twice as many molecules of ammonia dissolved in the water than a solution which is 1 M. -3 Concentrations of pollutant gases in air are sometimes measured as x mg m milligrams of pollutant per cubic metre of air. An alternative unit is ppm, parts per million. When clearing up spills of chemicals it is often useful to soak them up on Mineral something inert (unreactive). Sand can be used, but other substances soak up absorbent more, eg, clay in the form of some types of grey cat litter (familiar to those who keep cats as pets). A substance which may cause genetic defects. Mutagen Oxidising agent A substance which helps other substances to burn or explode. An organism which causes disease. Pathogen A further exposure to a sensitising substance will produce an unusually severe Sensitising reaction, even when the dose or the exposure time is less than the first exposure. A substance which, in very small quantities, may cause death or damage to Toxic health when breathed in, swallowed or absorbed via the skin. A teratogen is any medication, chemical, infectious disease or environmental Teratogen agent that might interfere with the normal development of a fetus and result in the loss of a pregnancy, a birth defect or a pregnancy complication. A crude measure of concentration. A 10% v/v methanol solution contains 10 ml v/v of methanol in 100 ml water. A crude measure of concentration. A 10% w/v sodium chlorate(I) solution w/v contains 10 grams of sodium chlorate(I) in 100 ml water.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
91
Safety signs & symbol letters
CLEAPSS 2007
t c e o f f
T
TOXIC
T Xn C Xi E O F+
YOU
s
RISK OF ELECTRIC SHOCK
H
HARMFUL
r
IONISING RADIATION (RADIOACTIVE)
C
CORROSIVE
n
I
IRRITANT
l
LASER RADIATION
E
EXPLOSIVE
*
COLD
O
OXIDISING
b
BIOHAZARD
F
EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE
MUST WEAR EYE PROTECTION
F
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE (No symbol required)
FLAMMABLE
F
YOU
MUST WEAR PROTECTIVE GLOVES
YOU MUST
NOT HAVE NAKED FLAMES
N !
DANGER
N
YOU MUST
NOT DRINK THIS WATER
YOU MUST
NOT USE WATER ON FIRES
Note: Symbols inside squares are to be used only on bottles and other containers.
Safety signs which are circular are mandatory (you MUST...) or prohibitory (you MUST NOT...). Symbol letters (T, Xn etc) may be used in written documents but not on labels. Colour code: Triangular signs have a yellow background; square ones an orange background; mandatory signs have a white pictogram on a blue background; prohibitory signs have a black pictogram on a white background, with red edging and diagonal line.
STUDENTSAFETYSHEETS
92
Heating things
Uin aBne br e s g usn unr

Type of flame Gas tap Air hole Heat of flam e
Warm
Appear -ance
Hazards
When used
Yellow flame
Fully (or partly) open Partly closed
Closed
Flame coats objects with black soot.
Gentle flame
Palelilac, smallerthan mediumflame
Partly closed
Very warm
It is difficult to see the flame in bright sunlight. Risk of blowing out. It is difficult to see the flame in bright sunlight. Some risk of blowing out.
To light the burner and when it is not heating anything. It is easy to see and will not readily set fire to clothing etc. If only gentle heat is needed.
Medium flame
Yellow just disappears; pale lilac, almost invisible
Fully open
Partly closed
Quite hot
For general heating. The flame is not too hot.
Roaring flame
Inner cone blue, outer cone lilac
Fully open
Fully open
Very hot
It is difficult to see the flame in bright sunlight. Do not partly close the gas tap if the air hole is fully open.
If very strong heating is needed (which is not very often).
Higldnsus enos t t b a s i et e t i
Wear eye protection; do not normally have the test tube more than onefifth full. If the solid is a powder, shake it so that it is sloped in the test tube. Using a suitable holder, keep the test tube pointing just up from the horizontal. Hold the test tube so that the bottom is just in the tip of the flame. Take care that the test tube is not pointing directly at anybody. Start with a gentle flame, increase to a medium flame and then a roaring flame, if necessary.
Higu i tsus eni is etb a l dn t e t q

Wear eye protection; use a wide-diameter test tube (boiling tube). Do not normally have the test tube more than one-tenth full (it is much less likely to boil over). Add an anti-bumping granule (boiling chip). For flammable liquids, you must use a hot-water bath (see below). Using a suitable holder, keep the test tube at an angle so that the bottom is just at the tip of the flame and the top is well clear of the flame. Start with a gentle flame and increase it only if necessary. Flick your wrist continuously but gently, so that the liquid is shaken.
Hig ml lq s enl m iu a f a i t a b d e
CLEAPSS 2007
Wear eye protection; use a wide-diameter test tube (boiling tube). Do not normally have the test tube more than one-tenth full (it is much less likely to boil over). Add an anti-bumping granule (boiling chip). Do not heat directly over a naked flame. Instead, stand the test tube in a beaker of water. Hot water may be obtained from a hot tap or an electric kettle (or use an electric water bath). If necessary, boil the water in the beaker using a roaring flame; then extinguish the flame before the flammable liquid is put into the hot water.
CLEAPSS 2007

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What safety precautions should be taken when culturing microorganisms?

What safety precautions should be taken when culturing microorganisms?

What are the different types of flames produced by a Bunsen burner and their uses?

What are the different types of flames produced by a Bunsen burner and their uses?

Student Safety Sheets DLSSS

Strictly Confidential. Circulate to Members and Associates only.

Supporting practical science & technology

Samples from humans Foods

Assessing the risks

How serious would it be if something did go wrong?

How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Assessing the risks

Human body fluids & tissues

Saliva Sweat Urine

Assessing the risks

How serious would it be if something did go wrong?

How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Food testing (1)

Assessing the risks

How serious would it be if something did go wrong?

How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Food testing (2)

Assessing the risks

How serious would it be if something did go wrong?

How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Home and school

School science investigations

LOW ELECTRICAL HAZARD

Everywhere: eg, static electricity

Assessing the risks

How serious would it be if something did go wrong?

How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Assessing the risks

Assessing the risks

Concentrated hydrochloric acid

It causes burns. The vapour irritates the lungs.

Moderatelyconcentrated hydrochloric acid

It may irritate the eyes and skin.

Dilute hydrochloric acid

Assessing the risks

How serious would it be if something did go wrong?

How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Moderatelyconcentrated nitric(V) acid

It causes severe burns.

Moderatelydilute nitric(V) acid

It is irritating to the eyes and skin.

Dilute nitric(V) acid

It may still cause harm in the eyes or in a cut.

Assessing the risks

How serious would it be if something did go wrong?

How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Spilt on the floor, bench, etc

Moderatelyconcentrated sulfuric(VI) acid

Moderately-dilute sulfuric(VI) acid

It is irritating to the eyes and skin.

Dilute sulfuric(VI) acid

It may still cause harm in the eyes or in a cut.

Assessing the risks

How can the risk(s) be controlled for this activity?

Spilt on the skin or clothing Spilt on the floor, bench, etc