Prepared by: Ms.

Tan Soon Sooi

Contact No.: 012-4477422
Form 4 Chapter 2: Cell Biology and Organisation
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2.1 Cell Structure and Function

Components of Animal and Plant Cells

1. Cell is the basic unit of life.

2. Cytoplasm of cell contains many organelles.
3. Organelle is a specialised structure which has its own membrane and perform specific function.
4. Most of the organelles can only be seen under an electron microscope.

Cellular components Structure Functions

Plasma membrane • Thin, strong and elastic layer • Form a barrier that separate the contents
• Made up of phospholipid and protein of cell (cytoplasm) from the extracellular
molecules. environment.
• Semi-permeable membrane (only • Control the movement of substances in
allow certain substances to pass and out of the cell.
through it while others cannot) • Allow exchange of respiratory gases,
nutrients, and waste products between
cells and its surroundings.
Cell wall • Thick, strong, rigid layer outside • Maintain the shape of plant cells
plasma membrane • Provide support to plant cells
• Made up of cellulose • Prevent the plant cell from bursting.
• Fully permeable (plasmodesmata)

Nucleus • Spherical • Control all cell activities

• Consists of nucleolus, nucleoplasm, • Carry genetic information
nuclear membrane and chromosomes

Cytoplasm • Jelly-like substance that water and • Medium for biochemical reaction to take
mineral salts place.
• Consists of organelles and cytosol • Give shape to cell
(fluid part of cytoplasm)
Vacuoles • Contains cell sap and lined with semi- • As main storage of water, organic
permeable membrane → tonoplast materials and minerals inside the cell.
• Cell sap contains water, sugar, • Maintain turgidity of cells in plants
mineral salts etc.
 Ribosomes • Small spherical granules consisting of Synthesis of protein
protein and RNA
• Consists of 2 ribosomal subunits
• Exists freely in the cytoplasm or on
the surface of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum • Folded flattened membrane to form Rough endoplasmic reticulum
an extensive network of tubules and • Transport protein synthesised by
continuous with the nuclear ribosomes throughout the cell.
membrane. • Excreted protein will be packaged and
• Rough ER → ribosomes attached in transported by transport vesicle to other
its membranes parts of cell.
• Smooth ER → no ribosome attached Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
on its membranes. • Site for lipid synthesis, detoxification and
steroid hormone production.
Golgi apparatus • Stacks of parallel flattened sacs with • Receives proteins and lipids from the
vesicles budding off at its end. endoplasmic reticulum and modifies these
• Has many secretory vesicles around it substances to form enzymes or hormones
• Package and transport modified materials
into secretory vesicles to be secreted out
of the cell or to other organelles in the cell.
Lysosome • Produced by Golgi apparatus • Lysozyme breaks down organic
• Vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes compounds such as proteins and lipids.
• Digest bacteria and damaged cell
components.
Centrioles • Cylindrical organelles • Form spindle fibres during cell division in
• Found only in animal cells animal cell

Mitochondrion • Rod-shaped with double membrane • Site for cellular respiration → release
• Outer layer is smooth while inner layer energy in the form of ATP through
is folded to increase surface area. oxidation of food
• Inner membrane encloses fluid-filled
matrix
• Contains respiratory enzymes involved
in cellular respiration
Chloroplasts • Exists in green plants only • Site for photosynthesis
• Disc-shaped organelles bounded by • Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight
double membrane and convert it into chemical energy during
• Contains a gel-like matrix called photosynthesis.
stroma which contains ribosomes,
DNA and photosynthetic enzymes.
• A series of interconnecting flattened
membrane-bounded sacs called
thylakoids.
• A stack of thylakoids is called granum
(plural: grana) which contains
chlorophyll.
Compare and Contrast the Components of Animal Cells and Plant Cells

Animal cell Plant cell

Similarities
Both have plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum
No fixed shape Fixed shape
No cell wall Has cellulose cell wall
No chloroplasts Has chloroplasts
No vacuole, if present, are small and numerous called Has a large vacuole
vesicles
Store carbohydrate in the form of glycogen granules Store carbohydrate in the form of starch granules
Has centrioles No centrioles

2.2 Living Processes of Unicellular Organisms

Amoeba sp. Paramecium sp.

Lives in freshwater environment such as lakes and ponds Lives in freshwater environment such as lakes and ponds
Does not has a fixed shape Shape like a slipper
• Has 2 layers of cytoplasm • Has 2 nuclei
→ ectoplasm (outer) → macronucleus – control metabolic activities
→ endoplasm (inner) → micronucleus – control sexual reproduction
• Food vacuoles and contractile vacuoles are found in • Cover with cilia to aid movement
cytoplasm • Has contractile vacuoles at each end of the cell
• Oral groove and cytosome are involved in feeding
Respiration
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occur through the Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occur through the
plasma membrane by simple diffusion plasma membrane by simple diffusion
Locomotion
• Moves by cytoplasmic projection by extending its • Moves by rhythimic beating of cilia against the water,
pseudopodia or ‘false leg’ towards the direction it wants enabling it to swim
to move and anchoring the tips onto the ground. • This movement allows Paramecium to move forward
• Cytoplasm flows into the extended pseudopodium while twisitng and spinning on its axis.
• Known as amoeboid movement

Response to stimuli
• Amoeba sp. moves towards favorable stimuli such as • Cilia function as sensory structures to detect external
food using pseudopodia stimulus
• It moves away from unfavorable stimuli such as acidic • Moves away from unfavorable stimuli such as
or alkaline solutions such as bright light and high chemicals, light, and temperature changes.
temperature
 Feeding / nutrition
• Feeds on bacteria, algae and other microorganisms • Feeds on microorganisms.
• Method of engulfing food is called phagocytosis • The rhythmic beating of cilia along the oral groove
• Amoeba sp. approaches food particles. sweeps water and suspended food particles into the
• 2 pseudopodia extend out and engulf food particles. cytostome and into the cytoplasm forming food
• Food particles are packaged in food vacuole which fuses vacuoles.
with lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes called • Hydrolytic enzymes are secreted into the food vacuoles
lysozyme. to digest the food.
• The food particles are digested by lysozyme. Nutrients • Nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm
are absorbed into the cytoplasm and assimilated. • Undigested food is excreted through the anal pore.
• Undigested materials are excreted.

Osmoregulation / Excretion
• Wastes are excreted via diffusion while excess water is • Waste product eliminated by simple diffusion.
removed via the contractile vacuole. • Osmoregulation is aided by 2 contractile vacuoles (one
1. Freshwater diffuses into Amoeba sp. by osmosis at the anterior end and the other at the posterior end)
and fill the contractile vacuole • These vacuoles work one at a time to remove excess
2. Contractile vacuole expands to its maximum size. water.
3. Contractile vacuole moves to the cell membrane • Freshwater diffuses into Paramecium sp. by osmosis
4. Contractile vacuole contracts to remove the water and fill the contractile vacuole.
from time to time. • When the contractile vacuole is filled to its maximum
size, it contracts to remove its content from time to time
• This adaptation prevents Paramecium sp. from bursting

Reproduction
Amoeba sp. reproduce asexually by Paramecium sp. undergoes:
→ binary fission – in favorable conditions and sufficient → sexual reproduction when conditions are favorable
food supply by mitotic division of single parent cell → asexual reproduction – conjugation under unfavorable
→ formation of spores – under unfavorable condition such environmental conditions (exchange genetic material)
as dry environment and insufficient of food.
 2.3 Living Processes of Multicellular Organisms

1. Multicellular organisms are made up of more than one cell.

2. Cells inside multicellular organisms need cell specialisation to enable them to perform specific functions.
3. In cell specialisation, the cells differentiate to change their shape and structure to become specialised cells to
carry out its specific functions.

Specialised cells in Humans

Specialised cell Structure Function

Epithelial cells ➢ Flat and thin cell ➢ Goblet cells secrete mucus to trap dust and
➢ Lined the surface of organs such as ciliated microorganisms.
cells and goblet cells in the respiratory ➢ Cilia on ciliated cells sweep the mucus with
tract (trachea) trapped substances away from the lungs.

Muscle cells ➢ Consists of compact bundle of protein ➢ Contract and relax to produce movement
fibres
➢ 3 types of muscle cells:
✓ Cardiac muscle cells (heart)
✓ Skeletal muscle cells (attach to
bones)
✓ Smooth muscle cells (internal organs)

Nerve cell ➢ Consists of cell body which contains ➢ Transmit nerve impulses throughout the body.
nucleus and long nerve fibre

Red blood cell ➢ Biconcave disc shaped ➢ Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
➢ Do not have nucleus
➢ Contains haemoglobin to combine with
oxygen

White blood cell ➢ Does not have fixed shape ➢ Destroy pathogens and foreign substances in
➢ Has nucleus body.
➢ Protect the body against infections.

Sperm cell ➢ Has tadpole shape ➢ Swim towards the ovum for fertilisation.
➢ Head contains nucleus with one set of
paternal chromosomes
➢ Has long tail
➢ Middle piece has mitochondria to provide
energy for movement
Specialised cells in Plants

Specialised cells Structures Functions

Mesophyll cell Palisade mesophyll cell ➢ Allow maximum absorption of light
➢ Cylindrical, arranged vertically and packed energy for photosynthesis
tightly together
➢ Contains many chloroplasts
Spongy mesophyll cell ➢ Allows gaseous exchange
➢ Loosely packed with plenty of air spaces ➢ Able to carry out photosynthesis
➢ Has chloroplasts

Guard cell ➢ Formed from differentiation of epidermal cell ➢ Control the opening and closing of
on leaf stomata
➢ Bean-shaped and exists in pairs
➢ Contains chloroplasts
➢ Located on the upper and lower epidermis of
leaf
Root hair cell ➢ Modified epidermal cell to increase surface ➢ Absorb water & mineral ions from soil.
area

Xylem ➢ Consists of tracheid and xylems vessels. ➢ Transport water and mineral salts from
➢ Long tubes joined together end to end roots to leaves
➢ Thickened with lignin ➢ Provide support and mechanical
strength to the plant

Phloem ➢ Consists of sieve tubes and companion cells ➢ Transport organic substances /
photosynthetic products from leaves to
storage organs and growing parts of
plants.

Density of Certain Cell Components and Specialised Cell Functions

Cell component Type of cell Function

Mitochondrion Sperm cell Generate energy to enable the sperm to swim to Fallopian tube to meet the
ovum for fertilisation
Muscle cell Contract and relax to produce movement
Meristematic cells Require large amount of energy during active cell division to produce new cells.
Chloroplasts Palisade mesophyll Absorb sunlight for photosynthesis
Golgi apparatus Cells in the root cap Secrete slimy lubricant that helps the movement of roots between soil particles
to prevent friction and protect root cell.
Golgi apparatus Goblet cells Secret mucus to trap dust and microorganisms in the respiratory tract and to
and RER help in the digestion of food in the alimentary canal.
Pancreatic cell Synthesis and secrete enzyme and hormones
SER Cells in the testes Synthesis and secrete steroids and sex hormones
and adrenal glands
Liver cells Detoxify drugs and toxins
Lysosomes Phagocytic cells Contains hydrolytic enzymes to break down pathogens
(macrophages)
2.4 Levels of Organisation in Multicellular Organisms

1. Specialised cells are arranged and organised into different levels to form a complex multicellular organism, able
to perform living processes → cell organisation.

Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system → Multicellular organism

→ cell is a basic unit of life
→ Tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to perform specific function.
→ Organ is a group of different tissues that work together to perform specific function.
→ Organ system is a group of several organs that work together to perform specific function.

Cell Organisation in Humans

Epithelial Tissue
• Consist of closely-packed cells arranged in continuous layer which is one-cell thick
• Cover body surface (skin) and inner lining of cavities (digestive tract and lungs)
• Some are specialised to form glands (endocrine and exocrine glands)
• Carry out functions associated with protection, secretion and absorption
Tissues Adaptation and Functions
Epithelial tissues at the • Form a protective barrier against infection
outermost layer of the skin • Protect underlying tissues and organs
• Prevent dehydration of the skin
• Regulate body temperature
• Secrete sweats and sebum
Epithelial tissues at the lining of • Epithelial cells line the alveoli and form walls of blood capillaries
lungs, heart and blood vessels • Allow efficient exchange of gases
Epithelial tissues on the surface • Form goblet cells to secrete mucus
of the intestines • Secrete digestive enzymes
• Absorb nutrients
Epithelial tissues on the surface • Form goblet cells with cilia
of trachea • Goblet cells secrete mucus to trap dust and small particles in the air.
• Cilia sweep away impurities / pollutants from the lungs

Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle • Attached to bones and skeleton
• Responsible for the voluntary movements of the body
• Contraction of skeletal muscles produce movement of the body
Smooth muscle • Found in the walls of digestive tract, urinary tract, blood vessels and internal
organs
• Responsible for involuntary actions such as peristalsis along the digestive tract.
• Smooth muscles contract slower than skeletal muscle but remain contracted for
a longer period of time.
Cardiac muscle • Form the contractile wall of the heart
• Contract to pump blood from the heart to all parts of the body
• Contraction of cardiac muscle is an involuntary action

Nerve Tissue
• Made of nerve cells known as neurones
• There are 3 types of neurones: sensory, motor and relay neurone
• Function to transmit nerve impulses to control and coordinate body activities
 Connective Tissue
Bone • Embedded in collagen matrix and strengthen with mineral deposits such as
calcium and phosphate.
• Involve in formation of body skeleton → protect internal organs
• Involve in body movement
• Provide support to the body
Loose connective tissue • Located at the skin in all body parts
• Function to hold epithelial tissues and bind organs to their places
Fibrous connective tissue • Densely packed with collagen fibres to form tendons and ligaments
• Tendons connect muscle to bone
• Ligaments connect bone to bone
Cartilage • Strong and flexible connective tissues
• Form shape and provide support to the nose and ears
• Acts as cushion between vertebrae and joints to absorb shock
Blood • Made up of plasma (water, minerals, dissolved proteins) and cell components
(red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets)
• Involved in osmoregulation, transport and protection
Adipose tissue • Tightly packed in the dermis of the skin
• Stores fat and energy
• Act as insulator of the body against heat loss

Tissues in Plants

Plant tissues Characteristics Functions

Epidermal tissues • Forms the outermost layer that covers the • Protect the underlying tissues
stems, leaves, roots of young plants, flowers, • Prevent excessive water loss through evaporation
fruits and seeds • Protect the plant from mechanical injuring and
• Covered by waxy, waterproof coating → cuticle disease-causing microorganisms
Vascular tissues
1. Xylem tissues • Consists of xylem vessels and tracheid • Transport water and mineral salts from roots to
leaves
• Provide mechanical support to plants
2. Phloem tissues • Consists of sieve tubes and companion cells • Transport dissolved nutrients from leaves to all parts
of the plants
Meristematic tissue • Apical meristem (shoot tip & root tip) • Divide by mitosis to produce new cells
• Lateral meristem (cambium at dicot stem) • Shoot tip & root tip → increase shoot & root length
• Dicot stem → increase the diameter of stem
Ground tissue • Fill up the space between epidermal tissues
and vascular tissues
Parenchyma tissue • Fill up the space between other plant tissues • Leaves → palisade & spongy mesophyll → carry out
photosynthesis to produce food
• Root → stores food
• Turgid parenchyma cell gives support and shape to
herbaceous plants.
Collenchyma tissue • Thick cell wall • Provide support to young plants and herbaceous or
non-woody plants
Sclerenchyma • Cell wall thickened by lignin • Provide mechanical support mature woody plants
tissue • Died at maturity
 Organs

1. Examples of organs in humans: stomach, heart, skin, kidneys and lungs.

Organ Types of tissues Function
Heart Cardiac muscle tissue Pump blood to all parts of the body
Connective tissue (blood)
Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue

Stomach Smooth muscle tissues Digest food

Connective tissue
Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue

2. Examples of organs in flowering plants: leaves, stems, roots and flowers

Organ Types of tissues Function
Leaf Epidermal tissue Carry out photosynthesis
Ground tissue (palisade & spongy mesophyll)
Vascular tissue (xylem & phloem)

Organ System

System Circulatory system Respiratory system Digestive system

Organs / Heart, blood vessels Lungs, nose, trachea, Mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
tissues small intestine, large intestine,
pancreas, liver
Functions • Transport respiratory gases, • For breathing and gaseous • Ingest and digest food
nutrients and hormones to body exchange in the body • Absorb nutrients
cells. • Excrete undigested materials.
• Transport waste substances to
excretory organs

System Excretory / Urinary system Skeletal system integumentary system

Organs / Kidneys, ureters, bladder Bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments Skin
tissues
Functions • Remove metabolic wastes such • Support the body Act as physical barrier to protect
as urea • Protect internal organs the body against injury and
• Provide surface for attachment of infection of diseases
muscles
 System Muscular system Lymphatic system Nervous system
Organs / Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, Brain, spinal cord, nerves
tissues cardiac muscles thymus gland, spleen
Functions Contraction and relaxation of • Defend the body against infections • Detect and transmit nerve
muscles enables body movement / provide immunity impulses in the body for
• Return excess tissue fluid to the coordination and response.
circulatory system (blood) • Control physiological processes
together with endocrine system

System Endocrine system Male reproductive system Female reproductive system

Organs / Endocrine glands (pituitary gland, Testes, penis, sperm ducts, scrotum, Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus,
tissues thyroid gland, adrenal glands, prostate glands cervix, vagina
pancreas, testes, ovaries)
Functions Produce hormones Produce sperm and male sex • Produce ovum and female sex
hormones hormones
• Fertilisation, implantation and
development of zygote

Organ System in Plants

Root System Shoot System

• Consists of roots • Consists of leaves, stems, buds, fruits and flowers
• Absorb water and mineral • Stems – structural support for leaves and the plant
nutrients from the ground • Flowers – reproduction organs for flowering plants