1.

To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check

continuity of a given circuit using multimeter.

Aim
To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check continuity of a given circuit
using multimeter.
Apparatus and material
Apparatus. Three carbon resistors, one standard resistance coil, a battery eliminator with
tapping (2 V, 4 V and 6 V), a step down transformer (6-0-6 V) with two tapping (2 V and 4
V), a resistor of 100 ohm, a plug key and multimeter.
Theory
Multimeter. It is a single measuring device acting as an Ammeter, a Voltmeter and an
Ohmmeter. For this reason, it is also called AVO meter.
It can measure alternating as well as direct current and alternating as well as direct voltage in
addition to resistance. For this purpose its panel is divided into five different sections. There
are many ranges in each section so that it can measure from micro (10-6) to mega (106) units.
Rotation of a knob changes the section and the range in one section.
— Rotation of knob for change in ammeter range, brings shunt resistances of different values
in circuit in parallel with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in voltmeter range, brings series resistances of different
values in circuit in series with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in ohmmeter range, brings different resistances in circuit in
series with the multimeter cell.
1. Carbon resistors are frequently used in electrical and electronic circuits and their
values vary over a very wide range. A colour code is used to indicate the value of the
resistance.
2. A carbon resistance has four different concentric coloured ringe or bands on its
surface. The first three bands a, b and c determine the value of the resistance and the
fourth band d gives the percentage of accuracy called tolerance. The resistance of
carbon resistor R = (ab x 10c ± T %) Ω.
3. To read the value of carbon resistance, the following sentence is found to be of much
more helpful.

4. The following table provides the colour code for the carbon resistors :

Procedure
1. Mark the given carbon resistors as R1,R2, R3.
2. Note the colour of first, second, third and fourth ring for each resistor.
3. Plug in the probes of the multimeter in appropriate terminals. Select the appropriate
range, short the other ends of probes and adjust zero. Turn the terminal marked
 ‘Adjust’ such that the needle of the meter shows full scale deflection and reads zero
ohm.
4. Separate the metallic ends of the probes. Insert the resistor R1 to be measured in
between the metallic ends of the two probes and read the deflection of the pointer on
the range selected.
5. Repeat the step 4 for other resistors R2and R3 each time selecting the appropriate
range and testing the zero.
6. Now convert using the colour code table, the values of resistors in ohms and write
their values with tolerance.
D.C. Voltage
1. Select a D.C. source of potential difference, 6 V battery eliminator or a battery.
2. Plug the probes black in com and red in +.
3. Select D.C. volt, by turning the selector switch to range 10 V D.C. volts,
4. Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery terminal marked +
and black on and not the reading.
5. Insert red probe in terminals marked 4 V, 2 V in succession and note readings.
A.C. Volts
1. Turn the selector A.C. (200 Volt).
2. Touch and press the probes other ends to two terminals of A.C. source of potential
drop and note the reading.
3. Use red probe in terminals 4 V and 2 V in succession and record the reading.
Continuity of given circuit
1. Set the selector switch to ohm, range MΩ.
2. Touch and press the ends of probes at A and B, full scale deflection indicates
continuity.
3. Similarly check in succession the continuity between terminals B and C and terminals
C and D.
Never place the probes ends between terminals connected with the terminals of the
battery.
In digital electronic multimeter for continuity test rotor is set to mark 0 and a buzzer ,
sounds when probes are connected to ends of components tested.
Observations
(a) For Measurement of Resistance :

(b) Measurement of Voltage:

Inference
1. The measured values by multimeter match with decoded values of resistors.
2. A.C. and D.C. voltages marked on voltage sources match with voltage measured by
multimeter.
Precautions
1. Instructions for handling the multimeter should be gone through thoroughly as it is a
very handy instrument and is likely to get damaged if carelessly or ignorantly used.
2. Select the appropriate parameter current, voltage or resistance to the measured and set
it on appropriate range.
3. If range of the parameter measured is not known, start with maximum. For measuring
V, never connect more than maximum 600 V.
 2. To Assemble a Household Circuit Comprising Three Bulbs, Three
(on/off) Switches, a Fuse and a Power Source
Aim
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a fuse and a
power source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.
Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply (battery .
eliminator), three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and black plastic
covering,a fuse wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The household
circuit, all appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are connected in
series with each appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal appliances like,
bulbs, fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 A sockets and switches are required for heavy load
appliances ‘ like, refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have
three wires called live, neutral and the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of little
higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances. For further
safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series with supply
source.

Diagram

to-assemble-a-household-circuit-comprising-three-bulbs-three-onoff-switches-a-fuse-and-a-
power-source-1

Procedure
1. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively
and connect each set of B-S in parallel with each other.
2. 3Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get required
voltage from 0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.
3. To Assemble the Components of a Given Electrical Circuit

Aim
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat,
one way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand
paper.

Diagram
to-assemble-the-components-of-a-given-electrical-circuit-1

Procedure

1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as
shown in diagram and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential
difference.
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.
4. To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a
capacitor from a mixed collection of such items

Aim
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a
mixed collection of such items

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.

1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does
not conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting.
Hence, it does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light
while conducting. Hence, it glow.
3. A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E),
base (B) and collector (C).
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip. [See
figure (UM 3482 IC Tone Generator)]
5. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or
reverse biased. (Infact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It
conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either
forward biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C.
source, then multimeter shows full scale current initially but it decay to zero
quickly. It is because that initially a capacitor draw a charge.

The components to be identified are shown in figure.

to-identify-a-diode-an-led-a-transistor-an-ic-a-resistor-and-a-capacitor-from-a-mixed-
collection-of-such-items-1
Procedure

7. If the item has four or more terminals and has form of a chip, it is an IC
(integrated circuit).
8. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
9. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.
10. To differentiate proceed as ahead.
11. Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity. The
probe metal ends are inserted in terminal marked on the multimeter as
common and P (or + ve).
If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve). On touching
the two ends of the device to the two other metal ends of probes.

1. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when
reversed and there is no light emission, the item is a diode.
2. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-
versed and there is light emission, the item is a LED.
3. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the
item is a resistor.
4. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when
reversed, the item is a capacitor.

Observations
to-identify-a-diode-an-led-a-transistor-an-ic-a-resistor-and-a-capacitor-from-a-mixed-
collection-of-such-items-2.
 5. Use a multimeter to see the unidirectional flow of current in a case
of a on LED and check wheather a given electronic components
(e.g. diode) is in working order.

Objective:
The objective of this activity is to use a multimeter to observe the unidirectional flow
of current in the case of an LED and to determine whether a given electronic
component, such as a diode, is in working order.

Materials Needed:
1. Multimeter (preferably one with a diode testing function)
2. LED
3. Diode (any type)
4. Alligator clips (optional)
5. Batteries or a power supply
6. Connecting wires

Procedure:
1. Safety Precautions:
• Ensure you are working in a well-ventilated area with proper lighting.
• Take necessary precautions to avoid electric shocks, such as working with low
voltage and avoiding contact with exposed wires.
2. Understanding the Multimeter:
• Familiarize yourself with the various functions and settings of your
multimeter, particularly the voltage (V) and diode testing mode.
• Note that the diode testing mode allows you to measure the forward voltage
drop of a diode and check if it is functioning correctly.
3. Preparing the LED:
• Connect the longer leg (anode) of the LED to the positive terminal of the
battery or power supply using a wire or alligator clip.
• Connect the shorter leg (cathode) of the LED to the positive (red) probe of the
multimeter.
• Connect the negative (black) probe of the multimeter to the negative terminal
of the battery or power supply.
4. Observing Unidirectional Current Flow in an LED:
• Set the multimeter to the voltage (V) mode and ensure it is within the
appropriate range for your power source.
• Observe the reading on the multimeter. It should indicate a positive voltage,
indicating the forward voltage drop across the LED.
• Reverse the connections of the LED, swapping the anode and cathode.
• Observe the reading on the multimeter again. It should now show a negative
voltage or a near-zero voltage, indicating the reverse bias of the LED.
5. Testing a Diode:
• Disconnect the LED and power source from the multimeter.
• Set the multimeter to the diode testing mode if available.
 • Connect the positive (red) probe of the multimeter to the anode of the diode
and the negative (black) probe to the cathode.
• Observe the multimeter reading. It should indicate a voltage drop in the
forward bias direction, typically around 0.6 to 0.7 volts for a silicon diode.
• Reverse the connections of the diode, swapping the anode and cathode.
• Observe the multimeter reading again. It should show "OL" or "Open Line,"
indicating a high resistance in the reverse bias direction.
6. Interpreting the Results:
• If the LED demonstrates unidirectional current flow and the diode shows the
expected behavior (forward bias voltage drop and reverse bias open line), both
components are functioning correctly.
• If the LED does not light up or the diode behaves unexpectedly, there may be
an issue with either the component or the connections.
Safety Note:
• Always exercise caution when working with electricity and follow proper safety
guidelines to prevent accidents or injuries.
Note: The above procedure assumes a basic understanding of electronics and the
proper use of a multimeter. If you are unfamiliar with these concepts, it's advisable to
seek guidance from an experienced individual or refer to additional resources for a
more detailed explanation.
6.To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

Aim
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit. .

Apparatus
Two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen a source of monochromatic light (laser
pencil) black paper and a glass plate.

Theory
Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the comers or edges of a fine
opening or aperture. Diffraction takes place when order of wavelength is comparable
or small to the size of slit or aperture. The diffraction effect is more pronounced if the
size of the aperture or the obstacle is of the order of wavelength of the waves. The
diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light waves from different symmetrical
point of the same wavefront. The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a
central bright band having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing
intensity on both sides.
to-observe-diffraction-of-light-due-to-a-thin-slit-1

Procedure

• Fix the black paper on the glass plate by using adhesive.

• Place two razor blades so that their sharp edges are parallel and extremely
close to each other to form a narrow slit in between. to-observe-diffraction-of-
light-due-to-a-thin-slit-2
1. Cut the small slit in between the sharp edges of blades and place at a suitable
distance from a wall or screen of a dark room.
2. Throw a beam of light on the slit by the laser pencil.
3. A diffraction pattern of alternate bright and dark bands is seen on the wall. to-
observe-diffraction-of-light-due-to-a-thin-slit-3

Conclusion
When light waves are incident on a slit or aperture then it bends away (spread) at the
comers of slit showing the phenomena of diffraction of light.

Precaution

1. Air gaps should not be left between glass plates and black paper.
2. The razor blades should be placed extremely closed as possible.
3. Diffraction pattern should be seen on a wall of a dark room.
4. A point source of monochromatic light like laser torch should be used.
 7. To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal.length by using
two lenses from the given set of lenses.

Aim
To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses from the
given set of lenses.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus.
No particular apparatus is needed.
Material.
A set of thin convex lenses, one of these is of given focal length (say 15 cm), (we have to
select a second lens such that the combination gives a single lens of focal length fc = 10 cm),
lens holder with stand, a white painted vertical wooden board with broad stand, half metre
scale.

Theory
1. The reciprocal of focal length in metre is called power of lens in dioptre (D). to-
obtain-a-lens-combination-with-the-specified-focal-length-by-using-two-lenses-from-
the-given-set-of-lenses-1
2. With a convex lens, the real image of a distant object is formed at a distance equal to
its focal length. If f1 and f2 be the focal lengths of the two lenses and F be the focal
length of the combination.
3. to-obtain-a-lens-combination-with-the-specified-focal-length-by-using-two-lenses-
from-the-given-set-of-lenses-2
Diagram
to-obtain-a-lens-combination-with-the-specified-focal-length-by-using-two-lenses-from-the-
given-set-of-lenses-3

Procedure

1. Keep the white painted vertical wooden board to serve as a screen.

2. The convex lens (known focal length f1 = 15 cm), fixed into a holder stand is put on
the left of the screen. There are sunlight illuminated green trees at large distance on
the left of the lens.
 3. The lens is moved towards and away from the screen till a sharp, inverted image trees
is formed on the screen.
4. Distance between central lines of the screen and holder stand is measured by a half
metre scale.
5. The distance gives the focal length of the convex lens about 15 cm.
6. Replace first lens by second convex lens of required power and repeat the steps from
2 to 5. This gives the focal length of second convex lens.
7. Now bring both lenses in contact and repeat the steps from 2 to 5. This gives the
combined focal length.
8. Determine the focal length with other given lens. Determine the focal length of about
six of the convex lenses.
Calculations
to-obtain-a-lens-combination-with-the-specified-focal-length-by-using-two-lenses-from-the-
given-set-of-lenses-4
Following combinations will be suitable.
to-obtain-a-lens-combination-with-the-specified-focal-length-by-using-two-lenses-from-the-
given-set-of-lenses-5

Verification
The above combinations may be tried and result verified.

Precautions
1. Thin lenses should be taken.
2. Lenses should have same aperture.

Sources of error
1. Lenses may not be thin.
2. Lens apertures may not be same.