Practical-1

Practical: Study of Multimeters

Objective:

To understand the functionality, features, and usage of a multimeter in measuring voltage,

current, and resistance in electronic circuits.

Apparatus Required:
1. Digital or Analog Multimeter
2. Resistor
3. DC Power Supply or Battery
4. Wires

5. Breadboard (optional)
6. Bulb or LED (optional)
Theory:
A multimeter is an instrument used to measure electrical parameters such as voltage
(AC/DC), current, and resistance. Modern multimeters can be digital or analog, with digital
versions being more common.
1. Voltage Measurement (AC/DC): Measures the potential difference between two
points in a circuit.
2. Current Measurement (AC/DC): Measures the flow of electric charge through a
component.
3. Resistance Measurement: Measures how much a component resists the flow of
current.
Types of Multimeters:

1. Analog Multimeter: Uses a moving needle to display readings.

2. Digital Multimeter (DMM): Uses a digital display to show readings.
Procedure:
Part 1: Voltage Measurement
1. Set the Multimeter to Measure Voltage:

1. Turn the dial to the DCV setting if you're measuring direct current voltage (for
example, from a battery).

2. Select an appropriate voltage range higher than the expected measurement

(e.g., 20V for a 9V battery).
 2. Connect the Probes:
1. Connect the black probe to the COM (common) terminal of the multimeter.
2. Connect the red probe to the terminal labeled VΩ.

3. Measure Voltage:
1. Place the red probe on the positive terminal of the battery (or power supply).
2. Place the black probe on the negative terminal.
3. Read the voltage on the display. Ensure the reading is in volts (V).
Part 2: Current Measurement

1. Set the Multimeter to Measure Current:

1. Turn the dial to the DCA (direct current amperes) setting.
2. Choose an appropriate range for current measurement (e.g., 200mA for small
circuits).
2. Connect the Probes:
1. The black probe stays connected to the COM terminal.
2. Move the red probe to the terminal labeled mA or A depending on the
expected current.

3. Break the Circuit to Measure Current:

1. To measure current, you must break the circuit and insert the multimeter in
series. For example, if you're powering an LED, remove one lead of the LED
and connect it to one of the multimeter's probes. The other probe goes to the
open part of the circuit.

2. Note the current reading on the display.

Part 3: Resistance Measurement
1. Set the Multimeter to Measure Resistance:
1. Turn the dial to the Ω (ohm) setting.
2. Connect the Probes:

1. Black probe to the COM terminal.

2. Red probe to the terminal marked VΩ.
3. Measure Resistance:
1. Place the probes across the component (e.g., a resistor).
2. Ensure the circuit is powered off when measuring resistance.
 3. Read the resistance value in ohms (Ω) on the display.
Observations:

Measurement Type Setting on Multimeter Value Observed

DC Voltage DCV (20V) 9V

DC Current DCA (200mA) 100mA
Resistance Ω (2kΩ) 1kΩ

Precautions:
1. Always start with the highest range to prevent damage to the multimeter.
2. Never measure resistance in a live circuit.
3. Use proper probes for measuring high currents to avoid damaging the device.

Conclusion:
The multimeter is a versatile tool that can measure voltage, current, and resistance in both
AC and DC circuits. By following the correct procedures and safety precautions, it helps in
troubleshooting and understanding the behavior of electrical components in a circuit.

Practical-2
Practical: Study of Various Types of Electronic Components and Measurement by Meter
Objective:

To study and identify various electronic components, understand their functionality, and
measure their properties using a multimeter.

Apparatus Required:
1. Multimeter (Digital or Analog)
2. Resistors
3. Capacitors
4. Diodes (LEDs, Zener diodes)

5. Transistors (NPN, PNP)

6. Inductors
7. Breadboard (optional)
8. Connecting wires
Theory:
Electronic components are basic building blocks of electronic circuits. These components can
be classified as active (e.g., transistors, diodes) and passive (e.g., resistors, capacitors,
inductors).
1. Resistors: Limit the flow of electrical current in a circuit.
2. Capacitors: Store and release electrical energy in a circuit.
3. Inductors: Store energy in a magnetic field when electric current passes through
them.
4. Diodes: Allow current to flow in only one direction.

5. Transistors: Act as switches or amplifiers in a circuit.

Types of Electronic Components:
1. Resistors:
1. Symbol: A zigzag line.
2. Function: Limits the current flow in a circuit.

3. Unit: Ohms (Ω).

2. Capacitors:
1. Symbol: Two parallel lines (for polarized, one line is curved).
2. Function: Stores electrical energy.
3. Unit: Farads (F).

3. Inductors:
1. Symbol: A coiled line.
2. Function: Stores energy in a magnetic field.
3. Unit: Henry (H).
4. Diodes (Standard, Zener, LEDs):

1. Symbol: A triangle pointing to a line.

2. Function: Allows current to flow in one direction.
3. Unit: None.
5. Transistors (NPN, PNP):
1. Symbol: A combination of lines representing emitter, base, and collector.

2. Function: Acts as a switch or amplifier.

3. Unit: None.
Procedure for Measuring Electronic Components:
1. Measuring Resistance of Resistors:
1. Set Multimeter:

1. Turn the dial to the resistance setting (Ω).

2. Connect the Probes:
1. Connect the black probe to the COM terminal and the red probe to the VΩ
terminal.
3. Measure the Resistance:
1. Place the probes across the two terminals of the resistor.
2. Read the value on the display. The value should match the resistor’s color
code or rated resistance.

2. Measuring Capacitance of Capacitors:

1. Set Multimeter:
1. Turn the dial to the capacitance setting (often marked with a "C" symbol or
"F").
2. Discharge the Capacitor:
1. Ensure the capacitor is fully discharged to avoid damaging the multimeter.
3. Measure the Capacitance:

1. Connect the probes to the capacitor’s terminals (for polarized capacitors,

observe correct polarity).

2. Read the capacitance value in microfarads (µF) or picofarads (pF) on the

display.
3. Measuring Inductance of Inductors:
1. Set Multimeter:
1. Turn the dial to the inductance setting (often marked as "H" for Henrys, if
available).
2. Measure the Inductance:
1. Connect the multimeter probes across the inductor’s terminals.

2. Read the value in Henrys (H) or milliHenrys (mH).

4. Testing Diodes (Standard, Zener, LEDs):
1. Set Multimeter:
 1. Turn the dial to the diode test mode (often marked with a diode symbol).
2. Measure the Diode:
1. Place the red probe on the anode (+) and the black probe on the cathode (-).

2. A small voltage drop (typically 0.6-0.7V for silicon diodes) indicates the diode
is functioning properly.

3. Reverse the probes; the multimeter should show no reading, confirming the
diode only conducts in one direction.
4. For LEDs, the diode test mode will often cause the LED to light up slightly.
5. Testing Transistors (NPN, PNP):
1. Set Multimeter:
1. Set the multimeter to diode test mode.

2. Identify Terminals:
1. Identify the emitter, base, and collector using a datasheet or by recognizing
the pinout.
3. Measure Transistor:
1. For an NPN transistor, place the red probe on the base and the black probe on
the emitter and collector.
2. You should get readings between base and emitter, and base and collector,
but not between emitter and collector.
3. For a PNP transistor, reverse the probe connections.
Observations:

Component Type Expected Reading Measured Value Condition

Resistor (Ω) 1kΩ 1kΩ Good
Capacitor (µF) 10µF 9.8µF Good
Inductor (mH) 100mH 98mH Good
Diode (V drop) 0.6-0.7V 0.65V Good
Transistor (NPN) B-E/B-C (0.6V) 0.63V Good

Precautions:
1. Discharge capacitors before measuring to avoid damaging the multimeter.

2. Ensure correct polarity when testing diodes and capacitors.

3. Handle transistors and other components carefully to avoid static damage.
Conclusion:
By using a multimeter, we can measure the essential parameters of various electronic
components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, and transistors. Understanding
how to measure these components is fundamental in designing and troubleshooting
electronic circuits.

Practical-3
Practical: Study of Various Types of Motherboards
Objective:

To study and understand the different types of motherboards, their form factors,
components, and functionalities.

Apparatus Required:
1. Different types of motherboards (ATX, Micro-ATX, Mini-ITX, etc.)
2. Processor (CPU)
3. RAM modules
4. Power supply

5. Hard Drive or SSD

6. Peripheral devices (Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor)
7. Screwdriver set (if needed)
Theory:
The motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer system, responsible for connecting
all components and enabling communication between them. It houses the CPU, RAM,
storage devices, and other essential components. Motherboards come in different types,
based on form factor and design, each with specific features to support various uses.
Types of Motherboards:
1. ATX (Advanced Technology Extended):

1. Size: 305 mm x 244 mm (12 inches x 9.6 inches)

2. Slots: Multiple expansion slots (for graphics cards, sound cards, etc.)
3. RAM Support: 2-8 DIMM slots
4. Usage: Desktop PCs, workstations, and gaming setups
5. Example: Suitable for high-performance systems, offering extensive
connectivity options and more expansion slots.

2. Micro-ATX (mATX):
 1. Size: 244 mm x 244 mm (9.6 inches x 9.6 inches)
2. Slots: Fewer expansion slots compared to ATX
3. RAM Support: 2-4 DIMM slots

4. Usage: Standard desktop systems, compact builds

5. Example: Used in budget-friendly or smaller systems while still providing
sufficient upgradeability.
3. Mini-ITX:
1. Size: 170 mm x 170 mm (6.7 inches x 6.7 inches)
2. Slots: One PCIe slot for expansion
3. RAM Support: 2 DIMM slots

4. Usage: Small form factor (SFF) PCs, HTPC (Home Theater PC)
5. Example: Ideal for compact systems where space is a constraint but
performance is still required.
4. E-ATX (Extended ATX):
1. Size: 305 mm x 330 mm (12 inches x 13 inches)
2. Slots: More expansion slots than standard ATX

3. RAM Support: Up to 8 DIMM slots or more

4. Usage: High-end gaming PCs, workstations requiring extensive connectivity
and multiple GPU support
5. Example: Used in servers and high-performance systems with advanced
cooling requirements.
Components of a Motherboard:
1. CPU Socket:
1. The place where the processor (CPU) is installed.
2. Different motherboards support specific socket types (e.g., Intel LGA, AMD
AM4).

2. RAM Slots:
1. Holds memory modules (DDR3, DDR4, DDR5).
2. The number of slots varies (2-8) depending on the form factor.
3. Expansion Slots (PCI/PCIe):
1. Slots for expansion cards like graphics cards, sound cards, and network cards.
 2. PCIe x16 is commonly used for GPUs.
4. Power Connectors:
1. 24-pin ATX power connector and 4/8-pin CPU power connector for supplying
power to the motherboard and CPU.
5. Storage Connectors (SATA/M.2):

1. SATA connectors for hard drives and SSDs.

2. M.2 slots for high-speed NVMe SSDs.
6. Chipset:
1. The chipset determines the motherboard's compatibility with CPUs and the
number of supported USB ports, storage devices, and PCIe lanes.
7. I/O Ports:

1. Connects external devices (USB, HDMI, Ethernet, audio ports).

2. Found on the rear of the motherboard.
8. BIOS/UEFI:
1. Basic firmware that initializes hardware components during the boot process.
2. Provides access to system settings.

Procedure:
1. Identify the Motherboard Form Factor:
1. Look at the physical dimensions and layout of the motherboard.
2. Measure the size to determine if it’s ATX, Micro-ATX, or Mini-ITX.
2. Examine the Components:

1. Identify key components like the CPU socket, RAM slots, PCIe slots, and
storage connectors.

2. Verify the type of CPU socket (Intel or AMD) and the RAM type (DDR3, DDR4,
etc.).

3. Power On the Motherboard:

1. Connect the power supply using the 24-pin ATX power connector.
2. Attach a CPU, RAM, and storage device (optional) to test the motherboard's
functionality.
4. Check BIOS/UEFI:
1. Boot the motherboard without an operating system to access the BIOS/UEFI.
 2. Examine system settings such as CPU speed, RAM frequency, and storage
device configuration.
5. Compare Different Motherboards:
1. Identify the key differences between ATX, Micro-ATX, and Mini-ITX boards in
terms of expansion slots, connectivity, and power requirements.
Observations:

Motherboard Size Expansion RAM Power CPU Storage

Type (mm) Slots Slots Connector Socket Connectors
TX 305 x 244 7 PCIe slots 4-8 DIMM 24-pin ATX LGA/AM4 SATA, M.2
3-4 PCIe
Micro-ATX 244 x 244 2-4 DIMM 24-pin ATX LGA/AM4 SATA
slots
Mini-ITX 170 x 170 1 PCIe slot 2 DIMM 24-pin ATX LGA/AM4 SATA, M.2
Precautions:
1. Handle the motherboard with care to avoid static damage.
2. Ensure the power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
3. Use proper tools when assembling or disassembling the motherboard from the case.

Conclusion:
Different types of motherboards (ATX, Micro-ATX, Mini-ITX, etc.) serve various purposes
based on size, expandability, and power requirements. Understanding these differences
helps in choosing the right motherboard for specific applications like gaming, compact
systems, or high-performance computing.

Practical-4
Practical: Study of Interfacing Cables
Objective:
To study and understand the different types of interfacing cables, their uses, and how they
enable communication between devices.
Apparatus Required:

1. Various interfacing cables (USB, HDMI, VGA, Ethernet, SATA, etc.)

2. Devices that utilize these cables (computers, monitors, network switches, hard
drives, etc.)
3. Multimeter (optional, to check connectivity and pin configurations)
Theory:
Interfacing cables are essential for connecting electronic devices and facilitating data or
power transfer between them. They differ in terms of design, functionality, and protocols
they support. Understanding their uses is important in setting up and troubleshooting
various electronic systems.
Types of Interfacing Cables:
1. USB (Universal Serial Bus):
1. Function: Connects devices such as keyboards, mice, external drives, and
smartphones to a computer.
2. Types: USB 2.0, USB 3.0, USB-C.
3. Usage: Widely used for data transfer and charging.

4. Pin Configuration:
1. Power (VCC), Ground (GND), Data+ (D+), Data- (D-).
2. HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface):
1. Function: Transmits audio and video signals from a source (e.g., a
computer or gaming console) to a display (e.g., monitor or TV).
2. Usage: High-definition media connections, supporting up to 4K resolution and
beyond.
3. Pin Configuration: 19 pins, carrying video, audio, and auxiliary data.

3. VGA (Video Graphics Array):

1. Function: Transmits video signals from a computer to a monitor.
2. Usage: Older video connection standard, primarily for analog video.
3. Pin Configuration: 15 pins arranged in 3 rows, responsible for red, green, blue
signals, and sync.
4. Ethernet (RJ-45):
1. Function: Connects computers and other devices to a network for internet or
LAN communication.

2. Usage: Network communication through routers, switches, and modems.

3. Pin Configuration: 8 pins, arranged in 4 twisted pairs (for data transmission
and reception).
5. SATA (Serial ATA):
1. Function: Connects internal storage devices like hard drives (HDDs) and solid-
state drives (SSDs) to a motherboard.
2. Usage: Data transfer between storage devices and the computer.
 3. Pin Configuration: 7 pins, with separate power and data connections.
6. Audio Jack (3.5mm):
1. Function: Transmits analog audio signals between devices like headphones,
microphones, or speakers.
2. Usage: Audio transmission for computers, smartphones, and media devices.

3. Pin Configuration: 3 contacts (Tip, Ring, Sleeve), used for stereo and
microphone signals.
7. DisplayPort:
1. Function: Transmits digital video and audio signals from a computer to a
monitor.
2. Usage: Supports high-definition displays, similar to HDMI but commonly used
in PCs and laptops.
3. Pin Configuration: 20 pins, supporting video, audio, and auxiliary data.
8. Thunderbolt:
1. Function: High-speed interface for connecting peripherals like external
displays, storage devices, and more.

2. Usage: Data transfer, video, and charging through a single port (often seen in
modern laptops).

3. Pin Configuration: 24 pins, similar to USB-C but with added functionalities for
Thunderbolt devices.

Procedure:
1. Identifying and Examining Cables:
1. Collect different types of interfacing cables.
2. Visually inspect each cable, noting the shape of the connectors, the number of pins,
and any marking on the cables.
3. Identify the specific function of each cable by connecting it to the corresponding
device (e.g., connecting an HDMI cable from a laptop to a monitor).
2. Testing Connectivity:

1. For cables like Ethernet, use a multimeter to check the continuity of each pin.
2. Measure resistance to ensure there are no breaks in the connection.
3. Test the USB cable by connecting it between a computer and an external device to
verify data transfer.
3. Comparing Cable Types:
 1. Connect devices using both VGA and HDMI cables to compare the video quality.
2. Observe the differences in video output resolution and signal transmission clarity.
3. Similarly, test the speed of data transfer by using USB 2.0 and USB 3.0 for file transfer
between the computer and an external drive.
4. Testing Audio Cables:

1. Connect a 3.5mm audio jack to a set of speakers or headphones.

2. Play audio and verify the stereo channels (left and right) are functioning correctly by
checking for sound in both channels.
5. Measuring Data Transmission Speed (Optional):
1. Use software tools to measure network speeds when using Ethernet cables, or file
transfer rates when using SATA cables for storage.
Observations:

Cable Type Function Connector Type Pin Common Usage

Configuration
Connect
Data transfer,
SB Type A, Type C 4-24 pins peripherals to a
charging
computer
Transmits audio Connect display
HDMI HDMI-A 19 pins
and video devices
Transmits analog Older monitors
VGA 15-pin D-Sub 15 pins
video and projectors
Network Internet and LAN
Ethernet RJ-45 8 pins
communication connections
Connects storage Internal hard
SATA 7-pin connector 7 pins
devices drives and SSDs
Transmits analog Headphones,
Audio Jack 3.5mm jack 3 contacts
audio signals microphones
Digital video and
High-definition
DisplayPort audio 20-pin connector 20 pins
display
transmission
Precautions:

1. Handle all cables carefully to avoid damage to connectors or wires.

2. Ensure devices are powered off when connecting or disconnecting certain types of
cables (e.g., HDMI or SATA).
3. Verify proper cable orientation before inserting connectors to avoid damaging the
pins.
Conclusion:
Through this practical, we have identified various types of interfacing cables and their uses in
different applications. We also examined how these cables differ in terms of functionality,
pin configurations, and performance. This knowledge is essential for setting up devices,
troubleshooting connectivity issues, and ensuring efficient communication between
electronic systems.