Life Science 10 - 241028 - 184552

Chemistry Of Life
Revision
+ All matter, living and non-living is made up of small building
blocks called atoms
+ An atom is the smallest particle of an element

+ Atoms of elements, such as oxygen and hydrogen combine to
form molecules such as water, glucose, carbon dioxide etc.
+ The molecules that are found in cells consist of two types i.e.
organic and inorganic compounds
+ Atoms - the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a
chemical reaction.
+ Molecule – two or more atoms that combine with another
chemically
+ Element – a pure substance that is not made up of other
simpler substance.
+ Compound – a pure substance that is made up of simpler
substances (element), in other words, two or more substances
that are chemically combined.
+ Lets take a look at water to relate the 4 terms above.
+ Water is a compound that consist of the elements Hydrogen (H)
and Oxygen (O)
+ We can also say that the compound water is made up of
different water molecules, where each molecule consist of 2
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
+ Organic compounds:
Organic compounds are chemical compounds that contain the
elements carbon(C), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H).
Some organic compounds also contain other elements such as
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P).
Examples of organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acids and vitamins which form the building blocks of
cells.
+ Inorganic compounds:
Inorganic compounds do not contain the element carbon and
are sometimes not products of living organisms e.g. water, gases
and
minerals.
Water:
• Water is the most important inorganic compound that is essential
for life.
• Water molecules consist of one oxygen (1 O) bonded to two
hydrogen molecules (2 H).
• The formula for water is H2O
+ The water molecule
Functions of water in living organisms
+ Solvent for both organic and inorganic compounds
Mineral salts in the soil dissolve in water so that roots of the plants can absorb them.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide must be dissolved in water before they can leave or enter body cells.
+ Medium in which chemical reactions occur
All chemical reactions in living organisms occur in water
+ Reagent during hydrolysis
Water breaks polymers (large macro molecules) to monomers (smaller building blocks)
+ Transporting agent
Digested nutrients, metabolic waste products, gases( carbon dioxide and oxygen in
blood) as well as mineral salts are transported in water.
+ Lubricant
Water makes the process of chewing and swallowing easy, Watery fluids surrounds
eyeballs and joints to prevent friction
+ Regulates body temperature
The body loses water through sweat which evaporates and cools
the body.
+ Gives shape and rigidity
Animals such as earthworms and jellyfish have hydrostatic
skeleton that gives their bodies shape and rigidity.
Water in the vacuoles of plant cells causes an internal pressure
that pushes against the cell wall. This pressure is known as turgor
pressure and keeps the plants cells firm
+ Minerals salts
Minerals are inorganic substances that are essential for chemical
activities in living organisms. Plants absorb minerals from the
soil and humans and animals obtain minerals from the food that
they eat.
• Minerals can be divided into two groups i.e. macro elements
and micro elements.
• Macro elements are needed in large quantities
• Micro elements are needed in small quantities.
Importance of mineral salts in plants and
animals
+ Phosphates (PO4) and Nitrates (NO3) are also mineral compounds .
+ Phosphate ion are the main source of the element phosphorous (P) in
plants . Phosphates are found in most foods and deficiency seldom
occurs.
+ Nitrate ions are the main source of the element nitrogen (N) that is needed
for protein synthesis. Nitrogen forms part of the nucleotides of DNA and
RNA and is also needed for the synthesis of chlorophyll in plants.
+ A lack of nitrogen-containing
protein results in a deficiency
disease kwashiorkor in
humans
+ The disease mainly results in
stunted growth
+ In plants, a lack of nitrate ions causes
chlorosis, where the leaves become
yellow due to the shortage of
chlorophyll
Fertilisers and eutrophication
+ Fertilisers are continuously worked into the soils to counteract
mineral deficiency in over-utilised where crops are grown and
harvested regularly
+ Fertilisers containing mostly Nitrogen, Potassium and phosphates
are added to the soils in large quantities.
+ Many of these minerals are washed away during heavy rains, ending
up in rivers and dams.
+ The phosphates cause a drastic increase in freshwater algae known
as algal bloom. The increase in the algae blocks sunlight other
photosynthesising organisms, which results in the death of many
water plants.
+ The dead organic material leads to an increase in decomposer
bacteria
+ Decomposition requires oxygen and this large-scale
decomposition process depletes oxygen supply in the water.
+ Large numbers of fish and organism die as a result of an oxygen
shortage.
+ This phenomenon is known as eutrophication.
Complete the following activity
+ Question 1:
1. Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions:
1.1 The smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.
1.2 Two or more atoms that combine with one another chemically.
1.3 A pure substance that cannot be broken down into two or more
substances by chemical means.
1.4 A pure substance that is made up of two or more elements that are
chemically combined.
1.5 A group of similarly differentiated cells that perform a common function.
1.6 A group of different tissues that, each of which performs its own
function, but together performs a common function.
+ Question 2:
2. Five foods have been tested to
determine the amount of inorganic
salts contained therein. All data are
listed in the table below.
2.1 Which TWO foods will help a person with brittle bones and teeth?
2.2 What type of food will be necessary if a person suffers from
anaemia?
2.3 Which nutrient represents a ...
(a) macro element?
(b) micro element?
Question 3:
3. The following table represents a part of the nutritional information
that appears on the label of a nutritional powder drink:
3.1 Identify TWO nutrients that will promote formation of strong bones
and teeth.
3.2 Identify the nutrient that is essential for the formation of haemoglobin.
3.3 Identify TWO micro elements present in the drink.
3.4 Which nutrient prevents:
(a) goitre in humans
(b) chlorosis in plants
Organic compounds
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant molecules in plant cells and contain the
elements Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). The ratio of H atoms: O atoms
is 2:1
Carbohydrates are made up of ring shaped units called saccharides and are divided
into three groups:
+ Monosaccharides (One saccharide e.g. glucose, fructose and
galactose )
+ Disaccharides (two saccharides e.g.maltose, sucrose and lactose.) Disaccharides
are formed when two monosaccharides are joined e.g. Glucose + Fructose
Sucrose +water
+ Polysaccharide (many saccharides). E.g.starch, glycogen and cellulose.
Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides.
Role of carbohydrates in animals and plants:
+ Main source of energy
Carbohydrates are an important source of energy for organisms. Glucose
is the most important fuel molecule. During cellular respiration, energy
from glucose while CO2 and H2O are formed as waste products
+ Source of reserve energy
Plants store energy in the form of starch and animals store energy in the
form of glycogen and are insoluble in water. When energy is needed,
these polysaccharides can easily be converted into glucose.
+ Structural component
The cell walls of plant cells consist of cellulose to strengthen the cell
walls.
Test for
carbohydrates
+ Test for glucose: Benedict solution (a blue
liquid) is used to test for glucose
Prepare a water bath and heat the water.
• Pour 5cm3 of Benedict’s solution in a test
tube
• Add a few drops of the test solution e.g.
fruit juice to the Benedict’s solution
• Place the test tube into the water bath and
observe the colour change after a few
minutes
`
+ An orange-red colour change in the

test tube indicates a high
concentration of glucose present.
Test for Starch
+ Test for starch: Iodine solution (a brown liquid) is used to test
for starch
+ Place a potato or piece of bread in a dish.
+ Place a few drops of iodine solution on the peeled potato.
+ The potato turns blue-black in the presence of iodine solution.
Lipids (fats and oils):
+ Lipids contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).
+ The ratio of H to O is greater than 2:1
+ One lipid molecule consists of one glycerol molecule and three
fatty acid molecules.
+ Saturated fats –
have single bonds in the fatty acid chain and are mainly derived
from animals. Saturated fats are mainly solids at room
temperature e.g. butter and cheese.
+ Unsaturated fats –
have one or more double bonds in the fatty acid chain and are
mainly derived from plants. Unsaturated fats are liquids at room
temperature e.g. olive oil, canola oil and sunflower oil.
Cholesterol and heart disease:
+ Cholesterol is a lipid and a white, wax-like substance that is
found in the human body and is part of cell membranes.
+ Excessive intake of saturated fats leads to high cholesterol
levels in the blood.
+ High cholesterol levels on the blood cause fatty deposits in
arteries thereby narrowing the arteries, this is known as
atherosclerosis
+ This interferes with the transport of blood carrying oxygen, and
when the cardiac muscle does not receive oxygen, it cannot
function it can lead to a heart attack.
Role of lipids in animals and plants:
+ Fats are rich sources of energy
A large amount of energy is released when fat molecules are broken
down.
+ Fats serve as insulating material under the skin of animals
Fat is a bad conductor of heat. Marine animals such as whales have a
layer of fat under the skin which insulates their body from the cold sea
water.
+ Fats serve as shock absorber and protect some organs from
mechanical injury
+ It forms a structural component of cell membranes
Cell membranes consist of a double layer of phospholipids molecules
with a protein layer on either side.
+ Waterproofing
Fatty substance, cutin, forms a cuticle that covers the epidermal cells of
plants. The cuticle prevents excessive water loss.
Birds have oil glands that secretes oil to make their feathers waterproof.
+ Absorption of vitamins
Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K can only be absorbed when dissolved in
fat
+ Source of water
When fat is broken down it releases carbon dioxide and water during cellular
respiration
Test for fats
+ Grind the test material (e.g. peanuts)
+ Place a small amount of the test material in a test tube and add
about 5cm3 of ether or ethanol.
+ Shake the test tube and let it stand for a few minutes
+ Filter the test solution and place a few drops of the filtrate
(liquid that filtered through) on a clean filter paper
+ The ether or ethanol will evaporate and a translucent fatty stain
will form on the filter paper
Test your knowledge
+ Question 1:
+ 1. Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions:
1.1 The organic compound that contains the elements carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen and where the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1
1.2 The monosaccharide that is the basic building block of carbohydrates.
1.3 The form in which glucose is stored in plants.
1.4 The chemical used to test for the presence of glucose.
1.5 The building blocks of lipid molecules.
1.6 Fats that are mainly derived from animals and which are solids at
room temperature.
`
+ Question 2 + 2.1 Name the organic
+ 2. study the diagram and compound represented by
answer the questions that diagrams A and B respectively.
follow. + 2.2 Name the chemical used
to test for the organic
compound represented by
diagram B.
+ Question 3:
3. Study the simplified reaction below and answer the questions that follow.
3.1 Identify the type of organic compound to which

starch belongs to.
3.2 What reagent does one use to test for the presence of starch?
3.3 What is a positive test for starch with the reagent mentioned in QUESTION 3.2?
3.4 Identify the monomers (building blocks) of starch AND give the name of the
reagent that you will use to test for the presence of this substance.
Terminology
Below are the terms associated with protein and enzymes.
+ Amino acids – monomers of proteins

+ Peptide link – bond between amino acids
+ Biuret test - The chemical test used to test for the presence of proteins.
+ Active site - The part of the enzyme that the substrate molecule fits into
+ Substrate - The substance which an enzyme acts upon.
+ Anabolic reaction – type of reaction when a complex molecule is built
up
+ Catabolic reaction – type of reaction when a complex molecule is
broken down
Proteins
+ Proteins are large molecules (polymers) and are made up of the
elements carbon(C), hydrogen(H), oxygen(O) and nitrogen(N). Some
proteins also contain phosphorous (P), sulphur (S) and iron (Fe).
+ Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids which are the
building blocks (monomers) of proteins.
+ There are about 20 different amino acids.
+ The sequence and type of amino acids determine the type of protein.
+ The bond that form between two amino acids is known as a peptide
bond.
+ A dipeptide is formed when two amino acids combine and a
tripeptide is formed when three amino acids combine. A polypeptide
is a long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
+ A protein consists of a chain of at least 50 and more amino acids.
+ Proteins are sensitive to temperature and pH and will denature
(protein loses its shape and can no longer perform its function) at
high temperatures and extreme pH levels.
Biological importance of proteins:
+ Proteins are building materials e.g. myosin in muscles, keratin in skin,
hair and nails etc.
+ Proteins form a structural component of cell membranes
+ All enzymes and some hormones are proteins
+ Proteins are sources of energy
+ Chromosomes are made up of proteins and DNA
Test for protein
+ Test for proteins: The Biuret test(copper suphate solution
+sodium-hydroxidesolution) is used to test for proteins.
+ Grind the test material (beans) and add a little water.
+ Boil the test material until it forms a thin soup
+ Pour about 5 cm3 of the soup into a test tube and add a few
drops of dilute copper sulphate solution to the test tube.
+ Add 5 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution to the mixture
+ Shake the test tube and heat the mixture
+ A violet (purple) colour indicates the presence of proteins
+ Another test for protein is with the use of Millions Reagent
+ Positive indication Reddish-brown precipitate
Importance of proteins in plants and animals
Proteins
+ Enzymes are proteins.
+ Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of a
chemical reaction without being used up in the chemical
reaction itself.
+ Chemical reactions that take place in living cells are known as
metabolic reactions.
+ Enzymes may be involved in two types of metabolic reactions
i.e. anabolic and catabolic reactions.
+ During an anabolic reaction a complex molecule is built up from
simple molecules.
+ During a catabolic reaction a complex molecule is broken down
into simple molecules.
+ During the digestion of food, complex molecules are broken
down into smaller molecules. These reactions cannot take place
without the help of enzymes.
Lock-and-key model of enzyme action:
+ The substance on which an enzyme acts is known as the
substrate.
+ The substance that is formed during the reaction is the product.
+ Enzymes are substrate-specific i.e. a specific enzyme can only
act on a specific substrate e.g. the enzyme sucrase will only
react with sucrose etc.
+ The substrate fits into the enzyme’s active site as a key fits into
a lock and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed.
+ The reaction takes place and the substrate becomes the
product which leaves the enzyme.
+ The enzyme is now free to react with other substrate molecules.
The effect of temperature on enzyme
activity
Enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature.
+ Most enzymes are inactive at low temperatures
+ The temperature at which enzymes work the best is known as
their optimum temperature e.g. 35 oC - 40 oC.
+ An enzyme loses its shape and function and denatures at
temperatures above the optimum temperature.
Effect of pH on enzyme activity
+ Enzymes are sensitive to

changes in pH.
+ Every enzyme has a pH range
within which it can function.
This is known as the optimum
pH.
+ Enzymes denature at extreme
pH levels.
Enzymes in everyday life:
+ Biological washing powders contain enzymes e.g. lipase and

protease that can break down stains.
+ The enzyme protease breaks proteins down into smaller
soluble molecules that can be removed by cleaning agents in
the washing powder.
Nucleic acids
Nuclei acids are large biomolecules that play essential roles in all
cells and viruses
+ Nucleic acids are made up of the elements carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P).
+ Monomers of nucleic acids are called nucleotides.
+ There are 2 types of nucleic acids:
DNA – DeoxyriboNucleic Acid
RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
DNA –
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Where is it found?
DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell and
forms part of the chromatin network and
chromosomes (during cell division).
Function: DNA carries the hereditary
characteristics and controls the structure
and function of the cell.
Structure: DNA is made of two linked strands
that wind around each other to resemble a
twisted ladder — a shape known as a double
helix
RNA – Ribonucleic
Acid
Where is it found?
RNA is found in the nucleus and the cytoplasm of
the cell and forms part of the ribosomes.
Function: RNA plays a role in protein synthesis to
ensure that the amino acids bind to one another in
a certain sequence according to the instructions
provided by the DNA.
Structure: single stranded and is made of
ribonucleotides that are linked by phosphodiester
bonds.
https://youtu.be/MA-ouz1LtpM?
si=XWgF0ZDDSofc3U91
Vitamins
Vitamins
+ Vitamins are complex organic compounds which are found in
very small quantities in natural foods.
+ They are essential for normal metabolism, growth and
development of the human body.
+ They are needed in small quantities and mainly sourced from
plants.
+ Vitamins need to be in a solution to perform their function and
can be classified as water-soluble and fat-soluble.
Water-soluble vitamins
+ B vitamins and vitamin C
+ They are absorbed in the body if they can be dissolved in water
+ Excess vitamins are not store in the body but are excreted in
urine. Therefore, they need to be taken regularly.
Fat-soluble vitamins
+ Vitamins A, D, E, K.
+ Only absorbed when dissolved in fat
+ These can be stored in the body
Diseases associated with vitamin
deficiencies
+ Disease: Night-blindness
+ Deficiency: Vitamin A
+ Vitamin A is essential for the correct

functioning of the eye
Beriberi
+ Vitamin B1 Deficiency
Vitamin B1 acts as a co-enzyme in
cellular respiration
Scurvy
Haemorrhage
Rickets (richitis)
+ Vitamin D deficiency
+ Vitamin D helps to increase the
absorption of calcium and phosphate
salts in alimentary canal
+ Calcium and phosphates are required

for the formation of bones
Test your knowledge
Question 1:
The following diagram represents apparatus
used to investigate an organic nutrient. Study
the diagram and answer the questions that
follow:
1.1 Give the name of the nutrients tested for in
this experiment.
1.2 State the colour you would see if the result
is positive.
+ 2. The table shows the nutritional value of a certain
brand of breakfast cereal. Study the information
before answering the questions below.
+ Question 2:
2.1 The total energy value of a 100 g cereal is 2 000 kJ.
The boy requires 5 500 kJ of energy per day. How many
grams (g) of cereal does he need to eat in order to obtain
this energy (assuming that he does not eat any other
foods)? Show your working.
2.2 Draw a pie chart to illustrate the proportions of
protein, carbohydrate, fats and fibre of this 100 g of
cereal.
+ Question 3:
3. The diagram below shows the detail of an
experiment done in a grade 10 class. Three similar
table cloths (1, 2 and 3), with identical blood stains,
were washed in an enzyme-containing washing
powder solution. The same washing machine was
used at three different temperatures, 15°C (table
cloth 1), 37°C (table cloth 2) and 65°C (table cloth
3)
3.1 What is the purpose of this investigation?
3.2 Which property of enzymes is being investigated?
3.3 At what temperature did the enzyme operate the
best/optimally?
3.4 Give a reason for your answer in QUESTION 3.3.
3.5 What could possibly have happened with the enzyme at 15°C?
+ Question 4:
4. Use the information in the graph below to
answer the questions.
4.1 At which temperature does this enzyme
work best?
4.2 How much food is broken down at 25 °C?
4.3 Explain the shape of the graph between 5
degrees Celsius and 35 degrees Celsius .
+ Question 5:
5. The following information (given in the table)
appeared on a box of breakfast cereal.
5.1 How many servings does a person need to
provide the recommended daily allowance (RDA)
of energy?
5.2 What deficiency disease could result if a
person does not obtain adequate amounts of
vitamin B1?
5.3 What deficiency disease could result if a
person does not obtain adequate amounts of
vitamin C?
Gr:10
CELLS:
THE BASIC UNITS OF LIFE
For Study videos
https://youtu.be/yObTZzrr2xI?list=UUxiZFebGmeJYi4hYQWESE_g
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facebook: & youtube
THUNDERMOVIES chanel
BY: M.SAIDI
 In this chapter we will look at the cellular level of
organisation of living things.
 atom→molecule→cell→tissue→organ→system→organism
→ecosystem
MOLECULAR MAKE UP OF CELLS
 Cells are the basic structural and functional units of
all living organisms.
 The word 'cell' was first used by the 17th century
scientist Robert Hooke
 Cells are very small structures to see with the human
eye and it is through the development of microscopic
techniques that we have been better able to visualise
and understand them.
BY: M.SAIDI
MICROSCOPY
 Early attempts to magnify images of objects through
grinding of glass lenses eventually gave rise to the
earliest microscope.
Hand lens (simple microscope)
In 1600, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch

microbiologist used a simple microscope with
only one lens to observe blood cells.
BY: M.SAIDI
 By combining two or more lenses,
 The dissecting microscope (optical
microscope) used to view images in
three dimensions at low resolution was
inverted
 However, although the light
microscope allowed for 1000X
magnification,
BY: M.SAIDI
Light microscope
BY: M.SAIDI
 With the development of
electron microscopes the
microscopic detail of
organelles such as
mitochondria and
chloroplasts became
easier to observe.
 The Transmission
Electron Microscope
(TEM) was developed
first, followed by the
Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM).
 The image is then
amplified and viewed on
a screen.
BY: M.SAIDI
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cell theory
 The cell theory developed in 1839
 by Schleiden and Schwann describes the
properties of cells
 The theory states that:
 all living things are made of cells and their
products.
 new cells are created by old cells dividing into
two.
 cells are theBY:basic
M.SAIDI
building blocks of life.
 The modern understanding of cell theory
extends the concepts of the original cell
theory to include the following:
 The activity of an organism depends on the total
activity of independent cells.
 Energy flow occurs in cells through the breakdown of
carbohydrates by respiration.
 Cells contain the information necessary for the creation
of new cells.'hereditary information' and is contained
within DNA.
 The contents of cells from similar species are basically
the same.
BY: M.SAIDI
Calculating total magnification and
size
 The total magnification of a microscope is:
 the power of the eyepiece (ocular) × the power of the
objective used
 The formula for calculating the actual size of a

magnified specimen is:
 size of specimen (object) = size of image

total magnification
BY: M.SAIDI
Example: size of image
 Count the number of mm divisions
that fit across the diameter of the field
of view.
 Multiply the number by 1 000 to obtain
the size of the field of view in µm.
Example: A field of view of about 3 21
divisions ≈ 3,5 mm ≈ 3 500 µm.
BY: M.SAIDI
Calculating magnification and size
using a scale bar
 actual size = size on diagram × number on scale bar

measured length of scale bar
BY: M.SAIDI
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
 All cells have:
 a cell membrane – a thin boundary that
encloses the cytoplasm; the cytoplasm and the
cell membrane together are called protoplasm
 a nucleus – the control centre of the cell
 cytoplasm – a thick, jelly-like liquid that
holds particles and structures
 organelles – structures found as single units
within the cell, and making up the cell, that
have particular functions for metabolism.
BY: M.SAIDI
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS UNDER
LOW POWER
BY: M.SAIDI
Animal cell under high power
Un-Coloured structure
BY: M.SAIDI Coloured structure
A PLANT CELL UNDER HIGH POWER
BY: M.SAIDI
Differences between plant cell and animal cell
ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS
Almost all plants cells contain plastids such
Do not contain plastids.
chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
Have a rigid cellulose cell wall in addition to
No cell wall.
the cell membrane.
Contain centrioles. Do not contain centrioles.
Large, with a regular shape. Usually small, irregular shape
Animals do not have
Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
plasmodesmata or pits.
Large central vacuole filled with cell sap in
Few vacuoles (if any).
mature cells.
Nucleus is generally found at the
Nucleus is found near the edge of the cell.
centre of the cytoplasm.
No intercellular spaces found Large intercellular air spaces found between
between the cells. BY: M.SAIDI some cells.
Cell structure and function :
roles of organelles
 Cell wall – support structure in plant cells
only.
 is a rigid non-living layer that is found outside
the cell membrane and surrounds the cell.
 Plants, bacteria and fungi all have cell walls.
 is comprised of cellulose.
 It support the plant.
BY: M.SAIDI
Cell membrane
 also called the plasma membrane, physically
separates the intracellular space (inside the cell)
from the extracellular environment (outside the
cell). All plant and animal cells have cell membranes
 It surrounds and protects the cytoplasm
 is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of special
lipids (fats) called phospholipids.
 Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic (water-
loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail.
BY: M.SAIDI
 This is called the fluid mosaic model,
 This model describes the structure of the cell
membrane as a fluid structure with various protein
and carbohydrate components diffusing freely across
the membrane.
 Deiscribed by S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson in 1972.
BY: M.SAIDI
COMPONENT STRUCTURE FUNCTION
It is a semi-permeable structure that

Consists of two layers of phospholipids. Each
does not allow materials to pass through
Phospholipid phospholipid has a polar, hydrophilic
the membrane freely, thus protecting
bilayer (water-soluble) head as well as a non-polar,
the intra and extracellular
hydrophobic (water-insoluble) tail.
environments of the cell.
These are proteins found spanning the Act as carrier proteins which control
Membrane proteins membrane from the inside of the cell (in the the movement of specific ions and
cytoplasm) to the outside of the cell. molecules across the cell membrane.
Consist of short carbohydrate chains

attached to polypeptide chains and are These proteins are useful for cell-to-cell
Glycoproteins
found on the extracellular regions of the recognition.
membrane.
Carbohydrate chains attached to Act as recognition sites for specific

Glycolipids phospholipids on the outside surface of the chemicals and are important in cell-to-
membrane. cell attachment to form tissues.
BY: M.SAIDI
movement across membranes:
 It is necessary as it allows cells to acquire
oxygen and nutrients, excrete waste
products and control the concentration of
required substances in the cell (e.g oxygen,
water, hormones, ions, etc).
 The key processes include diffusion,
osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active
transport.
BY: M.SAIDI
Diffusion
 is the movement of substances from a region of
high concentration to low concentration.
 It occurs down a concentration gradient. Until
particles within a liquid eventually become
randomly distributed.
 Therefore it is a passive process
Examples of substances
include:
Lipid-soluble molecules,
oxygen,
Water
Carbon-dioxide.
BY: M.SAIDI
Osmosis
 is the movement of water from a region of higher
water potential (dilute solution) to a region of
lower water potential (concentrated solution)
across a semi-permeable membrane that separates
the two regions.
 occurs down a concentration gradient
Cell membranes allow
molecules of water to
pass through, but they do
not allow molecules of
most dissolved
substances, e.g. salt and
sugar, to pass through.
BY: M.SAIDI
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Hypertonic Hypotonic
Isotonic
(concentrated) (dilute)
The water concentration
inside and outside the cell is The medium has a higher
The medium is equal and there will be no water potential (more
concentrated with a lower nett water movement across dilute) than the cell and
water potential than inside the cell membrane. (Water water will move into the
the cell, therefore the cell will continue to move cell via osmosis, and could
will lose water by osmosis. across the membrane, but eventuality cause the cell to
water will enter and leave burst.
the cell at the same rate.)
BY: M.SAIDI
Facilitated diffusion
 is a special form of diffusion which allows rapid
exchange of specific substances.
 Particles are taken up by carrier proteins which change
their shape as a result.
BY: M.SAIDI
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 is the movement of substances against a concentration
gradient, from a region of low concentration to high
concentration using an input of energy.
 It requires energy called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
BY: M.SAIDI
THE NUCLEUS
 It contains all the cell's genetic information in the
form of DNA.
 It contains the following
 Nuclear envelope/membrane: two lipid membranes
that separates the nucleus and its contents from the
cytoplasm.
 Nuclear pores: tiny holes help to regulate the
exchange of materials (such as RNA and proteins)
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Chromatin: thin long strands of DNA and protein.
 Nucleolus: the nucleolus makes RNA another type of
nucleic acid.
BY: M.SAIDI
STRUCTURE OF A NUCLEUS MICROGRAPH PICTURE OF
A NUCLEUS
Function:
1. It’s the control centre, heredity.
2.Nucleus controls how and which proteins and enzymes are made.
BY: M.SAIDI
Cytoplasm
 -storage, circulation of materials4
 Dissolves sugars and salts, holds lipids and proteins,
supports chemical reactions, transports
substances
 makes up the fluid body of cells.
BY: M.SAIDI
MITOCHONDRIA
 They are responsible for cellular respiration and the
manufacture of energy (ATP). It has
 1. Double membrane: (outer) controls the movement
of substance; (inner) increase the surface area
for maximum chemical reactions to occur
 2. Crista: Site of enzyme reactions to
make energy (ATP
 3. Matrix: compounds for cell respiration
BY: M.SAIDI
Ribosomes
 are composed of RNA and protein.
 They occur in the cytoplasm and are the sites where
protein synthesis occurs.
 may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum thus
forming the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
JOINS TO FOR RNA
BY: M.SAIDI
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 (rough and smooth) transport systems
 is closely linked to the nucleus:
 smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) – a network of
membranous tubes
 rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) – a network of
tubes with ribosomes attached.
 Functions ES
 Connects the cell membrane and nucleus membrane.
 SER and RER connect to the cell membrane to
transport substances.
 RER and ribosomes make proteins for transport.
BY: M.SAIDI
RER
SER
BY: M.SAIDI
Golgi body and dictyosome
 These organelles are called Golgi bodies in animal
cells, and dictyosomes in plant cells
 – they are linked to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 They sort and store cellular secretions, such as
enzymes
BY: M.SAIDI
Plastids
 – production and storage of food, pigments
 There are three different types: found only in plants.
 Leucoplasts: White plastids found in roots.
 Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids found in
plants and algae.
 Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange or yellow
pigments and are common in ripening fruit, flowers or
autumn leaves.
BY: M.SAIDI
CHLOROPLAST
BY: M.SAIDI
Structure and function of a
chloroplast
BY: M.SAIDI
Vacuole, lysosomes, vesicles
 Functions of the vacuole
 Lysosomes: for digestion
 Lysosomes: excretion of cellular waste and
 Vacuole storage of water and organic and
inorganic substances.
 The vacuole takes in and releases water by
osmosis
 vacuole are for maintaining the shape of
plant cells.
BY: M.SAIDI
Centrioles
All living animal cells have a centrosome
made of two centrioles. The centrioles act
as ‘anchors’ to separate chromosomes
during cell division.
BY: M.SAIDI
NEXT CLASS
CELLS DIVISION:
MITOSIS
facebook: & youtube
BY: M.SAIDI
For Study videos
facebook: & youtube
BY: M.SAIDI
MITOSIS
Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 http://www.thebrothersmueller.com/work/mitosis-wallpaper/

CELL DIVISION - MITOSIS
The Cell Cycle
• Definition *cell cycle* the period during which a cell
grows, replicates its DNA and divides
• Interphase is the period between two consecutive cell

divisions
• Growth and DNA-replication occurs
• Definition *replication* making of two identical copies

of DNA
Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020

RECAP …
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/a/nucleus-and-ribosomes
RECAP …
https://www.my46.org/intro/what-is-dna
Double-stranded,
replicated chromosome
Chromosome
consisting of replication
a single
strand
(before
replication)
http://legacy.hopkinsville.kctcs.edu/instructors/Jason-Arnold/VLI/Old%20VLI/m2celldivision/m2celldivision_print.html
Term Description
This refers to a chromosome as it

Unreplicated
appears before DNA replication takes
chromosome
place.
This refers to a chromosome as it

appears after DNA replication takes
place. Because of DNA replication all
Replicated
chromosome material is doubled.
chromosome
Hence, each replicated chromosome is
made up of two chromatids, joined by a
centromere.
This refers to each of the two threads of

Chromatid
a replicated chromosome.

CELL DIVISION - MITOSIS
Steps involved:
• A mature mother cell divides into two identical daughter
cells
• Consists of 4 phases:
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 https://imgur.com/gallery/xe0Cl/comment/932939562
INTERPHASE
Chromatin
network
Nucleus
Centriole

https://imgbin.com/png/6fC2rHwB/mitosis-and-meiosis-interphase-cell-division-png
PROPHASE
Replicated
Chromosomes
Centrioles move
to poles

https://imgbin.com/png/6fC2rHwB/mitosis-and-meiosis-interphase-cell-division-png
PROPHASE
Nuclear
membrane
disappears
Spindle fibres
form
Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 https://www.tes.com/lessons/xqeT2pG8jbjJvQ/mitosis

METAPHASE
Chromosomes
moves to the
EQUATOR of the
cell

METAPHASE
Chromosomes
align at the
EQUATOR of the
cell in a single row

ANAPHASE
Centromere
divides and single
–stranded
chromatids move
to the poles
Spindle fibres
contract to pull
chromatids apart

TELOPHASE
Cytokinesis
Nucleus
reforms
Single-stranded
chromosomes
group at the poles
TELOPHASE
Two
identical
daughter
cells

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m73i1Zk8EA0
EXERCISE
1. Write the letters in the correct sequence to show the phases of mitosis.
B, D, A, C, E
2. How many pairs of chromatids are there in this cell?

4
3. What is the total number of chromosomes in this cell?

4
MITOSIS – WHY?
Mitosis is important for …
1. New growth – it forms new cells that help plants and
animals grow
2. Repair – it helps
replace old, damaged
cells with new ones
3. Reproduction in
single celled
organisms
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hbNp9DBbTkU
CANCER
Uncontrolled cell growth
• The cell does not receive the signal to
stop growing and dividing
• A lump of cells called a tumour forms
• That tumour could grow into and
damage surrounding tissues
(metastasis). We call this a malignant
tumour
• The tumour could remain in one
place and be benign
CAUSES OF CANCER
• Radiation
• Smoking
• Hormonal imbalances
• Certain processed foods
• Exposure to pollutants such
as industrial wastes fumes
• Pesticides
• Viruses

TYPES OF CANCER
• Carcinoma – they affect the skin and

epithelial tissues lining certain organs and
glands
• Sarcoma – affects the bones, cartilage
and muscle tissues
• Leukemia – affect the blood and
lymphatic systems

CANCER
Uncontrolled cell growth
• Treatment includes
• Surgery
• Radiation therapy
• Chemotherapy
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=BttAtBZeQc4

THE END
Western Cape Education Department
Directorate: Curriculum FET
LIFE SCIENCES
REVISION BOOKLET
2023 TERM 2
Grade 10
This revision program is designed to assist you in revising the critical

content and skills that you have covered during the 2nd term. The
purpose is to prepare you to understand the key concepts and to
provide you with an opportunity to establish the required standard and
the application of the knowledge necessary to succeed in the
examination.
The revision program covers the following topics:

• Animal tissues
• Plant tisues
• Organs
• Support and transport systems in plants
• Support systems in animals
• Transport systems in animals
2
Life Sciences revision booklet 2023 Grade 10 Term 2
Table of Contents
TERM 2 CONTENT ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1. ANIMAL TISSUES ................................................................................................................................ 3
2. PLANT TISSUES ................................................................................................................................... 6
3. ORGANS ............................................................................................................................................. 8
4. SUPPORT AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN PLANTS .............................................................................. 9
5. SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS ...................................................................................................... 13
6. TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS .................................................................................................. 16
7. REVISION QUESTIONS: ..................................................................................................................... 21
3
TERM 2 CONTENT
1. ANIMAL TISSUES
• Tissues are a group of similar cells that are structurally adapted to perform
a particular function.
• Cells are adapted for specific functions through a process of cell
differentiation.
• Examples of animal tissues are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle
tissue and nerve tissue.
Tissue group Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

Squamous Single layer of Protects underlying
(lines internal thin, flat cells. tissues. It is
walls of cavities Nucleus permeable to
i.e. blood vessels,horizontally gasses and liquids.
heart, alveoli, flattened and It prevents friction
mouth and has an oval
esophagus) shape
Columnar Cells are Provides support to
(lines the elongated and other cell types.
alimentary canal column-shaped. Absorbs food,
e.g. stomach and Nuclei are water and
small intestine) elongated and minerals. Goblet
occurs near the cells secrete
base of the mucus
cells. Goblet
Epithelial cells which
tissue secrete mucus
(form linings often occur
that cover between the
internal and cells
external Ciliated Consists of Mucus from goblet
surfaces) (lines the nasal columnar cells traps dust and
cavities, trachea epithelial cells movement of the
and bronchi in with fine hairs, cilia away from the
the lungs) known as cilia. lungs will ensure
Goblet cells that mucus is
which secrete removed.
mucus often
occur between
the cells
Cuboidal Cells are more Produce a variety
(lines glands e.g. or less cube- of secretions e.g.
sweat glands and shaped. Nuclei sweat, milk etc.
salivary glands are round and
where it secretes occur in the
substances) centre of the
cell.
4

Areolar Yellow, elastic Insulates the body.
connective tissue fibres and white, Protect organs by
(forms a layer inelastic serving as packing
beneath the skin collagen fibres tissue
and connects the are found in the
skin to underlying matrix of this
muscles) tissue
Dense Consists of a Inelastic tendons
connective tissue small amount of join muscle to
(joins muscle to matrix, large bone.
bone and bone number of fibres Elastic ligaments
to bone) and a small join bone to bone
number of cells
Cartilage Rubbery matrix Reduces friction
(tough, elastic that consists of between bones at
tissue that forms a protein called, joints
part of the chondrin.
endoskeleton of Cartilage cells,
vertebrates) called
chondrocytes,
occur in spaces
(lacunae) in the
Connective
matrix.
tissue
Cartilage is
(binds,
protected by a
supports or
membrane, the
surrounds
perichondrium
other tissues
Bone Contains a hard Bone is a
or organs)
(occurs in the matrix. supporting
various bones of Haversian framework that
the endoskeleton canals that gives shape and
of vertebrates) contain blood rigidity to the
vessels and body. It protects
nerves occur in organs e.g. the
bone tissue. brain, heart and
Bone cells are lungs. It serves as
called place of
osteocytes. attachment for
Bone is muscles
enclosed by a
membrane, the
periosteum
Blood Matrix of blood Transports

(Circulates in is known as nutrients,
blood vessels) blood plasma. hormones,
Three types of enzymes, oxygen,
blood cells in carbon dioxide
the blood and waste
5

plasma i.e. products in the
erythrocytes, body. Plays a role
leucocytes and in blood-clotting.
thrombocytes
Striated/Skeletal Consists of Responsible for
muscle muscle voluntary actions
(Attached to fibres/cells. A such as walking
bone and muscle fibre and running
responsible for consists of
movement of the cytoplasm,
skeleton) large number of
nuclei and
mitochondria
which is
enclosed by a
membrane
called the
sarcolemma.
Muscle tissue
Each muscle
(responsible
fibre consists of
for
thousands of
movement in
myofibrils
different
Smooth muscle Consists of Responsible for
parts of the
(Found in the spindle-shaped involuntary actions
body)
walls of the muscle fibres e.g. dilation and
alimentary canal, with one large constriction of
bladder, blood oval nucleus per blood vessels
vessels and fibre
uterus)
Cardiac muscle Consists of Responsible for
(Occurs in the branched involuntary
walls of the heart) muscle fibres contraction and
that are relaxation of the
connected to heart
one another. A
single nucleus is
in the centre of
each fibre.
Nerve tissue Motor neurons A neuron Conduct nerve
(Made up of consists of a cell impulses from the
specialized body, dendrites central nervous
cells called and an axon. system (brain and
neurons. Dendrites spinal cord) to the
Nerve tissue conduct nerve effectors (muscles
that forms the impulses to the and glands)
brain and cell body. An
spinal cord is axon conducts
6

known as the Sensory neurons nerve impulses Conduct nerve
central away from the impulses from the
nervous cell body receptors (e.g.
system. Nerve sensory organs) to
tissue outside the central
the central nervous system
nervous (brain and spinal
system is cord)
known as the
peripheral
Interneurons Conduct nerve
nervous
impulses between
system.)
the sensory and
motor neurons in
the brain and
spinal cord
2. PLANT TISSUES
• Plant tissues can be divided into meristematic tissue and permanent tissue.
• Meristematic tissue is actively dividing tissue in which new cells are formed by
mitosis. The cells are not differentiated to perform a specific function.
• Permanent tissue is already differentiated to perform a specific function and
includes xylem, phloem, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma and
epidermis.
2.1 Meristematic tissue
• Apical meristem is found near the tips of roots and stems and are responsible
for growth in length.
• Lateral meristem is found between the xylem and phloem in a dicotelydonous
plant, and it makes the plant grows thicker.
2.2 Permanent tissue
Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

Epidermis • Forms the • Protects the
outer layer underlying tissues
around roots, from injury.
stems and • Cuticle prevents
leaves. water-loss in
• Brick-shaped leaves and stems.
and in a • Transparent
single layer epidermis allows
• Cells are sunlight through
transparent for
with no photosynthesis.
intercellular
air spaces.
7
Type of tissue
Structure Function/s Illustration
• Epidermis of
leaves and
stems are
covered with
a waxy layer,
the cuticle.
• Specialised
epidermal
cells are root
hairs and
guard cells.
Parenchyma • Large with • Stores food and
thin cell walls water
• Large • Produces
intercellular carbohydrates
spaces through
• Large photosynthesis
vacuoles • Intercellular
• Cells contain spaces allow for
chloroplasts gaseous
in leaves and exchange
stems
Sclerenchyma • Cells are • Provides the
dead and plant with
hollow structure and
• Contain lignin support
• Two types i.e.
sclereids and
fibres
Collenchyma • Unevenly • Provides
thickened mechanical
cells with support to the
cellulose plant
• Most
thickenings
occur in the
corners of the
cell walls
Xylem • Cells are • Transport water
elongated and mineral salts
• Contains no from the roots to
living material the rest of the
• Cell walls plant
thickened by • Serves as
lignin strengthening
• Consists of and support
xylem vessels tissue
and tracheids
8
Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

Phloem • Living, • Transport organic
elongated substances from
cells without the leaves to the
thickened rest of the plant
walls
• Consists of
sieve tubes
and
companion
cells
3. ORGANS
• An organ is a group of tissues that perform a specific function.
3.1 Leaf structure
Leaf section Structure Functions

Epidermis Covers upper and lower Protects the underlying
surfaces of the leaf. tissues.
Transparent and do not Cuticle reduces excessive
contain chloroplasts. moisture loss.
Waxy cuticle covers the Allow light through for
epidermis. Lower photosynthesis.
epidermal cells contain Stomata are responsible
stomata for gaseous exchange
into and out of leaf
Mesophyll Palisade cells: elongated Palisade cells are primarily
(Palisade and spongy cells under the upper responsible for
mesophyll) epidermis. Contain large photosynthesis
amount of chloroplasts.
No intercellular air spaces
between the cells. Cell
walls are thin.
Spongy cells: round Spongy cells are also

parenchyma cells with responsible for
large intercellular air
9
Leaf section Structure Functions

spaces. Contain photosynthesis and
chloroplasts. gaseous exchange
Vascular bundles Xylem and phloem Xylem transports water
and dissolved mineral
salts to the mesophyll cells
Phloem transports
produced organic
nutrients to other parts of
the plant.
4. SUPPORT AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN PLANTS

4.1 ANATOMY OF DICOTELYDONOUS PLANTS
4.1.1 Internal structure of a root
When the cross section of a young dicotyledonous root (refer to diagram below) is
studied, three regions can be distinguished i.e. the epidermis, cortex and the central
cylinder:
• The epidermis forms the outer layer of the root and contain finger-like
outgrowths, the root hairs.
• The cortex consists of parenchyma cells with large intercellular air spaces.
• The inner-most layer of the cortex consists of a single layer of cells called the
endodermis.
• The radial and transverse walls of the endodermis contain thickened strips
known as the Casparian strips
• The central cylinder: under the epidermis there are thin-walled cells called the
pericycle. On the inside of the pericycle is the vascular tissue that consists of
xylem and phloem.
10
4.1.2 Internal structure of a stem:
When the cross section of a young dicotyledonous stem (refer to diagram below) is
studied, three regions can be distinguished i.e. the epidermis, cortex and the central
cylinder:
• The epidermis forms the outer layer of the stem.

• The cortex consists of collenchyma, parenchyma and endodermis.
• The central cylinder: Xylem and phloem occur in vascular bundles in the stem.
The xylem is on the inside and the phloem on the outside. A layer of
meristematic tissue, the cambium, occurs between the xylem and phloem.
Cambium makes secondary thickening possible.
• The central region of the stem is the pith and consists of parenchyma cells.
4.1.3 Uptake of water and mineral salts by the roots:

11
• The water potential of the soil water is higher (contains less dissolved
substances) than the water potential of the cell sap in the vacuoles of the root
hair
• Water molecules move by osmosis through the permeable cell wall, through
the selectively permeable cell membrane, cytoplasm and selectively
permeable tonoplast into the vacuole of the root hair.
• The vacuole swells and the pressure within the root hair increases. The pressure
that builds up in the vacuole is called, turgor pressure.
4.1.4 Movement of water from the root hair to the xylem of the root:
• The water potential in the root hair is now higher than in the adjacent
parenchyma cells in the cortex of the root.
• Water moves in two ways to the xylem of the root:
➢ The main route that water takes is from cell to cell by osmosis – this is a
slow process
➢ Water can also move through the cell walls and intercellular air spaces
between the cells by diffusion – this is a faster process
• When water reaches the endodermis, with Casparian strips, it cannot pass
through the cell walls of these cells. Water now moves through the passage
cells of the endodermis through the pericycle to the root xylem.
12
4.1.5 Upward movement of water from the xylem of the root to the leaves of the
plant:
• Revise the cross-section through the leaf.

• The three forces involved in the upward movement of water in a plant is:
capillarity, root pressure and transpiration pull. Refer to the list of definitions and
textbook and study the sections on capillarity and root pressure. Transpiration
pull is the main force that draws water upwards in a plant.
• The water potential in the intercellular air spaces of the mesophyll cells
decreases as water vapour is lost through the stomata of the leaves.
• Water molecules diffuse from the cell walls of the mesophyll cells into the air
spaces
• The water potential of the mesophyll cell walls is now lower than that of the cell
sap of the mesophyll cells
• This water potential gradient extends back to the leaf xylem.
• Tension builds up and a suction force develops at the top of the stem xylem,
which pulls water up from the root xylem. A column of water is pulled upwards.
• Therefore, the water that was lost through the leaves by transpiration is
replaced by the absorbed water from the soil through the root hairs.
4.1.6 The translocation of manufactured food from the leaves to other parts of the
plant:
• Translocation is the movement of substances e.g. sugars (sucrose) that are

produced in the leaves during photosynthesis to other part of the plant. These
substances are transported by the phloem from the leaves to the stems and
the roots.
4.1.7. TRANSPIRATION:
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through the aerial parts of the plant
mainly through the stomata.
4.1.7.1 Relationship between water loss and the structure of a leaf:
• The smaller the leaves, the smaller the surface area for evaporation.
• Thorns and hairs on a leaf limit transpiration.
• Leaves with stomata mainly on the lower side of the leaf or leaves with
sunken stomata will limit transpiration.
13
4.1.7.2 External factors influencing transpiration:
• High temperatures increase the rate of transpiration.

• Higher light intensity will increase the rate of transpiration.
• High humidity will decrease the rate of transpiration.
• Wind will increase the rate of transpiration.
5. SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS

5.1 The human skeleton
The human skeleton can be divided into two main sections:
• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton
14
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage:
5.1.1 The skull
• The skull consists of two groups of bones, namely the bones of the cranium and
the facial bones. The cranium encloses the brain and protects it. The cranium
of apes is smaller than that of humans. (links with Human Evolution in Grade 12).
• There is a large opening at the base of the skull called the foramen magnum
for the spinal cord to pass through. (links with Human Evolution in Grade 12).
• In humans the foramen magnum is located in a more forward position, and this
enables humans to walk on two legs, a characteristic called bipedalism. (links
with Human Evolution in Grade 12).
• In African apes the foramen magnum is located in a more backward position.
• Apes generally use all four limbs for locomotion, and they are quadrupedal.
(links with Human Evolution in Grade 12).
• The upper jaw of humans is fused to the skull and the lower jaw articulates with
the base of the skull. The jaws of the human are smaller than that of apes. (links
with Human Evolution in Grade 12).
• The palate in humans is rounded whilst the palate in for example chimpanzees
is rectangular. (links with Human Evolution in Grade 12).
• The upper and lower jaws carry the teeth in humans. Humans have smaller
teeth than apes. (links with Human Evolution in Grade 12).
• Humans have four types of teeth with different functions:
Type of teeth Function

Incisors Bite and cut off food
Canines Hold food in place and tear it off
Premolars Chew and grind the food
Molars Chew and grind the food
• The human dental formula is: 2.1.2.3

2.1.2.3
5.1.2 Vertebral column
• The vertebral column of humans consists of 33 bones (vertebrae).

• The first cervical vertebra articulates with the skull and is known as the atlas. This
makes nodding movements possible.
15
• The second cervical vertebra is called the axis and makes the rotation of the
head possible.
• The human vertebral column is S-shaped for flexibility and shock absorption.
• The vertebral column in apes is C-shaped (links with Human Evolution in Grade
12).
• The vertebral column supports the skull
• It surrounds and protects the spinal cord.
• It serves as attachment for the ribs, back muscles, pectoral and pelvic girdle.
5.1.3 Rib cage
• The rib cage consists of 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum.
• The rib cage protects the organs in the thoracic cavity e.g. heart and lungs.
• It plays a role in breathing as the movement of the rib cage increases and
decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity (links with Gaseous exchange in
Grade 11).
5.1.4 Appendicular skeleton
• The appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic
girdle and lower limbs.
• The pectoral girdle consists of the 2 scapulae and 2 clavicles.
• Each upper limb consists of different kind of bones i.e. the humerus (long bone),
ulna (largest bone in the forearm), radius, carpals, metacarpals (bones that
form the palm of the hand) and phalanges (bones that form the fingers).
• The pelvic girdle consists of 2 hip bones. The hip bones are made up of 3 fused
bones i.e. the ilium, ischium and the pubis. The hip bones are attached at the
back by the sacrum.
• The human pelvic girdle is shorter and wider to support the greater weight due
to the upright posture of humans. Apes have a long and narrow pelvic girdle.
• Each lower limb consists of the femur (longest and largest bone in the human
body), the patella (kneecap), tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and the
phalanges (toe bones).
• Humans have shorter arms and longer legs while apes have shorter legs and
longer arms. (links with Human Evolution in Grade 12).
16
5.1.5 Functions of the skeleton
• Support – bones of the skeletal system support and give shape to the body and
attach muscles and soft organs.
• Movement – the skeleton plays a role in movement together with the muscles
and joints.
• Protection – Bones protect soft delicate organs e.g. the brain, the heart and
lungs.
• Mineral storage – bone tissue stores reserve calcium and phosphorous.
• Hearing – three ear ossicles in each ear transmit sound waves to the internal
ear to make hearing possible (links with the ear in Grade 12).
• Production of blood cells – white and red blood cells are formed in the red
bone marrow.
6. TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS

6.1 Blood circulatory system
6.1.1 Closed, double circulatory system:
• Humans have a closed, double circulatory system. It is closed because blood is

limited to the blood vessels.
• It is a double system because blood flows through the heart twice i.e. once
when the blood is oxygenated and a second time when the blood is
deoxygenated.
• Two main circulatory systems can be distinguished, the pulmonary circulatory
system and the systemic circulatory system.
• The pulmonary circulatory system is the circulation of blood from the heart to
the lungs and back.
• The systemic circulatory system is the circulation of blood to all parts of the
body.
Double, circulatory system

17
6.1.2 Structure of the human heart
6.1.2.1 External structure
• The human heart is a hollow, pear shaped and muscular organ.

• The heart is situated in the thoracic cavity and is protected by the ribs and
sternum.
• The heart is enclosed by a double walled membrane called the pericardium.
6.1.2.2 Internal structure
• The heart is divided internally into a left and right half by a muscular wall, the
septum.
• The left side contains oxygenated blood (high concentration of oxygen) and
the right side contains deoxygenated blood (low concentration of oxygen).
• The heart consists of four chambers. The upper 2 chambers are called atria and
the lower chambers are the ventricles.
6.1.2.3 Right side of the heart
• The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the whole body.
• The vena cava superior transports deoxygenated blood from the head and
arms to the heart.
• The vena cava inferior transports deoxygenated blood from the lower limbs
and abdomen to the heart.
• The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium through an opening.
• Deoxygenated blood is then pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.
6.1.2.4 Left side of the heart
• The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.

• Four pulmonary veins transport the oxygenated blood to the heart.
• The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium.
18
• The oxygenated blood is then pumped through the aorta to the rest of the
body.
6.1.2.5 Valves
• The tricuspid valve is situated in the opening between the right atrium and right
ventricle. The valve consists of three flaps and the flaps are attached to the
inner walls of the right ventricle by tendons, the chordae tendineae. This valve
only allows blood to flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle.
• The bicuspid valve (mitral valve) is situated in the opening between the left
atrium and left ventricle. The valve consists of two flaps and the flaps are
attached to the inner walls of the left ventricle by tendons, the chordae
tendineae. This valve only allows blood to flow from the left atrium to the left
ventricle.
• The semilunar valves occur at the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery.
These valves prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles.
6.2 The cardiac cycle
• The human heart beats an average of 72 beats per minute.

• All the changes that occur in the heart during one heartbeat are known as the
cardiac cycle.
• The cardiac cycle can be divided into 3 phases i.e. atrial systole, ventricular
systole and general diastole.
6.2.1 Atrial systole
• Both atria are filled with blood and contract simultaneously.

• The openings of the vena cavae and pulmonary veins are closed.
• The tricuspid and bicuspid valves open and the blood is pumped to the
ventricles.
6.2.2 Ventricular systole
• The ventricles contract simultaneously.

• The tricuspid and bicuspid valves close.
• Deoxygenated blood is pumped out of the right ventricle into the pulmonary
artery
• Oxygenated blood is pumped from the left ventricle into the aorta.
6.2.3 General diastole
• Both the ventricles and atria are relaxed.

• Deoxygenated blood flows from the two vena cavae into the right atrium
• Oxygenated blood flows from the four pulmonary veins in the left atrium.
• Blood in the atria flows to the ventricles.
19
6.3. DIRECTION OF BLOOD FLOW

6.3.1 Pulmonary circulatory system
• Blood flows from the heart, to the lungs and back

• Deoxygenated blood flows into the right atrium and through the tricuspid valve
into the right ventricle.
• The right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonary artery which divides
into two branches, one to each lung
• In the lungs carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs and oxygen
diffuses from the lungs into the blood
• Four pulmonary veins carry the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the
heart.
6.3.2 Systemic circulatory system
• Blood flows from the heart to the rest of the body and back.
• The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the four
pulmonary veins
• The blood flows through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle
• The left ventricle pumps the blood via the aorta and its branches to the rest of
the body
• The upper part of the body receives blood via the subclavian artery and the
carotid artery takes blood with oxygen to the brain.
• The hepatic artery transports blood to the liver and the mesenteric and gastric
arteries transport blood to the intestines and the stomach.
• The hepatic portal vein transports blood from the stomach and intestines to the
liver where nutrients are absorbed. The hepatic portal vein occurs between
two organs and not between an organ and the heart.
• The renal artery provides the kidneys with oxygen and the renal vein transports
deoxygenated blood to the heart.
• All the veins from the head and shoulders open into the vena cava superior.
• All the veins from the lower body opens into the vena cava inferior.
• Deoxygenated blood therefore flows back to the heart.
6.4 BLOOD VESSELS
Artery Vein Capillary

20
6.4.1 Arteries
• Transport blood away from the heart

• The walls of arteries consist of three layers:
➢ an outer fibrous layer of connective tissue
➢ a middle layer of smooth muscle tissue and elastic fibres
➢ an inner layer of squamous epithelium, the endothelium
• The middle layer allows for the artery to stretch when blood is pumped under
high pressure from the heart
• The thick muscular layer and elastic fibres helps the artery wall to resist the high
pressure
• The lumen of an artery is smaller than that of a vein
• Arteries divide into thinner arteries, called arterioles
• Arteries have no valves. Only the aorta and pulmonary artery have semilunar
valves.
6.4.2 Veins
• Veins transport blood back to the heart

• The walls of veins consist of the same three layers as arteries, but the outer two
layers are thinner
• The lumen of a vein is larger than that of an artery
• Blood flows under very low pressure in veins
• The contraction of skeletal muscles close to veins helps the blood to move in
the direction of the heart
• There are semilunar valves in veins which only allows blood to flow in one
direction to the heart.
• Smaller veins are called venules.
6.4.3 Capillaries:
• Arterioles branch and later become microscopically small tubes, the capillaries
• The capillaries form a branched network between cells in the tissue
• The walls of capillaries consist only of one thin layer of endothelium
• The lumen of a capillary is very small and allows red blood corpuscles in the
blood to move through in a single file.
• This slows the blood flow so that the exchange of gases and substances into
and out of cells can take place more effectively.
• Capillaries join to form venules that connect to form veins.
21
7. REVISION QUESTIONS:
• Work through and answer the questions below.
• Please note that HIGHER ORDER questions are in BOLD and marked with a (*)
7.1 The diagrams below show different animal tissues.
7.1.1 Identify the animal tissues labelled:
(a) IV (1)
(b) V (1)
7.1.2 Identify part:

22
(a) A (1)
(b) B in diagram V (1)
7.1.3 Write down the LETTER(-S) only of the tissue(s) that …
(a) is/are enclosed by a fibrous perichondrium. (1)

(b) is/are found in the walls of the alimentary canal, bladder and
uterus. (1)
7.1.4 Give TWO functions of the tissue labelled II (2)
7.2 The diagram below shows a cross section through a dicotyledonous root.
(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
7.2.2 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that:
(a) gives rise to side/lateral roots (2)

(b) transports organic food in the plant (2)
(c) stores starch in the root (2)
(d) transports water in the plant (2)
23
7.3 The diagram shows a cross section of a dicotyledonous leaf.
7.3.1 Give the LETTER of the part that:
(a) is transparent and impermeable to water. (1)
(b) transports water and mineral salts. (1)
7.3.2 What are parts C and D collectively called? (1)
*7.3.3 Tabulate ONE structural difference between parts B and F. (3)
* 7.3.4 Explain TWO ways in which part C is structurally adapted for its function of
photosynthesis. (4)
7.4 The graphs below show the transpiration rates under different environmental
conditions.
*7.4.1 Describe the relationship between the temperature and transpiration rate in
GRAPH A. (4)
*7.4.2 Explain the shape of the graph at point X in GRAPH B. (3)

24
7.5 The diagram represents the pathway of water through the root.
*7.5.1 If it has rained recently, give the LETTER in the diagram where the water
potential will be the highest? (1)
*7.5.2 Name TWO structural suitabilities of the root hair for the function of water
absorption. (2)
7.5.3 Which LETTER in the diagram refers to the endodermis? (1)
7.5.4 Which special feature is present in the endodermis to control the pathway of
water to the part labelled D? (1)
7.5.5 Name THREE forces responsible for the upward movement of water through
tissue D. (3)
25
7.6 An investigation was carried out to study the effect of light intensity on the
rate of water loss through the leaves of a plant.
• Apparatus X (shown in the diagram below) was used to measure the rate of
water loss from the leaves at several light intensities.
• At each light intensity, the apparatus was left for 15 minutes before starting
measurements.
• The water loss was recorded in the dark and at four different light intensities.
The results of this investigation are shown in the table below.
*7.6.1 State a hypothesis for this investigation. (2)
*7.6.2 State the dependent variable in the above investigation. (1)
*7.6.3 Predict what would be the effect on the results if the investigation was carried
out at a lower temperature. (1)
*7.6.4 State ONE way in which the reliability of the results obtained at each light
intensity could have been improved. (1)
26
7.7 The diagrams below represent the human skull.
7.7.1 To which one of the two main sections of the skeleton do these structures
belong? (1)
7.7.2 Identify the opening marked X. (1)
7.7.3 With which vertebra does this part of the skeleton articulate. (1)
7.7.4 Give the dental formula of a human. (2)
7.8 The diagram below shows a part of a human skeleton.
7.8.1 Give the LETTERS of TWO bones that make up the pectoral girdle. (2)
7.8.2 Identify parts:
(a) F (1)
(b) C (1)
27
7.9 The diagram below shows the internal structure of a human heart.
(a) A (1)
(b) E (1)
(c) G (1)
7.9.2 Give the LETTER and the NAME of the blood vessel that transports
deoxygenated blood to the lungs. (2)
7.9.3 Where is the blood at C coming from? (1)
7.9.4 Name the phase of the heart cycle during which chambers D will
contract? (1)
7.9.5 Will there be a high or low concentration of oxygen in the blood at part F? (1)
7.10 The heartbeat of two learners was recorded and plotted on a chart.
Learner A stood still and Learner B ran up and down the stairs. Their heartbeat
rates were recorded every minute. The graph below shows the results.
28
7.10.1 Which line, 1 or 2 represents the heartbeat rate of learner B? (1)
7.10.2 After how many minutes did the heartbeat rate of learner B, reach 185 beats
per minute? (1)
*7.10.3How does the heartbeat rate of learner A differ after 10 minutes from that of
learner B? (2)
7.11 The diagrams below show transverse sections through a vein and an artery.
(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
(c) C (1)
7.11.2 Which diagram (X or Y) represents an artery? (1)
*7.11.3Explain your answer to QUESTION 7.11.2. (2)
END OF DOCUMENT
ANIMAL TISSUES
Introduction
- A tissue is a group of similarly differentiated cells which are adapted to perform a particular
function.
Epithelial tissues
- Epithelial tissue lines the cavities and surfaces of the body.
- It is usually separated from the underlying tissue by a thin layer of connective tissue, called
the basement membrane.
The different types:
- Squamous
- Columnar
- Ciliated Columnar
- Cuboidal
Location:
- This is a lining tissue.
- It is found lining the mouth and lungs.
Appearance:
- It is made up of a single layer of cells.

- These cells are flattened, thin-walled cells.
- They are closely packed cells.
Function:
- Functions of epithelial tissue
- It protects the underlying tissue
- Allows the substances to pass through.

Columnar Epithelial cells
Appearance:
These are elongated cells that lie on the

basement membrane.
- Each cell has a nucleus found at the
bottom of the cell.
- In between the columnar cells there are

specialized cells.
- These specialized cells are called goblet
cells. The goblet cells secrete mucus.
Function
1. The goblet cells secrete mucus
2. The columnar cells provide

support to other cells
3. These cells absorbs water, food

and mineral salts
A micrograph of columnar epithelial cells

Ciliated
Columnar
Appearance:
- This tissue has the same basic structure as

columnar epithelium.
- Except they have tiny hair like structures called cilia

on their free ends.
- They also have goblet cells between them.
Function:
- Goblet cells secrete mucus that traps the dust

particles.
- The cilia beats and drives the mucus together with

the dust out of the breathing passage.
Cuboidal Epithelium
Location:
- This tissue is found lining the glands.
APPEARANCE:
- The cells are cube shaped.
- They are found on a basement membrane
Function:
Produces a variety of secretions for example

sweat, milk and sebum.
Nerve tissues
Nerve tissue like any other tissue is made up of a group of
cells.
- These nerve cells are called neurons.

There are 3 different types of neurons.
- They are the sensory neuron, the
- Interneuron neuron
- the motor neuron.

Functions of a nerve tissue
- Nerve tissues allow for an organism to perceive stimuli and

to respond by transmitting nerve impulses along neurons
THE 3 TYPE OF NEURONS
Basic structure
- Cell body
- The cell body has a membrane that encloses the cytoplasm
- Two types of outgrowths:
Axon
- is a single long outgrowth that conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body
- It is usually enclosed by a fatty sheath, the myelin sheath, which insulates the axon and
increases the speed of the nerve impulse
Dendrites
- It can be one or more outgrowths that conduct nerve impulses to the cell body
Motor neurons
Location:
This neuron occurs between the central nervous

system (brain and spinal cord) and the muscles
and glands.
Appearance:
Each neuron is made up of a 2 parts:
- These are the cell body and
- axon.
Function
- The motor neuron carries impulses
- from the central nervous system to
- the muscles and glands.

Interneurons
- These interneurons conduct nerve impulses between the sensory and the motor neurons in
the brain and spinal cord
Sensory Neuron
- Location:
- This neuron is found between the sensory organs and the central nervous system.
Appearance:
- The sensory neuron carries the impulse from the receptor to the brain and spinal cord.
- It has a centrally situated cell body.
- The dendrites are found on one end and the axon terminals on the opposite ends.
FUNCTION:
- This neuron carries impulses from the

sense organs to the central nervous
system.
- The sense organs are also called the

receptors.
Muscle tissue
The contraction and relaxation of muscles results in movement in different parts of the body.
There are three types of muscle tissues:
- Striated muscle tissue
- Smooth muscle tissue
- Cardiac muscle tissue

Striated muscle
tissue
Location
- Striated muscle tissue is attached to bone and

results in movement of the skeleton
- They are also known as skeletal muscle

Structure
- Made up of a large number of muscle fibres
- The muscle fibre is a long cylindrical cell

- Contains light and dark bands (striated)
- Muscle fibre consist of cytoplasm(sarcoplasm),

large oval nuclei and mitochondria
- Cell contents are enclosed by a thin elastic

membrane, the Sarcolemma
Function
- They work in pairs, contracting and relaxing voluntarily and result in coordinated movements
of specific parts
Smooth muscle tissue
Location
- Smooth muscle tissues are found in the walls of

the alimentary canal, bladder, blood vessels and
uterus and other places and are not attached to
bone.
Basic structure
- Smooth muscles consist of spindle shaped
muscle fibres, with one large nucleus per fibre
- The contents of the smooth muscle fibres also
consist of cytoplasm (sarcoplasm) that is
surrounded by a cell membrane.
Function of the smooth muscle
- The involuntary contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle fibres results in slow, rhythmic
movement. This ensures the peristalsis takes place in the digestive systems and regulating
blood flow in the arteries
Cardiac muscle tissue
Location
- Occurs in the walls of the heart
- Basic structure
- Consist of branched muscle fibres that are connected to

one another by muscular( myocardial) bridges. The
muscular bridges ensure that the cardiac muscle
functions as a unit
- Fibres are also cross-striated, but only have a single

nucleus in the centre of each fibre
Function of the cardiac muscle
- It displays automatism which is responsible for the uninterrupted contraction and relaxation of
the heart
Connective tissues
WHAT ARE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
- Connective tissues are tissues that support and join other tissues in the body of mammals.
- They consist of different cells and fibres embedded in the matrix.
- The matrix is the non –living and can be fluid /jelly-like or even a solid substance.
Three components of connective tissues
- 1. Cells e.g. White Blood cells, fat cells
- 2 . Fibres e.g. Collagen And elastic
- 3. Matrix can be fluid or jelly-like or solid

Types of Connective Tissue
There are Six types of connective Tissues, these are:
- Areolar
- White fibrous connective tissue
- Yellow elastic connective tissue
- Cartilage
- Bone and
- Blood
Areolar tissue
- Location: this tissue is found under the skin.
- Structure: The matrix is jelly-like.
- ✓Inside the matrix two types of fibres are found
• yellow elastic fibres (branched)
• white inelastic collagen fibres (parallel)
- ✓Basic types of cells are dispersed/ scattered
throughout the matrix, i.e. fibroblasts,
macrophages, mast cells, fat cells and
lymphocytes.
Functions of areolar tissue:
- Serves as an insulating material- prevent

heat loss.
- Protects the organs by serving as a packing

tissue, e.g. around the kidneys.
- Connects the skin to underlying layers.
- It serves as a packing tissue that fills the

spaces between organs, blood vessels,
nerves and muscles.
- NB: when large amount of fat are stored in

this tissue, it is known as adipose/ fat tissue
Yellow elastic
connective tissue
LOCATION:
- This tissue is used to form the ligaments.
APPEARANCE:
- Has the same basic structure as areolar tissue.
- However, the yellow elastic contains much more yellow

elastic fibres.
FUNCTION:
- 1) It makes up the ligaments.
- 2) The ligaments connect bone to bone.

White Fibrous Connective Tissue
LOCATION:
- Found within tendons and discs between the vertebrae.
APPEARANCE:
- This is tissue has the same basic structure as the areolar tissue with large amounts of white
fibres.
- Contain large number of fibres that run more or less parallel to one another.
TENDONS VS LIGAMENTS
Tendons are inelastic and can not stretch & Ligaments are elastic they can stretch
FUNCTION:
- Inelastic tendons join muscle to bones – they relay muscle contraction and relaxation to the
bone so that movement can take place.
- Elastic ligaments join bone to bone-these permit a degree of movement in joints.

Cartilage
Cartilage is a tough, flexible elastic connective tissue that
forms part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates.
There are 3 types:
- Hyaline cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
- Elastic cartilage
Location:
It occurs between bones. For example: C-shaped rings in
the trachea.
- Functions:
- Cartilage is flexible it provide support
- For example: nose, ears, and joints.
- Prevent damage between bones in a
joint
- Keep the trachea open at all time
- Connect the ribs to the sternum
Bone Tissue
Structure of Long Bone
- The human skeleton has two long bones
- viz. femur (thigh bone) and humerus (upper

arm bone).
- Each long bone has a head at either end

with a long shaft in between.
- Heads are made up of spongy bone

tissue that are covered by cartilage.
- Spongy bone tissue contain red bone
marrow that produces red blood corpuscles.

- The Shaft is made up of compact bone tissue
with a hollow area known as marrow cavity.
- The marrow cavity is lined by a soft
membrane known as the Endosteum.
- Inside the marrow cavity we find Yellow
marrow which is made up of cells and blood corpuscles.
- The periosteum is a strong membrane that
covers the shaft and is richly supplied with blood

vessels
- Both spongy bone and compact bone form
bone tissue and work complementary to each
other to bring about functions of bone

Function of
bone tissues
- Bone gives strength and support
- It protects internal organs such as the brain,
spinal cord, heart and lungs.
- It serves as a place of attachment for muscles
to make movement possible.
- Serves as a storage for minerals ,e.g. calcium
stored in bone tissue.
Blood tissue
- Take note of this:
Blood does not look or behave like other

connective tissues, but it is classified as a
connective tissue because it consist of cells in a
fluid matrix.
LOCATION:
- Found in the blood vessels.
- These blood vessels are the arteries, veins and

capillaries.
APPEARANCE:
- Blood is made up of a liquid called blood
plasma and blood cells.
- These blood cells are the red blood cells, white

blood cells and the platelets.
FUNCTION:
- Transports substances such as food,
hormones, enzymes, respiratory gases and
excretory wastes.
Life Sciences Grade 10 JIT Term 1 & 2 of 2022
CURRICULUM GRADE 10-12 DIRECTORATE
NCS (CAPS) SUPPORT
JUST IN TIME LEARNER REVISION DOCUMENT
LIFE SCIENCES TERM 1 & 2
GRADE 10
2022
0
PREAMBLE
This document has been prepared as revision material for Grade 10 Life
Sciences.
The materials have been arranged in such a way that studying can be undertaken
topic-wise. Within each topic, questions on the different sub-topics are arranged in
the same sequence as that in the 2022 Revised Annual Teaching Plan (ATP).
This Revision document takes the following into account:

 Focus on core concepts and content per topic as well as the relevant
Life Sciences skills.
 Activity based Revision sessions and constant feedback on
assessments/activities given.
 Scaffolding of concepts according to cognitive/difficulty levels and a
differentiated approach to cater for learners with different abilities.
 Addressing the Common errors & misconceptions in each topic.
 Integration of the Just in Time concept into the KZN 12-point plan.
 Providing multiple opportunities for learners to master concepts through
multiple exposure using different source stimuli.
 A focus on scientific investigations and biological terminology for
each topic.
 Consolidating and supplementing topics through the use of previous
examination question papers.
1
CONTENTS
No. TOPIC PAGE NO.
1. Chemistry of Life 3 - 10
2. Cells: Basic Unit of Life 11 - 16
3. Cell Division: Mitosis 17 - 22
4. Tissues: Animal Tissues 23 - 26
5. Tissues: Plant Tissues 27
6. Support and Transport in Plants 28 - 34
7. Support in Animals 35 - 37
8. Transport System in Mammals 38 - 41
2
Topic: Chemistry of Life
Activity 1
Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions.
No. Description Biological Term
1.1 The smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical
reaction.
1.2 A pure substance that is not made up of other simpler
substances.
1.3 Two or more atoms that can combine with one another
chemically.
1.4 A pure substance that is made up of simpler substances
(elements). Two or more elements that are chemically bonded.
1.5 Building units of nucleic acids.
1.6 Mineral salts that are needed in small quantities.
1.7 Mineral salts that are needed in large quantities.
1.8 Chemical compounds that do contain the element carbon and
are produced by living organisms.
1.9 Chemical compounds that do not contain the element carbon
and are not produced by living organisms.
1.10 Organic compounds made up of the elements C, H and O,
where the ratio of H:O is 2:1.
1.11 Organic compounds made up of elements C, H and O where
the ratio of H:O is more than 2:1
1.12 51 amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
1.13 A biological catalyst that speeds up a chemical reaction by
lowering the activation energy without itself being changed in a
reaction and are protein in nature.
1.14 Organic compounds that contain the atoms carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.
1.15 Explains how enzymes work whereby the active site of an
enzyme has a particular shape like a lock and a substrate has
a shape like the key which fits snugly on the lock.
1.16 Reagent that is used to test for starch.
16X1 (16)
3
Activity 2
Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I apply to A ONLY, B ONLY, BOTH A
AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B only, both A and B, or none
next to the question number (2.1 to 2.10) in the ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
2.1 An important source of energy A Magnesium
B Oils
2.2 Shortage results in a goitre A Iodine
B Calcium
2.3 Shortage results in muscle cramps A vitamin A
B vitamin D
2.4 Shortage of vitamin D A Osteomalacia
B Rickets
2.5 Shortage results in anaemia A vitamin C
B milk products
2.6 A type of protein A Enzyme
B Glycogen
2.7 An element needed to make haemoglobin A Sodium
B Iron
2.8 Leaves lacking nitrogen turns yellow A stunted growth
B chlorosis
2.9 An element needed to form thyroxin A Iodine
B Potassium
2.10 A macro element for nerve and muscle A Nitrogen
functioning B phosphorus
(10 X 2) (20)
Activity 3
3 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
3.1 Which molecules are represented by diagrams X, Y and Z respectively? (2)

Choose the letter from the table below.
Diagram X Diagram Y Diagram Z
A. Protein Lipid Carbohydrate
B. Carbohydrate Protein Lipid
4
C. Carbohydrate Lipid Protein
D. Lipid Carbohydrate Protein
3.2 Name one function of molecule Z. (1)

3.3 Study the following list of sugars below and answer the question that follow.
1. maltose
2. sucrose
3. glucose
4. fructose
Which of the above sugars are monosaccharides? Write ONLY the correct
letter from below.
A. 3 and 4.
B. 2 and 3.
C. 1 and 2.
D. 1and 4. (2)
3.4 Which letter in the diagram (A, B, C or D) represents the product that can be
formed? (1)
3.5 Which letter in the diagram (A, B, C or D) represents the product that can be
formed? (2)
(2)
Activity 4
4 The information below was taken from a carton of fruit juice. Study it and answer the
questions that follow.
Nutrient Average values per

100ml
Energy 215kJ
Protein 0,2 g
Carbohydrates 12,8 g
Sodium 150 mg
Vitamin E 1,5 mg
Vitamin C 63 mg
4.1 Name TWO different types of organic compounds/molecules in the fruit

juice. (2)
4.2 If you drink 500 ml of this fruit juice, how much sodium will you
consume? Show your calculation. (2)
4.3 One of the compounds in the fruit juice is made up of the monomers
called amino acids.
(a) Name the group of organic compound made of the above
monomers (1)
(b) Give ONE reason why it is important to have this compound as
part of your diet. (2)
5
4.4 Name the nutrients in this juice that would be good for a person
suffering from:
(a) Scurvy (1)
(b) Night blindness (1)
(9)
Activity 5
5 The table below shows the nutritional value of a certain brand of breakfast cereal. Study
the table and answer the questions that follow.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF A CEREAL
Ingredients Nutritional information

(values per 100 g)
Whole rolled Energy 2 000kJ
oats, roasted protein 12,5g
wheat flakes, carbohydrates 50g
cane syrup, fats 12,5g
vegetable oil, fibre 25g
sun-dried cholesterol 0mg
raisons
5.1 Name the food type that has the largest amount of nutritional value? (2)
5.2 State what is each of the following food types mainly used for in the
human body? Give ONE main function for each.
(a) Carbohydrates (1)
(b) Lipids (1)
5.3 Brown sugar is a disaccharide. Define the structure of this sugar
molecule? (2)
5.4 Oils and fat are different in their structure.
(a) Give two ways in which vegetable oil differ from a fat. (2)
(b) Describe the structure of a lipid (fat or oil) molecule. (4)
5.5 Describe ONE advantage of this cereal having no cholesterol (2)
5.6 The total value of 100g of cereal is 2 000kJ. The boy needs 5 000kJ.of
energy per day. How many grams (g) of cereal does he need to eat in
order to obtain enough energy (assuming that he does not eat any other
foods)? Show your working. (3)
5.7 Draw a pie chart (pie graph) to illustrate the relative of protein,
carbohydrate, fat and fibre for 100g of cereal (7)
(23)
6
Activity 6
6 Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
A balanced diet is one that contains sufficient quantities

of all the essential food components in the right
proportions. It is important that menus for meals are
planned to achieve a balanced diet.
The following list contains some types of foods that can

be used to form a balanced diet if they are well combined
and are in the right proportions.
eggs milk meat beans peaches apples
bread rice maize spinach cabbage oranges
6.1 Write down the names of any FOUR foods from the list that could be
included in a balanced menu for ONE meal. (4)
6.2 Briefly explain why you have included the food substances you listed
above, in your menu. (4)
6.3 Explain why there cannot be one specific (particular) balanced diet that
is suitable for everyone (2)
(10)
Activity 7
7 Study the table below which shows the results of certain tests on five different food types
A to E.
Name of test and colour change

Food
type Benedict’s Iodine solution Biuret
test test test
A Orange Yellow Blue
B Blue Blue -black Blue
C Orange Yellow Purple
D Blue Blue-black Purple
E Orange Blue-black Purple
7.1 Identify the food type (A, B, C, D or E) ONLY contains:

(a) Starch? (1)
(b) Glucose? (1)
7.2 Name the food type that contains only glucose and protein? (1)
7.3 Name the food type that contains starch, glucose and proteins? (1)
7
7.4 Rice contains starch and proteins, but no glucose. Which food type is
probably rice? (1)
(5)
Activity 8
8 The diagram below shows how three different food tests (1, 2, and 3) were carried out.
A, B and C indicate the food sample and W, X and Y the reagent that was added to the
food sample. Each gave a positive result.
8.1 Identify reagent W, X and Y respectively. (3)

8.2 Give the names of the nutrient (foods) tested for in samples 1, 2 and 3. (3)
8.3 State the colour you would have seen if the results were negative in:
(a) Test 1 (1)
(b) Test 2 (1)
(8)
Activity 9
9 Amylase is an enzyme that hydrolyses (breaks down) starch into sugars in humans.
Sipho conducted an investigation where a solution of amylase was mixed with a starch
suspension. The mixtures were kept in water baths at different temperatures for 15
minutes.
At the end of the time, the samples were analysed to find out how much sugar was
produced. The results of the above investigation are recorded in the table below:
Temperature (0 C) 00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Units of sugar 12 36 65 90 90 30 4 2
9.1 What is the aim of the above investigation? (2)

9.2 Name the following variables in the above investigation:’
8
(a) Independent (1)
(b) Dependent (1)
9.3 How would Sipho improve the reliability of the investigation? (2)
9.4 Name FOUR factors that should to be kept constant in the above (4)
Investigation.
9.5 State the conclusion that can be made about the action of salivary
amylase? (2)
9.6 What is the optimum temperature for the action of salivary amylase? (2)
9.7 Plot a line graph to show the results of the above investigation. (6)
(20)
Activity 10
10 An investigation was carried out to determine the effect of high temperature on a
washing powder containing fat digesting enzymes.
The procedure was as follows:
 Two same school white shirts were used.
 White shirts X and Y had same fat stain.
 White shirt X was washed with detergent containing fat-digesting enzymes for
3 minutes at 37
 White shirt Y was washed with detergent containing fat-digesting enzymes for 3
minutes in boiling water.
 The investigation was repeated five times.
The results of an investigation are shown below.
10.1 Name TWO planning steps that were taken for this investigation. (2)
10.2 State TWO factors that were kept constant during this investigation. (2)
10.3 Why was the white shirt X included in the investigation? (2)
10.4 Give ONE reason why was the investigation repeated five times? (1)
10.5 State a conclusion for this investigation. (2)
(9)
9
Activity 11
11 Trypsin is a digestive enzyme secreted by the pancreas of vertebrate
animals. A biologist studying enzyme activity isolated trypsin from mammal and two
different species of fish. She tested the enzyme activity at different temperatures. Her
experimental results are illustrated in the graph below.
Enzyme activity (trypsin)
11.1 What is meant by the optimum temperature of an enzyme? (1)

11.2 What is the optimum temperature for trypsin in the:
(a) trout and (1)
(b) perch? (1)
11.3 Give the range of temperature for trypsin in a dog. (1)
11.4 Describe what happens to the activity of trypsin after 34°C in the dog.
Explain why this occurs. (2)
(6)
10
Topic: CELL THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Activity 1
Give the correct biological term for the descriptions given below:
1. A basic unit of life
2. An organelle in a plant cell that stores starch
3. The membrane system in a cell on which ribosomes
sometimes occur
4. The membrane around a vacuole
5. An organelle in a cell that contains digestive juices
(5X1) (5)
Activity 2
COLUMN I COLUMN II
2.1 Structure that provides plant cells with support A Cell wall
B Nucleus
2.2 Used for cellular respiration A Mitochondria
B Chloroplast
2.3 An organelle of cell that control all activities of the cell A Vacuole
B Ribosomes
(2x2) (4)
11
Activity 3
3 Study the diagram of a compound light microscope below and answer the questions that
follow.
3.1 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part of the microscope that:
(a) regulates the amount of light. (2)
(b) allows for very precise focusing. (2)
(c) allows different objective lenses to be used. (2)
3.2 Name one function of the following parts respectively C, E and J (3)
3.3 What is the magnification of a microscope that has the eye piece
magnification of 10x and an objective lens of 40x. Show your working? (2)
(11)
12
Activity 4
4 Study the diagrams below representing two cells with their organelles and answer the
4.1 Which cell (X or Y) represent a plant cell? (1)

4.2 Give a visible reason for your answer. (2)
4.3 Label parts A and B respectively. (2)
4.4 Structure C in cell Y plays an important role. List THREE functions of this
structure. (3)
4.5 Name the organic substance that part D in cell Y mainly consist of (1)
(9)
13
Activity 5
5 Study the diagram below showing the structure of a cell
5.1 Give the letters and names of THREE parts that allow you to identify the (6)
above diagram as identifying a cell.
5.2 Provide the LETTER and NAME the part in which cellular respiration take (2)
place
5.3 Explain why the cell given above cannot be from the root of a plant
Use the fluid mosaic model to .describe the structure of a cell membrane (4)
(12)
Activity 6
6
6.1 State ONE function for each of the following plastids:
(a) Chloroplasts (1)
(b) Chromoplasts (1)
(c) Leucoplasts (1)

(3)
14
Activity 7
7 Complete the following table by writing down only the numbers (7.1 to 7.9) and your
answer next to it.
(9)
Activity 8
8.1 Write down the LETTER and NAME of the part that is responsible for:
(a) Facilitating transport of large molecules within cytoplasm (2)
(b) Protein synthesis (2)
(c) Providing turgidity to plant cells (2)
8.2 Tabulate three differences between plant and animal cell. (7)
(13)
15
Activity 9
9 Study the micrograph below and answer the questions that follow.
9.1 Is this a micrograph of a plant or animal cell? (1)
9.2 Provide TWO observable reasons for your answer in Question 8.1 (2)
9.3 Which numbered part contains the hereditary material? (1)
(4)
16
Topic: Mitosis
Activity 1
1.1 The phase in mitosis that results in two identical cells
1.2 The division of the cytoplasm
1.3 The identical strands making up a mature chromosome
1.4 The process in which DNA molecule form the identical copy of itself.
1.5 Cell division process that results with two identical daughter cells
(5 x 1) (5)
Activity 2
COLUMN I COLUMN II
2.1 DNA replication takes place A Prophase
B Telophase
2.2 A part of chromosome that attaches the two chromatids A Centromere
B Centrosome
(2 X 2) (4)
Activity 3
3. Study the diagram below.
17
3.1 Identify part:
(a) 1 (1)
(b) 2 (1)
(c) 3 (1)
(d) 4 (1)
(e) 5 (1)
(f) 6 (1)
(g) 7 (1)
(h) 8 (1)
(i) 9 (1)
3.2 Is the cell above represent the plant cell or animal cell? Give a reason for (2)
your answer.
(11)
Activity 4
4. Study the diagram below showing a phase during mitosis.
18
4.1
(2)
4.2 (2)
4.3
(1)
(1)
(6)
Activity 5
5. Study the diagram below showing the phase of mitosis.
19
5.1 (1)
5.2 (1)
5.3
(1)
(1)
5.4
(1)
(1)
5.5 (2)
5.6 (3)
(11)
Activity 6
6. Study the following diagrams representing different phases of mitosis
20
6.1 (1)
(1)
6.2
6.3 (3)
6.4 (1)
6.5 (1)
6.6 (2)
6.7 (1)
(10)
Activity 7
7. The diagram below shows a stage in mitosis.
21
7.1 (1)
7.2 (3)
7.3
(1)
(1)
7.4 (3)
7.5 (3)
(12)
Activity 8
8. Give a description of mitosis under the following headings:
8.1 (3)
Event during interphase
8.2 Prophase (7)

(10)
22
Topic: Animal Tissues
Activity 1
Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions:
1.1 Type of epithelium lining the nostrils, trachea and bronchi which
has hair-like outgrowths
1.2 Structural unit of the nervous system
1.3 A microscopic gap between consecutive neurons
1.4 Tissue that joins muscle to bone
1.5 Tough fibrous connection between muscles and bones
1.6 Collective name for bone tissue and blood tissue.
1.7 Weakened germ given through injection or tablet to produce
antibodies
1.8 Specialised cell in ciliated columnar epithelial tissue which
produce mucus
1.9 Tissue in roots which to root-hairs
(9X1) (9)
Activity 2
COLUMN I COLUMN II
2.1 Make up the walls of capillaries A Squamous epithelium
B Cuboidal epithelium
2.2 Leucocytes help to protect the body against diseases A Antibodies
because they produce B Antibiotics
2.3 Tissue that forms annual rings during secondary A Xylem
thickening growth in dicot plant B Schlencyma
(3x2) ( 6)
Activity 3
3 A student examined sections of animal tissue and observed the following:
3.1 Identify tissue: (1)
23
3.1.1 A (1)
3.1.2 B
3.2 Mention TWO areas in the human body where tissue B is found (2)
3.3 Tabulate ONE visible difference between A and B (3)
3.4 Describe ONE way how tissue B is structurally (2)
(9)
Activity 4
4.1 Study the following diagrams of the human tissues.
4.1 (2)
4.2 (1)
4.3 (1)
4.4
(4)
(8)
24
Activity 5
5 The electron micrographs /photos below that show different animal tissues and the.
5.1 Give the functional difference between tissue C and E (2)

5.2 Explain what will happen if tissue F failed to function (2)
5.3 Provide LETTER and the NAME of the tissue which
(a) Insulates the body (2)
(b) Forms bones making up the endoskeleton (2)
(c) Reduces friction between bones (2)
(10)
25
Activity 6
6 Below is a micrograph of an animal tissue. Study the diagram and answer the questions
that follow.
6.1 Give name of tissues A (1)

6.2 Describe TWO structural adaptation of tissue A for its functions. (4)
6.3 If tissue A was taken from the human respiratory system, which part (1)
would that be?
6.4 Draw a fully labelled cell from tissue A (4)
(10)
26
Topic: Plant Tissues
Activity 7
7
7.1 Give SIX examples of permanent tissues (6)
7.2 Tabulate TWO differences between apical and lateral meristematic tissues (5)
(11)
Activity 8
8 Study the following plant tissues:
8.1 Give the LETTER and the NAME of the tissue which:
(a) Transports water and minerals up a plant (2)
(b) Provides mechanical support to the plant (2)
8.2 Explain TWO ways in which tissue B is structurally suited for its function (4)
(8)
Activity 9
9.1 Study the structure of a transverse section through dicot root showing different tissues.
9.1 Give the LETTER and NAME of tissue that:

(a)Transport water (2)
(b)Conducts manufactured food from the leaves to all parts of plants (2)
(c)Stores food in the form of starch (2)
9.2 Explain why tissue B is lignified (2)
(8)
27
Topic: Support and Transport in Plants
Activity 1
1.1. Movement of particles from a high to a low concentration
1.2. The ability of a solution of water to do work by osmosis
1.3. A membrane that allows some particles to pass through and
prevents others from passing through
1.4. Movement of water from a high WP to a low WP across a
differentially permeable membrane until dynamic equilibrium is
reached
1.5. Movement of particles across membranes using their own
energy from high to low concentration
1.6. Movement of particles from a region of low concentration to a
region of high concentration using energy
1.7. Cells formed from epidermal cells in the root to absorb water
1.8. The process of taking substances into a cell through diffusion or
absorption
1.9. A waxy, waterproof band found in the cell walls of the
endodermis which channels water into the xylem
1.10. Movement of water from a root hair cell through the cortex until it
reaches the central xylem tissue
1.11. Tissue in plants that conducts water and mineral salts
1.12. Is found in the cell walls of plants making them woody and rigid
1.13. Elongated, living cells that transport the dissolved food in
phloem tissue
1.14. The loss of water in the form of water vapour through the
stomata of the leaf
1.15. Modified epidermal cells that surround a stoma
1.16. The opening in the epidermis of a plant through which gases
and water vapour pass
1.17. The force that moves water into the leaf cells from the xylem
vessels to replace the water lost due to transpiration
1.18. The pressure that forces water to move through the roots and up
the stem of a plant
1.19. A plant cell that is rigid because the vacuole is filled to capacity
1.20. A cell that is shrink because of a lack of water
(20x1) (20)
28
Activity 2
COLUMN I COLUMN II
2.1 Active transport of substances into and out of cells A Osmosis
B Diffusion
2.2 Makes up cortex of dicotyledonous root A Parenchyma cells
B Endodermis
2.3 Increase rate of transpiration in plants A Humidity
B Wind
2.4 Type of roots found in dicotyledonous plants A Tap roots
B Adventitious roots
2.5 Tissue that forms annual rings during secondary A Xylem
growth in dicotyledonous plants B sclerenchyma
2.6 Plants without a nuclei A Parenchyma
B Companion cells
2.7 The waxy layer on the outer of leaves A Epidermis
B Cuticle
2.8 Transport organic food in plants A Phloem
B Sieve tubes
2.9 Force responsible for upward movement of water in A Capillarity
water in plants B Transpiration pull
2.10 Movement of dissolved food from the leaves to the A Active transport
roots B Translocation
(10x2) (20)
Activity 3
3 Study the diagram below of the cross section of a dicotyledonous leaf. Answer the
29
3.1 Provide labels for 4,7, 8 and 9 (4)
3.2 List ONE function of structure 1. (1)
3.3. Give the number and the name of the organelle in which photosynthesis (2)
occurs.
3.4. Give ONE visible difference between cells 5 and 7 (2)
3.5 Xylem is a conducting tissue found in leaves. List THREE structural
features of xylem that allows it to perform its function. (3)
(10)
Activity 4
4 Study the diagram below of a root hair cell.
4.1 Identify parts A and B. (2)

4.2. Explain TWO ways in which root hair is adapted for the absorption of (4)
water
4.3. Explain TWO ways in which the xylem tissue is adapted for transporting
water. (4)
4.4. Explain why a high temperature in the soil will increase absorption of water
by the root hair. (2)
(12)
30
Activity 5
5. Study the line graph below showing the effect of light intensity on the rate of
transpiration in leaves
5.1. Identify the dependent variable in the above investigation. (1)

5.2. State the effect of increasing the light intensity from 0 to 2. (1)
5.3. Explain why an increase in light intensity above 2 does not increase the
rate of transpiration much further. (2)
5.4. List TWO factors that should be kept constant in the above investigation. (2)
5.5. Why should the factors mentioned in QUESTION 5.4.be kept constant
when conducting the investigation? (1)
(7)
Activity 6
6 Thobile set up the following apparatus to investigate how temperature affects
transpiration rate.
6.1. What is the name of this apparatus? (1)
31
6.2. Identify the:
(a) Dependent variable (1)
(b) Independent variable (1)
6.3. Predict what would happen to the speed of movement of the air bubble
if Vaseline was applied to the ventral surfaces of all the leaves. Explain
your answer. (3)
6.4. Why should this apparatus be allowed to stand before starting the
experiment ? (1)
6.5. Give ONE precaution you would take when setting up this apparatus. (2)
6.6. The apparatus was used to investigate the effect of temperature on
transpiration rate. Study the results in the table below.
Temperature °C 22 25 27 28 30
Transpiration rate 1,5 3,5 5 4,5 4
2
( mol/m sec)
Draw a line graph to illustrate the above results (6)

6.8. What can you conclude about the relationship between temperature and (2)
transpiration rate?
(20)
Activity 7
7 Explain how the shape and cell wall features of the following tissues are suited to their
function in the plant body:
7.1. Epidermal tissue (6)
7.2. Phloem (6)
7.3. Spongy mesophyll (4)
(16)
Activity 8
8 Study the diagram below showing an investigation on

osmosis.
32
8.1. State ONE planning step that should be considered before undertaking
such an investigation. (1)
8.2. Explain the importance of the potato in this investigation. (2)
8.3. List TWO observations that you would make in this investigation. (2)
8.4. State TWO differences between the process investigated in the diagram
above and diffusion. (4)
(9)
Activity 9
9 The graph below illustrates the rate of transpiration in a plant under conditions
of light and darkness. Study the graph and answer the questions that follow:
Day Night Day Night
9.1. Give the numbers which will indicate:

(a) Open stomata (2)
(b) Closed stomata (2)
9.2. Mention any ONE environmental condition in the guard cells responsible
for the change at:
(a) 4 (1)
(b) 2 (1)
(6)
Activity 10
33
10.1 Name the parts labelled A–D. (4)
10.2. Explain any TWO structural adaptations of part D that enables it to perform (4)
its function effectively.
10.3. What is the collective name of the tissues that transport water and food in (1)
the structure shown above?
(9)
Activity 11
11. A leaf is one of the major important organs of a plant. Describe how the leaf is adapted
to perform its functions on the following processes:
11.1. Photosynthesis (4)
11.2. Transpiration (4)
(8)
34
Topic: Support in Animals
Activity 1
Give the correct biological term for each of the descriptions provided below.
1. 1 Part of the human skull that encloses and protects the brain.
1. 2 Longest bone of the pectoral girdle.
1. 3 Long bone of the upper leg.
1. 4 Long bone in line with the thumb in the lower arm.
1. 5 Long bone in line with the little finger in the lower arm.
1. 6 Bones of the wrist.
1. 7 A structure that attaches bone to bone
1. 8 A tough band of inelastic fibrous tissue that attaches a bone to
a muscle.
(8X1) (8)
Activity 2
COLUMN I COLUMN II
2.1 A part of the pectoral girdle A Clavicle
B Scapula
2.2 Bones that form part of the pelvic girdle. A Femur
B Tibia
2.3 Consists of skull, rib cage and vertebral column A Axial skeleton
B Appendicular skeleton
(3X2) (6)
35
Activity 3
3 The diagram below shows a human skeleton. Study the diagram and answer questions
that follow.
3.1 Identify the part labelled A. (1)

3.2 Name the part of the skeleton represented by letters A, D, E and G
collectively. (1)
3.3 Provide names for the bones labelled I, M, N, O, P, Q and R that form
part of the lower limb. (7)
3.4 Briefly discuss the functions of the skeleton. (10)
(19)
36
Activity 4
4 Study the diagram below which shows an upper limb from a human skeleton and
answer questions that follow.
4.1 Name all bones labelled A, B, C, D and E. (5)

4.2 Name the structure that attaches bone C to bone D and E. (1)
4.3 Draw and label a longitudinal section of bone C to show its structure. (6)
(12)
37
Topic: Transport System in Mammals
Activity 1
Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions
1.1 Blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood to the left
atrium of the heart
1.2 The largest artery in the body which leaves the left
ventricle
1.3 The chamber of the heart which has the pacemaker in its
wall
1.4 A type of an involuntary muscle found only in the heart
1.5 Vessels that return components of tissue fluid back to the
blood system
1.6 The chamber in the heart that receives oxygenated blood
from the left atrium
1.7 The tissue which lines all blood vessels
1.8 Blood vessels that allows entry and exit of substances
through its walls
1.9 Valve in the heart that controls movement between the
right atrium and right ventricle
1.10 The upper chambers of the heart
(10X1) (10)
Activity 2
COLUMN I COLUMN II
2.1 Contraction of heart muscles A Diastole
B Systole
2.2 Associated with oxygenated blood A Left atrium
B Left ventricle
2.3 Prevents backflow of blood from right ventricle A Bicuspid valve
into right atrium B Tricuspid valve
2.4 Which stage of the cardiac cycle during which A Atrial systole
the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are closed B Ventricular systole
2.5 The membrane that encloses and protects the A Pericardium
heart B Septum
2.6 Transported by the pulmonary vein A Deoxygenated blood
B Oxygenated blood
(6X2) (12)
38
Activity 3
3 Study the diagram of a capillary network below
3.1 Identify the type of blood labelled B. (1)

3.2 Tabulate TWO structural differences between the blood vessels labelled
A and B (5)
3.3 What is the lining of capillary called? (1)
3.4 What name is given to the liquid which bathes the body cells (1)
(8)
Activity 4
4
The table below shows the percentage incidents of high level of cholesterol in
different population groups in KZN.
4.1 (6)
4.2 (1)
(2)
4.3
4.2
- (9)
39
Activity 5
5 The diagram below shows the human heart
5.1 Identify :
(a) A (1)
(b) E (1)
(c) F (1)
5.2
(2)
(2)
(2)
(9)
40
Activity 6
6 Study the diagram of the human heart below
6.1 Identify part:
(a) D (1)
(b) E (1)
(1)
6.2 State ONE function of vessel B.
6.3 Explain what happens in valve A and F during ventricular systole. (2)
6.4 Explain what will be the consequence if vessel C is blocked. (3)
6.5 Tabulate TWO structural differences between vein and artery (5)
. (13)
41
CURRICULUM DIRECTORATE
GRADE 10 -12
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT:
TOPIC TESTS
JIT TERMS 1- 4
LIFE SCIENCES
GRADE 10
2024
SCHOOL NAME:
LEARNER NAME:
Copyright reserved
KZN-LIFE SCIENCES INFORMAL ASSESSMENT - GRADE 10 TOPIC TEST
2
INTRODUCTION
This document has been prepared as informal assessment material for the Final
Examinations for Grade 10 & 11 Life Sciences.
The Topic tests have been arranged according to the sequence of topics in the ATP
and 2024 Examination Guidelines.
Therefore, this document can be used to prepare learners for formal assessment.
The focus was on the core concepts and skills for life sciences.
Copyright reserved Please Turn Over

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
No Topic Page
1. Table of Content 2
2. Introduction 3
3. Chemistry of life 4----8
4. Cell-basic unit of life 9----13
5. Cell division-Mitosis 14----18
6. Plant Tissues and Plant organ-Leaf 19----23
7. Support and Transport in Plants 24----29
8. Animal Tissues 30----35
9. Support in Animals 36----40
10. Transport System in Mammals 41----44
11. History of Life on Earth 45----50
12. Biosphere 51----54
13. Biodiversity and Classification 55----59
14. Part B 60----73

4
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST: CHEMISTRY

OF LIFE
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 MINUTES
N.B. This question paper consists of 5 pages including this page.

5
INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION
Read the following instructions carefully before answering the questions.
1. Answer ALL the questions.
2. Write ALL the answers in the ANSWER BOOK.
3. Start the answers to EACH question at the top of a NEW page.
4. Number the answers correctly according to the numbering system used in this
question paper.
5. Present your answers according to the instructions of each question.
6. Make ALL drawings in pencil and label them in blue or black ink.
7. Draw diagrams, tables or flow charts only when asked to do so.
8. The diagrams in this question paper are NOT necessarily drawn to scale.
9. Do NOT use graph paper.
10. You must use a non-programmable calculator, protractor and a compass,

where necessary.
11. Write neatly and legibly.

6
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A to D) next to the question
number (1.1.1 to 1.1.2) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.1.3 D.
1.1.1 The temperature at which an enzymes function best is called…
A base line.
B maximum.
C optimum.
D reference.
1.1.2 Which ONE of the following elements is found in energy carriers?
A Nitrogen
B Phosphorus
C Potassium
D Calcium
(2 x 2) (4)
1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions.
Write only the term next to the question number (1.2.1 to 1.2.4) in the ANSWER
BOOK.
1.2.1 Organic compounds made up of elements C, H and O, where the ratio

of H:O is 2:1
1.2.2 The smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction
1.2.3 The yellowing of leaves as a result of iron deficiency in plants
1.2.4 A biological catalyst that speed up a chemical reaction without being

changed in a reaction (4 x 1) (4)
1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number (1.3.1 to 1.3.2) in the
ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Lack of this vitamin/s cause/s A: Vitamin A
rickets B: Vitamin B
1.3.2 Monomers of carbohydrates A: Monosaccharides
B: Nucleotides
(2 x 2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A: 12

7
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The table below shows the results of the investigation that was done by grade
10 learners.
The investigation was conducted to determine the effect of temperature on
enzyme activity.
Temperature (°C) 5 10 20 30 40 50 60
Enzyme activity (%) 0 15 25 35 24 16 0
2.1.1 Identify the :
(a) Independent variable (1)
(b) Dependent variable (1)
2.1.2 Draw a line graph using the information from the table above. (6)
2.1.3 State ONE way in which the reliability of the investigation can be
improved. (1)
(9)

8
QUESTION 3
3.1 The table below shows nutritional information on three cereal packets A, B and
C. Each packet has a mass of 500g
A 15-year old boy showed the following symptoms after eating one serving of
cereal B.
•Bleeding gums
•Nosebleed
•Sores on the skin
NUTRIENT (g) CEREAL A CEREAL B CEREAL C

Protein 2 9 1
Vitamin C 35 30 60
Sodium 200 270 135
Fats (lipids) 7 36 18
Carbohydrates 50 65 55
3.1.1 Name the monomers of fats. (2)
3.1.2 Using the list of symptoms mentioned above, name a deficiency disease
that the boy is suffering from. (1)
3.1.3 Calculate the percentage of vitamin C in cereal B. (2)
3.1.4 Which cereal (A, B or C) will be LEAST suitable to the boy? (1)
3.1.5 Give ONE reason for your answer to QUESTION 3.1.4. (1)
3.1.6 Explain the results if the colour changes to brick-red during a protein test. (2)
(9)
TOTAL SECTION B: (18)

GRAND TOTAL: [30]

9
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST:

CELLS-BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 minutes
N.B. question paper consists of 5 pages including this page.

10
question paper.

where necessary.

11
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
number (1.1.1 to 1.1.) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.1.11 D.
1.1.1 Which of the following molecules is the main substance that makes
up the primary cell wall?
A. Glucose
B. Cellulose
C. Starch
D. Glycogen
1.1.2. When a pupil observed a plant tissue under microscope the

magnification was x400. Which combination of lenses provides this
magnification?
A. 10x eye-piece and a 40x objectives
B. 40x eye-piece and a 20x objectives
C. 200x eye-piece and a 200x objectives
(4)
D. 100x eye-piece and a 300x objectives (2 x 2)
1.2.
1.2.1 A site where energy for the cell is produced
1.2.2 The transport of molecules across membranes that requires

energy
1.2.3 The communication and transport system inside a cell
1.2.4 The membrane that surrounds the plant vacuole (4 x 1) (4)


1.3 Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A

ONLY, B ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE. Write A ONLY, B ONLY,
BOTH A AND B or NONE next to the question number in the answer
sheet.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1. The cell organelles in which A Ribosomes
proteins are synthesized B Lysosomes
1.3.2. Contains pigment/s in a plant cell A Chromoplast
B Chloroplast
(2 x 2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A: 12

12
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 Diagrams below show two types of cells
2.1.1 Which structure (X or Y) represent plant cell? (1)

2.1.2 Give TWO visible reasons for your answer in Question 2.2.1. (2)
2.1.3 Name the type of nucleic acid found in A. (1)
2.1.4 Write ONLY the letter of the part that is the site for cellular respiration. (1)
2.1.5 Explain what will happen to the cell if part B becomes impermeable. (4)
(9)

13
QUESTION 3
3.1 Grade 10 learners conducted an experiment to illustrate osmosis in plant tissue.

The experimental set up is shown below:
Diagram to indicate the setup of the experiment.

3.1.1 Provide a definition for osmosis. (2)
3.1.2 Describe what will happen to the level of the sugar solution inside the hollow
potato in the:
(a) Experiment (1)
(b) Control (1)
3.1.3 State ONE way in which the validity of the results can be increased. (1)
3.1.4 Provide the function of a differentially permeable membrane. (1)
3.1.5 Explain how the differentially permeable membrane carried out its function in
the experiment. (3)
(9)
GRAND TOTAL: [30]

14
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST: CELL

DIVISION-MITOSIS
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 Minutes

15
question paper.
10. You must use a non-programmable calculator, protractor, and a compass,

where necessary.

16
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1.1 Which one of the following processes occurs during metaphase of

mitosis?
A Chromosomes arrange at the equator

B DNA replication
C Chromatids move to the poles
D Chromosomes move to the poles
1.1.2 How many mitotic divisions are needed for a single cell to produce
128 cells?
A 14
B 28
C 64
D 7
BOOK.
1.2.1 The name given to the abnormal and uncontrollable division of cells
leading to the formation of a tumour
1.2.2 The phase between cell cycles

1.2.3 Structure that holds two chromatids together
1.2.4 The division of the cytoplasm
(4x1) (4)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Chromosomes arrange at the A: Metaphase
Equator B: Anaphase
1.3.2 The number of cells at the end of A: 2
Mitosis B: 4
(2 x 2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A: 12
17
2.1 The diagram below shows a cell undergoing a phase in cell division called
mitosis.
2.1.1 Identify the phase of mitosis represented above. (1)
2.1.2 Give ONE reason for your answer to QUESTION 2.1.1 (1)
2.1.3 Identify parts labelled A, B, and C (3)
2.1.4 How many chromosomes will be present in the cell shown above at
the end of mitosis? (1)
2.1.5 State THREE biological importance of mitosis. (3)
(9)

18
QUESTION 3
3.1 Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
3.1.1 Which type of cancer is most common to males? (1)
3.1.2 State TWO ways in which cancer can be treated. (2)
3.1.3 Use the information in the table below and draw a bar graph to show
the top five cancers and the costs per case.
(6)
(9)

GRAND TOTAL: [30]

19
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST: PLANT

TISSUE AND PLANT ORGAN (LEAF)
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 minutes

20
question paper.

where necessary.

21
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A to C) next to the question
1.1.1 Which part of root is made up of a parenchyma and endodermis?
A Cambium
B Cortex
C Pericycle
D Central cylinder
1.1.2 Which of the following tissues has sieve tubes and companion cell.
A Endodermis
B Xylem
C Sclerenchyma
D Phloem (2x2) (4)
1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following description.
Write only the term next to the question number (1.2.1 to 1.2.4)
in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.2.1 The tissue which continually forms new cells in plants

1.2.2 Parenchyma cells that contain chlorophyll
1.2.3 Plant tissue that is responsible for growth
1.2.4 Plant tissue with lignified cell wall
(4x1) (4)

ANSWER BOOK.

22
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The diagram below shows the different types of plant tissues.
2.1.1 Identify tissue B (1)
2.1.2 Explain TWO structural adaptations of tissue A for its functions. (4)
2.2 Draw a fully labelled diagram of an epidermal cell with a root hair. (4)
[9]

23
QUESTION 3
3.1 The diagram below show a cross section of a leaf
3.1.1 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that reduces water loss in the leaf. (2)
3.1.2 Explain how part B assists the leaf to perform its function. (2)
3.2 Tabulate TWO differences between xylem vessel and phloem sieve tube (5)
(9)
TOTAL SECTION B: 18
GRAND TOTAL: 30

24
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST: SUPPORT

AND TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 Minutes

25
question paper.

where necessary.

26
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1.1 The function of the xylem is to …
A transport food from the leaves to all parts of the plant

B transport water and mineral salts from the roots to all part of
the plants
C transports waste material out of the plant
D transport and store useful substances to all parts of the plant
1.1.2 The diagram below shows leaves that have been treated in various
ways during an investigation on transpiration
Leaf 1 - coated with Vaseline on both sides

Leaf 2 - coated with Vaseline on the lower surface only
Leaf 3 - coated with Vaseline on the upper surface only
Leaf 4 – uncoated
Which one of the following leaves will lose water most rapidly?
A Leaf 1
B Leaf 2
C Leaf 3
D Leaf 4
(2 x 2) (4)

27
Write only the term next to the question number (1.2.1 to 1.2.4) in the
ANSWER BOOK.
1.2.1 Tissue that transports food from the leaves to all parts of the body of
plant
1.2.2 A waterproof band found in the cell walls of the endodermis that
directs water into the xylem
1.2.3 The loss of water vapor through the stomata
1.2.4 The movement of manufactured food from plant leaves to the rest of
the plant (4 x 1) (4)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Factor affecting transpiration rate A: Humidity
B: Temperature
1.3.2 Force responsible for upward A: Capillarity
movement of water in plants B: Transpiration pull
(2 x 2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A: 12

28
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1
Diagram below shows a cross section through an angiosperm root
2.1.1 List the NAMES of tissues through which water passes until it
reaches the xylem in the correct order. (2)
2.1.2 Describe how water enters the structure numbered 1 from the soil (4)
2.1.3 Explain ONE way in which structure numbered 5 is suited for its (2)
function
2.1.4 Name the force which develops in the root as a result of the (1)
absorption into the root by osmosis
[9]

29
QUESTION 3
3.1 Grade 10 learners conducted an investigation to determine the effect of

different light intensities on the rate of transpiration in leaves.
The following procedure was followed:

• 2 leafy shoots of the same plant were used
• The leafy shoots were of the same age
• The leafy shoots were then labelled leafy shoot A and leafy shoot B
• Leafy shoot A was exposed to different light intensities
• Leafy shoot B was placed in a dark area
• Potometer was used to measure the rate of transpiration in both groups
• The results of the investigation were recorded in every hour for each group
The results for leafy shoot A are shown in the graph below
3.1.1 Identify the dependent variable in the investigation (1)

3.1.2 State the effect of increasing the light intensity on transpiration rate (1)
from 0 to 5
3.1.3 Explain why an increase in light intensity above 10 does not increase (2)
the rate of transpiration
3.1.4 State ONE way in which learners increased the validity of the (1)
investigation
3.1.5 Explain why group B was included in the investigation (2)
3.1.6 State the conclusion for the above investigation (2)

[9]
TOTAL SECTION B: 18
GRAND TOTAL: 30
30
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST: ANIMAL

TISSUES
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 Minutes

31
question paper.

where necessary.

32
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1.1 Which of the following tissues lines the nasal cavity and removes dust
particles?
A Cuboidal
B Areolar
C Squamous
D Ciliated columnar
1.1.2 The diagram below shows a special type of animal cell
(i) It is found between the spinal cord and the effector muscles
(ii) It is only found in the central nervous system
(iii) It is myelinated
(iv) It is connected directly to the receptors
Which TWO of the above statements about this cell are BOTH
INCORRECT?
A (i) and (ii)

B (ii) and (iii)
C (ii) and (iv)
D (iii) and (iv)
(2 x 2) (4)

33
BOOK.
1.2.1 A type of epithelial tissue lining the mouth and blood vessels
1.2.2 The type of epithelial tissue lining the alimentary canal
1.2.3 The type of muscle tissue found in the heart
1.2.4 A connective tissue found under the skin that insulates the body and
acts as a packaging tissue
(4 x 1) (4)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Joins muscle to bone A: Cartilage
B: Tendons
1.3.2 Mammalian tissue A: Muscle
B: Blood
(2 x 2) (4)

34
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The diagram below shows an animal tissue
2.1.1 Identify the tissue above (1)

2.1.2 Give the LETTER and the NAME of the part that:
(a) controls all the activities of the cell (2)

(b) traps the dust in the above tissue (2)
2.1.3 Explain TWO ways in which the tissue mentioned in QUESTION (4)
2.1.1 is structurally suited to perform its function
[9]

35
3.1 The diagram below shows an animal tissue
3.1.1 Identify diagram:

(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
3.1.2 State the TWO functions of DIAGRAM A (2)
3.1.3 Describe the structure of DIAGRAM B (2)
3.1.4 State ONE place where DIAGRAM B is found in humans (1)

(7)
3.2 Ligaments join bone to bone.

Explain why you would expect ligaments to be made of yellow elastic
tissue rather than white fibrous tissue. (2)

GRAND TOTAL: [30]

36
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST: SUPPORT

IN ANIMALS
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 minutes

37
question paper.

where necessary.

38
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1.1 Which of the following parts forms axial skeleton?
A Arms,legs and vertebral column

B Skull,rib cage and sternum
C Lower limbs,skull and pelvic girdle
D Skull,vertebral column,ribs and sternum
1.1.2 Which of the following is a function of a pelvic girdle?
A Connect bone to bone

B Attaches arms
C Joins bones to muscles
D It attaches legs to the pelvic
(2x 2) (4)
Write only the term next to the question number (1.2.1 to 1.2.4) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.2.1 The bones that protects the spinal cord
1.2.2 The liquid which prevents friction in a joint
1.2.3 Bones that surround and protect the brain
1.2.4 The first vertebra that connects the neck to the skull
(4x1) (4)

only, Both A and B or none next to the question number (1.3.1 to 1.3.2) in the
ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Caused by a lack of vitamin D or A: Rickets
calcium B: Osteoporosis
1.3.2 Found in all vertebrates A: Exoskeleton
B: Hydrostatic skeleton
(2x2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A: (12)

39
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The diagram below is a longitudinal section of the knee joint.
2.1. Identify bones:

(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
(c) C (1)
2.2. Name the type of synovial joint shown in the diagram (1)
2.3 State ONE functions of part C. (1)
2.4 Describe the type of movement that is possible at the knee joint (2)
2.5. Ligaments join bone B and bone D.

Explain ONE ways in which the tissue making up the ligaments is
structurally suited to perform its function (2)
[9]

40
QUESTION 3
3.1 The graph below shows the results of an investigation using a sample of men
and women.
3.1.1 Identify:
(a) Independent variables (2)
(b) Dependant variable (1)
3.1.2 State TWO ways in which the reliability of the results could be improved, (2)
other than repeating the investigation.
(5)
3.2 Make a labelled drawing of a longitudinal section of a long bone to show its (4)
structure.
[9]
TOTAL SECTION B: 18
GRAND TOTAL: 30

41
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN MAMMALS
t
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 minutes

42
question paper.

where necessary.

43
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Choose the
correct answer and write only the letter (A to D) next to the question number (1.1.1 to 1.1.2)
in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.1.11 D.
1.1.1 Which one of the following blood vessels supplies the heart tissue with
oxygen and glucose?
A Coronary vein
B Pulmonary artery
C Coronary artery
D Aorta
1.1.2 The diagram below shows a longitudinal section of a vein.
The direction of the blood flow will be from…

A 1 to 2 and 2 to 3
B 3 to 2 and 2 to 1
C 2 to 1 and 2 to 3
D 1 to 2 and 3 to 2
(2×2) (4)
1.2.1 The chamber in the heart receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium
1.2.2 The membrane which encloses the heart
1.2.3 Largest artery in the body which leaves the left ventricle
1.2.4 Blood vessels that allows entry exit of substances through its walls
(1×4) (4)
1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B ONLY,
BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B only, both A and
B or none next to the question number (1.3.1 to 1.3.3) in the ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Contraction of heart muscles A Diastole
B Systole
1.3.2 Lower chambers of the heart A Ventricles
B Atria
(2×2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A 12
44
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 Study the diagram below shows a human heart.

(a) D (1)
(b) E (1)
2.1.2 State ONE function of part B (1)
2.1.3 Explain what happens in valve A and F during ventricular systole (1)
2.1.4 Explain what will happen if vessel C is blocked (2)
2.1.5 Tabulate TWO structural differences between vein and artery. (5)
[11]
QUESTION 3
3.1 The table below shows the percentage of the blood that passes through various organs.
Organs Amount of blood flow (%)

Liver 25
Brain 15
Small intestine 15
Kidney 20
Others X
(1)
3.1.1 Calculate the percentage of the blood flow at X
3.1.2 Draw the pie chart to represent the information in the table above. (6)
[7]
TOTAL MARKS FOR SECTION B: (18)
GRAND TOTAL : [30]

45
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST: HISTORY OF

LIFE ON EARTH
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 Minutes

46
question paper.

where necessary.

47
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1.1 Palaeontology is the study of…
A the half-life of radioactive substances.

B continental drift.
C fossils
D changes
1.1.2 Study the following list of characteristics:
(i) Transitional species

(ii) Currently extinct
(iii) Living fossil
(iv) Belongs to the genus Latimeria
Which ONE of the following combinations of characteristics applies

to the coelacanth?
A (i), (ii) and (iv) only

B (ii), (iii) and (iv) only
C (i), (ii) and (iii) only
D (i), (iii) and (iv) only (4)
BOOK.
1.2.1 Complete disappearance of a species from Earth

1.2.2 Study of the past and the present distribution of individual species
1.2.3 The use of radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14 or potassium-40
to date fossils
(3)

48
ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Influence the History of life on Earth A: Climate change
B: Levels of oxygen
1.3.2 The type of organism regarded as a A: Dinosaur

link between fish and amphibians B: Coelacanth
(2 x 2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A: 11

49
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The maps show the changes that took place during a geological event.
X Y Z
1 2 3 4
2.1.1 State the name of the giant continent labelled A. (1)
2.1.2 Identify the geological event that is represented in the

diagrams above. (1)
2.1.3 The TWO super-continents formed from the continent in

Diagram A. (2)
2.1.4 Identify the eras corresponding to different stages in the

geological event labelled:
(a) X (1)
(b) Y (1)
(c) Z (1)
2.1.5 The black bands below the map indicate warm periods and
the white bands show periods of ice ages.
(a) How many warm periods occurred during this

geological event? (1)
(b) State the ice age (1, 2, 3 or 4) which was of the longest (1)
duration?
(c) State ONE possible consequence that these ice ages (1)
may have had on the diversity of life on earth.
2.2 Suggest TWO reasons why there are gaps in the fossil record. (2)
[12]
50
QUESTION 3
3.1 The graph below shows the diversity of organisms over a period of Earth’s
history.
800
5
Diversity of organisms (No. of families)
1 2
600 3
400
200
600 500 400 300 200 100 0
Time (MYA)
3.1.1 What do we call the events on the graph marked 1-5 (1)
3.1.2 According to the graph, which event caused the greatest decrease in (1)
the diversity of organisms?
3.1.3 Scientists think that a volcano may have caused the decrease in
diversity of organisms during the event marked 5. Explain how a
volcano could cause so many species to die out. (3)
3.1.4 Scientists have other theories about what may have caused the
decrease in diversity of organisms at event marked 5. Name TWO
other theories. (2)
[7]
TOTAL SECTION B: 19
GRAND TOTAL: 30

51
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT-TOPIC TEST:BIOSPHERE

t
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 MINUTES

52
question paper.

where necessary.

53
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Choose the
correct answer and write only the letter (A to D) next to the question number (1.1.1 to
1.1.10) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.1.11 D.
1.1.1 The part of the earth where organism lived.....

A Atmosphere
B Lithosphere
C Biosphere
D Hydrphere
1.1.2 Study the list below

(i) Decomposers
(ii) Sunlight
(iii) Plants
(iv) Edaphic factors
Which of the following combinations can be considered as biotic factors
A (i) and (ii)

B (ii) and (iv)
C (i);(ii) and (iii)
D (i) ; (iii) and (iv)
(2X2) (4)
1.2.1 Any region with the distinct climate together with all the organism that live in that
1.2.2 The part biosphere that is made up of the waters of seas, lakes and rivers
1.2.3 The soil and rocks forming the upper layers of the earth’s surface
1.2.4 The study of all the interaction or relationship within the ecosystem
(1X4) (4)
1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B ONLY,
BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B only, both A and
B or none next to the question number (1.3.1 to 1.3.2) in the ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Abiotic factors A Temperature
B Light
1.3.2 Living organism that do not naturally live in A Exoctic species
South Africa B Alien
(2X2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A 12

54
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The diagram below shows an ecosystem
2.1.1 What would happen if all the weasels were removed from the (2)
ecosystem?
2.1.2 Use a food chain from the above ecosystem to draw a fully labelled (7)
pyramid of energy with FOUR trophic levels.
[9]
QUESTION 3
The table below shows the results of an investigation which measured the average global
3.1
carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere over a five-year period .
Year Carbon dioxide level (parts per million)

2004 376.0
2005 377.0
2006 379.5
2007 381.0
2008 381.5
3.1.1 Identify the dependent variable in the above investigation?
(1)
Calculate the increase in carbon dioxide from 2004 to 2008. Show all
3.1.2
calculations. (2)
3.1.3 Draw a line graph to show the change in carbon dioxide levels over time. (6)
TOTAL MARKS FOR SECTION B: 18

GRAND TOTAL: 30
55
NATIONAL
SENIOR CERTIFICATE
GRADE 10
LIFE SCIENCES

BIODIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION
MARKS: 30
TIME: 30 Minutes

56
question paper.

where necessary.

57
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
1.1.1 Which of the following sequences is correct according to Leanneus

classification system?
A Kingdom, class, phyla, order, family, genus, species

B Phyla, class, kingdom, family, genus, species, order
C Kingdom, phyla, class, order, familly, genus, species
D Kingdom, phyla, class, order, genus, family, species
1.1.2 Below is a list of descriptions in terms of classification systems used

by Taxonomists.
i) It is the kingdom into which plants belong

ii) It is made up of ancient anaerobic bacteria
iii) It consists of protists
iv) It is one of the domains in the Three -Domain classification
Which one of the following forms the correct combination about the
term Archae?
A ii and iv only
B i and iii only
C ii, iii and iv only
D iii and iv only (2 x 2) (4)
BOOK.
1.2.1. The Kingdom into which bacteria belongs in terms of Five-kingdom

classification.
1.2.2. Organisms without a definite nucleus
1.2.3 Organisms that feed on dead decaying organic matter
1.2.4. Organisms characterised by the presence of the vertebral column
(1 x 4) (4)

58

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Process used by plants to A: Chemosynthesis
manufacture their own food B: Photosynthesis
1.3.2 The genus name for chimpanzee in A: Pan

the scientific name Pan troglodytes B: Troglodytes
(2 x 2) (4)
TOTAL SECTION A: 12
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The table below shows how living organisms are classified according to the
Five Kingdom classification system.
Kingdom Body Structure Nutrition

Monera Unicellular, prokaryotic Autotrophic /
heterotrophic
Unicellular / multicellular, Autotrophic /
(P) eukaryotic heterotrophic
Fungi Multicellular, eukaryotic, cell Heterotrophic
walls containing (Q)
Plantae Multicellular, eukaryotic, cell (S)
walls containing (R)
Animalia Multicellular, eukaryotic,, no cell Heterotrophic
walls
2.1.1. State the term represented by each of the following letters as they
appear in the above table
(a) P (1)
(b) Q (1)
(c) R (1)
(d) S (1)
2.1.2 Define the term eukaryotic. (1)

2.1.3 Both fungi and Animalia are heterotrophic.
State the type of digestion in the two kingdoms respectively (2)
2.1.4. Name the organelle that is present in plant cells but not in fungi, that
makes plants autotrophic. (1)
[8]

59
QUESTION 3
3.1 Read the extract below and answer the questions that follow.
South Africa forms approximately one percent of the earth's total surface, yet
it is very rich in biodiversity. It holds a third place in the world in terms of
biodiversity. Many of these species are endemic.
The table below shows three biodiversity hotspots in South Africa as well as the
percentage of endemism for each hotspot
Biodiversity hotspot Level of endemism (%)

Cape-Floristic Kingdom 80
Succulent Karoo 40
Maputo-Pondoland-Albany 23
3.1.1 Define the term endemism (2)

3.1.2. Calculate the difference in the level of endemism between the Cape Floristic
Kingdom and Maputo-Pondoland Albany. (2)
3.1.3. Draw a bar graph to represent the information in the table above (6)
[10]
TOTAL SECTION B: 18
GRAND TOTAL: 30

60
PART B

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

LIFE
SCIENCES
GRADE 10
CAPS
Life Processes in Plants and
Animals
Topic 2: Support Systems in
Animals
Human Skeleton System

SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION:
INTRODUCTION:
⦿ The human skeleton
system is made up of
bones together with
the joints and
muscles we studied
earlier.
⦿ The skeleton of the
adult human is made
up of 206 bones. Bones of the Skeletal System
⦿ The total mass of
these bones are
between 8 and 15 kg.
INTRODUCTION:
⦿ For the sake of study the human skeletal system
can be divided into 2 parts.
⦿ These 2 parts are:
1. Axial Skeleton
2. Appendicular Skeleton
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=WdCRrcfan44
THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ The main axis (an imaginary line about which a body
rotates) of the skeleton is called the axial
skeleton.
⦿ The axial skeleton is made up of the:
1. Skull
2. Vertebral column
3. Ribs
4. Sternum
⦿ The part mentioned above is made up of 80 bones.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
The Skull:
⦿ The skull is made up
of the cranium and
the facial bones.
⦿ The facial bones are
the bones of the
face.
The Skull showing the Cranium
⦿ The cranium is
and Facial bones
made up of flat
bones that fit
together.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ These bones are
held together by
immovable joints
called the sutures.
⦿ An opening is found
at the bottom of the
skull.
⦿ This opening is
called the foramen
magnum.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ On either say of the
foramen magnum is a
smooth ridge.
⦿ This ridge is called a
condyle.
⦿ There are 2 condyles
that are in contact with
the atlas (first vertebra)
⦿ The condyles articulate
with the atlas.
⦿ The spinal cord enter
and leaves through the
foramen magnum.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ The bones of the
forehead, the cheek
bones, the nasal
bones and the bones
of the upper and
lower jaw make up
the facial bones.
⦿ The jaws are gently
curved on the sides
and front.
⦿ The adult human jaw
has 32 teeth
embedded in it.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ But the teeth are
not a part of the
skeletal system.
Why?
⦿ The dental formula
shows us the
number and
arrangement of the
different teeth.
⦿ The human dental Teeth of Jaw
formula is as follows:
THE AXIAL SKELETON 2.1.2.3
⦿ According to the dental 2.1.2.3
formula, one half of the
upper jaw has 2 incisors, Human Dental Formula
1 canine, 2 premolars and
3 molars.
⦿ From the formula we can
see that the lower jaw
has the same formula.
If we want to calculate the
total number of teeth in
each jaw, then we
multiply each row of the
formula by 2.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
If we wish to calculate the total number of
teeth found in the human then we multiply one
row by 4.
⦿ Humans have a flat face, because their foreheads

does not slope very far backwards, we have a
well developed chin and bones of the nose and
jaws do not stick out too much.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
The Vertebral Column:
⦿ The vertebral
column is made up
of 33 bones.
⦿ These bones are
called vertebrae.
⦿ The bones are
arranged into 5
regions as shown
alongside.
Regions of the vertebral column
THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ From the diagram we can see that the:
1. The there are 7 cervical vertebrae in the neck region.
2. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae in the chest region.
3. There are 5 lumbar vertebrae in the back region.
4. There are 5 sacral vertebrae. These vertebrae are

fused and are difficult to see separately.
5. Finally the coccyx is made up of 4 fused vertebrae.

THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ The vertebra are
arranged in such a
way that they
interlock with each
other.
⦿ This arrangement
allows for the
formation of a cavity
called the spinal
canal.
⦿ The spinal canal runs
from the bottom of
the vertebral column
to the cranium.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ From the previous diagram you can see that the
arrangement of the vertebrae allows for the
formation of tiny gaps between the vertebrae.
⦿ These gaps allow spinal nerves to enter and
leave the spinal cord.
⦿ Cartilaginous discs occur between the vertebrae.
⦿ These discs acts as shock absorbers during
movement.
⦿ They also prevent friction between the vertebrae.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
Functions of the Vertebral Column:
1. Provides protection for the spinal cord
2. It is flexible because it is made up of separate

vertebrae, this allows for bending backwards,
forwards and side wards.
3. The gaps between the vertebrae allow for
entry and exit of spinal nerves.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
The Rib Cage:
⦿ The rib cage is made up of 12 pairs of ribs.
⦿ These ribs are attached in the front to the
sternum and at the back they are attached to the
vertebral column.
⦿ The first 7 pairs of ribs are called the true ribs.
⦿ They are attached to the sternum by means of a
cartilage.
⦿ This cartilage is called costal cartilage.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
Diagram showing the ribcage of the Human Body

THE AXIAL SKELETON
⦿ The next 4 pairs of the ribs are called the false
ribs.
⦿ The first 3 pairs of the false ribs are joined
together first and then attached to the sternum.
⦿ The last 2 pairs are also false ribs.
⦿ They are not attached to the sternum at all!
⦿ These unattached false ribs are called the
floating ribs.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
Functions:
1. It provides protection for the internal organs.
2. It plays a role in ventilation. Ventilation is
important because it allows for gases to enter or
leave the lungs. When the muscles found
between the ribs contract and relax the rib cage
moves. If the rib cage is lifted then the volume
of the rib cage increases and the pressure on the
lung decreases and is now lower than
atmospheric pressure. This causes air to be
pulled in, inhalation occurs.
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
⦿ The appendicular skeleton
is made up of the:
1. The pectoral girdle and
upper limbs.
2. The pelvic girdle and
lower limbs.
The Pectoral Girdle and

Upper Limbs:
⦿ The shoulder girdle is
made up of 2 shoulder
blades and 2 collar bones.
The Shoulder Girdle
⦿ The shoulder blades
are also called the
scapulae.
⦿ Each scapula is large,
flat bone with a
triangular shape.
⦿ It has a spine on its
back for the
attachment of
muscles.
⦿ It has a shallow
socket.
⦿ This socket is called
the glenoid cavity.
⦿ The humerus fits into
the glenoid cavity.
⦿ The rod-like collar
bone is attached to
scapula on 1 end and
to the sternum on
the other end.
⦿ The collar bone is
also known as the The Pectoral Girdle
clavicle.
The Upper Limbs:
⦿ The upper limb is
made up of the
humerus, ulna and
radius, the carpals,
the metacarpals and
the phalanges.
⦿ The humerus is
attached to the
glenoid cavity.
⦿ It forms a joint with
the scapula called the
ball and socket joint.
Bones of the Upper limbs

⦿ The forearm is made
up of the radius and
ulna.
⦿ The radius is in line
with the thumb.
⦿ The upper end of the
ulna fits into the
lower end of the
humerus.
⦿ It forms a hinge joint.
Bones of the forearm
⦿ The wrist is made up
of 8 small bones
called the carpals.
⦿ These bones glide
over each other to
form a gliding joint.
⦿ This leads to the
bones of the hand.
⦿ These bones are
called the
metacarpals.
Bones of the Wrist and Hand
⦿ There are 5
metacarpals.
⦿ The metacarpals lead
to the fingers.
⦿ The bones of the
fingers are called the
phalanges.
⦿ There are 14
phalanges in total.
Three in each finger
and two in each
thumb.
Bones of the Wrist and Hand
The Pelvic Girdle:
⦿ The pelvic girdle is
made up of 2 hip bones.
⦿ Each hip bone is really
3 bones joined
together.
⦿ These three bones are
the ilum, ischium and
pubis. Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
⦿ The bones are fused
together by sutures.
⦿ The 2 hip bones are
attached to each
other in the front.
⦿ The pubis symphysis
joins the 2 hip bones
to each other in the
front.
⦿ The hip bones are
attached to the
vertebral column in
the back.
Pelvic girdle-back view
⦿ Each hip bone has a deep socket.
⦿ This socket is called the acetabulum.
⦿ The head of the femur fits into the socket.
The Lower Limb:

⦿ Each lower limb is made up of the femur, tibia
and fibula, patella, tarsal, metatarsals and
phalanges.
⦿ Now lets look at these bones in a little more
detail.
⦿ The thigh bone is
called the femur.
⦿ The head of the
femur fits into the
acetabulum of the
hip bone.
⦿ It forms a joint
called the ball and
socket joint.
Bones of the lower limbs
⦿ The lower limb is made up
of the tibia and fibula.
⦿ The upper portion of the
tibia articulates with the
lower portion of the
femur.
⦿ This forms a joint called
the hinge joint at the
knee.
⦿ The knee cap is found in
front of the knee joint.
⦿ The knee cap is also called
the patella.
⦿ Seven small bones
make up the ankle.
⦿ These bones are
called the tarsals.
⦿ The tarsals glide
over each other to
form a gliding joint.
⦿ The heel bone is
formed by the
largest tarsal.
Bones of the ankle
⦿ The foot is made up
of 5 bones.
⦿ These bones are
called the metatarsals.
⦿ The toes are made up
of the phalanges.
⦿ There are 3 in each
toe and 2 in the big
toe.
⦿ So each foot is made
up of 14 phalanges.
Bones of the Foot

COMPARISON OF THE PECTORAL AND
PELVIC GIRDLE
⦿ The pectoral girdle has to be a flexible girdle to
provide the full and free movements required for
the activities carried out by the hand.
⦿ The pelvic girdle has to be a rigid girdle to be
able to support the weight of the entire body.
⦿ Now lets look at what makes the girdles flexible
and rigid and how they are different from each
other.
COMPARISON OF THE PECTORAL AND
PELVIC GIRDLE
Pectoral Girdle Pelvic Girdle
The scapula are not joined The hip bones are joined
to each other to each other in front
The scapula is not The hip bones are
attached to the vertebral attached to the vertebral
column column in the back.
The glenoid cavity is The acetabulum is deep.
shallow
These 3 factors make the These 3 factors make the
pectoral girdle flexible. pelvic girdle rigid.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON
1. The skeleton together with the muscles allows
for movement.
2. The skeleton protects the internal organs.
3. The skeleton provides support to many organs
of the body. For example the muscles are
attached to the skeleton.
4. The bones of the skeleton store many minerals
e.g. calcium. If these minerals are not provided
by the diet then they are drawn from the bones
for the functioning of the body.
5. There are 3 small bones in each ear that plays a
role in hearing.
TERMINOLOGY:
⦿ Tarsals: the 8 bones of the ankle
⦿ Metatarsals: the 5 bones of the foot
⦿ Carpels: the 8 bones of the wrist
⦿ Metacarpels: the 5 bones of the hand
⦿ Phalanges: 14 bones of the fingers and toes
⦿ Femur: this is the thigh bone
⦿ Acetabulum: the deep socket found in the hip bone
⦿ Scapula: the triangular shaped shoulder blade
⦿ Glenoid cavity: the shallow socket found on the
scapula
⦿ Pubis symphysis: joins the 2 hip bones to each other
in the front.
TERMINOLOGY:
⦿ Ilum, ischium and pubis: these 3 bones join together
to form the hip.
⦿ Sternum: another name for the breast bone.
⦿ Floating ribs: these are false ribs that are not
attached to the sternum
⦿ Vertebrae: small bones of the vertebral column
⦿ Foramen magnum: large opening at the bottom of the
skull through which the spinal cord enters and leaves.
⦿ Axial skeleton: this is the main axis of the skeleton
QUESTION 1
The human skeleton is made up of…
A. Bones, teeth and muscles.

B. Bones and muscles
C. Bones, teeth, muscles and joints
D. Bones, muscles and joints
QUESTION 2
The human skeleton for the sake of convenience
can be divided into the…
A. Appendicular skeleton
B. Axial skeleton
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
QUESTION 3
The axial skeleton is made up of…
A. The pelvic girdle and the skull

B. The cranium and the pectoral girdle
C. The pelvic and pectoral girdle
D. Skull and vertebral column
QUESTION 4
The axial skeleton is made up of ____ bones.
A. 206
B. 80
C. 126
D. 180
QUESTION 5
The skull is made up of the…
A. Cranium only
B. Facial bones only
C. Cranium and facial bones
QUESTION 6
The foramen magnum is a large opening…
A. Through which the spinal cord leaves

B. In the middle of the skull
C. At the bottom of the skull
D. Both A and C
QUESTION 7
The vertebral column is made up of…
A. 33 vertebrae
B. 66 vertebrae
C. 33 phalanges
D. 66 phalanges
QUESTION 8
The condyle is a…
A. Smooth ridge found on either side of the

foramen magnum
B. Smooth ridge that articulates with the axis
C. Part of the vertebrae
D. All of the above
QUESTION 9
The thoracic vertebrae are found in the…
A. Back region
B. Chest region
C. Neck region
QUESTION 10
The cervical vertebrae are made up of…
A. 7 vertebrae in the neck region

B. 7 vertebrae in the back region
C. 7 vertebrae in the chest region
D. 7 vertebrae in the coccyx
QUESTION 11
Cartilaginous discs occur between the vertebrae to/for…
A. Act as a shock absorber

B. Prevent friction
C. Both A and B
QUESTION 12
The clavicles are…
A. Part of the rib cages

B. The first pair of ribs
C. Closely associated with the rib cage but not a
part of the rib cage
D. The last pair of ribs
QUESTION 13
The pectoral girdle is made up of…
A. 2 scapula
B. 2 hip bones
C. 2 humerus
D. 2 femur
QUESTION 14
The flexible girdle is…
A. Pectoral girdle
B. Pelvic girdle
C. Both A and B
D. Neither A nor B
QUESTION 15
The scapula is attached to the…
A. Vertebrae in the back

B. To each other in the front
C. Both A and B
QUESTION 16
The hip bones are attached to…
A. Vertebrae in the back

B. To each other in the front
C. Both A and B
QUESTION 17
The pelvic is more rigid because of…
A. Its attachment to vertebral column

B. The deep socket
C. Both A and B
D. B only
QUESTION 18
One of the functions of the skeleton is to…
A. Store minerals
B. Prevent friction
C. All for circulation of blood
D. Allow for contraction and relaxation of the
heart muscle
QUESTION 19
The tarsals are a part of…
A. The ankle
B. The wrist
C. The arm
D. The upper limb
QUESTION 20
The carpals are part of the…
A. The ankle
B. The wrist
C. The leg
D. The lower limb
REMOTE LEARNING ACTIVITY BOOK
(RELAB)
SUBJECT: LIFE SCIENCES
GRADE: 10
TERMS ONE - FOUR
1
A. TABLE OF CONTENTS
TERM 1
Week Topic Page
1 How science works 6
2 Biosphere and Biomes 14
3 Environment and Ecosystems 25
4 Abiotic and biotic factors 28
5 Energy flow 35
6 Water and Oxygen cycles 40
7 Carbon and Nitrogen cycles 47
8&9 Classification schemes and Main groupings 52
TERM 2
Week Topic Page
1 History of life on Earth: Life’s history, The three eras & 60
Geological timescales
2 History of life on Earth: Cambrian explosion 67
3 History of life on Earth: Mass extinctions 71
4 History of life on Earth: Fossil formation and methods of 74

dating
5 The chemistry of life: Molecules for life: Organic molecules 80

and Minerals
6 The chemistry of life: Organic compounds (Carbohydrates 82

& Lipids)
7 The chemistry of life: Organic compounds (Proteins, 87

Enzymes, Nucleic acids & Vitamins)
8 Cells: The basic unit of life: (Cell wall, cell membrane, 93

nucleus & cytoplasm)
2
9 Cells: The basic unit of life: (Mitochondria, Ribosome, 97
Endoplasmic reticulum & Golgi-body)
10 Cells: The basic unit of life: (Plastids, Vacuoles & 103

difference between plant and animal cells)
TERM 3
Week Topic Page
1&2 Cell division: mitosis 109
3 Animal tissues 118
4&5 Plant tissues and Organs: Anatomy of dicotyledonous 126

plants
6 Support and transport systems in plants: The leaf 139
7 Support and transport systems in plants: Transpiration 143
8 Support and transport systems in plants: Water uptake, 146

Transport of water & Translocation of manufactured food
9 & 10 Support system in animals: Human skeleton and Functions 151

of the skeleton
TERM 4
Week Topic Page
1 Transport systems: Blood circulation system 161
2 Transport systems: Direction of blood flow & Lungs and 171

pulmonary system
3
B. INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE RELAB
The pandemic has forced schools to resort to the implementation of rotational

timetables - where learners who are at home during normal schooling must continue
learning. Hence RELAB as a strategy towards the deployment of remote learning.
The RELAB is underpinned by the following Legislative demands:

a) Responding to GDE Strategic goal 2: promoting quality education across all
classrooms and schools
b) DBE Circular S13 of 2020: requires the GDE to support the implementation of
the Recovery Annual Teaching Plan (RATP)
c) GDE Circular 11 of 2020 requiring districts to issue Learning Activity Packs to
support schools for lockdown learning.
Understanding the learning constraints at home where the majority of learners do
not have access to devices or data to use for online learning. Many households
are depending on schools to provide them with learning resources packs.
RELAB is designed in a study guide format, where the content is briefly explained with
related concepts as revision, in the form of e.g. notes, mind-maps, concept
progression from the previous grade/s followed by exemplar exercises then practice
exercises/problems . The exercises are pitched at different cognitive levels to expose
learners at Grade 10 to these different cognitive demand levels of questioning. The
NSC diagnostic reports in different subjects have revealed that learners fail to analyse
questions and as a result fail to respond accordingly.
The RELAB is intended to ensure that learners work on exercises as per topics taught
while at school. These exercises must be completed at home, fully and learners will
receive feedback as groups or individually at school. It is therefore of paramount
importance that teachers mark the work with learners in class, as a way of providing
feedback. Educators must diagnose learner responses, remediate where necessary
and plan further intervention.
Educators are encouraged to create WhatsApp groups to remind learners on what is

expected of them in a particular week/ day(s). There shouldn’t be a backlog on
curriculum coverage as content will be covered simultaneously. Feedback from
learners at home will confirm usage of the RELAB material.
RELAB further prepares learners for formal assessment.
4
TERM 1
5
WEEK 1: TOPIC: Orientation to Life Sciences
SUB-TOPIC: How science works
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
GRAPHS
Graphs are a way of recording the relationship between two things / factors that
can change in picture form. These factors that change in relation to each other
are called variables.
Graphs are therefore a way of recording large amounts of information in a simple
form that can easily be understood. Graphs make it easier to interpret trends.
Depending on the information we want to record, we can use different types of

graphs. The most common graph is the (jagged) line graph; we will also deal
with bar graphs, histograms and pie graphs.
Before we start, we need to learn the terminology linked to graphs. The following
terms are common to most graphs:
Axis (pl. axes): The vertical axis is the y-axis

The horizontal axis is the x-axis
Origin: The point where the x- and y-axis cross meet.
THERE MUST BE A ZERO AT THE ORIGIN.
Independent variable: always goes on the x-axis.

This is the variable that we can control / change so
that we can see what happens.
Dependent variable: always goes on the y-axis.
6
This is the variable that depends on the independent
variable i.e. it changes as we change the independent
variable / the variable that is measured.
Scale: This is the way we determine how to plot the

information on the graph and we have to take readings
from the graph and carefully consider it before we start
the graph. We need to make sure that our scale covers
all the figures that we have to plot. The scale starts at
0 and must be kept constant e.g. 5, 10, 15, 20 or 10,
20, 30 etc. The scale must also be clearly marked on
the axes.
Heading: All graphs must have a heading that includes the

information on both axes i.e. both variables. The
question will guide you to write the heading. The
heading must say what type of graph it is. The heading
must not have the units. The heading must be
underlined.
Labels: Each axis must be correctly labelled – always include
units (if there are any)
Plotting points: Plot the points and clearly mark them on the graph with
a dot.
Use a ruler to join the plotted points.

2. BAR GRAPHS:
Bar graphs are used when one of the variables is given in numbers.
Remember:
• Bar graphs have separate bars like the bars in a prison
• Bars are always the same size (width) – measure and draw with a ruler
• Spaces between the bars are always the same size
• Do not draw bars against the y-axis
• Scale must be clearly marked and the number written next to the mark
• It is strongly advised that a key be used. e.g. A, B, C or 1, 2, 3.
• Do not write in the bars.
7
3. HISTOGRAMS:
Histograms are used when information is presented in continuous groups.

These are similar
to bar graphs BUT THERE ARE NO SPACES BETWEEN THE BARS.
Remember:
• Bars are always the same size (width) – measure and draw with a ruler
• Scale must be clearly marked and the number written next to the mark
• It is strongly advised that a key be used. e.g. A, B, C or 1, 2, 3.
• Do not write in the bars.
4. PIE CHARTS:
How to draw a pie chart:
1. Add the numbers to get a total. OR 1. Add the numbers to get a total
2. Convert to %. 2. Divide the value of the portion
by the total
3. Convert % to degrees. 3. Multiply the answer with 360o
Example.
Convert the following table to a pie chart.
Different food types No. of portions
Lipids 10
Proteins 20
carbohydrates 40
8
Step 1 – Add number of portions together to get a total
10 + 20 + 40 = 70
Step 2 – Convert each food type to %.
Lipids: 10 x 100 = 14%
70
Proteins: 20 x 100 = 29%
70
Carbohydrates: 40 x 100 = 57%
70
14 + 29 + 57 = 100%
Make sure you round off correctly till you get 100% then proceed to the next
step.
Step 3 - Convert the % to degrees by multiplying by 3.6 OR 360/100.

Lipids - 14 % x 3.6 = 50o
Proteins – 29 % x 3.6 = 105o

Carbohydrates – 57 x 3.6 = 205o
50 + 105 + 205 = 360o
Add all degrees and once you have 360 degrees then you may proceed to
draw the circle.
Remember to use a key for the pie chart.

Do not write any numbers in the pie chart.
SCIENTIFIC DIAGRAMS:
Remember:
1. Diagrams must be drawn with a pencil.
2. Draw sharp, clear and solid lines.
9
3. No shading or colour.
4. Diagrams must be 10 lines big or a third of the page big.
5. Labels should be printed in lowercase unless a structure is the name of a
person e.g. Golgi apparatus.
6. Labels must be one below each other.
7. Label lines should be drawn with a ruler and should be parallel.
8. Heading should include: Drawing of ………… what it is …………. which
view i.e. L/S or a C/S ………….. fresh material / seen under a microscope
……………. with magnification e.g. A line diagram of a cross section of a
dicot root as seen under a microscope X200. (Section of diagram and
magnification must be include only if relevant to diagram)
9. Heading must be underlined.
10. You may be asked to draw annotated diagrams. These are diagrams with
labels and functions or labels and descriptions of the structures.
TABLES
1. A table must have a heading which includes the variables that are in the
table
.i.e.. A table of ….
2. The heading must be underlined.
3. A table must have columns and rows. (Horizontal and vertical lines)
4. Each column must have a heading and units. (if applicable).
5. Table must have a frame or border (drawn in pencil and with a ruler)
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Steps of the scientific method
Ask a question: The scientific method starts with a question about something
that you observe:
How, Why, When, What or Where?
Construct a hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about the outcome

of the experiment:
If ____________________ (I do this) ______, then _____(this) ____will happen.
10
You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure or test. Include
both the dependent and independent variable and the relationship between the
variables in the hypothesis.
Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment: your experiment tests whether your
hypothesis is true or false. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You
conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while
keeping all the other conditions the same.
You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first
results were not just an accident (if possible).
Variables
Independent variable: a variable/factor that you choose to control in the
experiment.
Dependent variable: a variable/factor that you measure in an experiment.
Fixed variables: Variables/factors that stay the same throughout the experiment.
Begin with the word same…
Aim
To determine / To investigate …. . The aim must include the 2 variables.
Apparatus
List all apparatus/ chemicals/equipment you will use in the experiment. You may
be asked to draw the apparatus as it should be set up.
Method
The method is written in steps and is numbered. It is short and simple and written
in third person, as a set of instructions.
Results/Observation
A table is best used to record results. The observation can include what you have
seen, heard or smelt. You may be asked to draw a graph in the results.
Discussion
State the results. Discuss the results. Why it happened and what caused it to
occur? Was the hypothesis true or false? Was it a fair test? How could you have
improved the experiment?
Conclusion
Refer back to aim. It is a short statement.
11
RELIABILITY
• Repeat the investigation.
• Increase the sample size.
VALIDITY
Validity questions how the investigation or experiment or method was carried out.
It is important to be sure that all the factors or variables have been controlled
except the one variable that is being tested.
To ensure validity the samples must be chosen randomly.
CALCULATIONS
(1) AVERAGES
To calculate the average: Add together the set of quantities and then divide by the
number of quantities that were added.
Example. The average of 2, 4, 6 and 8
2+4+6+8 = 20
20 ÷ 4 = 5 is the average.
(2) PERCENTAGE INCREASE AND DECREASE

% increase or decrease = difference X 100
first
You must know and write the formula in any problem.
(3) RATIOS
Simplify the numbers to its simplest form.
Remember the order of the ratio is given in the question .
1. MAGNIFICATION: Using a microscope
Total magnification = eyepiece magnification x objective lens magnification
= 10 x 40
12
= 400X
Actual length of specimen = measured length of specimen x length on scale

measured length on scale
ACTIVITIES/WORKSHEETS/EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS
1.1. Draw two graphs on the same set of axes showing the changes in heart
rate of two boys, John and Thabo, as they run over a certain distance.
Distance run (m) John’s heart rate Thabo’s heart rate

(beats per minute) (beats per minute)
0 60 70
100 75 80
200 85 90
400 100 110
800 120 115
1500 120 130
1.2 . What is the relationship between exercise (running further and further)
and heart rate (heart beats per minute)?
2.1. Translate the information in the table below showing the number of
learners in a class of 35 who like different types of sports, into a bar
graph.
Types of sports Number of learners
who like the sport
Soccer 8
Rugby 5
Basketball 6
Netball 10
Volleyball 2
Cricket 4
13
2.2. Which sport is liked the least?
2.3. Which sport is liked the most?
3.1. Translate the information showing the number of learners who like different
type of fruits into a pie graph. Show all workings.
Types of fruits No. of learners who like
the fruits
Kiwi 10
Apples 5
Pears 15
Oranges 10
WEEK 2: TOPIC: Biosphere to ecosystems
SUB-TOPIC: Biosphere & Biomes
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
BIOSPHERE
Biosphere : bio=life sphere=ball
• Is a global ecosystem composed of living organisms (biota) and the
nonliving factors (abiotic) from which they derive energy and nutrients.
• Therefore its referred to as a global ecosystem because all living
organisms on Earth live in it.
• The biosphere is made up of three components
• Atmosphere
• Lithosphere
• Hydrosphere
THE ATMOSPHERE:
• Is the layer of gases surrounding the earth.
14
• The atmosphere’s ability to absorb the ultraviolet rays of the sun is what
allows life on earth to survive.
THE LITHOSPHERE:
• Is the rocky outer part of the Earth. It is made up of the brittle crust and the
top part of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is the coolest and most rigid
part of the Earth.
• The lithosphere shields living organisms from the heat of the Earth’s core .
• It also contains ionic compounds which allow plant and animal life to exist.
THE HYDROSPHERE:
• Is the combined mass of water found on, under and above the surface of the
earth.
• Example: lakes, rivers and springs, oceans (freshwater and salt water).
• It is a home to a wide diversity of aquatic, plant and animal life.
15
How does the biosphere interact with other spheres?
• The disturbances in one sphere affects the other spheres.

• Example, deforestation (biosphere) results in increased erosion of soil (the
upper layer of the lithosphere) into rivers (hydrosphere).
• Deforestation also results in an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide
(atmosphere).
• This is an example of how disturbances in one sphere produces effects in
other spheres eg hydrosphere, upper lithosphere and the atmosphere.
16
• These spheres are closely connected.
• For example, many birds (biosphere) fly through the air (atmosphere), while
water (hydrosphere) often flows through the soil (lithosphere).
• This means a change in the atmosphere can cause a change in the
hydrosphere, and vice versa as seen below.
BIOMES
• The biosphere is divided up into a number of biomes.
• A biome is a collection of plants and animals that have common
characteristics for the environment they exist in.
• These biomes have distinct biological communities that have formed in
response to a shared physical climate.
• Temperature range, soil type, and the amount of light and water are unique to
a particular place. This is what is used to define a biome.
TYPES OF BIOMES.
Biomes are grouped into two categories (types)

1. TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
• is an area of land with a similar climate that includes similar communities of
plants as trees, shrubs, grasses and animals.
2. AQUATIC BIOMES
• is divided into freshwater and marine regions.
17
SOUTH AFRICAN TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
South Africa has nine biomes, based on vegetation types that share similar
ecological characteristics.
Each biome has a characteristic climate envelope, or a range and pattern of
temperature and rainfall patterns, within which it occurs.
1) Grassland.
2) Savannah.
3) Arid Savannah
4) Succulent Karoo.
5) Nama Karoo.
6) Forest.
7) Fynbos.
8) Desert.
9) Thicket.
18
How Climate, Soils and vegetation influence organisms?
• The key factors determining climate are average annual precipitation (rainfall)
and temperature.
19
• The specific conditions of biomes determine the communities
of plants, animals and soil organisms in a particular biome.
• The climate affects the soil. Example soil can be dried out and rearranged
during droughty or windy weather.
• As the soil dries out, plant growth is reduced, which reduces the stability of
the surface layer and causes more erosion.
• Vegetation can affect climate and weather patterns due to the release
of water vapour during photosynthesis. The release of vapour into
the air alters the surface energy fluxes and leads to potential cloud
formation/rain.
AQUATIC BIOMES
Water covers a major portion of the Earth’s surface, so aquatic biomes
contain a rich diversity of plants and animals.
ITS DIVIDED INTO TWO SUB BIOMES
Freshwater (low salt content), example ponds, lakes, streams, rivers and
wetlands.
and
Marine (high salt content), example oceans, coral reefs and estuaries.
20
QUESTION 1
Choose the correct answer and write ONLY the letter (A to D) next to the question
number (1.1.1 to 1.1.7) in your answer book, for example 1.1.8 B.
1.1.1 All parts of the Earth where life exists is called the …
A biomass.
B biosphere.
C biotic factors.
D abiotic factors.
1.1.2 The layer of air that surrounds the Earth is called the …
A lithosphere.
B hydrosphere.
C atmosphere.
D biosphere.
1.1.3 The Biosphere consists of . . .

A the lithosphere.
B the atmosphere.
C the hydrosphere.
D all the above.
21
1.1.4 Which component of the biosphere is related to soil?
A Lithosphere
B Hydrosphere
C Atmosphere
D Hemisphere
1.1.5 Which two spheres are represented in the image?
A.The biosphere and the lithosphere

B.The atmosphere and the biosphere
C.The hydrosphere and the atmosphere
D.The lithosphere and the hydrosphere
1.1.6 Which sequence of events shows the hydrosphere effecting the

biosphere, then the biosphere effecting another part of the biosphere?
A A: a tornado forms
B: the tornado rips up trees
C: trees are in the air
B A: people breathe in oxygen

B: people breathe out carbon dioxide
C: the air is full of carbon dioxide
C A: rain clouds form

B: rain washes trash into the sewers
C: people have to clean it up
D A: it rains
B: animals drink water
C: animals get eaten by people
22
1.1.7 Ponds and rivers are two types of:
A. Marine biomes
B. Rain forest biomes
C. Freshwater biomes
D. Estuary biomes
(14)
1.2 Give the biological term for each of the following descriptions.
Write ONLY the term next to the question number (1.2.1 to 1.2.5) in your
answer book.
1.2.1. A biome that is characterised by having large trees and shade - loving
shrubs in the undergrowth.
1.2.2. Part of the earth water and atmosphere which inhabits living organisms.
1.2.3. The upper, rigid layer of the Earth.
1.2.4. Region of the earth that encompasses all living organisms: plants,
animals and bacteria.
1.2.5. The major climatic regions of the world, classified according to their
predominant vegetation and characterised by adaptations of organisms
to that particular environment. (5)
QUESTION 2
2.1 Study the map below where South Africa’s terrestrial biomes are
indicated with the letters A to G and answer the questions that follow.
2.1.1Define the term biome. (2)
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2.1.2 Name the TWO main types of biomes. (2)
2.1.3 Identify the biomes A - G. (7)
2. 1.4 Name the biome which is a main tourist attraction during spring, when the
whole area is covered with flowers? (1)
2.1.5
a) Name the biome that includes one of the world’s richest floral kingdoms.
b) Give the biome that attracts tourists to its many game farms.
c) State the largest biome. (3)
2.2 Study the map below and answer the questions that follow.
2.2.1 Name the biomes 1 to 5 on the map. (5)

2.2.2 Write down the number ONLY of the biome that:
a) Has the greatest number of succulent plant species in the world
b) Is made up of indigenous forest (2)
Total =40marks
24
SUB-TOPIC: Environment and Ecosystems
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Environment
The environment is the natural world, encompassing the interaction of all living
species, climate, weather and natural resources that affect human survival and
economic activity.
Over the years, humans have been both detrimental and beneficial to the
environment. Humans have for the most part tried to preserve and look after our
natural resources which are important to us. Human activities have been detrimental
to our environment in the forms of atmospheric pollution, global warming and
destruction of biodiversity. There are currently many uncertainties regarding the
future of our environment. These complex problems will need complex solutions and
will need the participation of all.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors in an
area that interact with each other. Some examples of ecosystems are a river, a
grassland or even a fallen rock.
Biotic factors are living organisms such as plants, animals and microorganisms.
Abiotic factors are non-living such as soil, water, temperature and sunlight.
Biotic and abiotic factors interact amongst themselves and with each other in a way
that helps to balance the energy flow of the ecosystem.
The study of all the relationships in an ecosystem is called ecology.
25
An example of an ecosystem
QUESTION 1
Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.

number (1.1 to 1.2) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.3 D.
1.1 In an ecosystem, the producers get their energy from the…
A consumers.
B decomposers.
C rotting leaves.
D sunlight.
1.2 Which of the following is not an abiotic factor in an ecosystem?
A Light
B Micro-organisms
C pH
D Temperature 2x2 (4)
26
QUESTION 2
Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number (2.1 to 2.3) in your ANSWER BOOK.
2.1 The study of the interaction between different living organisms,

and between them and their environment.
2.2 The non-living factors in an ecosystem.
2.3 An area in which there exists relationships between biotic and
abiotic factors. (3)
QUESTION 3
Study the diagram of an ecosystem and answer the questions.
3.1 Label TWO abiotic factors and THREE biotic factors in the (5)
diagram.
27
SUB-TOPIC: Biotic and Abiotic factors
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
ABIOTIC FACTORS
PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS
Physiographic factors are the physical geography of an area, including aspect,
slope and altitude.
Aspect
Aspect is the direction in which an area faces in relation to the direction of the sun.
In south africa, the sun shines from the north. This means that north-facing
slopes are exposed to the direct rays of the sun for longer periods than south-
facing slopes. North-facing slopes will be hotter and drier. South-facing slopes
will be moist and cooler and will have lusher vegetation.
Slope
The slope of the land is how steep or gentle the gradient is. Water flows faster
on steep slopes, which means that more erosion takes place. The soil on steep
slopes tends to be thin and infertile, and can only support smaller plants. There is
less erosion on more gradual slopes.
Altitude
Altitude is the height above sea level. At higher altitudes, there is a decrease in
atmospheric pressure, oxygen content and tmeperature. Rainfall and wind speeds
are greater and frost and snow occur.
SOIL (EDAPHIC) FACTORS
Soil is important for plant growth as it provides water and minerals, and holds
plants firmly in the ground. The type of soil in anarea will determine the kinds of
plants that will grow there.
Characteristics of soil:
 pH: Soil pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline the water in the soil is.
28
Most plants grow best in neutral pH conditions.
 Humus content: Humus is the organic component of soils formed by the
breakdown of dead pants and animals in the soil by bacteria and fungi.
These nutrients can be taken up by plants and seperates the soil particles,
allowing air and water to enter. High humus content = fertile soil.
 Texture: The texture of the soil is determined by the size of the soil paricles.
 Sand: Large particles. Feels coarse even when wet.
 Loam: Mixture of sand and clay. Particles stick together when wet. High
humus content.
 Clay: Small particles. Soft, smooth and sticky when wet.
 Air content: Air is found in the spaces between the soil particles. Plant roots
need oxygen for healthy growth.
 Sand: Big airspaces
 Loam: Mixture of big and small air spaces.
 Clay: Small airspaces.
 Water retention capacity: The amount of water the soil can hold. Water and
dissolved mineral satls are found between the spaces in the soil particles.
 Sandy soil: Low water retention
 Loamy soils: Water retention is moderate
 Clay soils: Water retention is high.
29
Light
Plants grow only where there is enough light for photosynthesis. Some plants are
adapted to grow in full sun (sun plants) and others prefer less light and grow best
in the shade (shade plants).
Temperature
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an area is. The distribution of types
changes from the equator to the poles. This is due to the decrease in temperature
and rainfall further away from the equator.
Water
Water makes up about 70% by weight of most living things, therefore, they cannot
survive without it. Many chemical reactions essential for life occur in water. Water
transports various dissolved substances inside and between cells and it maintains
a stable body temperature.
Wetlands: Is an area of land that is mostly covered with water. Wetlands are
essential ecosystems because:
 They act as natural filters trapping nutrients, soil, disease-causing bacteria
and pollutants.
 They slow down floodwaters, as they act like a sponge and store water.
This reduces erosion and flood damage. It also maintains a steady flow of
water during the year.
 Wetlands are rich in plant life and provide food and shelter for many
organisms.
Atmospheric gases
Composition of the atmosphere: 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0,04% Carbon
dioxide and some water vapour.
Oxygen is needed by plants and animals for respiration. Carbon dioxide is needed
for photosynthesis.
The atmosphere traps some of the sun’s heat, preventing it from escaping back
into space. This is called the greenhouse effect. Water vapour, carbon dioxide and
methane are the main greenhouse gases. These gases allow the sun’s energy to
pass through the atmosphere and warm the Earth’s surface. The earth radiates
some of the heat energy back into space. Some of the heat energy is absorbed by
the greenhouse gases. This warms up the air to keep the atmosphere at a
temperature that allows life to exist.
Wind
Moving air is called wind. Wind is greater at high altitudes and this can effect the
growth of trees.
BIOTIC FACTORS
 The biotic components are the plants and animals.
30
 It also includes organisms such as the fungi and lichens as well as the very
small organisms like bacteria.
 The bacteria are so small that it can be seen only with a microscope.
 Such organisms that are invisible to the naked eye are called micro-
organisms.
 Some algae and fungi are also examples of micro-organisms.
Producers:
These are biotic factors that have the ability to make their own food.
They are able to do this by absorbing energy from the sun.

The process by which they are able to manufacture their own food by using the
radiant energy is called photosynthesis
Consumers:
These are organisms that are unable to manufacture their own food.
There are 3 categories of consumers.
Carnivores: these are the organisms that feed on animal matter only.
Herbivores: these are organisms that obtain their food from plant matter.
Omnivores: these are organisms that feed on both plant and animal matter.
31
Decomposers:
 These are organisms that feed on dead organic matter.
 They are usually micro-organisms .

 But some decomposers can be macroscopic e.g. worms.
 As they break down the bodies of the dead organic matter they release
important substances back into the environment.
 These substances then can be used by green plants.

 Water, carbon dioxide, mineral salts and energy in the form of heat are
some of the substances that are released by decomposers.
Question 1
An investigation was carried out using 50 g of each of three soil types: sand,
loam and clay placed on filter paper in a funnel. 80 ml of water was run
through each soil. A measuring cylinder was placed below each set of
apparatus to collect the water.
An incomplete set of results for the investigation is given in the table below:
1.1 How much of water was retained by soil C? (1)

1.2 Which soil type (A, B or C) was sand? Give a reason for your
answer.
(2)
1.3 Identify TWO factors that should be kept constant in this

investigation.
(2)
(5)
Question 2
The table below shows the results of a study that investigated the effect of
temperature and light on the yield of tomatoes in two greenhouses on a farm.
32
2.1 State TWO steps the investigator may have taken into consideration
during the planning stage of the investigation.
(2)
2.2 Identify the:
(a) Independent variables (2)

(b) Dependent variable (1)
2.3 Plot bar graphs on the same system of axes showing the results of
the average yield of the tomatoes from 200oC to 300oC for both light
levels.
(6)
2.4 State ONE way in which the scientists could have improved the
reliability of the investigation.
(1)
(12)
33
Question 3
3.1 For the food web, label each organism: (Some may have more
than one label)
P = producer
1 = Primary Consumer
2= Secondary Consumer
3 = Tertiary Consumer
4 = Quartenary Consumer
3.2 Now label each animal as either a:
H = herbivore
C = carnivore
O = omnivore
34
WEEK 5: BIOSPHERE TO ECOSYSTEMS
SUB-TOPIC: ENERGY FLOW
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
The flow of energy in ecosystems is important to the life on Earth.
Nearly all of the energy in Earth's ecosystems originates from the Sun.
The energy is distributed in the ecosystem through the food chains and food webs.
Living organisms occur at different feeding levels in an ecosystem (food chains or
food webs). These feeding levels are called trophic levels.
Producers Living organisms that (green plants) produce their own food and
form the first trophic level. They have the greatest amount of energy.
(Autotrophs)
35
Consumers Living organisms that cannot produce their own food, they feed on
other organisms
(Heterotrophs)
Primary consumers: Herbivores, occupy the 2nd trophic level
Secondary consumers: Carnivores or omnivores, occupy the 3rd

trophic level
Tertiary consumers: Carnivores or Omnivores, occupy the 4 th

trophic level
Herbivores: Animals that feed on plants only
Carnivores: Animals that feed on other animals(meat) only
Omnivores: Animals that feed on both plants and animals
Decomposers Organisms that break down dead organic material and wastes
(Saprophytes)
Bacteria and fungi are decomposers
Energy is used by the organisms at each trophic level. These organisms use some of
the energy for growth or some of the energy is lost as heat energy through respiration
or some of the energy is lost in urine and faeces. This energy is therefore not available
for the next trophic level.
An ecological pyramid is a diagram

that shows the relative amounts of
energy or matter contained within each
trophic level in a food chain or food web.
Types of ecological pyramids are
• energy pyramid: shows relative

amounts of energy available at
different trophic levels
• biomass pyramid: shows the
total mass of the organisms at
each trophic level.
• number pyramid: shows total
number of organisms at each
trophic level
36
QUESTION 1 (Questions taken from various sources)
number (1.1 to 1.5 in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.6 D.
1.1.1 In a food web, what do the arrows represent?
A Flow of carbon.
B Flow of energy.
C Flow of nitrogen.
D Flow of water.
1.1.2 Organisms that make their own food:
A Herbivores
B Carnivores
C Autotrophs
D Heterotrophs
1.1.3 As part of an ecological study, the biomass of organisms in a

community was estimated. The table below shows the biomass
ORGANISM BIOMASS (kg)

R 50
S 10
T 250
U 200
V 3000
W 75
From the data above, which ONE of the following would be a probable food
chain?
37
A S → W → U→ V
B T→V→R→S
C U→T→W→R
D V→T→W→S
1.1.4 Which of the following organisms are likely to be found in the third
trophic level of a food chain?
A Algae
B Frog
C Grasshopper
D Hawk
1.1.5 In a food pyramid:
A as the trophic level decreases, the number of organisms

supported by the ecosystem decreases
B as the trophic level increases, the number of organisms
supported by the ecosystem increases
C as the trophic level increases, the number of organisms
supported by the ecosystem decreases as the trophic
D level decreases, the number of organisms supported by
the ecosystem increases 5x2
(10)
Write only the term next to the question number (1.1 to 1.5) in your
ANSWER BOOK.
1.2.1 They capture the sunlight and produce food through the process of
photosynthesis.
1.2.2 A series of linked food chains in an ecosystem.
1.2.3 Different feeding levels in the in the food chain.
1.2.4 It shows the relative amounts of energy available at the trophic levels
of a food chain or food web.
1.2.5 Organisms that break down dead organisms in the environment (5)
38
QUESTION 2
The paragraph below is about an interaction of organisms in an ecosystem. Read

the paragraph and answer the questions that follow
A group of learners studied an ecosystem of a local environment next to

the dam. It has a grass field with many grasshoppers. In the long grass
field lived some birds called finches. The finches fed on the grass seeds.
There were other birds called shrikes that preyed on the grasshoppers
and any young finches they could catch. A family of mongoose lived in
the field and they preyed on all the other animals.
(Adapted from: Top Class Grade 8)
2.1 What is the main source of energy for the ecosystem above? (1)
2.2 From the paragraph above, give ONE example of the

following
(a) Producer
(b) Primary consumer
(c) Secondary consumer (3)
2.3 Draw a food chain to show the interaction of four organisms

mentioned in the paragraph. (3)
(7)
QUESTION 3
Study the diagram below which represents a food web in an ecosystem and
answer the questions.
39
3.1 What do the arrows in the food web indicate? (1)
3.2 Identify the tertiary consumer in this food web. (1)
3.3 Explain what would happen if all the blue jays were removed from
the ecosystem? (3)
3.4 Describe the role that decomposers play in any ecosystem. (2)
3.5 Consider the energy flow in the food chain shown below
Grass → grasshopper → blue jay → owl

97 000kJ 7000kJ 600kJ 50kJ
Calculate the percentage of the energy that is passed on from the

grasshopper to the blue jay. Show ALL working (3)
3.6 Draw the energy pyramid of the food chain shown in QUESTION
3.5 above. (5)
(15)
SUB-TOPIC: CYCLES (Water and Oxygen)
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
The water and oxygen cycle

The following is a list of terms provided to help you understand cycles. Both water
and oxygen cycles are available for re-use over and over again.
Terminology
Term Definition
Condensation The change of water from gaseous into liquid form.
Precipitation Water moves from the atmosphere to earth in the form of rain,
mist, hail, dew, and snow.
40
Infiltration Water infiltrates deep into the soil and comes to rest on solid
rock formation to create the water-table
Evaporation The process of turning from liquid into vapor.
Transpiration Loss of water vapor through the stomata of the leaves.
Atmosphere The air surrounding the earth’s surface.
Respiration The chemical process whereby energy-rich molecules,

example, glucose, is chemically broken down to release
energy.
Photosynthesis The process whereby plants absorb CO2 and in turn release O2
in the atmosphere as a by-product.
Combustion Reaction of a substance with oxygen as in burning.
The water-cycle
Water is an inorganic compound with two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It
can exist in three phases in the environment, i.e. solid, liquid and phase.
The water-cycle plays an important role in moving water through the organisms and
in the environment. The water-cycle may be studied in two broad steps:
Firstly, the precipitation, distribution, and absorption.
Secondly, evaporation and condensation.

The water cycle shows the continuous movement of water within the Earth and
atmosphere. It is a complex system that includes many different processes. Liquid
water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back
to earth in the form of rain and snow.
Below is an example of the water cycle.
41
The Oxygen-cycle
Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration. It is used in the breakdown of glucose to
release energy. Energy is required for growth and metabolic activities in living
organisms.
The normal concentration of O2 in the atmosphere is approximately 21%. Some of

this O2 dissolves in the waters of ponds, lakes, dams, rivers and the oceans.
Below is an example of oxygen cycle:
42

1.1 Organisms that live in water are called…
A terrestrial.
B xerophytes.
C buoyant.
D aquatic.
1.2 During cellular respiration plants and animals use . . . from the
atmosphere or from the water.
A oxygen
B energy
C carbon dioxide
D water
1.3 Which of the following processes removes water from the atmosphere?
A Evaporation
B Precipitation
C Respiration
D Photosynthesis (2x3) = (6)
43
2.1 The process that causes the precipitation of water vapor into the
atmosphere.
2.2 The release of water vapor from the aerial parts of a plant mainly
through the stomata of the leaves.
2.3 A gas that is released during combustion. (3)
Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B

only, both A and B, or none next to the question number (3.1 to 3.3) in the
ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 The gas that is released in the A Oxygen

atmosphere as the by-product B Carbon dioxide
of photosynthesis
3.2 The process that increases A Respiration

oxygen in the atmosphere B Photosynthesis
3.3 It is a process where water A Precipitation

vapor falls from the B Condensation
atmosphere to the ground as
rain, hail, dew.
(3 x 2) (6)
44
QUESTION 4
Study the following diagram and answer the questions that follows:
4.1 Name the process labeled A – D. (4)
4.2 Name one human activity which can affect the water cycle. (1)
4.3 What is the most important factor that affects the rate of the
process labelled B?
(1)
(6)
QUESTION 5
Read the following paragraph and answer the questions that follows:
Although water is a sustainable resource, we must take care not to use it in an

unsustainable way. Most water on earth is not suitable for human or animal
consumption, as it occurs in the ocean (96,5%) or in the form of snow or ice (2,95).
It is only a small % that remains available for domestic use, agriculture, industries,
etc.
5.1 What % of water on earth is unavailable for human and animal

consumption?
(1)
5.2 What % of water on earth is available for use in homes, mines,

factories and on farms? (1)
45
5.3 Use the table below to construct two pie charts which show
domestic and total use of water in S.A. respectively.
Table 1
DOMESTIC use in litres
Out of 100 litres
Washing 10
Sewerage 30
Drink/ food preparation 5
Personal hygiene 15
Gardens 40
Table 2
TOTAL use in litres
Out of 100 litres
Nature conservation 8
Manucipal/domestic 200
Factories 100
Mining 35
Hydroelectricity 45
Irrigation 600
Drinking water for 12

livestock
(12)
(14)
46
SUB-TOPIC: CYCLES (Carbon and Nitrogen)
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle involves the following processes:

1. Photosynthesis: Carbon is absorbed by plants and turned into
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
2. Feeding: Carbon passes from plants to animals during feeding, and is
turned into carbohydrates, proteins and fats in the animal’s body.
3. Death and decay: Carbon passes from plants and animals to decompose
organisms and turn the carbon into decomposer carbohydrates, proteins
and fats.
4. Respiration: when plants and animals die, the decomposers breakdown
these bodies and release carbon in the form of carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere, water or soil.
47
5. Compaction: sometimes the dead plants and animals do not break down
and the carbon becomes locked in for long period.
NITROGEN CYCLE
Schematic representation of the flow of nitrogen through the ecosystem. The

importance of bacteria in the cycle is immediately recognized as being a key element
in the cycle, providing different forms of nitrogen compounds able to be assimilated
by higher organisms.
Nitrogen cycle, circulation of nitrogen in various forms through nature. Nitrogen, a

component of proteins and nucleic acids, is essential to life on Earth. Although 78
percent by volume of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas, this abundant reservoir
exists in a form unusable by most organisms. Through a series of microbial
transformations, however, nitrogen is made available to plants, which in turn
ultimately sustain all animal life. The steps, which are not altogether sequential, fall
into the following classifications: nitrogen fixation, nitrogen assimilation,
ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.
48
QUESTION 1
1.1 Which of the following processes absorb carbon?

A Photosynthesis B Respiration
C Combustion D Decomposition
1.2 In which process do plants and animals return CO2 to the atmosphere?
A Combustion C Photosynthesis
B Respiration D Decomposition
1.3 One of the main ways CO2 is removed from the atmosphere is:
A Photosynthesis C Combustion
B Respiration D Decomposition
1.4 The source of carbon to plants in the carbon cycle is . . .
A fossil fuels. C carbonate rocks
B carbon dioxide D all of the above
49
1.5 The role of bacteria in the carbon cycle is:
A Breakdown of organic compounds C Photosynthesis
B Assimilation of nitrogen compounds D Chemosynthesis (10)
QUESTION 2
Study the diagram and answer the questions.
2.1. Name the above nutrient cycle. (1)

2.2. What is the name of the process labelled A? (1)
2.3. What type of organism is represented by B? (1)
2.4. Describe how fossil fuels are formed. (3)
2.5. What is the form in which this element is found in the atmosphere as indicated
by C? (1)
(7)
QUESTION 3
Give the correct biological terminology for each of the following statements:
3.1 The process in which ammonia is converted into nitrates.
3.2 Bacteria that convert free nitrogen into nitrates.
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3.3 A decomposition process by which certain bacteria breakdown urea and
uric acid into ammonia.
3.4 The process in which nitrogen gas is returned back to the atmospheric
nitrogen pool. (4)
QUESTION 4
4.1 Why do living organisms need nitrogen? (2)

4.2 In what form do plants absorb nitrogen? (2)
4.3 How do animals get nitrogen? (2)
4.4 Describe the role of the following types of bacteria in the nitrogen cycle:
I. Nitrogen- fixing bacteria
II. Nitrifying bacteria
III. Denitrifying bacteria (6)
(12)
QUESTION 5
Complete the following diagram of the nitrogen cycle in nature by writing down the
missing word(s) next the corresponding numbers.
Nitrogen in the atmosphere 1 Proteins of bacteria
2
11 10 Plant food
Nitrates 3
12
Bacteria Animal food

9
4
8
Bactria 7 Deamination
Ammonia 5
6
(12)
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WEEK 8 & 9: TOPIC: Biodiversity and classification
SUB-TOPIC: Classification schemes: a way of organizing biodiversity
Main groupings
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
• There are a great variety of organisms which co-inhabit the earth. These
organisms occur in many different forms and sizes. Some of them are
invisible to the naked eye. These different species can live in a variety of
different habitats.
• Classification refers to the grouping and sorting of things according to
similarities and differences.
• Life forms are put into groups as a result of classification. This makes it
easier for the scientist to study these life forms.
• Taxonomy refers to the science of naming and classifying a wide range of
living things.
Living things were classified into two groups: plants and animals.
This became known as the two-kingdom system.
The following characteristics are used to classify organisms as plant or animals:
The more scientists came to know about life the more advanced the classification
systems became:
The Five Kingdom system
Developed by Robert H. Whittaker in 1969.
All living organisms were placed into 5 kingdoms based on certain characteristics.
Terminology:
➢ Eukaryotes: A true nucleus is a nucleus that is surrounded by a nuclear

membrane. Organisms that possess true nuclei are called eukaryotes. The
organelles in eukaryotes are all bound by membranes.
➢ Prokaryotes: All organisms with nuclear material not enclosed by
membranes are called prokaryotes. All the organelles found in prokaryotes
do not have membranes.
52
➢ Autotrophic organisms: are those that can manufacture their own food by
photosynthesis.
➢ Heterotrophic organisms: are those organisms that are unable to
manufacture their own food.
➢ Saprophytes: organisms that feed on dead and decaying matter.
➢ Unicellular: Organisms that are made up of one cell only.
➢ Multicellular: Organisms that are made up of many cells.
The Five Kingdom

classification system
Monera
Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Taxonomy
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that classifies all living things. It was
developed by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus, who lived during the
18th Century, and his system of classification is still used today.
• Linnaeus and other scientists used Latin because it was a dead language-
meaning nobody spoke it anymore. Hence, it is a neutral language, and the
scientific name can be used to avoid confusion with common names.
• Linnaeus invented binomial nomenclature, the system of giving each type of

organism a genus and species name.
• He also developed a classification system called the taxonomic hierarchy, which
has seven ranks from general to specific: kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species.
• Genus and species are always typed in italics and underlined when it is
handwritten.
• The Genus name will be written with a capital letter while the species name is
written with a small letter.
53
Example of taxonomic classification:
Remember this sentence: “King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti”.
The two types of taxonomic keys:
1. Pictorial
o These keys have illustrations.
o These illustrations maybe in the form of pictures, photographs or a
combination of these.
o Organisms are identified by comparing them to the illustrations.
Pictorial key to the five Sabateria species: a praedoatrix, b. armata, c. pulchra, d.

celtica, e. ornate (source: Platt, British Natural Museum)
2. Verbal
o Clues are in the form of statements or questions of characteristics.
o By answering the questions or following the statements and looking at the
specimen the correct taxon can be identified to which the specimen
belongs.
For example:
Key to the five kingdoms of living organisms
54
1. Do the organisms have a definite nucleus?
YES. Go to question 2. If NO then its Kingdom Monera.
2. Is the organism multicellular or unicellular?
If it is unicellular then Kingdom Protista. If it is multicellular then go to

question 3.
3. Is the organism autotrophic?
YES then its Kingdom Plantae. If NO then go to question 4.

4. Does the organism digests food outside its body and then take it in?
YES then its Kingdom Fungi. If NO then its Kingdom Animalia.
QUESTION 1

1.1 A classification system where every organism has a dual name.
A Binomial system
B Taxonomy
C Hierarchical system
D Two-domain system.
1.2 What is the correct order for classifying an organism?

A Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
B Kingdom, phylum, genus, class, order, family, species
C Kingdom, order, family, phylum, class, genus, species
D Phylum, kingdom, class, order, family, genus, species
1.3 The five-kingdom system proposed by Whittaker uses the following

taxa to classify organisms:
A Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

B Bacteria, Archae, Eukaryotes, Plantae, Animalia
C Archaebacteria, Protista, Eukaryotes, Plantae, Animalia
D Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia (6)
55
QUESTION 2
2.1 An organism that lacks a true nucleus.

2.2 Organisms that feed on dead and decaying matter.
2.3 Organisms that manufacture their own food. (3)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 The genus name of Homo sapiens A Homo

B sapiens
3.2 The specie name of the cat A Felis
(Felis catus). B catus
(2 x 2) (4)
QUESTION 4
According to the five –kingdom system of classification, each of the organisms
shown below belongs to a different kingdom. Complete the table by filling in the
missing words next to the numbers.
56
QUESTION 5
Identify the following birds using the verbal dichotomous key below:
Write the bird number and name next to it.
Dichotomous key to representative birds
1 a. The beak is relatively long and slender Certhidea

b. The beak is relatively stout and heavy go to 2
2. a. The bottom surface of the lower beak is flat and straight Geospiza
b. The bottom surface to the lower beak is curved go to 3
3. a. The lower edge of the upper beak has a distinct bend Camarhynchus
b. The lower edge of the upper beak is mostly flat Platyspiza
QUESTION 6
Organism A Organism B Organism C
6.1 Use the pictorial key below to name the three organisms above.
6.2 Give the genus name of organism C.
57
The pictorial key to identify the type of cats in the photographs above:
QUESTION 7
Use the pictorial key to identify the bird in the photo, write only the name of the bird.
58
TERM 2
59
WEEK 1: TOPIC: History of life on earth
SUB-TOPIC: Life’s history, The three eras & Geological timescales
NOTES & EXAM TIPS

Although the Earth is over 5 billion years old, the history of life on Earth started at
about 3 500 million years ago. This is when the first organisms originated in the
oceans. It is difficult to imagine a time frame of billions of years. To get an idea of this
time span of large time periods, it is useful to consider events in the history of life that
we think of as being the distant past:
• The pyramids were built 4500 years ago and yet this is only about a millionth
of the time span of ALL life on Earth.
• The dinosaurs die out 65 million years ago.
• Human recorded history stretches back only 10, 000 years in time.
60
THE GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE
Geological Timescale
The earth’s history has been divided into
a series of time intervals called the
Geological Timescale.
The geological timescale helps us divide
the vast periods of time into manageable
time frames. Geologists have divided the
Earth’s history into eras, periods and
epochs. These time intervals vary in
length according to significant events in
the history of the Earth. They are not
equal divisions of time like years,
months, days or hours. Clock analogy for
some key events in
evolutionary history
Geological Times
Eons:
Eons are the longest time periods and are hundreds of millions of years long.
The Phanerozoic eon is the most recent eon and began about 500 million
years ago.
Eras:
Eras are the smaller time periods that the eons are divided into. The
Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras, the Cenozoic, Mesozoic and the
61
Paleozoic eras. The divisions between these eras is determined by very
significant events in the history of the Earth.
Periods:
The eras are made up of varying numbers of periods of different lengths of
time. For example, the Palaeozoic is sub divided into the Permian,
Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian Periods.
The History of Life on Earth
1. The earth was formed about 4,5 billion years ago.
2. It took about 500 million years for the crust to solidify.
3. The oldest fossils of microorganisms are 3,5 billion years old found embedded
in rocks in Western Australia.
Prokaryotes dominated from 3,5 to 2 billion years ago. During this time, the
first divergence occurred: Bacteria and Archae.
4. Oxygen began accumulating in the atmosphere about 2,7 billion years ago.
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes that are still present today and
produced oxygen.
5. The oldest eukaryotic fossils are about 2 billion years old.
6. The oldest animal fossils are ~700 million years old.
7. Animal diversity exploded ~540 million years ago.
8. Plants, fungi, and animals began colonizing land ~500 million years ago.
9. First plants transformed the landscape.
10. Then animals were able to take advantage of new niches.
11. Mammals evolved 50 to 60 million years ago.
62
A Table Summarizing the Geological Time Scale.
63
QUESTION 1

1.1 The immediate ancestors of birds are…
A. reptiles.
B. mammals.
C. fish.
D. Amphibians.
1.2 Modern Humans first appeared on Earth between. . .
A. 5000 and 10 000 years ago.

B. 300 000 and 600 000 years ago.
C. 50 000 and 100 000 years ago.
D. 4 and 5 Million years ago.
1.3 The person that studies fossils is called. . .
A. an archaeologist.
B. a radiologist.
C. a paleontologist.
D. an anthropologist.
1.4 A period in the earth’s history where global temperatures plummet and there
is extensive glaciation is known as. . .
A. the greenhouse effect.

B. a cold spell.
C. a hole in the ozone.
D. an ice age. (2x4=8)
64
QUESTION 2
Give the correct biological term for each of the following description. Write only the
term next to the question number (2.1 to 2.3) in your ANSWER BOOK.
2.1 The movement of land masses during the history of the Earth.
2.2 Large reptiles that became extinct about 65 million years ago.
2.3 A transition fossil that has both reptile and bird features. (3)
QUESTION 3
Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B ONLY,

BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B only, both A
and B, or none next to the question number (3.1 to 3.3) in the ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 The most recent eon A. Archaen
B. Phanerozoic
3.2 Used to estimate the age of a fossil A. Relative Dating
B. Radiometric dating
3.3 Hard bodied animals that had shells A. Brachiopods
B. Arthropods.
(3 x 2 = (6)
QUESTION 4
Life first appeared on Earth approximately 3.5 billion years ago.

The diagram below shows the geological timeline with some major events
indicated by the letters and numbers.
65
4.1 Choose the letter from the timeline that best corresponds to the
appearance of the following life forms on Earth:
(i) Prokaryotes
(ii) First modern birds
66
(iii) Fish with jaws
(iv) Early tetrapods (4)
4.2 Multicellular life appeared about 1 billion years ago. Name the eon
that corresponds to this. (1)
4.3 At which number, 1 or 2, would eukaryotes have appeared?
Explain your choice. (3)
4.4 During the period between 543 MYA and 488 MYA, an important
evolutionary event occurred, which is evidenced in the fossil record.
(i) What do biologists call this evolutionary event and why is it

named such? (3)
(ii) What climatic factor is believed to have contributed to this
event? (1)
4.5 Life on Earth has experienced several mass extinctions over the course
of time.
(i) Name the period during which the greatest mass extinction of life
had occurred? (1)
(ii) Identify the cause of this extinction. (1)
4.6 “The start of Cenozoic era marked the dawn of the age of mammals.”
(i) What do you understand this statement to mean? (2)

(ii) Discuss TWO reasons to explain this statement. (4)
[TOTAL: 40]
SUB-TOPIC: Cambrian explosion
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
The Cambrian Explosion is a relatively short period of time marking the origins of
early forms of all animal groups. It is when there was a sudden appearance of the
major groups of animals.
67
These life-forms have gradually changed to become present life-forms. In the last
four million years, significant changes have occurred in species occurring in Africa
(e.g. humans).
The Cambrian period began 543 million years ago and ended 505 million years ago.
It lasted for 38 million years.
The early life-forms were: Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Nematoda (worms), Annelida
(segmented worms), Mollusca (slugs, snails and creatures with shells), Arthropoda
(invertebrates with external skeleton and joined limbs), Echinodermata (marine
invertebrates) and Chordata (vertebrates – with skeleton).
From the end of the Cambrian period into the Holocene epoch of the Quaternary
period (in which we now live) the fossil record shows that different groups of animals
evolved out of those primitive Cambrian forms in this order:
● fish: about 438 million years ago
● amphibians: about 380 million years ago
● reptiles: about 225 million years ago
● birds: about 180 million years ago
● mammals: about 150 million years ago
● humans: about 250 000 to 300 000 thousand years ago.
68
QUESTION 1

number in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.2 D.
1.1 How long did the Cambrian Explosion last?
A 38 to 40 years
B 18 to 20 million years
C 18 to 20 years
D 38 to 40 million years (2)
QUESTION 2
Study the Geological Time Scale below and answer the questions that follow.
69
2.1 What does “MYA” stand for as shown in the diagram? (1)
2.2 According to the time scale above, when did the Triassic period start? (1)
2.3 In which Period are we living in now? (1)
2.4 How long did the Ordovician period last? Show all working. (3)
2.5 In which geological period did the reptiles first appear? (1)
2.6 What major event took place 543mya that saw a rapid increase in the
number of species on Earth? (1)
2.7 During which period did the Mass Extinction occur that wiped out the
dinosaurs? (1)
70
2.8 Discuss any ONE theory that scientists put forward to explain the Mass
Extinction mentioned in Question 2.7 above. (3)
(12)
SUB-TOPIC: Mass extinctions
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
MASS EXTINCTIONS
There were FIVE MASS EXTINCTIONS:
Ordovician (444 million years ago) - caused by climate changes, many trilobites
became extinct
Devonian (383-359 million years ago)- ice ages, global cooling, glaciations -
almost all life forms died out
Permian (252 million years ago)- most severe of all caused by volcanic eruptions-
reptiles and frogs died
Triassic (201 million years ago)- caused by acid rain and drop in oxygen in water,
more marine life form destroyed
Cretaceous (66 million years ago)- all dinosaurs died out caused by asteroid
impact and blotting out of sunlight
Sixth Mass Extinction:

We are in the crisis of the sixth mass extinction caused by human activities such as
illegal veld-fires which consume large amounts of valuable oxygen and release
smoke and carbon dioxide resulting in global warming and climate change; illegal
hunting and habitat destruction
The causes of mass extinctions

There are two types of theory on what caused the mass extinctions:
• Environmental disasters: meteor or asteroid impacts, severe volcanism,
radiation from exploding stars or killer diseases.
• Organisms failing to adapt to habitat or environmental changes: changing
temperatures of ice and warm ages, global sea level changes and continental
drift.
71
QUESTION 1
Evidence suggests that five mass extinctions have occurred throughout the
history of the Earth—the most famous of which led to the extinction of the
dinosaurs. Scientists are still studying the causes of these catastrophic events.
Study the graph below and answer the question that follow:
1.1 Identify:
(a) the era with the shortest duration.
(b) the era with the longest duration.
(c) the era with the least geological periods. (3)
1.2 According to graph, approximately how long did the Mesozoic era
last? Show all your calculations. (3)
1.3 The Cenozoic era is known to have produced the modern humans,
modern mammal species and also the extinction of large mammals
such as the mammoths.
(a) How many years ago did that happen? (1)
(b) Explain what is meant by mass extinction. (2)
(c) Name the FIVE mass extinctions that have already happened. (5)
(14)
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QUESTION 2
The following questions are based on the extinction of dinosaurs on Earth.
2.1 What evidence do scientists use to show that dinosaurs once existed
on Earth? (1)
2.2 How long ago did the dinosaurs become extinct? (2)
2.3
Describe a hypothesis that has been proposed for the extinction of
many species, including the dinosaurs, during the time mentioned
in QUESTION 2.2. (6)
(9)
QUESTION 3
At the end of the Cretaceous Period, large numbers of plants and animal
became extinct. Scientists are still trying to understand why some types of
plants and animals survived while others died out. The table below shows the
data of the amphibians, reptiles and mammals that lived during this period.
Animal Type Groups living Groups left

before the after
extinction extinction
Amphibians 12 4
Reptiles 63 30
Mammals 24 8
3.1 Calculate the percentage of mammals that survived. (3)

3.2 Which group of animals was the least affected by extinction? (1)
3.3 Draw a bar graph to compare the group of living animals before and
after extinction. (6)
(10)
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SUB-TOPIC: Fossil formation and Methods of dating
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
TERMINOLOGY
Fossil The remains or trace of an organism that lived a long time

ago and has been preserved in rock
Paleontologist A scientist who is interested in uncovering the history of the
Earth by studying fossils
Paleoanthropologist A paleontologist who specializes in studying human
ancestors
Petrification The process by which the remains of organisms are
replaced by silica or calcium and turned into stone
Sedimentary rock A rock formed from the layers of mud, sand, salt, pebbles, or
carbonate in a river, lake, sea, desert
Transitional In between, a stage between one form and another
Fossils are the remains of once living things that are usually preserved in rock.
HOW FOSSIL FORM:
1.Sediment
An animal is buried by sediment such as volcanic ash or silt, shortly after it dies.
The bones are protected from rotting by the of sediment.
2. Layers
More sediment layers accumulate above the animal’s remains and minerals such
as silica slowly replace the calcium phosphate in the bones.
3. Movement
Movement of tectonic plate or giant rock slabs that make up the Earth’s surface,
lifts the sediments and pushes the fossil closer to the surface.
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4. Erosion
Erosion from the rain, rivers and wind wears away the remaining rock layers.
Eventually, erosion or people digging for fossils will expose the preserved remains.
EXAMPLES OF FOSSILS
- Bones
- Shells
- Tracks (footprints), hardened faeces of animals
- Petrified tree trunks
- Imprints of leaves and small animals
EXAMPLE OF FOSSILS THAT OCCUR IN TAR AND ICE

- Fossils of woolly mammoth (ice)
- Pits of tar contained bones of the sabre toothed cats
- Some insects
Examples of fossils
Preservation by petrification
75
Sedimentation
Death and burial
DETERMINING THE AGE OF THE FOSSIL:

There are two methods used by scientists to determine the age of the fossil rocks.
The Relative dating and the Radiometric dating.
In Relative dating – the age of the fossil is worked out by trying to find out how it
is related to the age of another fossil or geological event such as volcanic eruption.
It tells us whether a particular fossil was formed before or after another fossil or
geological event.
In Radiometric dating – it attempts to answer the question how many years ago
was the fossil formed?
The answer to the question is given in ‘years’ rather than ‘before’ or ‘after’.
76
QUESTION 1

1.1 Palaeontology is a study of…
A the half-life of radioactive substances.

B continental drift.
C fossils.
D changes during the Cambrian explosion.
1.2 …….. are the richest sources of fossils.

A Layers of strata
B Index fossils
C Mineral salts
D Sedimentary rocks
(4)
QUESTION 2
2.1 The remains of once living things that are usually preserved in rocks.
2.2 A fossil of an organism between two clearly defined stages of
evolutionary development.
2.3 A method that allows scientists to say that a fossil is older than
another but not telling exactly how old a particular fossil is. (3)

ANSWER BOOK.
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COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 The process by which the A Petrification
remains of organisms are B Extinction
replaced by silica or
calcium and turned into
stone
3.2 Scientist who studies A Paleontologist
ancient life forms through B Geologist
fossils
3.3 The method that allows A Fossilization
scientists to say that one B Relative dating
fossil is older than the
other
(3 x 2) (6)
QUESTION 4
Suppose that we studied three different sections of the cliff in the figure below:
The three sections are far apart from each other, but the rock layers are joined.
Study the section of the cliff preserved in different hills shown in the diagram and
answer the question that follows:
78
4.1 Which are the youngest fossils and in what type do they occur? (2)
4.2 Were the youngest sediments mentioned in QUESTION 4.1
deposited in the sea or in land?
Explain your answer.
(3)
4.3 Which is the oldest fossil and in what rock type do they occur? (2)
4.4 Sections A, B and C are different. Explain why and how the layers
have changed from one cliff face to the next.
(5)
(12)
QUESTION 5
The picture below shows a fossil of a prehistoric bird dating from about 150 mya.
It had characteristics that are similar to dinosaurs as well as to that of modern-day
birds.
Study the picture and answer the questions that follow.
5.1 What is the name of this pre-historic fossil? (1)

5.2 Name three characteristics of the fossil named in QUESTION
5.1 that are similar to dinosaurs.
(3)
5.3 Name two internal features of the fossil named in QUESTION
5.1 that resemble those of birds.
(2)
(6)
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.
WEEK 5: TOPIC: The Chemistry of Life
SUB-TOPIC: Organic molecules, Inorganic Compounds & Minerals
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
MOLECULES FOR LIFE

Organic molecules are made up of C, H, and O, and some contain other elements
such as N and P. Cells are made up of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids
and vitamins.
TERMINOLOGY
Organic Contains C, H and O
Inorganic Does not usually contain C
Micro-nutrient Element required in small quantities
Macro-nutrient Element required in large quantities
KEY CONCEPTS:
Inorganic Compounds – water and mineral salts
Organic Compounds – carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, enzymes, vitamins,
nucleic acids
Inorganic Compounds
Water
is made up of 2 hydrogen atoms joined to 1 oxygen atom
H H
0
• 70-95% of cells are made up of water
• is a universal solvent
• is a transportation medium
• is a medium for chemical reactions
• is responsible for turgidity in plants
• removes waste products
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Minerals
Many of the mineral salts occur in salt form. For example, the mineral sodium occurs
in the form of common table salts, sodium chloride. Therefore, we speak of ‘mineral
salts’ instead of ‘minerals’
macro-nutrients - essential elements required by organisms in large quantities
micronutrients - essential elements required by organisms in small quantities
Plants obtain minerals from the soil and fertilisers
• Animals obtain minerals from the food that they consume
Fig 1: The Table shows the essential Minerals, Functions and Deficiency
diseases
QUESTION 1
Name
1.1 Any THREE mineral elements required for the formation of cell
membranes.
(3)
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1.2 Any THREE mineral elements required for the formation of strong
bones and teeth.
(3)
1.3 Any TWO mineral elements required for the formation proteins. (2)
1.4 ONE mineral element that is the component of hemoglobin. (1)
(9)
SUB-TOPIC: Organic compounds (Monosaccharides & Lipids)
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Carbohydrates are molecules found in our food that provides our brains and muscles
with energy. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
Carbohydrates can be divided into simple and complex carbohydrates:
simple units
simple monosaccharides
building blocks
disaccharides double sugars
complex
polysaccharides many sugars
Monosaccharides
Mono = single, sacchar= sugar
These sugars cannot be broken down into simpler forms.
They are the building blocks of the more complex sugars.
They dissolve in water.
Some examples are glucose, fructose, galactose.
Test for glucose: Add Benedicts solution to unknown solution. On heating the
colour of solution will change from blue to orange/ brick red indicates the presence of
glucose.
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Disaccharides (Di= two)
Two monosaccharides that has bonded. Also

soluble in water.
For example, sucrose in the diagram on the left.
Sucrose = glucose + fructose
Lactose = galactose + glucose
Polysaccharides (poly = many)

Substances like starch (found in plants), cellulose (also found in plants act as dietary
fiber), glycogen (found in liver and muscles of humans, the way we store glucose)
Polysaccharides consist of chains that are made of ten to thousands of
monosaccharide molecules (like building blocks) that are linked together (through
bonds in a chain to form the big molecule.
Test for starch: Iodine turns from brown to blue-black.
Summary of Carbohydrates:
Source: Bioninja
Lipids
Lipids are fats and are an important molecule that sustain life. They are found in all
cell membranes in our bodies, are a source of energy, insulate our nerve cells and
don’t dissolve in water.
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Lipids are composed
of a glycerol
molecule + three fatty
acid chains.
Fatty acids have a hydrophilic (water loving) head

and a hydrophobic (water fearing) tail as could be
seen in diagram on the left.
Cholesterol
It is a waxy, fat-like substance that's found in all the cells in your body. Your body
needs some cholesterol to make hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help you
digest foods. High cholesterol is a significant risk factor for coronary heart disease
and a cause of heart attacks. A build-up of cholesterol is part of the process that
narrows arteries, called atherosclerosis. In atherosclerosis, plaques form and cause
restriction of blood flow.
Reducing the intake of fat in the diet helps to manage cholesterol levels. It is helpful
to limit foods that contain:
Cholesterol: This is present in animal foods, meat, and cheese.
Saturated fat: This occurs in some meats, dairy products, chocolate, baked goods,
deep-fried, and processed foods.
Trans fats: This occurs in some fried and processed foods.
Saturated fats don’t have double bonds

between atoms and are solids at room
temperature, butter, meat, dairy etc.
Unsaturated fats have double bonds between
atoms and are liquid at room temperature. Like
vegetable oils
Diets high in saturated fat are linked to high
blood cholesterol levels and heart disease.
Diagram: saturated and unsaturated fats
High-fat diets can also increase the risk for obesity
and cancer.
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Test for lipids: Fats and oils leave behind a grease spot stain on filter paper.
QUESTION 1

1.1 Sucrose is an example of …
A lipids.
B polysaccharides.
C monosaccharides.
D disaccharides.
1.2 These types of fat cause high cholesterol in a human’s blood
A Unsaturated
B Saturated
C Vegetable oils
D Fatty acids
2 x 2 = (4)
QUESTION 2
2.1 A molecule chain composed of monosaccharides bonded chemically
together.
2.2 A molecule which is composed of glucose and fructose.
2.3 A molecule composed of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid
chains.
2.4 The type of carbohydrates that are stored.
2.5 The carbohydrate that forms a structural component of cell walls. (5)

ANSWER BOOK.
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COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 Cholesterol makes… A Vitamin D
B Hormones
3.2 A build-up of cholesterol in A Arthritis
arteries. B Atherosclerosis
3.3 Fats that contain double bonds A Polysaccharides

between their atoms. B Disaccharides
(3 x 2) (6)
Ingredients Nutritional Information
Whole rolled oats, roasted wheat Energy 2 000 kJ

flakes, cane syrup, brown sugar,
Protein 12,5 g
vegetable oil, sun-dried raisins
Carbohydrates 50 g
Fats 12,5 g
Fiber 25 g
Cholesterol 0 mg
4.1 Explain ONE advantage of this cereal having no cholesterol. (1)
4.2 The total energy value of a 100 g cereal is 2 000 kJ. The boy requires
5 500 kJ of energy per day. How much cereal does he need to eat in order
to obtain this energy (assuming that he does not eat any other foods)?
Show your working. (3)
4.3 Draw a pie chart to illustrate the relative proportions of protein,

carbohydrate, fats and fiber of this 100 g of cereal. (6)
(10)

During a class practical a Grade 10 learner carried out some tests on five different
food types. The results are shown in the table below.
Positive tests for use of different solutions are as follows:
• Benedict solution is orange-red.
• Iodine solution is Blue-Black.
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Food type Food colour observed for each food
test
Benedict’s Test Iodine Test
A Blue Blue-Black
B Orange-red Brown
C Orange-red Brown
D Blue Blue-Black
E Orange-red Blue-Black
5.1 Which food type (A, B, C, D or E) contains:

(i) Starch only? (2)
(ii) Glucose only? (2)
(iii) Starch and glucose? (1)
(5)
SUB-TOPIC: Organic compounds (Proteins, Enzymes, Nucleic acids &

Vitamins)
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Proteins
Proteins are large organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen atoms. Some proteins also contain the elements sulfur, phosphorus and
iron.
Proteins are made up of chemical 'building blocks' called amino acids. There are
20 different amino acids commonly found in the proteins of living things. Your body
uses amino acids to build and repair muscles and bones and to make hormones
and enzymes. Protein is a macronutrient found in all types of animal and plant
foods. You need protein to build tissues, preserve lean muscle mass and to
repair and maintain skin cells.
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Structure of a protein
Temperature and pH are factors that affect the structure of proteins. High
temperatures and extremely acid or basic solutions can cause permanent
changes to the bonds that hold the structure of a protein in shape. Once the
molecular shape of a protein is changed, the protein is said to be denatured.
Biuret reagent, a blue solution, is used to test for protein. A deep purple colour is
a positive indication of the presence of protein in a solution. The darker the
solution the more protein is present.
Enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules that control metabolic reactions. They act as
catalysts because the increase the rate of the reaction or slow down the rate of the
reaction. Enzymes:
• regulate almost every reaction in the human body
• are specific in their action; each enzyme regulates one particular reaction or
type of reaction
• are not altered by the reaction and can function over and over again
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The lock-and-key model of enzyme action is a theory of how specific enzymes act
on specific substrate molecules. The theory states that in the same way that a
specific key fits into a specific lock, each enzyme targets a specific substrate that
fits into its active site.
Because enzymes are proteins they are also affected by temperature and pH.
Enzymes work best at an optimum temperature and in the human body it is 37 oC.
• At temperatures higher than body temperature, the rate of the reaction will
slow down. At extremely high temperatures the structure of the enzyme will
be destroyed, and the enzyme will not be able to bind with the substrate
molecule.
• At low temperatures, the enzyme becomes inactive and the tempo of the
reaction will slow down. The structure of the enzyme will not be
permanently destroyed.
Enzymes are sensitive to pH. Most enzymes work the most in pH-neutral
conditions. Extreme conditions of pH can denature enzymes permanently.
Enzymes are used in:
• Biological washing powders. These enzymes break down stains caused by
food, blood, fat or grease. They are extremely effective at low
temperatures.
• Meat tenderisers.
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are complex organic acids found in a cell’s nucleus and are
responsible for storing and transferring genetic information. There are two types of
nucleic acids found in cells:
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds known as micronutrients that are required in
small quantities by animals to maintain health. Some vitamins are water-soluble
((Vit. C and B) and must be consumed daily and some are fat-soluble (Vit. A, D, E
and K) and stored in the liver and fatty tissues of the body.
89
QUESTION 1
1.1 Define the following terms:
(a) Protein (2)
(b) Enzymes (2)
(c) Denaturation (2)
1.2 What are the monomers of proteins? (1)
1.3 Name the protein-deficiency disease. (1)
1.4 What type of bond link individual amino acids together? (1)
1.5 Grade 10 learners investigated the effect of temperature on

enzyme activity. The following data was collected:
Test tube Temperature (oC) Score
1 30 0
2 30 2
3 40 4
4 50 3
5 60 2
90
6 70 2
Color key:
Color Score
Light Yellow 0
Medium Yellow 1
Dark Yellow 2
Light Pink/Purple 3
Medium Pink/Purple 4
Dark Pink/Purple 5
Light Red/Purple 6
Medium Red/Purple 7
Dark Red/Purple 8
Very Dark Red/Purple 9
Draw a bar graph using the provided data. (6)
(15)
QUESTION 2
Calculating RDA for Protein
To find out how much protein you should be consuming, take your weight, which you
probably know in pounds, and convert it to kilograms.
The average American man weighs 195.7 pounds (the equivalent of 88.77 kilograms),
while the average American woman weighs 168.5 pounds (which equals about 75.21
kilograms).
the RDA formula is:

(0.8 gram of protein) x (weight in kilograms)
Therefore: Calculate the RDA for both
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(a) men and
(b) women. (4)
QUESTION 3
The figure below shows a box of biological washing powder.
3.1 Explain why:
(a) the presence of protease and lipase would make the

washing powder more effective than ordinary detergent
(3)
(b) the powder should not be used in boiling water (2)
3.2 Silk is a material made from protein. Explain why the biological
washing powder should not be used to wash silk clothes.
(2)
(7)
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WEEK 8: TOPIC: Cells: The basic unit of life
SUB-TOPIC: Cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus & cytoplasm
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
The structure of a cell
Cell wall
The cell wall is a rigid outer layer of plant cells. It surrounds the cell membrane. The
cell wall is non-living and is made up of cellulose, a polysaccharide. It is completely
permeable to water and mineral salts. Openings in the cell wall contain strands of
cytoplasm, called plasmodesmata, that connect adjacent cells. The cell wall of a
plant cell is joined to other cell walls by a thin layer of material called the middle
lamella.
Functions:
• Protect the inner parts of the plant cell
• Give plant cells a more uniform and regular shape
• Provide support for the plant body
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Cell membrane
The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm. It is part of the protoplasm, which is the
living part of the cell. The cell membrane consists mostly of lipid and protein
molecules. It is semi-permeable and controls the movement of substances into and
out of the cells.
The fluid mosaic model is a commonly accepted model that describes the arrangement
of lipid and protein molecules in cell membranes.
Protein molecules are randomly embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. This

contributes to the mechanical strength of the membrane. Each protein molecule shifts
around on the fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the meovement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration down a concentration gradient. Diffusion will continue untill all
molecules are spread out evely and a state of equilibrium is reached.
Diffusion occurs in living and non-living systems and is an example of passive
transport – no energy is needed.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable
membrane from an area of high water potential to an area of low waterpotential, down
a water potential gradient until iquilobrium is reached. Pure water has the highest
water potential because there are no solutes present to lower the kinetic energy of the
water molecules.
Active transport
Active transport is the movement of substances through a semi-permeable membrane
in living cells against a concentration gradient. Energy in the form of ATP is needed.
Nucleus
The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains all the cell’s genetic
information in the form of DNA. The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor
that distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes.
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A nucleus has four main parts:
1. the double nuclear membrane – it encloses the nucleus and contains small
pores to allow for the passage of substances in and out of the nucleus
2. the nucleoplasm – this is a jelly-like fluid within the nucleus
3. the nucleolus – a dark body suspended in the nucleoplasm which contains
free nucleotide bases and produces ribosomes
4. the chromatin network – found in the nucleoplasm, contains the DNA which
forms the chromosomes containing the genetic code of a person / organism
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It consists of up to
90% water. It also contains dissolved nutrients and waste products. Its main
function is to hold together the organelles which make up the cytoplasm. It also
nourishes the cell by supplying it with salts and sugars and provides a medium
for metabolic reactions to occur.

Watch the following video:
Cell structure: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
QUESTION 1
Fill in the labels of the following diagrams and give each diagram a heading.
95
A.
B.
96
SUB-TOPIC: Mitochondria, Ribosome, Endoplasmic reticulum & Golgi-body
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Mitochondrion
Structure
➢ Mitochondria are rod-shaped, cylindrical organelles.
➢ A double membrane surrounds each mitochondrion’s fluid-filled matrix.
➢ The outer membrane is smooth, and the inner membrane is folded inwards to
form finger-like projections called cristae.
➢ Mitochondria contain their own DNA.
Functions
1. Cellular respiration – produces energy in the form of ATP
Ribosomes
Structure
➢ Ribosomes are very small grain-like structures present in all kinds of plant and
animal cells, as well as in bacteria.
➢ Each ribosome is about 15-20nm (nanometer) in diameter.
➢ At higher magnifications ribosomes can be seen to consist of two parts,
namely a smaller and larger subunit.
97
➢ They occur on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in the cytoplasm, plastids and
in mitochondria.
➢ Ribosomes may also occur singly or as free clusters in the cytoplasm.
➢ When ribosomes occur in clusters in the cytoplasm, they are called
polyribosomes or polysomes.
➢ Each ribosome is made up of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Functions
1. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
What happens during this process?
During this process, amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) are linked together
to form long polypeptide chains. The poly peptide chains are proteins.
98
Endoplasmic reticulum
Structure
➢ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of tubes enclosed by membranes.
➢ It is found in plants and animals.
➢ The membranes appear to be continuous with the cell membrane and the
nuclear membrane.
➢ There are two types of ER, i.e. rough ER (has ribosomes attached to it) and
smooth ER (has no ribosomes attached to it).
Functions
1. Provides surfaces for the attachment of ribosomes.
2. Transports ribosomes throughout the cell using rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER)
3. Synthesizes lipids and steroids, e.g. cholesterol, on the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).
Golgi apparatus(bodies)
Structure
➢ The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened sacs, called cisternae and many
spherical vesicles which have been broken off from the cisternae.
➢ It is found in found in both plants and animal cells.
➢ They measure 7 nm (nanometers) across.
➢ Golgi apparatus has the same stricter as smooth ER.
➢ Golgi bodies are found mostly in gland cells that secrete substances e.g.
goblet cells of the alimentary canal.
99
Functions
1. Makes and processes secretions, such as saliva and mucus.
2. Transports proteins from the ER to different parts of the cell.
3. Ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are related to
each other through their involvement in protein synthesis and transport.
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis and carry out carry out this work by
assembling amino acids in the appropriate sequence, as dictated by the mRNA
(messenger RNA). These organelles are most commonly found embedded in the
endoplasmic reticulum. Large scale protein synthesis is possible due to the very large
surface area offered by the endoplasmic reticulum to the ribosomes. The main function
of the endoplasmic reticulum is to transport the newly synthesized proteins over to the
Golgi apparatus. The primary role of Golgi apparatus is to modify the proteins and
encase them into vesicles. From here they are transported to the various parts of the
cell.
Hence the three cell organelles are related in their functions of protein synthesis and
transport.
QUESTION 1

100
1.1 Spherical structures broken off from the cisternae at the end of Golgi
apparatus:
A Ribosomes
B mRNA
C Vesicles
D Both A and B
1.2 The term organelle, refers to which structure listed below?
A Cell membrane
B Cytoplasm
C Cell membrane
D Golgi apparatus
1.3 The organelle responsible for providing attachment for ribosomes:
A Lysosome
B Golgi apparatus
C ER
D Nucleus
1.4 Units used for measuring microscopically small objects in science:
A Nanometers
B Centimeters
C Micrometers
D Kilometers
1.5 If the magnification power of the microscope is 600x and the magnification
of the eyepiece is 10x, then the magnification of the objective lens must
be:
A 6x
B 0.6x
C 6000x
D 60x
2x5= (10)
QUESTION 2
101
2.1 A stack of fattened sacs in the Golgi bodies
2.2 The organelle that synthesises proteins in plant and animal cells.
2.3 The part of the endoplasmic reticulum without ribosome.
2.4 Ribosomes that occur as clusters in the cytoplasm.
2.5 The liquid secreted by the salivary glands.
(5)
QUESTION 3

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 Discovery of Golgi apparatus A Golgi
B Darwin
3.2 Structure of a ribosome A Grain-like
B Flat
3.3 Location of endoplasmic A Nucleus

reticulum B Cytoplasm
(3 x 2) (6)
QUESTION 4
Study the following diagram and answer the questions that follow:
102
4.1 Identify the organelle above. (2)
4.2 State the function of this organelle in the cell. (2)
4.3 Briefly explain how the function mentioned in QUESTION 4.2 is
performed.
(4)
4.4 Name the parts labelled 1 and 2. (2)
4.5 What is the growing polypeptide chain in this diagram called? (2)
4.6 Name the TWO substances that the above organelle is made up
of.
(2)
(14)
SUB-TOPIC: Plastids, Vacuoles & difference between plant and animal cells
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Plastids
Structure
➢ Structurally, plastids are double membrane-bounded as they have an outer
and inner membrane.
➢ They are found only in plant cells.
➢ There are 3 types of plastids: chloroplast, leucoplast and chromoplast.
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Chloroplast
➢ The chloroplast is made up of a gelatinous substance called the stroma that

contains many enzymes that are essential for photosynthesis.
➢ The stroma is surrounded by a double membrane.
➢ Suspended in the stroma are thylakoids. These are stacks of membrane-like
structures; each stack is called a granum.
➢ Chlorophyl and other photosynthetic pigments are located in the thylakoids,
which are the site of photosynthesis.
Functions
1. Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis and contains the
green pigment chlorophyl.
2. Leucoplasts are colourless and store starch.
3. Chromoplasts contain pigments, such as carotenoids, and give fruit,
vegetables and flowers their colour. Carotenoid-containing
chromoplasts can be red, orange or yellow.
Vacuoles
Each plant cell usually has one large vacuole that takes up most of the cell’s volume.
Structure
➢ Vacuoles are fluid-filled organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of most plant
cells.
➢ A selectively permeable single membrane, the tonoplast, surrounds the
vacuole.
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➢ The vacuole contains cell sap, which is a liquid that consists of water, mineral
salts, sugars and amino acids.
Functions
1. Plays a role in the digestion and excretion of cellular waste, and
2. The storage of water and organic and inorganic substances.
3. It is also responsible for maintaining the shape of plant cells.
4. When the vacuole is full of water, it exerts pressure outwards, pushing the cell
membrane against the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure.
The differences between plant and animal cells
105
QUESTION 1
number (1.1 to 1.5) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example, 1.1.6 D.
1.1 Vacuoles are located in the …
A protoplasm.
B nucleoplasm.
C cytoplasm.
D plasmalemma.
1.2 The semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the vacuole in plant cells:
A Tonoplast
B Cell membrane
C Cell wall
D Lamella
1.3 Which organelle of the plant cell is most affected directly by the sunlight?
A Leucoplast
B Chloroplast
C Chromoplast
D Tonoplast
1.4 The form in which carbohydrates are stored in the leucoplast:
A Oils
B Cellulose
C Starches
D Proteins
1.5 Which one is NOT the role of the vacuole in a plant cell?
A Formation of water
B Waste disposal
C Cell elongation
D Storage
(5 x 2) (10)
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QUESTION 2
2.1 The fluid inside the vacuole.

2.2 The fluid-filled spaces enclosed by the inner membrane of the chloroplast.
2.3 The stacked thylakoids for increased surface area and maximum
photosynthesis. (3)
QUESTION 3

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 Vacuoles A Respiration
B Secretion
3.2 Grana A Photosynthesis
B Storage
(4)
QUESTION 4
Study the micrograph below and answer the questions:
4.1 Identify the organelle shown. (1)

4.2 Give TWO visible reasons for you answer. (2)
(3)
107
TERM 3
108
WEEK 1 & 2: TOPIC: Cell division
SUB-TOPIC: Mitosis
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
THE CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle is the series of events that takes place in a cell which results in DNA
replication and cell division.
There are two main stages in the cell cycle.
1. Interphase during which the cell grows and replicates its DNA.
2. Mitotic phase (M-Phase) during which the cell divides and transfers one copy
of its DNA to two identical daughter cells.
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1. INTERPHASE
DNA in chromatin network duplicates.

DNA thickens and becomes visible.
MITOSIS
Mitosis can be divided into phases for convenience.
 1. Prophase
iPMATc.
 2. Metaphase
 the 3. Anaphase
 nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrates
 4. Telophase
 Acentrosome
Cytokinesis forms centrioles.
1.centrioles
PROPHASE separate and move to opposite poles
- The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate.
- The
The centrioles give
centrosome forms rise to the spindle fibres which
centrioles.
Centrioles
- form separatethe
between and poles.
move to opposite poles.
- Centrioles give rise to spindle fibres.
Each chromosome
- Each chromosome is visible is
as visible
two chromatids joinedchromatids
as two together by a
centromere.
joined by a centromere
2. METAPHASE
- Chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell.
- Each chromosome is attached to spindle fibres by its centromere.
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the cell.
 Each chromosome is attached to the
spindle fibres by its centromere.
3. ANAPHASE
 Each chromosome separates into its sister
chromatids by the action of spindle fibres
pulling each towards a spindle pole.
 Each chromatid is pulled to opposite
3. ANAPHASE
poles of the cell
Spindle fibres contract pulling each chromatid to the opposite pole.
4. TELOPHASE
-The nuclear membrane reforms around the daughter chromosomes that have
gathered at each of the poles.
- The daughter chromosomes coil to form chromatin once again.
- The nuclear membrane reforms.
CYTOKINESIS
- is the division of the cytoplasm.
- it is not a stage of mitosis but the process of the cytoplasm splitting into
two.
- In an animal cell the cell membrane constricts.
- In a plant cell a cross wall is formed by the cell plate dividing the cytoplasm
in two.
- There are now two genetically identical daughter cells which are identical to
the parent cell and to each other.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS IN ANIMAL CELLS AND PLANT CELLS
ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS

Mitosis occurs throughout the body. Occurs in meristematic tissue e.g. Tips
of roots.
Centrosomes / Spindle fibres form Centrosomes/ Spindle fibres do NOT
form.
Cytokinesis occurs by furrowing Cytokinesis occurs by the formation of a
cell plate
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ROLE OF MITOSIS
LIVING PROCESS FUNCTIONS /ROLE OF MITOSIS
The number of cells increases by mitosis

Development and growth enabling organisms to grow from a single cell to
a complex multicellular organism.
Cells are constantly lost and replaced by new

ones in the body, for example in the skin and in
Cell replacement
the gut, red blood cells live for only four months,
and are replaced by mitosis.
Some organisms use mitosis to replace body

Replacement of damaged plant or animal
parts. For example, starfish replace lost arms
tissue (regeneration)
by mitosis.
Mitosis produces genetically identical

offspring. The process is known as budding.
Asexual reproduction
Mitosis is also the method by which yeast cells
multiply.
CANCER
Cancer is uncontrolled cell division or growth (mitosis) causing a tumour to form.
There are two types of tumours: Benign and Malignant.
Benign: These are not cancerous. They either cannot spread or grow, or they do so
very slowly. If a doctor removed them, they do not generally return.
Malignant: They are cancerous. The cells can grow and spread to other parts of the
body.
What Causes Cancer?
• Smoking and Tobacco.
• Diet and Physical Activity.
• Sun and Other Types of Radiation.
• Viruses and Other Infections.
Treatments for cancer: Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy
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QUESTION 1

number (1.1 to 1.5) in your answer book, for example 1.6 B.
1.1 Each new cell produced by mitosis will have ...
A half the number of chromosomes.

B a full set of chromosomes.
C twice the number of chromosomes.
D two new nuclei.
1.2 Which of the following is NOT a function of mitosis?
A Growth
B Repair
C Asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms
D The formation of sex cells
1.3 If a cell divides by mitosis, how many cells will there be after three
divisions?
A 3 cells
B 4 cells
C 8 cells
D 16 cells
1.4 Study the following diagram.
The chromosome number of the cell is …
A 2
B 4
C 6
D 8
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1.5 In a cell nucleus, the thread-like structures are called ...
A centriole.
B centrosomes.
C centromeres.
D chromosomes. (5x2=10)
QUESTION 2
2.1. The phase in which the cell replicates its DNA

2.2. Move to the poles during mitosis
2.3. Uncontrolled cell division
2.4. Cell division, which keeps chromosome numbers constant
2.5. Strands of cytoplasm that contract during cell division (5)
QUESTION 3
The micrographs (A to D) show the various stages of cell division.
3.1 Give the scientific name for cell division. (1)
3.2 The micrographs are not in the correct cell division sequence.
Use the letters only to write down the correct sequence. (4)
3.3 Is this a plant or animal cell? Give TWO visible reasons for your
answer. (3)
115
3.4 Name TWO places where this cell division occurs. (2)
(10)
QUESTION 4
Complete the table
PHASE DESCRIBE WHAT HAPPENS IN

EACH PHASE
116
(15)
117
WEEK 3: TOPIC: Plant and Animal tissues
SUB-TOPIC: Animal tissues
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
A tissue is a group of similarly differentiated cells which are adapted to perform a particular function.
Squamous
Sensory
Cuboidal
Nerve tissue Epithelial
tissue Columnar
Motor
Ciliated columnar
Animal
tissue
Striated Areolar
Muscle Connective Dense
stSmooth tissue Cartilage
tissue
Bone
Cardiac
Blood
118
Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue lines the cavities and surfaces of the body. It is usually separated
from the underlying tissue by a thin layer of connective tissue, called the basement
membrane.
Structure Location and function Diagram
Squamous epithelium Location
• Cells are thin and • Skin surfaces
irregular • Lines the mouth,
• Large flattened nucleus oesophagus, vagina,
• Cells are tightly packed alveoli and blood vessels.
and resemble a Function
pavement • Allows materials to pass
through by diffusion
Cuboidal epithelium Location
• Cells are square- • Lines the ducts of glands
shaped. • Lines tubules of the kidney
• Round nucleus at the Function
centre of the cell • Secretion
Absorption
Columnar epithelium Location
• Cells are elongated • Lines the intestines and
• Oval shaped nucleus the gallbladder
found at the base of the Function
cell • Absorption
• Contain goblet cells • Secretion of mucous and
which secrete mucous enzymes
Ciliated columnar Location

epithelium • Lines the trachea and
• Columnar epithelium urinary tract and female
that contain cilia (hair- reproductive system
like structures) on the Function
free end of the cell. • Cilia in the Fallopian tube
• Contain goblet cells help to move the ovum
which secrete mucous towards the uterus
• Dust particles are trapped
in the mucous and
expelled via the lungs
Connective tissue
Structure Location Function
Areolar connective tissue Location Function
• A layer beneath the • Prevents heat loss by
skin and loosely serving as insulating
connects the skin to material
underlying muscles • Protects organs
• Packing tissue between
organs, blood vessels,
nerves and muscles
119
Dense connective tissue Location and function
• Tendons joins muscle
to bones
• Ligaments joins bone to
bone
Cartilage Location and function Function
• Occurs between bones • Connects them together
• Lines joints • Prevent dislocation
• C-shaped rings in the • Keeps tubes open
trachea
• Pinna and tip of nose
•
Bone Location Function
• Bones of the • Give shape and rigidity
endoskeleton of to the body
vertebrates • Protects the brain,
spinal cord, heart and
lungs
• Muscle attachment to
make movement
possible
• Blood cells are made in
bone marrow
Blood Location Function
• Circulates in blood • Red blood cells
vessels (erythrocytes) do not
have a nucleus and are
round biconcave discs.
Contain haemoglobin
• White blood cells
(leucocytes) have one
or more nuclei and
produce antibodies that
fight infection.
• Platelets are fragments
of red blood cells which
help blood clotting
• Plasma is the fluid
component of blood
and transports
substances around the
body
120
Muscle tissue
Structure Location and function Diagram
Skeletal muscle Location
• Made up of a large • Attached to bone and
number of muscle fibres muscle
which appear as stripes Function
therefore also known as • Voluntary movement of
striated muscle the arms and legs for
• Muscle fibres are made walking
up of myofibrils and
each one contains more
than one nucleus
Smooth muscle Location
• Thin spindle-shaped • Walls of the alimentary
muscle fibres. canal, bladder, blood
• Each one contains a vessels
nucleus Function
• Involuntary movement
such as contraction
and relaxation
Cardiac muscle Location

• Network of branched • Walls of the heart
muscle fibres that have Function
a faint striped • Coordinate the
appearance involuntary contraction
• Each muscle fibre and relaxation of the
contains a nucleus heart.
Nervous tissue
Nerve tissue is made up of neurons (specialized cells).
Structure Function Diagram
Sensory neuron Transmits nerve impulses
from receptors to the
central nervous system.
121
Motor neuron Transmits nerve impulses
from the central nervous
system to effectors.
QUESTION 1

number (1.1 and 1.2) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.3 D.
1.1 Connective tissue that reduces friction between bones:
A Cartilage
B Tendon
C Ligament
D Blood
1.2 Which of the following are examples of connective tissues?

(i) Squamous tissue
(ii) Blood tissue
(iii) Cuboidal tissue
(iv) Tendons
A (i) and (ii) only

B (ii) and (iii) only
C (iv) only
D (ii) and (iv) only 2x2 (4)
122
QUESTION 2
only the term next to the question number (2.1 and 2.2) in your ANSWER
BOOK.
2.1 The type of epithelial tissue that forms the lining of the inner
surface of the mouth, vagina, oesophagus and blood vessels.
2.2 Neurons that transmit nerve impulses from sensory organs to the
central nervous system. (2)
QUESTION 3
Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow:
3.1 (1)
Identify the tissue labelled A.
3.2 (1)
Name ONE part of the body that is lined by this tissue.
3.3 (2)
State TWO functions of this tissue.
3.4
Describe TWO ways how the tissue above is structurally suited for (4)
its functions mentioned in QUESTION 3.3. (8)
QUESTION 4
4.1 Study the data in the following table and answer the questions that
follow.
123
Comparison of the composition of the types of blood cells per
mm3 blood
Types of blood Number of blood cells per mm3 blood in

cells three people
Person 1 Person 2 Person 3
Erythrocytes 8 350 000 2 200 500 6 000 500
(red blood cells)
Leucocytes 580 6 950 5 300
(white blood cells)
Thrombocytes 247 500 258 000 175
(blood platelets)
4.1.1 Identify the person:

(a) who lives at a very high altitude. Provide a reason for your
answer (2)
(b) who will get sick if exposed to a virus. Provide a reason for
your answer. (2)
(c) who suffers from haemophilia (blood cannot clot). Provide a
reason for your answer. (2)
(d) who is probably anaemic. Provide a reason for your answer.
(2)
4.1.2 Explain the function of an erythrocyte. (1)

(9)
4.2 Study the following specialised cells of animal tissue and answer the
questions below.
124
4.2.1 Name TWO functions of tissue B. (2)
4.2.2 Provide a label for C. (1)
4.2.3 Name ONE place in the human body where EACH of the following
tissue types occur.
(a) Tissue D (1)
(b) Tissue F (1)
4.2.4 Tissue A contains osteocytes. Give a definition for the term

“osteocyte”. (1)
(6)
125
WEEK 4 & 5: TOPIC: Plant tissues and Organs
SUB-TOPIC: Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Meristematic tissue
Apical Meristem: length
(Actively dividing
Lateral meristem: thickness
tissue)
Plant
tissues
Epidermis
Parenchyma
Permanent tissues
Collenchyma
(Differentiated
Sclerenchyma
tissues with specific
Xylem
function)
Phloem
Meristematic tissue:
Apical Meristem
Located at the growing points at the tips of roots and stems.
Results in an increase in the length of these structures.
126
Lateral meristem
This tissue is also called cambium. Cork cambium divides to produce the cork cells
that form the outer bark of a woody plant. Vascular cambium divides to make more
xylem and phloem tissue.
Results in the growth in thickness or width of roots and stems.
127
Permanent tissues
Tissue Structure Function Illustration
Epidermal tissue • Made up of a single • They provide the inner
layer of cells tissues with protection.
• Cells are thin walled • They control the
and brick shaped. opening and closing of
• There are 2 types of the stomata.
specialized epidermal • The stomata allows for
cells: the entry and exit of
• The epidermis of leaves gases.
and stems have a • The root hair absorbs
L/S of Leaf
specialized epidermal water and mineral
cell called the guard salts.
cell.
• The guard cells surround
an opening called the
stomata.
• The epidermis of the
root has a specialized
cell called the root hair.
T/S of root
Parenchyma Location: • Acts as packing tissue
• Found in roots and • Acts as a storage
stems. organ, when it stores
• It is found between all food in the form of
the other tissues in starch and other
these organs. sugars.
Appearance: • The air spaces between
the cells allows for the
128
• It is made up of thin movement of water
walled, irregularly and gases.
shaped cells.
• The irregular shape
allows for the formation
of many air spaces
between the cells.
• They are called
chlorenchyma when
they have chloroplast.
Collenchyma Location: • Provides strength and

• This tissue is found in support to the aerial
stems and leaves. parts of the plant.
Appearance: • It is closely packed
• This tissue is made up of making it strong to offer
thick walled, closely strength and support.
packed cells. • It has thick cell walls to
offer strength and
support.
129
Scleremchyma • There are 2 types of • They provide strength
sclerenchyma cells. and support to the
• These are the plant.
sclerenchyma fibres • They have cell walls that
and stone cells, as are thickened with lignin
shown in the diagram that enable them to
alongside. provide support and
Location: strength to the plant
• It is found in roots, organ.
stems, leaves, flowers
and fruit of plants.
• Stone cells are also
found in the flesh of
some fruits for example
pears and in the shell of
nuts.
Appearance:
• Its is made up of thick
walled cells.
• The cell walls are
thickened with lignin.
• These cells are closely
packed.
• The cells are dead,
there are no cell
contents.
130
Xylem Location: • Xylem vessels and
• This tissue is found in tracheids transport
the roots, stems and water and mineral
leaves salts from the roots to
• Appearance: the stems of plants.
• There are 4 different • They are also able to
types of cells that make provide the plant with
up the xylem tissue. strength and support.
• They are the xylem • Xylem vessels are dead
vessels and xylem cells with no cells
tracheids. contents to allow for the
• The vessels are easy movement of
cylindrical. water.
• They have cell walls • The cross walls are
that are thickened by absent or perforated to
lignin. allow for easy
• The cross walls are movement of water.
completely absent or • The vessels are round in
they are perforated, cross section to prevent
meaning that they have distortion when water
tiny pores in them. moves through it.
• They are dead cells • The vessels are able to
with no cell content. form continuous tubes
The vessels lie end to because they are dead
end, forming a cells with no cell
continuous tube. contents and have no
• The tracheids are cross walls.
elongated cells with
tapered ends.
131
• Their cell walls are also
thickened with lignin.
Phoem Location: • They transport

• It is found in roots, manufactured food from
stems and leaves. leaves to all parts of the
Appearance: plant.
• This tissue is made up 4 •
different types of cells.
Sieve Tubes
• These are elongated
cells.
• They have thin cell
walls that are
unthickened.
• The cross walls are
perforated.
• They are living cells
with cell content.
• The cytoplasm occurs
as strands.
• Sieve tubes have no
nuclei.
Companion Cells:
• These cells are
attached to the sieve
tubes.
• They have nuclei.
132
• They control the
function of the sieve
tubes.
Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants -root and stem:

The main functions of the root is to
• Anchor the plant into the ground
• Absorb water and mineral salts from the soil
The main functions of the stem is to
• Transport of water and mineral salts from the root to the leaf
• Transport organic substances from the leaf to the rest of the plant
133
134
QUESTION 1

1.1 A tissue whose cells are capable of dividing and re-dividing is called
a…
A complex tissue.
B connective tissue.
C permanent tissue.
D meristematic tissue.
1.2 A learner was shown two slides of plant tissues: parenchyma and
sclerenchyma. Which of the features given below would be crucial in
identifying sclerenchyma?
A Location of nucleus
B Size of cells
C Thickness of cell walls
D Position of vacuoles
1.3 Root hairs are most important to a plant because they …
A anchor a plant into the soil.

B store starch.
C increase the surface area for absorption.
D provide a habitat for nits.
1.4 The cells of this tissue have thin cell walls, large vacuoles and dense
cytoplasm. This tissue is:
A Meristem
B Parenchyma
C Sclerenchyma
D Collenchyma
1.5 The diagrams below show the distribution of tissues in the stem and
root of a dicotyledonous plant.
Which tissues are xylem?
135
Stem Root
A I and III
B I and IV
C II and III
D II and IV
1.6 Which tissue is made up of fibres and stone cells?
A collenchyma
B sclerenchyma
C parenchyma
D meristem (12)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
2.1 Example of complex tissues A: Xylem
B: Phloem
2.2 Conducting tissue for water A: Xylem
and mineral salts B: Phloem
2.3 Tissue that is made of stone A: collenchyma
cells and fibres B: sclerenchyma
2.4 Plant cells without nuclei A: Parenchyma
B: Companion cells
(4x2) (8)
Study the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow.
136
3.1 Provide the LETTER and the NAME of the tissue which:
(a) Transports water and minerals up a plant
(b) Provides mechanical support to the plant
(c) Allows diffusion of gases (6)
3.2 Explain TWO ways in which tissue B is structurally suited for its
function. (4)
3.3 Tabulate TWO visible differences between tissue A and C. (5)
(15)
QUESTION 4
Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
A
B
C
D
E
4.1 Name the parts labelled A, B and C. (3)

4.2 Give ONE function of part F. (1)
4.3 What is the collective name of the tissues that transport water and
food in the structure shown above? (1)
4.4 Draw a fully labelled diagram to illustrate the structure of part
labelled B. (5)
(10)
137
QUESTION 5
Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow
A
B
E
F
5.1 Write the heading of the diagram above. (1)

5.2 Give TWO reasons to support your answer above. (2)
5.3 Provide label and function
(a) A (2)
(b) F (2)
5.4 Tissue E transport organic compounds from the leaves to all parts
of the plant. Name the two types of cells that make up this tissue. (2)
(9)
138
:
WEEK 6: TOPIC: Support and transport systems in plants
SUB-TOPIC: The leaf
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
A leaf consists of a flat lamina (leaf blade) which is attached to the main stem by
means of a petiole.
The veins of the leaf blade consist of xylem and phloem that are continuous with
the xylem and phloem of the root and stem.
Cross-section of a dicotyledonous leaf showing the different tissue that

make up the leaf.
The leaf consists of three main sections:

• The epidermis
• The mesophyll
• The vascular bundles
1.The epidermis
The upper and lower surfaces of the leaf are covered by a thin transparent
epidermis.
The epidermis is thin and transparent so that the light can pass through for
photosynthesis.
A thin waxy cuticle covers the epidermis and ensures that water is not lost
through the epidermis.
139
The lower surface of the epidermis has specialized cells called stomata.
The stomata consist of a kidney-shaped guard cell that open and close the
stomatal pores.
The stomata are responsible for gaseous exchange.
2. The mesophyll
There are two types of mesophyll cells i.e. palisade and spongy mesophyll. They
fill the spaces between the between the upper and lower epidermis.
The palisade mesophyll cells are thin-walled parenchyma cell, are elongated and
are situated just below the upper epidermis. They contain large number of
chloroplasts to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis.
The spongy mesophyll is round parenchyma that has many intercellular spaces
and air chambers to allow gases to diffuse easily. They have less chloroplasts than
the palisade.
3.The vascular bundles

The veins consist of xylem and phloem.
The xylem carries water from the roots up the stem and into the leaf where it is
needed in the mesophyll tissues for photosynthesis,
The phloem carries the food that is made by photosynthesis down to the other
parts of the plant.
How the leaf is adapted to its functions:

➢ The lamina is large providing large surface area to absorb as much sunlight
as possible.
➢ The lamina thin which allows gases to move in and out easily by diffusion.
➢ The cuticle is impermeable to water and transparent – this prevents loss of
water and allows sunlight through to the palisade mesophyll cell.
➢ Epidermal cells are transparent to allow sunlight through.
➢ The lower surface has many stomata for gaseous exchange.
➢ The palisade tissue is arranged longitudinally to increase the surface area
exposed to the sunlight.
➢ The palisade has many chloroplasts to absorb the maximum amount of
sunlight.
➢ The palisade has thin walls to allow osmosis and the diffusion of gases into
and out of the cells.
➢ The spongy mesophyll has large intercellular air spaces for gaseous
exchange.
➢ The vascular bundles have xylem to transport and mineral salts from the
roots up the stem to the mesophyll for photosynthesis.
➢ The vascular bundles have phloem to transport the dissolved nutrients
made during photosynthesis to other parts of the plant.
140
QUESTION 1

number (1.1 and 1.2) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.3 D.
1.1 Water vapor is lost through the stomata by …
A transpiration.
B respiration.
C photosynthesis.
D Gaseous exchange.
1.2 Which one of the following has large intercellular spaces for gaseous
exchange?
A Palisade mesophyll
B Spongy mesophyll
C Upper epidermis
D Lower epidermis (4)
QUESTION 2
2.1 The movement of gases across a surface in opposite directions.

2.2 The loss of water vapour from a plant through the surface of leaves.
2.3 Cells that controls the opening of the stoma.
2.4 Openings on a leaf that allows gases to pass through. (4)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 The tissue that transport A Xylem
water and mineral salts B Phloem
from the soil up the plant
141
3.2 Waxy layer that prevents A Cuticle
evaporation of water B Epidermis
3.3 Site of photosynthesis A Stoma

B Chloroplast
(3 x 2) (6)
QUESTION 4
Study the following diagram that illustrates organs and tissues of a plant and answer the
questions below.
4.1 Tissue C is responsible for the transport of water in a plant. Name the tissue. (1)
4.2 List THREE ways in which tissue C is adapted for the transport of water. (3)
4.3 Name the plant organs X and Y. (2)
4.4 Answer the following questions based on structure D.

(a) Identify the structure (1)
(b) To which plant tissue group does this structure belong? (1)
(c) Supply a reason why this structure is not covered by a waxy cuticle. (2)
(10)
142
SUB-TOPIC: Transpiration
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
TERMINOLOGY
Term Description/definition
Transpiration The loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of the plant
through the stomata of the leaf
Guttation The formation of drops of water around the margin of the
leaves of some plants as a result of root pressure
Humidity The amount of water vapour in the air
Wilt When a plant becomes limp and floppy because it has lost too
much water
1. The relationship between water loss and leaf structure
Path of water movement through a leaf
143
An open and closed stomata
The structural adaptations to limit water loss

• Position of a stomata: Ventral than dorsal – more stomata at the bottom surface
• Sunken stomata: Air is trapped outside of stomata decreasing the diffusion gradient
• Thickened cuticle: Prevents water loss; the thicker the cuticle the lesser transpiration
• Small leaf surface: Small surface area for evaporation
• Leaf arrangement: Lamina is not exposed to the sun to decrease evaporation
2. Factors that affect the rate of transpiration:
(a)Temperature (b) Wind (c) Humidity (d) Light intensity
(a) Temperature: heat increases the kinetic energy of water molecules

When temperature rises water vapour diffuses out of the leaf faster.
(b) Wind: removes water vapour close to the surface of the leaf.
(c) Humidity: air that is humid is filled with water therefore decreasing diffusion between air
and leaf spaces causing a decrease in the rate of transpiration.
(d) Light intensity: in brighter light the stomata opens more which allows more transpiration,
transpiration occurs faster during the day than at night.
A potometer is used to measure the rate of transpiration in a plant
144
A POTOMETER
ACTIVITY 1
An investigation was carried out to compare the rate of water absorption and the rate
of transpiration of plant over 24 hours. The results of the investigation are shown in the
table below:
Time of day Rate of absorption of Rate of water loss by
water (cm³/h) transpiration (cm³/h)
00:00 2,0 0,5
04:00 1,5 0,3
06:00 1,5 0,5
08:00 1,5 2,0
10:00 2,2 3,5
12:00 3,5 5,0
14:00 4,7 6,4
16:00 5,6 7,3
18:00 6,0 4,5
20:00 3,4 O,9
24:00 2,0 0,5
145
1.1 Draw a line graph on the same set of axes to illustrate the
data in the table above.
(7)
1.2 Identify
(a) Dependent variable
(1)
(b) Independent variable
(1)
1.3 Give TWO ways to ensure that the results are valid. (2)
1.4 At what time was sunrise? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
1.5 At what time of the day was the rate of transpiration at its
maximum? (1)
1.6 At what time of the day was the rate of absorption at its
maximum? (1)
1.7 Between which hours was the rate of transpiration greater

than the rate of water absorption? What do you think
happened to the plant during these hours? (3)
1.8 Was there a net loss or a net gain of water by the plant
during the 24-hour period? Show how you arrived at your
answer. (4)
1.9 Explain what happens to the plant to cause absorption to

rise after 8:00. (3)
(25)
SUB-TOPIC: Water uptake, Transport of water & Translocation of

manufactured food
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Uptake of water and minerals into xylem in roots in xylem of leaves.
Xylem Tissue
• Moves materials via the process of transpiration
• Transports water and minerals from the roots to aerial parts of the plant.
146
• Xylem occupy the inner portion or centre of the vascular bundle and is composed
of vessel elements and tracheids
• Vessel wall consists of fused cells that create a continuous tube for the
unobstructed flow of water and materials.
• Vessels are composed of dead tissue at maturity, such that vessels are hollow
with no cell contents
Phloem
• Moves materials via the process of active translocation
• Transports food and nutrients to storage organs and growing parts of the plant
(bidirectional transport)
• Phloem occupy the outer portion of the vascular bundle and are composed of
sieve tube elements and companion cells
• Vessel wall consists of cells that are connected at their transverse ends to form
porous sieve plates (function as cross walls)
• Vessels are composed of living tissue, however sieve tube elements lack nuclei
and have few organelles
147
Minerals are actively transported into the xylem vessels. This lowers the water potential
in the xylem and water flows by osmosis. Root pressure pushes some of the water
upwards. Water evaporates from the surface of leaf by transpiration and water is lost. The
water must be replaced as it moves out of the xylem into the leaf, creating a low hydrostatic
pressure and tension. Water molecules are attracted to each other by forces of cohesion
creating a continuous column of water so that water can be pulled upwards. Water
molecules are also attracted to the walls of the xylem by forces of adhesion and causing
capillary action.
Translocation is the movement of organic compounds (e.g. sugars, amino acids) from
sources to sinks
▪ The source is where the organic compounds are synthesised – this is the photosynthetic
tissues (leaves)
▪ The sink is where the compounds are delivered to for use or storage – this includes
roots, fruits and seeds
Organic compounds are transported from sources to sinks via a vascular tube system
called the phloem
148
▪ Sugars are principally transported as sucrose (disaccharide), because it is soluble but
metabolically inert
▪ The nutrient-rich, viscous fluid of the phloem is called plant sap.
QUESTION 1
1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following

questions. Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A to D) next
to the question number.
1.1.1 Vascular tissue in plants consists of …
A. meristems.
B. xylem and phloem.
C. parenchyma and collenchyma.
D. epidermis.
1.1.2 The layer of cells that encloses the vascular tissue in the central region
of a root is the …
A. Endodermis
149
B. Cortex
C. Epidermis
D. Apical meristem
1.1.3 Sugar is conducted in solution through specialized cells known as:
A. Fibers.
B. Companion cells.
C. Sieve tube elements.
D. Tracheids. (6)
1.2 Give the correct biological definition for each of the following biological
terms:
1.2.1 Capillarity
1.2.2 Translocation
1.2.3 Root pressure
1.2.4 Transpiration pull
1.2.5 Xylem.
(5)
1.3 Study the table below and complete it by writing the Letter and the
correct answer:
TRANSPORTATION VS TRANSLOCATION
Transportation Translocation
Type of Water A
substance
transported
Type of tissue B C
involved
Movement D Up and down.
(4)
QUESTION 2
2.1 Make a labelled diagram of the structure which absorbs water from
soil. (5)
2.2 Name the process by which the plant absorbs water. (1)
2.3 Describe the structural suitablity of the xylem in performing its function. (3)
150
2.4 Study the table below which illustrates the rate of water absortion
and the rate of transpiration by the leaves.
Time Rate of water Rate of transpiration (ml

absorption (ml per per hour)
hour)
6:00 1.5 0.5
8:00 1.5 2.0
10:00 3.2 4.5
12:00 4.5 6.0
14:00 5.7 7.4
16:00 7.6 9.3
18:00 8.0 5.5
2.4.1 Define transpiration. (2)

2.4.2 At what time did maximum transpiration occur? (1)
2.4.3 During which time period did the rate of water loss from the plant
exceed the rate of water absorption? Suggest a reason for this. (4)
2.4.4 Describe how water moves from the root cortex until it reaches the
xylem of the leaves. (4)
2.4.5 Draw line graphs,on the same set of axes, to illustrate the results in
the table. (6)
(26)
WEEK 9 & 10: TOPIC: Support system in animals
SUB-TOPIC: Human skeleton and Functions of the skeleton
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
The functions of a skeleton:

• It facilitates movement
• It protects tissues and organs
• It supports the body
• Stores minerals
151
• Assists with hearing (ossicles bones in our ears)
Human Skeleton:
Human
skeleton
Axial Appendicular
The human skeleton is composed of two parts:

1. The axial skeleton is made up of all the bones around the axis of the body. This includes
the skull bones, vertebral column and thoracic cage.
2. The appendicular skeleton are the upper and lower limbs as well as the shoulder and
pelvic girdles. It’s bones “append” to the axial skeleton.
In the diagram below the axial skeleton’s labels are on the left-hand side and the
appendicular skeleton’s labels are on the right-hand side.
152
The skull is composed of the following facial bones:
Lacrimal – Paired bones that form the wall of the orbit (eye socket)
Mandible – Bone that forms the lower jaw.
Maxilla – Bone that forms the upper jaw.
Nasal – Paired bones that form the bridge of the nose.
Zygomatic arch – Paired facial bones that form the cheeks.
Diagram of facial bones

153
Ventral (bottom) side of the skull:
• The skull has an opening at the bottom where the spinal cord enters the skull. We call
this opening the foramen magnum.
• The top part on the inside of the mouth is called the palate it separates the mouth cavity
from the nose cavity. So, that you can eat and breath at the same time.
Diagram showing the bottom (ventral)view of the skull
The Cranium of the skull:

The cranium of the skull is the part where the brain is situated. It forms a bony casing which
protects the brain.
Diagram indicating where the cranium is

Ossicles- three bones in ear, helps with hearing (smallest bones in body)
The Spine
It is the central support of the body. It provides a framework to support the trunk and rigid
protection for the spinal cord. Portions of the spine surround the spinal cord providing bony
protection for the spinal cord just as the skull protects the brain with a bony shell. The Spinal
Column made up of 24 Vertebrae. These bones are stacked on top of one another.
The vertebral column can be divided into 5 regions:
154
• Cervical spine: 7 vertebrae of the neck (C1-C7), C1 is the atlas and C2 is the axis
• Thoracic spine: 12 vertebrae of the mid-back (T1-T12)
• Lumbar spine: 5 vertebrae of the lower back (L1-L5)
• Sacrum
• Coccyx
A normal vertebral column creates a double-S curve when viewed from the side of the body.
The cervical vertebrae gently curve inward, while the thoracic spine curves gently outward,
followed by the lumbar spine, which curves inward again. This structure gives the spinal
column great strength and shock-absorbing qualities.
The sacrum is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine that forms by the fusing of 5
sacral vertebrae. Immediately below the sacrum are 3 to 5 small bones that naturally fuse
together at adulthood forming the coccyx or tailbone.
The Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the shoulder girdle, the upper limbs, the
pelvic girdle, and the lower limbs.
The pectoral girdle bones provide the points of attachment of the upper limbs to the axial
skeleton. The human pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle (or collarbone) in the anterior
(front), and the scapula (or shoulder blades) in the posterior(back).
The pelvic girdle attaches to the lower limbs of the axial skeleton. Because it is responsible
for bearing the weight of the body and for locomotion, the pelvic girdle is securely attached to
the axial skeleton by strong ligaments. It is composed of ilium, Ischium and pubis bones.
155
Diagram of the shoulder, arm, elbow and hand Diagram of the hip, leg, knee and foot
QUESTION 1

1.1 The bones that form part of the lower arm:
A Fibula and tibia

B Mandible and maxilla
C Vertebra and coccyx
D Radius and ulna
1.2 The part of the skull where the brain is situated:
A Foramen magnum
B Cranium
C Orbit
D Zygomatic arch
156
1.3 Bones that make up the pelvic girdle:
A Meta tarsals, tarsals and phalanges

B Clavicle and scapula
C Ischium, ilium and pubis
D Ossicles and sternum (6)
QUESTION 2
2.1 The opening through which the spinal cord enters the skull
2.2 Twenty-four stacked bones that forms part of the spine.
2.3 Girdle where the legs attach to the axial skeleton.
2.4 Bony part that separate the mouth cavity from the nose cavity
2.5 The upper bone of the leg.
2.6 Part of spine that is composed of 12 vertebrae.
2.7 The bone that forms part of the knee.
2.8 (8)
Scientific name for the collar bone.

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 Bone that is part of A Coccyx
appendicular skeleton B Skull
3.2 Bone that is part of jaws A Foramen magnum
B Mandible
3.3 Bone that forms the fingers A Phalanges

B Ulna
(3 x 2) (6)
QUESTION 4
Study the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow.
157
4.1 Provide labels for structures A -G. (7)
4.2 Write down the LETTER and NAME of the structures that forms part
of the pectoral girdle. (4)
4.3 Name THREE bones that are connected to the elbow. (3)
4.4 (1)
Which bones do the feet and hands have in common?
(15)
QUESTION 5
Cut out the bones on the following page and build your own human skeleton by pasting them
in the correct place.
158
159
TERM 4
160
WEEK 1 : TOPIC: Transport systems
SUB-TOPIC: Blood circulation system
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Large animals require a transport system to get food and oxygen to the body and cells. A
transport system must also move carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes away from the body
cells. The human circulatory system transports these substances via the blood stream.
Open Circulatory System
Arthropods and mollusks have an open circulatory system since the blood is not confined to
blood vessels only. They have blood-filled spaces called haemocoels (blood cavity). Organs
are found within the haemocoels. These organs become submerged with blood and in this way,
obtain oxygen and food from the blood by diffusion. Carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes
diffuse out of these organs and are transported away by the blood.
Closed Circulatory System
All vertebrates, including mammals have a closed circulatory system. Blood is confined to blood
vessels only, which are arteries, veins and capillaries.
Double Circulatory System

Humans have a double circulatory system since blood is pumped from the heart along two
circuits. The first is the Pulmonary Circuit, where deoxygenated blood moves from the heart
to the lungs and returns to the heart as oxygenated blood.
The second circuit is the Systemic Circuit, where oxygenated blood is pumped throughout the
body and returns to the heart as deoxygenated blood.
161
162
The External Structure of the Heart
163
The Internal Structure of the Heart
164
CARDIAC CYCLE: FLOW OF BLOOD THROUGH THE HEART
At the beginning of the cardiac cycle, both the atria and ventricles are relaxed (diastole).
Blood is flowing into the right atrium from the superior and inferior vena cava and the coronary
sinus. Blood flows into the left atrium from the four pulmonary veins.
The cardiac cycle involves:
• systole – contraction of the heart muscle
• diastole – relaxation of the heart muscle.
The heart beats twice:

• atrial systole forces blood through the heart into the ventricles
• ventricle systole forces blood out of the heart.
The Cardiac Cycle

Your heart beats around 70 times a minute. The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events which
makes up one heartbeat.
The cardiac cycle refers to the contraction and relaxation of the heart muscles (heartbeat).
This is the characteristic “lub-dub” sound of a beating heart, which is the closing of the valves as
the atrial and ventricular muscles contract.
The wall of the right atrium has a group of specialized cells called the Sino – Atrial node
(SA Node). This node acts as a pacemaker. The pacemaker determines the rate of contraction
of the atria and the ventricles according to the needs of the body and coordinates the contraction
of the heart muscles.
There are three stages in this cycle.

1. Atrial systole
2. Ventricular systole
3. Atrial and Ventricular diastole
1. ATRIAL SYSTOLE
• The muscles of the atria contract.

165
• The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are forced open to allow blood to flow from the atria into
the ventricles.
• Duration is 0,1seconds.
2. VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE
• Muscles of the ventricles contract.
• Both the tricuspid and bicuspid valves close (the lub sound).
• Semi-lunar valves of the pulmonary artery and aorta are open.
• Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle is forced up the pulmonary artery and moves
to the lungs.
• Oxygenated blood from the left ventricle is forced up the aorta and moves to all parts of
the body.
• Duration is 0,3 seconds.
3. ATRIAL AND VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE
• Muscles of the atria and ventricles relax.

• Semi-lunar valves in aorta and pulmonary artery close to prevent any back flow (the dub
sound).
• Deoxygenated blood from the vena cava fills the right atrium and oxygenated blood from
the pulmonary veins fills the left atrium.
• The cycle then starts again.
• Duration is o,4 seconds.
166
RECALL OF THE FLOW OF BLOOD IN THE HEART
167
QUESTION 1
number (1.1 to 1.5) in your answer book, for example 1.6 B.
1.1 Atria pump blood to the. . .
A arteries.
B body cavities.
C veins.
D ventricles.
1.2 In the human heart, the thickest wall occurs in the …
A left ventricle.
B right atrium.
C left atrium.
D right ventricle.
1.3 In a closed circulatory system, blood flows from arteries into
A venules.
B body spaces.
C capillaries.
D lymph vessels.
1.4 The valve that separates the left atrium from the left ventricle . . .
A septum
B bicuspid valve
C semi-lunar valve
D tricuspid valve
1.5 The protective sac found around the heart is the . . .
A renal capsule
B pleuron (10)
C endocardium
D pericardium
QUESTION 2
Give the biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write ONLY
the term next to the question number (1.2.1 to 1.2.5) in your answer book.
2.1. The period of the cardiac cycle when the atria and ventricles contract.
168
2.2. Pacemaker found on the wall of the right atrium.
2.3. Thick muscular wall that separates the left side from the right side of the
heart.
2.4. Arteries that supply the walls of the heart with oxygen and nutrients.
2.5. The upper chambers of the heart. (5)
QUESTION 3
ANSWER BOOK.
Column I Column II
3.1 Carries blood to the heart. A. Veins
B. Arteries
3.2 Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. A. Right Ventricle
B. Right Atrium
3.3 Carries Deoxygenated blood to the lungs. A. Pulmonary Vein
B. Pulmonary Artery
3.4 Carries blood from the upper parts of the body A. Superior Vena Cava
B. Inferior Vena Cava
to the heart.
3.5 Double circulatory system involves A. Pulmonary Circuit
B. Systemic Circuit
(10)
QUESTION 4
4.1 Label the External Structure of the Heart.
(11)
169
4.2 Study the internal structure of the heart below and answer the questions
that follow.
4.2.1 Label the internal structure of the heart. (16)

4.2.2 Give the letter and the name of the part that carries oxygenated blood
to all parts of the body. (2)
4.2.3 Why do walls marked J and H differ in thickness? (4)
4.2.4 Write the down the letters and the names of the valves found in the
heart. (8)
(41)
QUESTION 5
The graph below represents the heartbeat of a grade 10 learner, Mbali. Study the graph
and answer the questions that follow.
5.1 State what is meant by the term heartbeat? (2)

170
5.2 Give the (a) lowest heart rate
(b) fastest heart rate (2)
5.3 Give a possible reason for the change from the normal heartbeat. (2)
5.4 State the time it took for the heartbeat to return to normal. (2)
5.5 Name the apparatus a doctor uses to listen to a person’s heart. (1)
5.6 Give the words used to describe the sound a normal heart makes. (1)
(10)
WEEK 2 : TOPIC: Transport systems
SUB-TOPIC: Direction of blood flow & Lungs and pulmonary system
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Humans have two circuits of blood flow. This is called double circulation. This means
that blood flows in two different directions at the same time.
These two circuits of blood flow are:
a) The pulmonary circuit.
b) The systemic circuit.
In the pulmonary circuit blood flows from the heart to the lungs and back to the
heart.
In the systemic circuit blood flows from the heart to all parts of the body and back
to the heart.
171
The pulmonary system
Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle is forced into
the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches as it leaves the heart and
one branch enters each lung.
In the lungs, the artery branches until it forms tiny capillaries.
These capillaries carry the deoxygenated blood to the alveoli.
The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries into the
alveoli.
Oxygen then moves out of the alveoli and into the capillaries.
The blood in the capillaries is now oxygenated.
The capillaries join and rejoin to form larger and larger veins
as they leave the lungs.
These veins leave the lungs as the pulmonary veins.
The pulmonary veins from each lung enters the left atrium
of the heart.
172
The systemic system
The systemic circuit is a much larger and more complicated circuit. It is made up
of a number of smaller circuits.
Oxygenated blood from the left ventricle is forced into the aorta. The aorta leaves
the heart carrying the oxygenated blood. The aorta branches and rebranches until it
forms smaller arterioles that carry oxygenated blood to all parts of the body.
These arterioles branch and branch until they form capillaries that supply the cells
in all the parts of the body with oxygen. Oxygen moves out of the capillaries into the
cells and carbon dioxide moves out of the cells and into the capillaries.
The blood in the capillaries is now deoxygenated. The capillaries from the lower half
of the body join and rejoin to form veins. The largest of these veins is the inferior
vena cava that carries the deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.
The capillaries in the upper half of the body join and rejoin to form bigger and bigger
visions. The largest vein is the superior vena cava that carries the deoxygenated
blood from the upper half of the body to the right atrium of the heart.
The hepatic portal system (liver)

The hepatic portal circuit is a branch of the systemic circuit.
The hepatic portal vein carries blood rich in digested nutrients to the liver.
In the liver, the excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored.
173
The rest of the blood leaves the liver via the hepatic vein.
The hepatic vein joins the inferior vena cava.
Blood vessels
Arteries Veins Capillaries
Carry blood away from Carry blood towards the Link arteries to veins
the heart heart
Outer coat is thin and Outer coat is thick and Outer and middle coats
middle coat is thick middle coat is thin are absent
Lumen is small Lumen is large Lumen is small
Pure oxygenated blood Impure deoxygenated First part of the capillary
is carried except blood carried except contains oxygenated
pulmonary artery pulmonary vein blood and last part
contains deoxygenated
Semi lunar valves are Semi lunar valves are Semi lunar valves are
absent present to prevent absent
backflow of blood
Pressure of blood is Pressure of blood is low Pressure is lower
high
Blood flow is rapid Blood flow is slow Blood flow is slow
through artery through veins through capillaries.
174
QUESTION 1

1.1 The valves in the veins…
A trap foreign particles.

B increase blood pressure.
C pump blood.
D prevent the backflow of blood.
1.2 The _______ is the chamber that pumps _________blood to the

lungs.
A right ventricle, oxygenated

B left ventricle, oxygenated
C left ventricle, deoxygenated
D right ventricle, deoxygenated
1.3 Contraction of the entire heart takes place in three stages. Select the
option with the correct order.
A Ventricular systole – Atrial systole – General diastole

B Atrial systole – Ventricular systole – General diastole
C Ventricular systole – general diastole – Atrial systole
D General diastole – Ventricular systole – Atrial systole (6)
QUESTION 2
2.1 The strong, double-walled sac covering the human heart

2.2 Blood vessels which transports blood under high pressure
2.3 Joins arteries to veins (3)
QUESTION 3
Study the diagrams which show two cross-sections of mammalian blood vessels and
answer the questions that follow.
175
3.1 a) Which vessel (A or B) is the artery?
b) Suggest TWO reasons for your answer. (3)
3.2 a) Which vessel carries blood at low pressure?
b) Give ONE reason for your answer. (2)
3.3 Identify the parts number 1, 2, 3 and 4. (4)
3.4 Name ONE way in which capillaries differ structurally from larger
blood vessels. (1)
3.5
a) In which vessel (A or B) would you expect to find valves?
(2)
b) What is the function of these valves?
(12)
QUESTION 4
Study the following diagrams of the human heart and answer the questions that
follow.
4.1 Identify the blood vessels labelled A and B, indicated on both

diagrams above. (2)
4.2 What are the numbers and names of the upper internal heart
chambers? (2)
4.3 Why does the lower chambers of the heart have thicker muscle walls
than the upper chambers? (2)
4.4
176
Describe THREE factors that are linked to (can cause) heart disease (3)
in humans. (9)
QUESTION 5
An investigation was carried out to determine which heart rate is most efficient at
pumping blood.
The table below shows the results of the investigation. An athlete’s heart rate was
measured during periods of exercise. At the same time, the amount of blood pumped
from her heart per minute was also determined.
Heart Rate
55 70 80 90 120 140 150 160
(Beats/Min)
Cardiac
output 4000 4800 5200 5600 6000 6100 5800 4600
(Ml/Min)
5.1 Provide a hypothesis for the above investigation. (2)

5.2 At which heart rate was the heart working at its most efficient? (2)
5.3 Describe how the heart rate is controlled based on the amount of
CO2 in the blood. (6)
5.4 Calculate how much blood is being pumped per heartbeat when the
heart is beating at 90 beats/min. show ALL working. (3)
(13)
177

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Chemistry Of Life

+ An atom is the smallest particle of an element

+ An orange-red colour change in the

3.1 Identify the type of organic compound to which

+ Amino acids – monomers of proteins

+ Enzymes are sensitive to

+ Biological washing powders contain enzymes e.g. lipase and

+ Vitamin A is essential for the correct

+ Calcium and phosphates are required

Hand lens (simple microscope)

In 1600, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch

 The formula for calculating the actual size of a

 size of specimen (object) = size of image

 actual size = size on diagram × number on scale bar

It is a semi-permeable structure that

Consist of short carbohydrate chains

Carbohydrate chains attached to Act as recognition sites for specific

JOINS TO FOR RNA

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 http://www.thebrothersmueller.com/work/mitosis-wallpaper/

• Interphase is the period between two consecutive cell

• Definition *replication* making of two identical copies

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020

This refers to a chromosome as it

This refers to a chromosome as it

This refers to each of the two threads of

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 https://www.tes.com/lessons/xqeT2pG8jbjJvQ/mitosis

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 https://www.tes.com/lessons/xqeT2pG8jbjJvQ/mitosis

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 https://www.tes.com/lessons/xqeT2pG8jbjJvQ/mitosis

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 https://www.tes.com/lessons/xqeT2pG8jbjJvQ/mitosis

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020 https://www.tes.com/lessons/xqeT2pG8jbjJvQ/mitosis

2. How many pairs of chromatids are there in this cell?

3. What is the total number of chromosomes in this cell?

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020

• Carcinoma – they affect the skin and

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020

Slides compiled by M Vermeulen 2020

This revision program is designed to assist you in revising the critical

The revision program covers the following topics:

Tissue group Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

Tissue group Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

Blood Matrix of blood Transports

Tissue group Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

Tissue group Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

2.1 Meristematic tissue

2.2 Permanent tissue

Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

Type of tissue Structure Function/s Illustration

3.1 Leaf structure

Leaf section Structure Functions

Spongy cells: round Spongy cells are also

Leaf section Structure Functions

4. SUPPORT AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN PLANTS

4.1.1 Internal structure of a root

4.1.2 Internal structure of a stem:

• The epidermis forms the outer layer of the stem.

4.1.3 Uptake of water and mineral salts by the roots:

• Definition replication making of two identical copies