TISHK INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT of MEDICAL ANALYSIS

GENERAL BIOLOGY I (MA 101)

TOPIC: The Chemistry of Life: Organic Compounds

Lecture-3

1 Grade- Fall Semester 2022-2023

Instructor Dr. Mehmet Ozdemir
Atoms, Ions, Molecules, and Compound
• Trace elements are found in very small amounts in your body, but you need
them to survive. For example, iron(Fe) is needed to transport oxygen in your
blood, Chromium(Cr) is needed for your cells to break down sugars for
usable energy.
• Compounds:
• The atoms of elements found in organisms are often linked, or bonded, to
other atoms. A compound is a substance made of atoms of different
elements bonded together in a certain ratio. Common compounds in living
things include water(H2O) and carbon dioxide(CO2).

Contrast How are elements differ from compounds

Please write following words means on your notebook
Ion: Acid:
Ionic bond: Base:
Covelent bond pH:
Molecule:
Properties of Water:
Atoms and molecules: The chemical basis of life
The chemical basis of life
Read Me
• The chemical level, the most basic level of organization, includes
atoms and molecules. An atom is the smallest unit of a chemical
element (fundamental substance) that retains the characteristic
properties of that element. For example, an atom of iron is the
smallest possible amount of iron. Two or more atoms combine
chemically to form molecules. For example when two atoms of
oxygen combine chemically, a molecule of oxygen is formed. Atoms
of different elements can combine to form chemical compounds. For
example when Two atoms of hydrogen combine with one atom of
oxygen to form a single molecule of water that is chemical compound.
Although composed of two types of atoms that are gases, water is a
liquid with very different properties, an example of emergent
properties.
• Homework: Please read and learn chapter 2 in detaily.
 Chapter 2- Carbon – Based
Molecules/Organic Compount
• Main Idea
Carbon-Based molecules are the foundation of life
Carbon is often called the building block of life because carbon atoms are
the basic of most molecules that make-up living things.
Many biological molecules(Carbon-Based molecules), small molecules are
subunits of an entire molecule, like links in a chain. Each subunit in the
complete molecule is called a monomer(Each smaller molecule is a
subunit called a monomer). When monomers are linked, they form
molecules called polymers(or a polymer is a molecule that contains many
monomers bonded together). A polymer is a large molecules, or
macromolecules, made of many monomers bonded together
such as proteins and nucleic acids are very large, consisting of thousands of
atoms. Such giant molecules are known as macromolecules. Most
macromolecules are polymers, produced by linking small organic
compounds called monomers
What do these words mean?
“Mono”
mean?
 Polygons

Polyester
Polygamy
 Types of Macromolecules

• There are four main types of

biological macromolecules: “Macromolecules are very large
1.Carbohydrates molecules that are formed by the
polymerization of smaller molecules
called monomers.”
2. Lipids
They are large molecules found inside
3, Proteins cells that help them with functions needed
for organism survival. Macromolecules are
found within all living organisms in the
4. Nucleic acids forms of carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids
, and proteins.
 PROPERTIES:
•Carbo= Carbon
•Hydrate= Water
= water of carbon.
Energy from Carbohydrates
 CARBOHYDRATES

Each carbohydrate is made up of…

Carbohydrates can be represented by the formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of

carbon atoms in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen
is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules.
HO”
THINK: “C
 Functions:

• Carbohydrates provide energy to the body, particularly

through glucose, a simple sugar. Carbohydrates also have
other important functions in humans, animals, and plants.

• They participate in the structure of the plasma membrane.

They make up the cell wall in plants which allow them to grow tall, without this carbohydrate,
a plant would be a mushy mess! This type of carbohydrate is called Cellulose.
 CARBOHYDRATES

•Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet;

grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of
carbohydrates. Fruit and grains are in different food group,
but they both contain large amounts of carbohydrates.

•In fruits, vegetables, peas, beans, rice,pasta,

potatoes, bread, candy, cookies
---------------------------------------------------
•In animal products- in MILK
Simple Sugars
Complex Carbohydrates
 TYPES OF
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are classified into three
subtypes:
 Monosaccharides (single sugar)
 Disaccharides(double sugar)
 Polysaccharides (many sugar)
 Monosaccharides (single sugar)
• Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars, the
most common of which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of carbon
atoms usually ranges from three. to six Most monosaccharide names end with
the suffix -ose. Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the
• sug4C is named tetroz, 5C = Pentose, 6C= hexose

The most important monosaccharaides are pentose and hexoses.

 PENTOSE SUGAR
Pentose sugars have 5
carbon atoms.
They participate in the
structure of nucleic acids.
EX:Ribose and Deoxyribose
 HEXOSE
SUGAR
Hexose sugars have 6 carbon atoms
They are used in energy
production.
EX:
Glucose, Fructose and Galactose
CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are chains (polymers)

made of monomers. The most common
monomer of carbohydrates is…

ra pe
G ar
s ug
 Monosaccharides (single sugar)
The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In most living species, glucose is
an important source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released
from glucose, and that energy is used to help make adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water by the process
of photosynthesis.

 (Remember: 6CO2 + 6H2O 6O2 + C6H12O6)

• Chemical formula of glucose

Fig. 5.4
 GLUCOSE

•Plants produce glucose during

the photosynthesis.
•The level of glucose within
human blood normally remains
constan,however its excess or
deficiency results in the
disorder known as diabetes mellitus
Amount of glucose is
controlled by hormone in
human blood.
Benedic solution is indicator
of glucose.

Glucose + Benedic Heat

Red color
.
Solution
 Monosaccharides (single sugar)
• Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are
other common monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose, and
fructose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), they differ
structurally and chemically (and are known as isomers) because of
differing arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain.

• Figure: Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides, meaning that they have
the same chemical formula but slightly different structures.
• ISOMERS HAVE THE SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA, BUT DIFFERENT STRUCTURES
 DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are double sugars.
Two monosaccharides chemically
combine to form disaccharide .
Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo
a dehydration reaction (a reaction in which the removal of a water
molecule occurs). During this process, the hydroxyl group (–OH) of one
monosaccharide combines with a hydrogen atom of another
monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water (H2O) and forming a
covalent bond between atoms in the two sugar molecules.
Glycosidic linkage
STRUCTURES OF CARBOHYDRATES
DISACCHARIDES
*In dehydration synthesis two simple
molecules bond together to form a more
complex molecule,with the releasing of water.
During the formation of
disaccharide one molecule water
is released. This type of reaction
is called dehydration.
 The reverse of dehydration is hydrolysis. In this reaction water
molecules are added to reaction.

GLUCOSE +
MALTOSE + H2O GLUCOSE
TYPES OF DISACCHARIDES

• Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose.

Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and
galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a
disaccharide formed from a dehydration reaction between two
glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or
table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and
fructose.
GLUCOSE +
GLUCOSE MALTOSE + H2O

GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE LACTOSE + H2O

GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE SUCROSE + H2O

Briefly
Disaccharide: two sugar unit
Examples:
• Sucrose (glucose+fructose)
• Lactose (glucose+galactose)
• Maltose (glucose+glucose)

glucose glucose

38
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharide (poly- = “many”).

Polysaccharides can store energy or provide structure

•The most abundant carbohydrates are the polysaccharides, a group
that includes starches, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
A polysaccharide is a macromolecule consisting of repeating units of
simple sugars, usually glucose. Although the precise number of sugar
units varies, thousands of units are typically present in a single
molecule. The polysaccharide may be a single long chain or a branched
chain. Because they are composed of different isomers and because
the units may be arranged differently, polysaccharides vary in their
properties. Those that can be easily broken down to their subunits are
well suited for energy storage.
•Simple sugars can be joined together by
dehydration synthesis to form polysaccharides.
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide: many sugar units
Examples: starch (bread, potatoes)
glycogen (beef muscle)
cellulose (lettuce, corn)
Chitin (exoskeleton of insects)

glucose glucose glucose glucose

cellulose

glucose glucose glucose glucose

41
• Starch is the stored form of sugars that is the main storage carbohydrate of
plants. Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose is stored
as starch in different plant parts, including roots and seeds. The starch that is
consumed by animals is broken down into smaller molecules, such as glucose.
The cells can then absorb the glucose.
• Glycogen is the main storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates,
and is made up of monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of
starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle
cells. Whenever glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release
glucose.
• Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate. The cell walls of plants are mostly made
of cellulose, which provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are
mostly cellulosic in nature. Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are
linked by bonds between particular carbon atoms in the glucose molecule.
• Carbohydrates serve other functions in different animals. Arthropods, such as
insects, spiders, and crabs, have an outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton,
which protects their internal body parts. This exoskeleton is made of the
biological macromolecule chitin.
• Thus, through differences in molecular structure, carbohydrates are
able to serve the very different functions of energy storage (starch
and glycogen) and structural support and protection (cellulose and
chitin) (Figure 2.16).
 Starch, glycogen, cellulose
and chitin are examples of
polysaccharide.
•Starch: It is found only in plants.
Iodine or lugol are indicators of
starch.
•Glycogen: It is found certain animal
cells. Glycogen is stored in the liver
and muscle.
•Cellulose: It participates in the
structure of plant cell.
 LIPIDS

Each lipid is made up of…

Like carbohydrates, most lipids contain chains of carbon atoms bonded to oxygen
and hydrogen atoms.
LIPIDS ARE NEXT

They are a great source of STORED ENERGY so we have it

in the future.
They are parts of cell’s structure.
They INSULATE the body to maintain normal body temperature and
they CUSHION the internal organs for protection.
They produce hormones for the body called STERIODS
They waterproof surfaces of animals, plants, and fruits- these are waxes!
THINK: Waterproof, insulate, steriods, energy, cushion… “WISE C”
 LIPIPS…Some interesting info

•Fruits produce a waxy coating to

keep from drying out.

• The cells in a tulip make a wax

which helps coat the leaves.

•Ear wax traps dust, sand, and other

foreign particles from going deeper
into the ear and causing damage.

•Beeswax- a structural material to

hold honey in the hive
 LIPIPS…Some interesting info

There are many different types of steroids. They

are all lipids. Their functions vary. Some
common steroids are:
SEX STEROIDS ANABOLIC STERIODS
CHOLESTEROL
Like testosterone and They increase muscle
estrogen
 Six functions of lipids:
1. Long term energy storage
2. Protection against heat loss (insulation)
3. Protection against physical shock
4. Protection against water loss
5. Chemical messengers (hormones)
6. Major component of membranes (phospholipids)

copyright cmassengale 50
• In plants- in the seeds
---------------------------------------------------
• In animals fats are found in food such
as meat and butter
---------------------------------------------------
LIPIDS
Lipid molecule, such as a triglyceride, consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty
acids. Glycerol is an organic compound with three carbon atoms, five hydrogen atoms, and
three hydroxyl (–OH) groups. Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which an
acidic carboxyl group is attached, hence the name “fatty acid.

composed of 1 glycerol and 3

fatty acids.
acids
H O
=

H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O
=

H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O fatty acids
=

H-C----O C-CH -CH -CH -CH =

2 2 2 CH
-C H
H 2 -C
H-
2 C
H-
2 C
glycerol H-
2 C
H
copyright cmassengale 3 53
Fatty Acids
• Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated.
• Saturated fatty acids:
 In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the
hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is saturated. Saturated fatty acids are saturated with
hydrogen; in other words, the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton
is maximized.
 Saturated fats tend to get packed tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats
such as meat, and butter, are examples of saturated fats. Mammals store fats in
specialized cells called adipocytes or adipose tissue.
2.Unsaturated fatty acids
When the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond, the fatty acid is an unsaturated fatty
acid.
 Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils. Such as olive oil.
 In plants, fat or oil is stored in seeds and is used as a source of energy during embryonic
development.

 Main Idea: Fats and oils are two familiar types of lipids. They store large
amount of chemical energy in organisms.
 LIPIDS

- Saturated Fatty Acids have no double bonds and are

saturated with hydrogen.
- Unsaturated Fatty Acids have double bonds.

www.agen.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_02/3_16.gif
 Read Me

• Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that are required but not synthesized by
the human body. Consequently, they must be supplemented through the
diet. Omega-3 fatty acids fall into this category and are one of only two
known essential fatty acids for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acids).
They are a type of polyunsaturated fat and are called omega-3 fatty acids
because the third carbon from the end of the fatty acid participates in a
double bond.

• Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3
fatty acids are important in brain function and normal growth and
development. They may also prevent heart disease and reduce the risk of
cancer.
Classification of Lipids
•Simple Lipids
fats, oils, waxes,
•Compound Lipids,
Phospholipids, Glycolipids and Lipoprotein

•Derived Lipids
cholesterol- steroids
Simple Lipids
• Fats and oils(nautral)- Triglycerides are simple lipids that are
produced by the dehydration synthesis of one or more fatty acids
with an alcohol like glycerol. Neutral lipid are found in animal, plant
and animal tissue. They have role an energy source and structural
component.
Waxes

Waxes are another biologically important category of lipids. Wax

covers the feathers of some aquatic birds and the leaf surfaces of
some plants, where its hydrophobic (water-repelling) properties
prevent water from sticking to, or soaking into, the surface.

Waxes are made up of a hydrocarbon chain with an alcohol (–OH)

group and a fatty acid. Examples of animal waxes include beeswax
and lanolin. Plants also have waxes, such as the coating on their
leaves, that helps prevent them from drying out.
Phospholipids

Phospholipids are the major constituent of the plasma membrane. Like

fats, they are composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or
similar backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached, however, there
are two fatty acids and the third carbon of the glycerol backbone is
bound to a phosphate group. The phosphate group is modified by the
addition of an alcohol.
A phospholipid has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. The
fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and exclude themselves from water,
whereas the phosphate is hydrophilic and interacts with water.
Cells are surrounded by a membrane, which has a bilayer of
phospholipids. The fatty acids of phospholipids face inside, away from
water, whereas the phosphate group can face either the outside
environment or the inside of the cell, which are both aqueous.
Compound Lipids- Phospholipids
Phospholipids are major components of cell
membranes
• Phospholipids have two fatty acids attached to glycerol and a
phosphate group at the third position.
• The phosphate group carries a negative charge.
• Additional smaller groups may be attached to the phosphate group.
• The interaction of phospholipids with water is complex.
The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its
attachments form a hydrophilic head.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Derived Lipids- Steroids
• Lipids are not only involved in membrane structure and storage,
they also function as messenger and pigments called Steroids that
are another class of lipid molecules and have different functions in
human and animal bodies. They are involved in the regulation of
metabolism, for examle, in the control of the hormones of adrenal
context. In the human body steroid also form the structure of the
male sexual hormone testosterone and female sexual hormone
estrogens.
•s
 What is cholesterol?

• Cholesterol, the most common steroid, is mainly synthesized in the liver and is the
precursor to many steroid hormones. These include the sex hormones
testosterone and estradiol, which are secreted by the gonads (testes and ovaries).
Cholesterol also serves as the starting material for other important molecules in
the body, including vitamin D and bile acids, which aid in the digestion and
absorption of fats from dietary sources. It’s also a key component of cell
membranes, altering their fluidity and dynamics. Cholesterol is also found in foods
from animal sources, such as egg yolks, meat, and cheese.
• If you have too much cholesterol in your blood, it can combine with other
substances in the blood to form plaque. Plaque sticks to the walls of your
arteries. This buildup of plaque is known as atherosclerosis. It can lead to
coronary artery disease, where your coronary arteries become narrow or even
blocked.
• What causes high cholesterol?
• How can I lower my cholesterol?
Textbook:

• Concepts of Biology,

• Solomon Biology

• Biology, Stephen Nowicki

• http://openstaxcollege.org/l/lipids) .
Thank You