ANAPHY: INTRODUCTION TO CELL, Cell theory 3.

Nucleus
CELL DIVISION AND TISSUE – Chromosomes
- All living are made of cell
– Gene
CELL - Cell from the division of
preexisting (organism it 1. Plasma Membrane
• are the living structural and functional
comes of something existing
units enclosed by a membrane. – forms the cell’s flexible outer surface,
- Cell contain and pass on
• All cells arise from existing cells by separating the cell’s internal
heredity information during
the process of cell division, in which environment from the external
cell division
one cell divides into two identical cells. environment.
- Cell are relatively the same
• Cell biology or cytology is the study – It is a selective barrier (semi –
of cellular structure and function Cell function permeable) that regulates the flow of
materials into and out of a cell.
are the smallest living units of an - Cell source of energy
– This selectivity helps establish and
organism. - They communicate to the other
maintain the appropriate environment
part the body
• All cells have three things in for normal cellular activities.
- Reproduction & inheritance
common, no matter what type of cell – The plasma membrane also plays a
they are. All cells have a cell key role in communication among cells
membrane, which separates the inside THREE (3) MAIN PARTS OF THE and between cells and their external
of the cell from its environment, CELL environment.
cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like fluid, 1. Plasma Membrane – flexible yet sturdy barrier that
and DNA, which is the cell's genetic 2. Cytoplasm surrounds and contains the cytoplasm
material. – Cytosol of a cell.
– Organelles
– fragile, transparent barrier that • Not as firmly embedded in the
contains the cell contents and separate membrane.
them from the surrounding
• They are attached to the polar heads
environment.
of membrane lipids or to integral
– The fluid mosaic model - the
proteins at the inner or outer surface of
arrangement of molecules within the
the membrane.
membrane resembles a sea of lipids
containing many types of proteins. 3. Glycoprotein

– The lipids act as a barrier to certain • Membrane proteins with a

substances. carbohydrate group attached that

MEMBRANE PROTEINS
– The proteins act as “gatekeepers” to protrudes into the extracellular fluid
1. Integral Protein
certain molecules and ions 4. Glycocalyx
• extend into or through the lipid
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE • The “sugary coating” surrounding the
bilayer among the fatty acid tails and
• Consists of a lipid bilayer - made up membrane made up of the
of phospholipids, cholesterol and are firmly embedded in it.
carbohydrate portions of the glycolipids
glycolipids.
• Transmembrane proteins are integral and glycoproteins
protein which spans the entire

lipid bilayer and protrude into both the FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE

cytosol and extracellular fluid PROTEINS

2. Peripheral Protein
1. Ion Channels – some membrane 6. Cell Identity Markers – They may
proteins forms ion channels enable a cell to (1) recognize other cells
of the same kind during tissue
2. Carriers – other integral proteins act
formation or (2) recognize and respond
as carriers, selectively moving a polar
to potentially dangerous foreign cells
substance or ion from one side of the
membrane to the other. Also known as
transporters.
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY
3. Receptors – serve as cellular
• The plasma membranes are
recognition sites. Each type of receptor
selectively permeable.
recognizes and binds a specific type of
molecule. • The cell is either permeable or
impermeable to certain substances.
❑Ligand – binding of a specific
molecule to a receptor ** Permeable – means that a structure
permits the passage of substances
4. Enzymes – catalyze specific
through it.
chemical reactions at the inside or
outside surface of the cell. ** Impermeable – means that a
structure does not permit the passage of
5. Linkers – anchor proteins in the
substances through it.
plasma membranes of neighboring cells
to one another or to protein filaments • The lipid bilayer is permeable to
inside and outside the cell. small, nonpolar, uncharged molecules
(eg. oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and TRANSPORT ACROSS THE Cellular energy is used to drive the
steroids), but impermeable to glucose. PLASMA MEMBRANE substance “uphill” against its
concentration or electrical gradient.
• Transmembrane proteins act as 1. Passive Process
The cellular energy used is usually in
channels and transporters to assist the
a substance moves down its the form of adenosine triphosphate
entrance of certain substances, for concentration or electrical gradient to (ATP).
example, glucose and ion. cross the membrane using only its own
– Active Transport
kinetic energy (energy of motion).
GRADIENTS ACROSS THE
Kinetic energy is intrinsic to the – Vesicular Transport
PLASMA
particles that are moving. There is no
PASSIVE PROCESS: DIFFUSION
MEMBRANE input of energy from the cell.
– Diffusion 1. Diffusion
1. Concentration gradient is the
difference in the concentration of a • Simple diffusion – is a passive process in which the
chemical between one side of the random mixing of particles in a
• Channel – Mediated Facilitated
plasma membrane and the other. (eg. solution occurs because of the particles’
diffusion
Inside and outside the membrane) kinetic energy.
• Carrier – Mediated Facilitated
2. Electrical gradient is the difference – They move down from higher
diffusion
in concentration of ions between one concentration gradient to a lower conc.
side of the plasma membrane and the – Osmosis gradient.
other.
2. Active Process Diffusion is influenced by:
3. Together, these gradients make up an
Electrochemical gradient
✓Steepness of the concentration concentration gradient across the lipid moves by osmosis across plasma
gradient bilayer through a membrane membranes from

✓Temperature channel an area of higher water concentration to

an area of lower water concentration
✓Mass of diffusion substance • CARRIER-MEDIATED
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
✓Surface area
– In carrier mediated facilitated
✓Diffusion distance
diffusion, a carrier (also called a
• Simple Diffusion transporter) moves a solute down its

– is a passive process in which concentration gradient across the

plasma membrane
substances move freely through the TONICITY
OSMOSIS
lipid bilayer of the plasma membranes • Tonicity of a solution relates to how
of cells without the help of membrane • The net movement of a solvent the solution influences the shape of
transport proteins through a selectively permeable body
membrane from an area of high
DIFFUSION cells.
concentration to an area of low
• CHANNEL-MEDIATED concentration. 1. Isotonic Solution
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Like the other types of diffusion, 2. Hypotonic Solution
– In channel mediated facilitated osmosis is a passive process. In living 3. Hypertonic Solution
diffusion, a solute moves down its systems, the solvent is water, which
 • Primary Active Transport • Vesicle - a small spherical sac formed
by budding off from a membrane
– energy derived from hydrolysis of
ATP changes the shape of a carrier • Endocytosis – (inside) materials
move into a cell in a vesicle formed
protein, which “pumps” a substance
from the plasma membrane
across a plasma membrane against its
concentration gradient. Indeed, carrier – three types: receptor-mediated
proteins that mediate primary endocytosis; phagocytosis; bulk-phase
endocytosis (pinocytosis)
active transport are often called pumps.
ACTIVE PROCESS • Exocytosis – (outside) vesicles fuse
• Secondary Active Transport
• Active Transport with the plasma membrane, releasing
– energy stored in a Na or H their contents into the extracellular
– Solutes are transported across plasma concentration gradient is used to drive fluid. Materials move out in the cell in
membranes with the use of energy, other substances across the membrane a vesicles fuse with the plasma
from an area of lower concentration to against their own concentration membrane.
an area of higher Concentration gradients. Because a Na or H gradient
Sodium-potassium pump. • Transcytosis - a combination of
is established by primary active
endocytosis and exocytosis; vesicles
transport, secondary active transport undergo endocytosis on one side of a
indirectly uses energy obtained from cell, move across the cell, and then

the hydrolysis of ATP undergo exocytosis on the opposite side

TRANSPORT IN VESICLES ENDOCYTOSIS

ACTIVE PROCESS
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis – the fluid portion of cytoplasm, • The cytosol is the site of many
contains water, dissolved solutes, chemical reactions required for a cell’s
– highly selective type of endocytosis
existence
by which cells take up specific ligands. and suspended particles.
CYTOSKELETON
• Phagocytosis (eating) • Organelles
• The cytoskeleton is a network of
– a form of endocytosis in which the – Little organs, specialized structures
protein filaments that extends
cell engulfs large solid particles, such inside the cell. (e.g. cytoskeleton,
throughout the cytosol
as worn-out cells, whole bacteria, or endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes)
virus. • Microfilaments
CYTOSOL
• Pinocytosis / Bulk-phase • Intermediate Filaments
• The cytosol (intracellular fluid) is the
endocytosis (drinking)
fluid portion of the cytoplasm that • Microtubules
– a form of endocytosis in which tiny surrounds organelles and constitutes
PROTEIN FILAMENTS
droplets of extracellular fluid are about 55% of total cell volume
taken up • Microfilaments – are the thinnest
• Cytosol is 75–90% water plus various
elements of the cytoskeleton. They are
2. Cytoplasm dissolved and suspended components.
composed of the proteins actin and
– consists of all the cellular contents • Among these are different types of myosin and are most prevalent at the
between the plasma membrane and the ions, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, edge of a cell.
nucleus. proteins, lipids, ATP, and waste
– They help generate movement and
products
• Cytosol provide mechanical support
• Intermediate Filaments - thicker • These tubulin complexes are the
than microfilaments but thinner than organizing centers for growth of the
mitotic spindle, which plays a critical
microtubules
role in cell division, and for
• Microtubules - largest of the microtubule formation in nondividing
cytoskeletal components and are long, cells
unbranched hollow tubes composed
CENTROSOME
mainly of the protein tubulin

PARTS OF THE CELL

• The centrosome located near the

nucleus, consists of two components: a
pair of centrioles and pericentriolar
material

• The two centrioles (are cylindrical

structures, each composed of nine RIBOSOMES
clusters of three microtubules (triplets)
act as factories which translate the
arranged in a circular pattern
genetic information or DNA from the
• Surrounding the centrioles is nucleus into useable protein molecules
pericentriolar material, which contains
hundreds of ring-shaped complexes
composed of the protein tubulin.
 LYSOSOMES

digest excess or worm out organelles

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
and proteins
forms an interconnected network of
tubules and vesicles and functions to
transport proteins throughout the cell
 3. Nucleus There are two broad categories of
cells.
is a large organelle that houses most of
a cell’s DNA 1. eukaryotic cells. (nucleus)
They have organelles, which
• Chromosome
include the nucleus and other
– a single molecule of DNA associated special parts. Eukaryotic cells
with several proteins, contains are more advanced, complex
thousands of hereditary units called cells, such as those found in
genes. plants and animals.

• Genes 2. prokaryotic cells. (meleoid)

They don't have a nucleus or
– control most aspects of cellular
membrane-enclosed organelles.
structure and function.
They do have genetic material,
but it's not contained within a
nucleus.

Both have cytoplasm

DNA – located in cytoplasm

CHROMOSOMES – Align to center

GENE – segment of DNA

There are two types of ER. - that are photoautotrophic, This feature helps trap inhaled particles
meaning they capture sunlight in the air and expels them when you
1. Rough ER has ribosomes
for energy, have cells with an cough.
attached to it
organelle called a chloroplast.
2. smooth ER doesn't have Another unique feature in some cells is
ribosomes attached to The The chloroplast is where flagella. Some bacteria have flagella. A
endoplasmic reticulum photosynthesis happens. It's green flagellum is like a little tail that can
because it has a green pigment called help a cell move or propel itself. The
mitochondria is an organelle that is
chlorophyll. only human cell that has a flagellum
the powerhouse for both animal and
is a sperm cell.
plant cells. During a process called Plant cells also have a cell wall
cellular respiration, the mitochondria outside of their cell membranes that 2 eukaryotic cell
make ATP molecules that provide the shape, support, and protect the plant
Animal cells
energy for all of the cells' activities. cell. Animal cells never have a cell
well There are many other unique - cell membrane
Cells that need more energy have more
structures that only some cells have. - small vacuole
mitochondria. Meanwhile, the cell
Here are just a few. - metabolized the glucose from
maintains its shape through a
the plant source to produce ATP
cytoskeleton. In humans, for example, the
respiratory tract is lined with cells that Plant cells
The cytoskeleton includes the thread-
have cilia. These are microscopic hair- - cell wall surrounding plasma
like microfilaments, which are made of
like projections that can move in cell membrane
protein, and microtubules, which are
waves. - large vacuole
thin, hollow tubes. Some organisms,
such as plants,
 - additional organelle called - functions as the control center 2. Mitosis
chloroplast (sign of of the cell and house the genetic
• Type of cell division where in parent
photosynthesis) information
cell divides and each of the two
photosynthesis Mitochondria daughter cells receives a chromosomal
set identical to that of the parent cell
- is the process of capturing - function as the powerhouse of
(diploid)
sunlight and synthesizing the cell by producing the energy
glucose and oxygen from the cell needs to perform its CELL CYCLE
carbon dioxide and water duties.
• The cell cycle is a sequence of
vacuole Golgi
cell growth and division.
- stores molecules needed by a package and modifies the proteins
Somatic Cells
cell and isolates material that
CELL DIVISION
may be harmful to the cell Cells that make your organs and tissues
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
Plasma cell membrane Sex Cells
1. Meiosis The ONLY cells that are not somatic –
- made up of a phospholipid
sperm and egg (Gametes)
bilayer surround the cell and • Also known as reduction division.

allows molecules into and out • The cell cycle is the period
• it is a type of cell division that
of the cell reduces the number of chromosomes in from the beginning of one

Nucleus the parent cell by half and produces

division to the beginning of
four gamete cells (haploid).
the next.
• Occurs only in gametes or sex cells.
• The time it takes to complete Once a cell enters the S phase, it Each chromosome consists of two
usually completes the rest of the cell identical “sister” chromatids.
one cell cycle is the generation time.
cycle Each pair of chromatids is attached at
Biologists divide an area called the centromere.
c. G2 phase
the events of the events of Sister chromatids
mitosis into fourmitosis into four Organelles and molecules
2. M Phase
phases: (PMAT) phases: required for cell division are
produced Once G2 is a. Prophase
• Prophase
complete, the cell is ready to
•Metaphase b. Metaphase
start the M phase—Mitosis
•Anaphase
c. Anaphase
•Telophase - Chromatin – long, thin strands
made up of DNA and protein. d. Telophase
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE
The protein helps the DNA to INTERPHASE
1. Interphase stay together when
1. G1 phase
a. G1 phase chromosomes form.
- Chromosomes - Genetic – Usually the longest & most variable
• Increases in size (cell grows)
information is passed from one phase of the cycle.
• Synthesizes new proteins and
generation to the next on
organelles (cell develops) – Increase in size and synthesize new
chromosomes. Before cell
proteins and organelles in the cell.
b. S phase division, each chromosome is
2. S phase
duplicated, or copied
• Chromosomes are replicated
• DNA synthesis takes place
– Characterized by DNA replication opposite ends of the cell and spindle opposite poles
and beginning of centrosome
fibers extend from the centromeres 4. Telophase
duplication.
2. Metaphase • Opposite of Prophase.
– Histone synthesis is also observed
during this period. • Alignment of chromosomes into the • The two sets of chromosomes are at
equatorial region of the cell or in the spindle poles and begin
3. G2 phase
the middle. reverting to their decondensed state.
• Proteins required for mitosis starts to
accumulate. • The centrosomes are now both in the • Nucleolus and Nuclear membrane
opposite side of cell with the starts to re appear.
• Chromatin starts to condensed
mitotic spindle fibres extending from • Formation of cleavage furrow.
MITOTIC PHASE (DIVIDING
them.
PHASE) • The spindle fibers disperse, and
• The mitotic spindle fibres attach to cytokinesis will star
1. Prophase
each of the sister chromatids. 5. Cytokinesis
• 1st and the longest phase in mitosis.
3. Anaphase • results when a fiber ring composed of
• Chromatin in the nucleus begins to
a protein called actin around the
condense and becomes visible in the • The chromosomes are pulled by the

light microscope as chromosomes. kinetochore microtubules to the center of the cell contracts pinching the
cell into two daughter cells,
– Nucleolus disappears and nuclear poles and form a "V" shape.

envelope breaks down. each with one nucleus.

• Centromeres split and Sister

• Centrosomes begin moving to chromatids separate and migrate to

Cellular Differentiation Stem cells could be powerful tools in Scientists isolated the first human
treating injury and illness. embryonic stem cells in 1998.
- Single cell (usually a fertilized
egg) changed into the vast array There are three types of stem cells. - The only stem cells that naturally are
of cell types such as nerve cells, Each has potential for medical research able to become any other cell type and
muscle cells, and epithelial cells and clinical applications based on its to multiply endlessly.
that characterize an adult cell unique properties. - Under the right circumstances in a
- Process of cellular 1. Embryonic Stem Cell lab, they can be nudged to become
differentiation leads cells to - Are the starter cells of the human specific cell types.
assume their final morphology body. Are undifferentiated, which
2. Adult Stem Cell
and physiology means they have not matured and
- so-named because they are more
- Process by which unspecialized specialized, and they are able to
mature than embryonic stem cells,
cells become specialized to become any other kind of cell in the
though they don’t necessarily have to
carry out distinct function body.
come from adults.
- In embryos, these cells multiply and
Stem Cell - maturity means that they are limited
differentiate to become organs, bones
- Are the building blocks of the human in their ability to differentiate.
and muscles. In the laboratory, they can
body. - Pockets of adult stem cells are found
be multiplied to create stem cell lines
- At the start of life, they divide over in many of our organs and they
for study or for therapy.
and over again to create a full person replenish cells in the organs in which
- Scientists harvest embryonic stem
from an embryo. they reside.
cells from three- to five-day-old
- As we age, they replenish cells in our Types of adult stem cells include:
embryos donated by people who have
blood, bone, skin and organs. HEMATOPOIETIC
gone through in-vitro fertilization.
Found in bone marrow and umbilical kinds of neurons, but neural stem cells A lipoma which is a fatty growth that
cord blood, they become blood and from the adult brain are rare and have commonly occurs on the back.
immune cells. they are the only stem very limited ability to differentiate. It is unsightly but harmless and can be
cells approved by the FDA for therapy, easily removed as it is enclosed in a
3. Induced-pluripotent Stem Cells
for treatment of certain blood cancers. capsule.
are adult cells — often skin or blood
MESENCHYMAL
cells — that have been taken from an Other spread and are malignant -called
found throughout the body, including individual and reprogrammed in a lab cancers (from the Latin for ‘crab’) and
in bone marrow, fat tissue and organs. to become like embryonic stem cells. occur when a cell multiplies without
Turn into the connective tissue found like embryonic stem cells, they can be control.
throughout the body, though the developed into any other type of cell. Has no capsule and may spread locally
specific cell they become is related to So a skin cell could be turned into an invading and destroying adjacent
the organ in which they’re located. may embryonic-like cell and then further tissues, or spread to distant areas of the
decrease inflammation. turned into a heart cell. body via the lymphatic system or the
FETAL bloodstream.
Stem cells from fetuses are more
Cellular Proliferation and Cancer
mature, and therefore less able to
Naming Tumors
differentiate, than embryonic stem
1. Adenocarcinoma - cancer of
cells, but they may be more Tumor or Neoplasm
glandular tissue
multipurpose than other adult stem Mass of cells produced by abnormal
2. Sarcoma - general name for cancers
cells. cell proliferation. Some are benign and
originating in connective tissue such as
For example, neural stem cells from do not spread to other areas of the
bone e.g. osteosarcoma (arising in
fetal brain tissue can become several body.
bone) - Cells also communicate with each - Other carcinogens include radiation.
3. Cancers of the blood - leukemias. other and if cells start to multiply and - Melanoma is linked to exposure to the
contact other cells, growth is stopped. ultraviolet rays of strong sunshine
Causes of Cancer
- If this growth signaling goes wrong,
- No one cause and carcinogenesis is a Dietary factors are important but
contact inhibition fails to occur.
multistage process still not fully understood.
- Most occur due to mutation within the Some cancers are genetically
- Eating too much red and processed
genetic material (DNA) in the cell transmitted.
meat appears to be linked to gastric and
nucleus
- Familial breast cancer caused by bowel cancer
- A multifactorial disease (we know the mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 - Heavy consumption of alcohol is
risk factors for some types of cancer) genes. linked to a higher incidence of mouth
there are others that we do not and throat cancer
- The protein in these cells cannot bind
understand Age is an important risk factor and
a DNA repair enzyme,RAD51, so that
most occur more frequently in the
- Most cells are dividing at different it can repair DNA breaks.
elderly.
rates and any of these cell divisions
- Other common cancers where there is Because cell mutations may
mistakes could cause a cell to start
a genetic predisposition include cancer accumulate over time and exposure to
reproducing in an uncontrolled manner
of the colon carcinogens within the environment has
- Usually, the DNA repair proteins Lifestyle and the environment e.g. been occurring for a longer period.
correct the cause of mistakes but if some chemicals are carcinogens and
Viruses
there is a lack of repair protein, the have a direct link to cancer.
- Cervical cancer (Human Papilloma
mistake cannot be corrected.
- Cigarette smoke that is linked to lung Virus – HPV) and certain lymphomas
cancer.
(Epstein-Barr Virus). Targeted at high risk individuals adjuvant therapy after the removal such
- Hepatitis B and C viruses are linked such as those with a strong family as radiotherapy, hormone treatment or
to primary liver cancer. history. chemotherapy is given.
- Not everyone who has been infected - Colonoscopy rather than occult blood
with these viruses develops cancer and in the feces is used in those with a
Chemotherapy
other factors are involved strong family history of colon cancer
- To prevent the cancer cell from
If the immune system is Staging of Cancers dividing and there are many different
compromised cancer is more likely chemotherapy drugs in use.
Done to guide treatment and
- Affect also the division of normal
- People who have had organ prognosis for the patient.
body cells that are rapidly dividing in
transplants and are taking drugs to - Staging systems vary according to the
the bone marrow and the gut.
decrease the activity of the immune type of tumor but the TNM (tumor,
- Leads to side effects such as a low
system in order to lessen the risk of node, metastases) system is the
white cell count and susceptibility to
organ rejection. commonest one for solid tumors
infection, low platelets and a tendency
- People with AIDS are also more at Treatment to bleed, anemia, a sore mouth (due to
risk of certain cancers Needs to be managed by a failure to replace the epithelial cells)
multidisciplinary team (MDT). and sterility which may not be
Detection and Diagnosis
Done to detect the presence of cancer Treatment plan must be discussed with reversible

in an asymptomatic person. the patient at each stage so that they - Given in cycles to reduce side

- Breast, cervical and bowel cancer can make informed choices about their effects. Normal cells recover faster than

screening are done but not for all. own care and management cancer cells and some normal
Tumor is surgically removed an functioning can occur between
treatments are androgen dependent
Some have a direct effect on the - Possible to block the effects of these
vomiting center and cause severe hormones and so prevent them acting
nausea and vomiting. as growth factors
- Tamoxifen is an example of such a
- Example is cisplatin
drug used in some breast cancers.
Antiemetics such as
- Flutamide is an androgen blocker
ondansetron must be given
used to treat prostate cancer.
alongside the therapy.
Other Therapies
Radiotherapy
- Most involve the administration of
- Used to cause dividing cells to die by
protein molecules that are made by
breaking strands of DNA in the nucleus
genetic engineering
- Used as a treatment in lung cancer but - Includes interferons which are
does have complications such as antiproliferative, interleukin 2 used in
redness of the skin (erythema), nausea, renal cell carcinoma and melanoma and
vomiting, diarrhea and mouth ulcers as anti- growth factors such as cetuximab
well as general side effects such as loss which is added to chemotherapy to
of energy and lethargy. enhance the response and
erythropoietin used to stimulate red

Endocrine Therapy cells in anemia.

- Some breast cancers are estrogen

dependent and some prostate cancers