ANIMAL TISSUES

Tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organism.

Hence, a tissue is a group of cells that look similar and carry out a specific
function. These cells are adapted for such function through a process of cell
differentiation.

Human bodies, like most animal bodies, are made up of FOUR different types of
tissue:

1. Epithelial tissue
forms linings that cover internal (cavities) and external surfaces, have
a protective function.

2. Muscle tissue
enables various forms of movement, both voluntary and involuntary

3. Connective tissue
binds, supports or surrounds other tissues or organs. Assists in support
and protection of organs and limbs depending on the location in the
body it may join or separate organs or parts of the body.

4. Nerve tissue
carries out electrical and chemical signals and impulses from the brain
and central nervous system to the periphery, and vice versa

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 EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Epithelial tissue is a covering or lining tissue and may be simple (single layer of
cells) or stratified (multiple layers of cells). The general functions of epithelium
are to protect underlying cells from germs, injury or drying out.
Epithelial cells are arranged tightly against one another with almost no
intercellular spaces. All epithelial tissues are attached to an underlying layer of a
basement membrane.

General functions of epithelial tissue:

● Provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it

covers.
● Specialised to function in secretion and absorption.
● Protects organisms from microorganisms, injury and fluid loss.
● Excretes waste products such as sweat from the skin.

Epithelial tissue is classified according to shape. There are FOUR kinds of epithelial
tissue:

1. SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Epithelial tissue type Location in the Structure Function

body

Simple Lining the alveoli Thin and flat cells that Responsible for diffusion.
and capillaries are elliptically shaped Thin structure allows for
(as well as nuclei). movement of substances
They have a paving stone across the cells.
appearance

Stratified Skin Consists of many layers Provides a protective

of thin, flat cells. covering.

Type of epithelium Diagram Microscopic image

Simple

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Stratified

2. Cuboidal Epithelium

Location in body Structure Function

Kidney tubules Cube-like in structure Secretion (release of useful

Glands (regions of the body Round nuclei and occur in substances)
responsible for excretion) the center of the cell Absorption (taking in substances)

Diagram Microscopic image

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 3. Columnar Epithelium

Epithelial Location in the Structure Function

tissue type body
Columnar Digestive tract Elongated cells with Absorption of food
epithelium elongated nuclei located Secretion of mucus
at the base of the cell.
Presence of goblet cells
Ciliated Air passages Elongated cells with Dust particles are
columnar (nasal cavity and elongated nuclei located trapped in the mucus,
epithelium trachea) at the base of the cell. movement of the cilia
Reproductive Goblet cells present away from the lungs
organs (Fallopian Presence of tiny hair-like will ensure that the
tube) structures called cilia mucus is expelled.
which perform fast, Cilia will ensure the
rhythmic wave-like movement of the ovum
movements in a specific in the Fallopian tube to
direction the uterus

Type of epithelium Diagram Microscopic image

Columnar epithelium

Ciliated columnar
epithelium

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 MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissues are responsible for all mechanical movement of the body by bringing
about movement through contractions and relaxations. They are attached to our
bones by tendons (a type of connective tissue).

Muscle tissue can be distinguished between voluntary and involuntary muscle

tissue.

Voluntary – controlled by conscious decision

Involuntary – functions “automatically” (without you thinking about it)

There are three types of muscle tissue:

1. Skeletal muscle tissue

Structure
● Rod-shaped cells (called muscle fibers)
● Striated (striped appearance)
● Multiple nuclei

Location
▪ Attached to bones to move skeleton

Function:
1. VOLUNTARY movement
2. Skeletal muscles work in pairs, contracting and relaxing
voluntarily, and result in the coordinated movement of
specific body parts.
3. It is anchored by tendons and is used to effect skeletal muscle movement
such as locomotion and the maintaining of posture.
4. The muscles have a reflex action but can also respond to conscious control.

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 2. Cardiac muscle tissue

Structure
● Branched fibers joined by muscle bridges
● Striated in appearance

Location
▪ Heart

Function:
1. It is the major tissue making up the heart
2. INVOLUNTARY contraction and relaxation of the heart.
3. Allows for simultaneous contraction of all heart tissue

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 3. Smooth muscle tissue

Structure
● Spindle-shaped muscle fibers with tapered ends
● Single nucleus
● Non-straited

Location
▪ Walls of arteries and veins (not capillaries)
▪ Walls of hollow organs (stomach, intestines, bladder)

Function
1. INVOLUNTARY movement...
- rhythmic contractions (peristalsis) move food down the
digestive tract
- dilation and constriction of blood vessels to control
blood pressure

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Activity 1

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 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective tissue binds, supports or surrounds other tissues or organs. All

connective tissue is made up of a few cells surrounded by a non-living matrix
(material that holds cells and structures). The matrix can be liquid, semi-solid or
solid. The matrix also contains supporting fibres. The type and amount of fibres
and matrix determines the type of connective tissue.

There are five types of connective tissue that perform different functions.

Connective Structure Function Location

tissue type

Areolar Jelly-like matrix Holds the organs in Forms a continuous layer

(Loose Has a network of place beneath the skin and loosely
connective) elastic fibres which Cushions and protects connects the skin to the
attach together organs (acts as underlying muscles
Contain many different packaging material)
types of cells:
Fibroblasts (produce
matrix and fibres)
Fat cells (store fats)
Adipose tissue
White blood cells

White fibrous Consists of non-elastic Acts as a shock In tendons and ligaments

fibres absorber

Cartilage Rubbery matrix that Gives structure, shape Joints

mainly consists of and strength Nose
protein chondrin, can Reduces friction in Sternum
be flexible or rigid joints and acts as a Trachea
In the matrix are shock absorber.
fluid-filled spaces Provides support
called lacunae Connects bones to each
In the lacunae are other (e.g. ribs to the
chondrocytes breastbone)
(cartilage cells) that Forms permanent
occur alone, in pairs or structures (e.g. pinna
in groups of four and nose)
Very few fibres or none Keeps air passages
at all open (e.g. C-shaped
cartilaginous rings in
trachea)

Bone tissue Contains a hard matrix Forms body shape and Bones found all over the body
of calcium phosphate structure
and calcium carbonate Protection of delicate
Bone tissue is arranged organs (e.g. brain,

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 in concentric layers spinal cord, heart and
called the lamellae lungs)
In the lamellae are Serves as a place of
many fluid-filled attachment for muscles
spaces, the lacunae to make movement
Each lacuna contains possible
an osteocyte (bone Produces blood
cell) corpuscles (blood cells)
No fibres in bone marrow
Stores minerals (e.g.
calcium)

Connective Diagram Microscopic image

tissue type
Areolar

White fibrous

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Cartilage

Bone tissue

TWO different types of dense fibrous tissue

~ ligaments and tendons

Structure
● Small amount of jelly-like matrix and cells (fibroblasts)
● Large number of strong fibres
● If contains inelastic fibres (collagen) -tendon
● If contains elastic fibres - ligament

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Function:
1. Tendons join muscle to bone
2. Ligaments join bone to bone – these allow a degree of movement in joints.

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Blood

Blood is the only liquid connective tissue and contains no fibres. Blood circulates
through the heart and blood vessels of the circulatory system.

Structure
● Liquid matrix known as plasma
● Three types of blood cells
▪ Erythrocytes (Red blood corpuscles)
▪ Leucocytes (White blood cells)
▪ Thrombocytes (Blood platelets)

Red blood corpuscles (erythrocytes) are small

disc-like cells that do not contain nuclei.
They contain the iron-containing protein haemoglobin which:
- binds with O2 or CO2 and acts as a carrier molecule for these gases
- gives blood its red colour
They are biconcave (indented on both sides), which increases the surface
area for oxygen absorption. They are soft and pliable, and can be pressed
flat in order to move through the narrow lumen of a capillary.

White blood cells (leucocytes) are much larger than red blood corpuscles and
their shape varies. They have a large nucleus. The protect the body from infection
and disease by:
- engulfing bacteria and foreign substances (phagocytes)
- producing antibodies that destroy bacteria and viruses (lymphocytes)

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Blood platelets are tiny blood cells that do not contain nuclei They play a role in
blood-clotting in damaged blood vessels. They form threads that trap the blood
cells within it. This mesh of blood cells hardens as it dries, forming a clot, or
“scab.”

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 NERVOUS TISSUE

Nervous tissue makes up the nervous system, allowing co-ordination of different

body systems. In the central nervous system (CNS), nerve tissue forms the brain
and spinal cord. Nervous tissue outside the central nervous system, which conducts
nerve impulses to and from the CNS, is known as the peripheral nervous system
(PNS).

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Nerve tissue is made up of specialized cells called neurons. Neurons are
specialized cells which connect the brain and the spinal cord to all other parts of
the body.

Structure
A typical neuron consists of:
● A cell body
● Dendrites – receive impulses
● Axons – send impulses- Axons are surrounded by a myelin sheath, a fatty
sheath which insulates the axon and increases the speed of nerve
impulses.

Functions
● Nerve tissue transmits nerve impulses around the body.
This allows an organism to receive and respond to stimuli
● The direction of transmission of impulses is from dendrites to the cell body
and then to the axon of the neuron

There are three types of neurons:

- Sensory neurons
- Motor neurons
- Interneurons

Sensory neurons (which is also called the afferent neuron) conduct nerve impulses
from the receptors (sensory cells) to the central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord).

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Receptors are specialised cells located in the sense organs. They convert a
stimulus into an impulse

Motor neurons (which is also called the efferent neuron) conduct nerve impulses
from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to the effectors (muscles
and glands). The effectors bring about a response.

Motor neurons help bring about a response to the stimulus.

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Interneurons (which is also called the connector neuron) conduct nerve impulses
between the sensory and motor neurons. They are very short compared to the
sensory and motor neurons. They are found in the brain and in the spinal cord.

Interneurons link the sensory neuron to the motor neuron

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Reflex action and reflex arc- GRADE 12!
● A reflex action is a quick, automatic response to a stimulus. Examples:
knee-jerk, sneezing and quickly removing a body part away from danger to
respond to pain.

● A reflex arc is the pathway along which an impulse is transmitted to bring

about a response to a stimulus during a reflex action.

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