✧˖°. BIOLOGY REVIEWER✧˖°.

🧬 CHAPTER 2.4: THE CELLS INTRICATE

• The nucleus of an atom consists of two types of
particles;
(1) positively charged particles called protons
MACHINERY (2) neutrally charged particles called neutrons.

• exploration of eukaryotic cells • Protons (+) Neutrons (-) in an atom represent the
• Robert Hooke’s analogy of a small room is a useful nucleus of an atom.
analogy
- Walls surround a cell (cell membrane) • The Nucleus of an atom consists of a tightly
- Provides stable structure (cytoskeleton) packed arrangement of protons and neutrons. These
- Provides various openings are the two heavy particles in an atom and hence
- Occupants in the room share information similar to 99.9% of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus.
organelles that reside inside the cell

✧ Cell structures for protection

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1. Cell membrane 🧬CELL MEMBRANE

2. Cell wall
3. Cytoplasm
• also called the plasma membrane
✧ Manufacturing, storage, distribution and • thin barrier that forms a boundary separating an
individual cell from the external environment.
breakdown of organelles • a living system that controls the passage of needed
1. Endoplasmic reticulum materials (molecules, ions, and gasses) into and out
2. Golgi apparatus of the cell.
3. Vesicles • exist in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
4. Vacuoles • consists of a double layer of phospholipids
5. Lysosomes embedded with molecules
6. Peroxisomes
• Each phospholipid is composed of 3 basic parts;
✧ Energy-processing organelles  Charged phosphate group (head)
 Glycerol (head)
1. Mitochondria  2 fatty acid chains (tail)
2. Plastids

✧ Organelles for structural support, movement,

• head - bears a charge, considered a polar
molecule. The head can join hydrogen bonds with
and communication between cells water molecules.
• Hydrophilic - oriented in two directions:
1. Centrosome and centrioles 1.) In the exterior of the cell membrane the
2. Cilia and flagella phospholipids layer faces toward the outside
3. Cytoskeleton environment

🧬 NUCLEUS
2.) The other head faces the interior cytoplasm

• Because the membrane touches the cytoplasm

inside the cell and the watery fluid outside the cell,
FUNCTIONS the properties of polar heads and nonpolar tails
(1) control of the genetical information of the cell and cause the phospholipids to arrange themselves in
heredity characteristics of an organism layers.
(2) control of the protein and enzyme synthesis. (3)
control of cell division and cell growth. • tail - considered as non-polar. Cannot form
(4) storage of DNA, RNA, and ribosome. (5) hydrogen bonds with water molecules
regulation of the transcription of the mRNA to • Hydrophobic - attracted to each other while being
protein. production of ribosomes. repelled by the water.

STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION • polar - they interact with the watery environment
both outside and inside a cell.
• nonpolar tails - they are protected from the watery [example] - the wood making up a tree trunk
environment consists of dead cells whose cell walls continue to
support the entire tree. Moreover, the cell wall's
composition varies and is related to the different
STRUCTURES needs of each type of organism.
1. Cholesterol - helps strengthen the cell
membrane, making it more flexible but less fluid, • In plants and algae, the cell wall is made up of the
which makes the membrane less permeable to polysaccharide cellulose. Since molecules cannot
water-soluble substances such as ions or simple easily pass across the cellulose, the cell walls of
sugars. plants and algae have openings or channels to let
water and other molecules to diffuse.
2. Carbohydrates - attached to membrane proteins FUNCTIONS
serve as identification tags, enabling cells to
distinguish one type of cell from another. (1) Provides structure and strength
(2) Protects the internal contents of the cell
3. Membrane proteins (3) Regulates cell growth
• transport proteins - extend from the phospholipid
layer to help materials cross the membrane
• channel proteins - form tunnels that help cells STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION
import or export needed materials and expel wastes
• cell recognition proteins - enable cells to (1) Hemicellulose - An important group of
distinguish their own cells from those of other polysaccharides that provides the structure for the
organisms primary and secondary walls, cell expansion, seed
• enzymatic proteins - participate in metabolic storage for carbohydrates, and aggregation to
reactions such as degradative and synthetic facilitate plant growth.
reactions
• cytoskeleton proteins - act as muscle and skeleton (2) Pectin - keeps the walls of adjacent cells joined
to maintain cell shape and motility together.
• junction proteins - assist cell-to-cell adhesion and
communication between cells (3) Cellulose microfibril - Contributes to the control of
• receptor proteins - facilitate the exchange of cell growth and development.
signals with other cells by changing shape to allow a
specific molecule, the ligand, to bind it. (4) Middle lamella - Acts as a cementing material
between two adjacent cells.
• Through these interactions with various membrane
proteins, the cells establish connections, allowing (5) Primary cell wall - Layer of the cell wall where
various cell-to-cell communication, and paving the cell growth is permitted.
way for them to form tissues and organs.
(6) Plasma/ cell membrane - Provides protection for
• Scientists also described the cell membrane a cell and allows the transport of nutrients into the
through a fluid mosaic model due to the cell and the removal of toxic substances from the
arrangement of molecules that make up a cell cell.
membrane. This model of cell membrane structure ___________________________________

🧬 CYTOPLASM
takes this description from two characteristics;

(1) the cell membrane is described as flexible and

not rigid. This flexibility is attributed to the
phospholipids' ability to move side to side and slide • fills the space between the nucleus and the cell
past each other within each layer. membrane.
• Cytosol is the fluid portion consisting mainly of
(2) the variety of molecules scattered along the water and excluding the organelles in it.
membrane provides a variety of different textures • The chemical makeup of cytosol having a high
and patterns making up a mosaic. concentration of water suggests that it is necessary
___________________________________ for maintaining cell structure.

🧬 CELL WALL
• this is the reason why water is an essential
component of life.
• Many chemical reactions occur in the cytoplasm
wherein water acts as a natural solvent.
• plant cell has but the animal cell doesn’t
• is a rigid layer that gives protection, support, and
shape to the cell. FUNCTIONS
(1) Cellular respiration
(2) Structural support • Rough endoplasmic reticulum - The surface of the
(3) Storage ER is covered by ribosomes, called rough because
(4) Cell signaling of their bumpy look under the microscope.

STRUCTURES • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - is responsible for

the production of lipids and the performance of other
(1) Cytosol specialized functions, such as breaking down drugs
(2) Organelles and alcohol. Surfaces of the ER that are not studded
(3) Cytoskeleton with ribosomes
(4) Inclusions
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🧬 GOLGI APPARATUS
COMPONENTS
• From the ER, proteins are transported into layered
(1) Water stacks of membrane-enclosed spaces called the
(2) Ions Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex, where proteins
(3) Small molecules are processed, sorted, and delivered.
(4) Enzymes
(5) Ribonucleic acid (RNas)
• The membranes of the Golgi apparatus have
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enzymes that further modify the proteins. Finally,

🧬 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
finished products are packaged in this organelle.

• Some of the packaged proteins are stored

temporarily within the Golgi apparatus for later use.
• part of the endomembrane system Some are transported to other organelles within the
cell or carried to the membrane where they will be
FUNCTIONS eventually secreted out of the cell.
(1) transport chemical between and within cells
(2) calcium storage, protein synthesis, and lipid STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION
metabolism
• composed of stacks of flattened structures that
contain numerous vesicles containing secretory
STRUCTURES granules. However, Golgi apparatus appears as a
complex array of interconnecting tubules, vesicles,
(1) interconnected network of chain and folded and cisternae
membranes ___________________________________

🧬 VESICLES
(2) arranged like a maze
(3) with many creases and folds
(4) interior of this maze: LUMEN
• The lumen and its surface are the sites for many
processes such as the production of proteins and • After a protein has been manufactured, part of the
lipids. ER pinches off to form small, membrane-bound sacs
called vesicles enclosing the protein.

COMPOSITION • The protein being protected by the vesicle can now

be transported to the Golgi apparatus, where further
(1) Nuclear envelope - separates the nucleus from modifications can be made. A new vesicle will again
the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells be formed at the end of the Golgi apparatus for
(2) Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis in the cell storage, transport, or secretion.
(3) Cisternae - part of the packaging and
modification processes of proteins
• Due to the various functions of the vesicles, they
(4) Rough ER - helps make and process proteins
can be categorized as storage vesicles, transport
- series of connected flattened sacs
vesicles, or secretory vesicles. Vesicles are
- dotted with ribosomes
generally short-lived and are formed and recycled as
- “rough” appearance
needed by the cell.
(5) Smooth ER - helps make and process liquids
- not studded with ribosomes
• the synthesis, storage, and export of molecules is
- Tabular form
made possible because these organelles are
functionally connected with each other. Instructions
from the nucleus pass out through the nuclear pore (1) Lipid layer
to the ER. Transport vesicles travel from the ER to (2) Membrane
the Golgi apparatus and then to other destinations. (3) Glycosylated membrane transport proteins
(4) Hydrolytic enzyme mixture
• Some vesicles may develop into lysosomes and
vacuoles. FUNCTIONS
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🧬 VACUOLES
(1) Intracellular digestion
(2) Autophagy
(3) Waste disposal
(4) Programmed cell death
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🧬 PEROXISOMES
• A space within a cell that is empty of cytoplasm
• vacuole - “empty space”

• A vacuole is a fluid-filled sac for the storage of

materials needed by the cell that includes water, • break down toxic materials.
food molecules, inorganic ions, and enzymes. • found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells

• Most animal cells contain many small vacuoles, • Though they contain digestive enzymes, just like
while plants have a central vacuole that is unique lysosomes, peroxisomes carry oxidative enzymes
only to them. that require oxygen.

• central vacuole • They absorb nutrients that have been acquired by

cells. The enzymes in the peroxisomes break down
- is a single large vacuole that takes up most of the complex molecules into smaller molecules.
space inside a plant cell, which most of the time
dislodging the nucleus to the side of the cell. • help in breaking down alcohol in the body.
Because of this, you would expect your liver cells to
- filled with a watery fluid that strengthens the cell have more peroxisomes than other cells in your
and helps support the entire plant by making it body.
erect.
FUNCTIONS
- When a plant wilts, such as when you do not water
it, its leaves shrivel because there is not enough (1) Generation and degradation of Hydrogen
water in each cell's central vacuole to support the Peroxide
leaf's normal structure. (2) Protects the cells from ROS
(3) Long-chain fatty acid metabolism
- may also contain other substances, such as toxins (4) Detoxification of harmful chemicals by
that can harm predators and protect the plant, waste superoxide dismutase
products that may harm the cell itself, and pigments (5) Synthesis of plasmalogens and platelet-
that give colors to the petals of a flower. activating factors
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🧬 LYSOSOMES
STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION
(1) Phospholipid bilayer
(2) Crstalloid core
• “clean up crew” of the cell ___________________________________

🧬 MITOCHONDRIA
• are round-shaped, membrane-bound structures
containing chemicals that can break down materials
in the cell.
• function: produce energy
• They contain powerful enzymes, known as • They are round- to oval-shaped organelles and
lysozyme, which can defend a cell from invading have two membranes. The inner membrane has
bacteria and viruses. They also break down many folds that greatly increase its surface area.
damaged worn-out cell parts.
• Within these inner folds and compartments, a
• tend to be more numerous in animal cells than in series of chemical reactions converts molecules
plant cells. from the food you eat into usable energy.

STRUCTURES
• Unlike most organelles, mitochondria have their STRUCTURES
own ribosomes and DNA, suggesting that
mitochondria were originally free-living prokaryotes (1) Centrosome
that were taken in by larger cells. The relationship (2) Two centrioles
must have helped both organisms to survive
STRUCTURES COMPOSITION
(1) Outer membrane • Centrioles are cylinder-shaped organelles made of
(2) Inner membrane nine triplets of short microtubules arranged in a ring.
(3) Matrix
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🧬 PLASTIDS
• In animal cells, it contain two barrel-like structures
called centrioles that are perpendicular to each
other.

• Chloroplasts are organelles that help a plant to • Before an animal cell divides, the centrosome
convert solar energy to chemical energy. including the centrioles doubles, and the two new
• Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, which is a centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.
series of complex chemical reactions that transform
solar energy into energy-rich molecules the cell can • Microtubules develop from each centrosome,
use. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are highly forming spindle fibers. These fibers affix to the sister
compartmentalized. chromatids and help divide it between the two cells.

• They have both an outer membrane and an inner • Centrioles also organize microtubules to form cilia
membrane. Sacs, called thylakoids, are in the and flagella.
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🧬 CILIA AND FLAGELLA

chloroplast membrane. These structures are
organized into a stack called granum.

• Thylakoids contain chlorophyll, a light-absorbing

pigment that gives plants their green color and plays • Cilia and flagella are two locomotory projections of
a role in photosynthesis. Stroma is the liquid portion eukaryotes. They allow the cell to move like an oar
of the chloroplast. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts or a whip. Both have the same structural
also have their own ribosomes and DNA. composition, containing nine microtubule doublets
arranged in a circle around two central microtubules
• Both chloroplasts and mitochondria are present in called the 92 patterns.
plant cells, where they work together to capture and
convert energy. Chloroplasts are found in the cells of
certain other organisms, including algae.
FUNCTIONS
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🧬 CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES

(1) Locomotion
(2) Sensory Perception

• Cilia look like little hairs with a much shorter length.

• The centrosome is a small dense region of They move in a coordinated fashion like the motion
cytoplasm that serves as the main microtubule of oars in a rowing team.
organizing center (MTOC), where microtubules are
organized and assembled. Types:
• Non-motile - sensory cilia or primary cilia. they act
• In animal cells, it contain two barrel-like structures as sensory organelles. They receive signals from
called centrioles that are perpendicular to each nearby cells and act as antennae for the cells.
other.
• Motile - the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes of
FUNCTIONS the human body. Where they sweep mucus in the
airways and facilitate the movement of ova from the
(1) signals that it is okay to proceed to cytokinesis ovary to the uterus respectively
(2) maintains chromosome number during cell
division • Flagella, look like a whip or a tail.
(3) stimulates changes in the shape of the cell
membrane Types:
(4) organizes the microtubules, in mitosis • Bacterial flagella
(5) regulates the movement to microtubules and • Eukaryotic flagella
cytoskeletal structures • Archaeal flagella
• For single cells, the movement of cilia or flagella “How do different cells in the body keep you
results in swimming. For cells anchored in tissue,
ciliary motion sweeps liquid across the cell surface. alive?”
___________________________________ • Since the cells in our body have specific jobs or

🧬 CYTOSKELETON
functions to keep us alive. For example, the nerve
cell or neuron transmits messages for the brain to
function. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout
the body, which is needed for energy. White blood
• The cytoskeleton is made up of a small protein
cells defend our body against bacteria and germs.
subunit, forming long threads or fibers that can
crisscross the entire cell, thus providing sturdy All the cells in our body work together to keep us
mechanical support. healthy and alive

• They help the cell to organize its contents and to

CELLS
direct the cell's movement in response to the cell's • came from preexisting cells and are made of the
changing needs and signals from its external same components that work in a similar manner,
environment. such as generating energy, converting nutrients to
energy, and reproducing or exporting wastes.
• There are three flexible networks of proteins that
provide structural support to the cell with a specific • vary enormously in terms of appearance to perform
range of functions: microtubules, intermediate a specific function.
filaments, and microfilaments. a. Size (large/small)
b. Motility (can/cannot move)
(1) Microtubules are filaments characterized to be - so bale yung ibang cells daw ay nakakagala while
lengthy and the thickest among the filaments. you iba ay stuck lang sa isang place
• There are about 200 different cell types inside your
• They are stiff, hollow tubes that give the cell shape body.
and serve as anchorage for the membrane-bound EX: the hepatocytes, cells found in the liver that
organelles and other cell parts. detoxify drugs, are specialized versions of a typical
eukaryotic cell.
• They act as "tracks'' for the movement of vesicles
and other cell components. During cell division,
microtubules form spindle fibers that pull each sister
chromatid into each daughter cell. Microtubules also
form permanent structures, such as the whiplike
Flagellum that propels the sperm toward the egg. [ common modified cells in your
(2) Intermediate filaments are somewhat smaller bodies and their functions]
than microtubules and ropelike in appearance. They
give the cell tensile strength or the ability to stretch NERVE CELL OR NEURON
without breaking apart. • facilitates the transmission of messages for the
brain to function
• They are prominently present in skin cells or other • contains several branchlike dendrites that receive
body sites subject to mechanical stress. impulses, while its long axon transmits impulses.
Intermediate filaments are important in ensuring the
strength of claws, hairs, and feathers of animals.
SPERM CELL
(3) Microfilaments are the thinnest among the • to fertilize an egg, pass on its genetic information,
cytoskeletons and are also known as actin filaments. and produce the next generation.
• its whiplike tail, known as flagellum, allows it to
move toward the egg cell.
• They are tiny flexible filaments that provide • The human egg cell, or ovum, is considered one of
protective meshwork under the plasma membrane. the largest cells in humans. That is why it can be
Actin filaments are important particularly in cell visible to the human eye without the aid of a
movement, as they allow muscles to contract and microscope or magnification device.
relax.

🧬 CHAPTER 2.5: VARIETIES OF CELL IN

OVUM
• to contribute half of the DNA or genetic material
upon combining the sperm with the egg upon
THE BODY fertilization during sexual reproduction.
• not capable of movement with a tiny amount of ensure the organism can grow, repair itself, and
nutritive yolk to nourish the embryo in its earliest reproduce.
stage of embryonic development. Enumerate the stages of cell division
• Mitosis - the process by which a single eukaryotic
RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC) cell divides into two identical daughter cells. It
• circular, enucleated, and biconcave in appearance consists of several stages:
• modified to transport oxygen from the lungs to - Prophase: Chromosomes condense, and the
different body parts. nuclear envelope breaks down.
- Metaphase: Chromosomes align in the center of
WHITE BLOOD CELLS the cell.
• bigger in size and fewer in number than RBCs - Anaphase: Chromatids are pulled apart and move
• function - protect the body from bacteria and to opposite ends of the cell.
germs - Telophase: Two separate nuclei form, and the cell
starts to pinch in the middle.
MUSCLE CELLS - Cytokinesis: The cell physically divides into two
• spindle-shaped in appearance to withstand daughter cells.
continuous movement. Function - movement. Why must cells divide?
• contain contractile protein fiber, called actin and • Cells must divide for two main reasons: first, to allow an
myosin, which help muscles contract. organism to grow in size by increasing the number of its
• Muscle cells contain many mitochondria that cells, and second, to replace old, damaged, or dying cells
produce enough energy during muscle contraction. with new ones, ensuring the organism remains healthy
and functional. Cell division is essential for the
GLAND CELLS development, maintenance, and repair of tissues and is a
fundamental process in the life of living organisms.
• produce and secrete substances such as sweat,
_____________________________
saliva, breast milk, digestive enzymes, and
hormones needed for certain biological processes. CELL DIVISION
• ability of individual cells to divide.
• dividing is one of its essential tasks to keep you
BONE CELLS alive
• make up bone tissue. Bone is a highly specialized
• also known as cell reproduction
connective tissue
• three main functions
(1) to protect the internal organs • linked to the cell theory, which states that all
(2) to create a rigid frame for muscular movement living things are composed of cells and that all
(3) to store minerals such as calcium and cells come from preexisting cells
phosphorous • This tenet emphasized how important it is for the
cell to divide, and that no cell exists today if not
from a previous parent cell.
• allows organisms to reproduce asexually, grow,
and repair worn-out or damaged tissues (cell

🧬 CHAPTER 3.1: THE CELLS’ NEED TO

replacement).
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DIVIDE GROWTH and DEVELOPMENT

• allows an organism to increase the number of its cells,
What triggers the growth and development of leading to growth in size.
cells?
• The growth and development of cells are mainly • cell division is essential for repairing damaged tissues
triggered by genetic instructions within the cell itself, and replacing old or dying cells, contributing to the
which guide its processes, and external signals like overall development and maintenance of the organism.
hormones and nutrients, which provide cues for when and
how the cell should grow, divide, and specialize. CELL REPLACEMENT
What are the outcomes of cell division? • occurs when old cells in the body die and new
• Cell division results in two main outcomes: the cells form.
production of genetically identical daughter cells in a
process called mitosis, which is essential for growth, • Cell division occurs in the red bone marrow of
tissue repair, and maintaining the body; and the creation your bones such as in the ribs, breastbone,
of specialized cells with unique functions through a vertebrae, and hips to continuously make new red
process called meiosis, which is crucial for sexual blood cells to replace the dying ones.
reproduction and genetic diversity. These outcomes
• Wound healing also involves the growth of new KINETOCHORE – attached to the long
cells out of cell division. If your skin is injured with spindle fibers during cell division.
a cut, cellular repair will also happen with the
production of new cells on the site of injury.

🧬 CHAPTER 3.3: THE CELL CYCLE

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Reproduction is a common process among life
forms to make a new organism from one or two
parent organisms. • growth, duplication and division
• involves distinct and regular phases of growth,
• happens either via sexual or asexual
DNA duplication, and cell division that are needed to
reproduction.
• Asexual reproduction is a form of cell division where a allow growth and repair.
single parent cell divides to create genetically identical
offspring, without the need for fertilization or the
INTERPHASE – when the cell is not dividing, as
combination of genetic material from two parents. if it is at rest. During interphase, cells carry out their
normal functions of growth and preparation before
• This process allows for rapid reproduction and the their division.
propagation of organisms with traits well-suited to their
environment, but it does not result in genetic diversity MITOSIS- when the cell is active and full of
like sexual reproduction does. activity
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DNA SYNTHESIS – development of the
microscopes revealed the cell’s ability to copy the
• Cell division is important for both unicellular and
multicellular organisms. Prokaryotes use cell DNA
division for reproduction, while multicellular
PERIODS GAP 1 AND 2 – when they cannot
organisms use it for growth, development, and
see other parts of the interphase
repair. In all the previous examples, the new cells
contain the same set, number, and types of -----STAGES OF CELL CYCLE-----
chromosomes as the parent cells.
INTERPHASE
• Cell division makes it possible for organisms to
reproduce even asexually. Examining the cell's • the growth period in the cycle and is divided into
nucleus, it will reveal the genetic material three parts
organized in chromosomes.
GAP 1 (G1)

🧬 CHAPTER 3.2: CHROMOSOME

• first part of the cell cycle wherein the cell carries
out its normal metabolic functions
• cell also increase their size, as their organelles
DNA – carries the genetic information you have increase in number
inherited and makes your body function •In terms of duration, cells spend most of their life
normally throughout your life cycle in this phase
CHROMOSOME – double-stranded molecule, •cells have required size limit
is tightly coiled in an organized structure
• Ex. A sperm cell that contains only few
CHROMATIN – is responsible for packaging mitochondria may not be able to propel its flagellum
the DNA efficiently into smaller volume so that it • cells cannot grow bigger than their normal size
fits in the nucleus of the cell to protect the DNA
structure SYNTHESIS
Chromatid – refers to each strand of the • second part of the cell cycle which refers to the
time that the cell makes a copy of the genetic
duplicated chromosome. Together they are
material in the form of nuclear DNA
called sister chromatid, which are held together
by the centromere. • the cell spends considerable amount of time and
energy to make copies of its chromosomes.
• Each chromosome contains one DNA molecule • the chromatin, which are loose complex of DNA
that is copied with enough accuracy through DNA and protein molecules in the nucleus, condenses
replication into tightly coiled chromosome.
• Aside from DNA, the cell also produces a copy of • The nuclear envelope breaks down. Though the
protein complex called microtubules. lipids and proteins are still their in the nuclear
membrane, they can no longer form a barrier around
GAP 2 (G2) the nucleus, making the chromosomes free to move
around
• cells continue to carry out their normal functions
and also undergo further growth. METAPHASE: CHROMOSOMES AT THE
• make sure that everything is in order, including CENTER
growing to its correct size and duplicating DNA
• (meta means “after”)
MITOSIS (M) • chromosomes are at the spindle equator
• involves division of the nucleus and the genetic
• the spindle fibers attached to the kinetochore of the
material. Scientist divide mitosis into 4 parts:
sister chromatids facilitates the movement of
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
chromosomes toward the middle of the cell
• the heredity material of the parent cell is given to
• the chromosomes appear to line up along a plane
the daughter cells that leads to the formation of two
equidistant from a microtubule region called
daughter cells
metaphase plate
• DNA replication before mitosis begins
ANAPHASE: CHROMATIDS TO
CYTOKINESIS OPPOSITE POLE
• two new cells form • (ana means “up” or “back”)
• divides the cytoplasm of the cell • each chromatid has a copy of a chromosome,
sister chromatids separate, spindle fibers move
• begins early during telophase and continues after
sister chromatids toward centrioles
the nuclei have formed in the daughter cells.
• sister chromatids are tightly paired due to the
centromere and protein cohesion, which are
responsible for holding DNA molecules

TELOPHASE: REFORMATION OF
NUCLEI
• (telo means “end”)
• nuclear envelope reforms, cleavage furrow

🧬 CHAPTER 3.4: THE MECHANISM OF

(animals) and cell plate (plants) appear)
• the two complete sets of identical chromosomes
are now positioned at each pole of the cell, and the
CELL DIVISION reverse of the major events in prophase happen.

MITOSIS • By the end of these phase, chromosomes are no

longer visible
• The division of nucleus into two genetically
identical nuclei containing the same full set of DNA.
It occurs in the somatic cells, except the sex cells,
such as egg cells and sperm cells. Mitosis prepares
the cell for cytokinesis.

PROPHASE: START OF MITOSIS

• (pro means “before”)
• nuclear envelope disappears, centrioles move
apart, spindle fibers form