Form-1-Notes (1) Jokan Notes

BIOLOGY
FORM ONE
BY
TEACHER :
JOHUA/KATUMO
/NZYIOKI
lOMoARcPSD|30441366
BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

Page 1
TOPIC 1-INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY. 16. Virology- study of viruses. The scientist is
Definition called virologist.
 The word biology is derived from the Greek 17. Ornithology- Study of birds. The scientist
words, bios, meaning life, and logos, is called ornithologist.
meaning knowledge. 18. Ichthyology- study of fish. The scientist is
 Therefore, Biology is the branch of science called Ichthyologist.
that deals with the study of living 19. Taxonomy- This is the study of
organisms. classification of organisms. The scientist is
 Science is the knowledge about the called Taxonomist.
structure and behaviour of the natural world 20. Embryology- study of development of
based on facts that can be approved by organisms from egg to adult. The scientist
experiments. is called Embryologist.
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY-There are three
main branches of biology namely: IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGY.
1. Zoology- This is the study of animals. A 1. It helps us to understand the developmental
scientist specialized in this area is called stages in human body.
zoologist. 2. It helps in solving environmental problems
2. Botany- This is the study of plants. A e.g. pollution, shortage of food, global
scientist is called botanist. warming / drought, poor health, misuse of
3. Microbiology- This is the study of natural resources (forests, wildlife, water
microscopic organisms. and soil.
A scientist is called microbiologist. 3. It enables one to pursue careers e.g.
Other branches of biology: agriculture, veterinary, public health,
4. Anatomy- This is the study of the internal medicine, tourism, pharmacy, dentistry,
structure of living things. A scientist is nursing, biology education/ teaching, and
called anatomist. horticulture.
5. Physiology- This is the study of body 4. It helps us to promote international
functions. A scientist is called cooperation in areas like medicine and
physiologist. environmental conservation to solving
6. Genetics- This is the study of inheritance emerging problems like HIV and AIDS.
and variation. 5. It helps learner to acquire scientific skills
7. Ecology- This is the study of the e.g. observation, identification, drawing,
relationship between organisms and their recording, classifying, measuring, analyzing
environment/ study of living organisms and and evaluating data and apply them in daily
their surroundings. A scientist is called life.
ecologist.
8. Parasitology- This is the study of CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
parasites. A scientist is called ORGANISMS
parasitologist.
9. Entomology- This is the study of insects. A 1. Nutrition- a process by which living things
scientist is called entomologist. acquire and utilize nutrients. Plants
synthesize/make their own food using light
10. Cytology- This is the study of the cell. A
energy, carbon (IV) oxide, water and
scientist is called cytologist.
mineral salts, while animals feed on
11. Pathology- This is the study of diseases. A
already manufactured foods.
scientist is called pathologist.
2. Respiration- a process in which organic
12. Biochemistry- This is the study of
compounds are broken down to produce
chemical changes inside the organism. A
energy. Energy is used by the organisms to
scientist is called biochemist.
carry out essential activities e.g. growth
13. Morphology- This is the study of external and movement.
structure of organisms. The scientist is
 During respiration, oxygen is usually used
called Morphologist.
while energy, carbon (IV) oxide and
14. Bacteriology- study of bacteria. The water are the products. Living organisms
scientist is called bacteriologist. carry out respiration.
15. Histology- study of structure of tissues.
The scientist is called histologist.
' SAM OBARE SAM OBARE
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3. Gaseous exchange- this is the process environment, grow, develop, excrete,
whereby respiratory gases (oxygen and carry out nutrition and respire.
carbon (IV) oxide) pass across the 2. How does nutrition differ in plants and
respiratory surface. Examples of respiratory animals?
surfaces include stomata in leaves, Alveoli  Plants manufacture their own food/ are
in lungs, gills in fish, skin in frogs and Cell autotrphic while animals do not
membrane in unicellular organisms. Living manufacture their own food/ are
organisms carry out gaseous exchange. heterotrophic.
4. Excretion- is the process by which 3. State the characteristics of living organisms
metabolic wastes are separated and that are specific to plants.
eliminated from the body cells. This is to
 Autotrophic/ manufacture their own
avoid accumulation to toxic levels leading
to death. Living organisms carry out food/ photosynthesis;  Show
excretion/ excrete. alternation of generation.
5. Growth and Development- Growth is an  Have limited movement.
irreversible/permanent increase in size and  Have limited excretory products/
mass while Development is the unspecialized respiratory structures.
irreversible change in the complexity of the  Have localized growth/ growth occurs
structure of living things. Living things grow at specific regions.
in order to attain the maximum size and 4. The photograph below illustrates living
mass which are essential for their body organisms. Study it and answer the
function. Living organisms grow and question that follow.
develop.
6. Reproduction - is the process by which
living organisms give rise to new individuals
of the same kind. Living organisms
reproduce.
7. Irritability/sensitivity- This is the ability
of living organisms to perceive/detect State two characteristics of living organisms
changes in their surroundings and respond illustrated in the
appropriately. For example living things photograph 
react to changes in temperature, Reproduction 
humidity, light, pressure and to Growth and
presence or absence of certain development.
chemicals e.g. removing clothes when 5. Name the characteristic of living organisms
it is hot. illustrated by each of the activities
8. Movement- is a change in position by described below;
either a part of or the whole living a) Dressing heavily-
organism. Living organisms move.  Irritability/ sensitivity/ response to a
Movement from one place to another is stimulus b) Bursting of the sporangium
called locomotion. in Rhizopus sp.
 Movement in animals include swimming,  Reproduction.
walking, running, flying e.t.c.
 Movement in plants include closing of COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS
leaves, folding of leaves, closing of - A specimen is a whole organism or part
flowers and growing of shoots towards of an organism being studied or
light examined.
Importance of collection of specimens
Study questions. - It is important for further study,
1. A car/aeroplane is able to move from place observations and preservation for future
to place and give out exhaust gases reference in the laboratory.
however it is not classified as a living Precautions during collection and
organism. Explain. observation of specimens
 This is because it does not reproduce, 1. Collect only the number of specimens
respond to changes in the needed to avoid wastage.

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2. Do not harm the specimens during the
collection exercise because it can distort
the features of the specimens. Do not

destroy the natural habitat of the
specimens.
3. Live specimens should be returned to their
habitats whenever possible to maintain
ecological balance.
4. Dangerous or injurious specimens (e.g.
stinging insects or plants) should be
handled with care (using forceps and
gloves) to avoid injury/ for protection.
5. Highly mobile animals should be
immobilized using suitable chemical
substances (e.g. Chloroform or
diethylether) for easy observation.
APPARATUS USED FOR COLLECTION OF
SPECIMENS
1. Sweep net- used to catch flying insects
e.g. bees, butterflies, grasshoppers.
2. Bait trap-used for attracting and trapping
small animals e.g.
rats and mice. Differences between plants and animals
3. Pitfall trap- it is used for catching crawling Plants Animals
animals e.g. millipedes, spiders, ants, Most plants are They lack chlorophyll
cockroach. green in hence do not make
4. Fish net- used for trapping small fish and colour/have their own food/ feed
other water animals chlorophyll on already
e.g. crabs and shrimps. hence make their manufactured food.
5. Pooter- it is used for sucking small animals own food.
from rock surfaces or barks of trees e.g. They respond to They respond to
ants, termites. changes in their changes in their
6. Pair of forceps- it is used for picking up environment environment faster.
stinging animals and plants e.g. centipedes, slowly.
spiders, stinging nettle. They do not They locomote/ move
7. Specimen bottle- it is required for keeping locomote/ move from one place to
collected specimens. from one place another.
8. Hand lens- it is used to enlarge objects to another.
and observe external features of collected Growth occurs at Growth occurs all
specimens. specific regions/ over the body.
meristematic
cells only.
They lack They have complex

complex respiratory and
excretory and excretory organs/
respiratory structures.
organs/
structures.

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TOPIC 2-CLASSIFICATION 1  It is used to magnify organisms/ make
Definition them look bigger.
 Classification is the grouping of living  It is made up of a convex lens mounted on
organisms based on their structure. a frame.  The handle is either wooden or
 Those with similar structures are put under plastic.
one group called taxon (plural- taxa)
 A science/study of classification is called
taxonomy and scientists are called
taxonomists.
 Taxonomy involves the placing of
organisms into taxa and assigning them
names.
 External features are used when classifying
organisms e.g.
HOW TO USE HAND LENS
a) In plants-  Rhizoids
and seta in moss plant. i. Place the object on the bench near the
 Fronds, sori and rachis in ferns. light source.
 Roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits ii. Move the lens to and from the eyes
and cones in higher until the object becomes clear. When
plants. the object is clear, it is said to be in
focus and an enlarged image is seen.
a) In animals-
i. Tentacles in hydra. iii. If a drawing is made with the help of the
magnifying lens then the magnification
ii. Feathers and wings in birds. iii. of the drawing in relation to the size of
Shells in snails. the object must be worked out as
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔

shown below.
iv. Sensory organs e.g. eyes, ears,
Magnification =
antennae.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
v. Fur, hair and mammary glands in
mammals. vi. Scales and fins in fish. vii. Example 1
Proglotids and scolex in tapeworms. viii.  A form one student examined a
Locomotory structures e.g. limbs in specimen whose length was 43mm,
arthropods and vertebrates. ix. Body then drew the diagram whose length
pigmentation. was 86mm. Calculate the magnification
Significance/ importance of of the drawing.
classification. Solution.
1. It groups together living organisms with Magnification = length of the drawing
similar characteristics but separates length of the object
those with different features. =
2. Helps in placing living organisms into 86 mm
their correct groups for easy reference. 43 mm
3. Helps to arrange the information about = x2.
living organisms in an orderly manner to Example 2
avoid chaos and confusion.  If the magnification of a drawing is x5
4. Helps to understand the evolutionary and the drawing length is 10cm. What is
relationships between different the actual length of the object?

organisms. Solution
Magnification =
HAND LENS
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 Some organisms are small or have tiny

features which cannot be seen clearly,
Act𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
therefore require the use magnifying
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
instruments
10𝑐𝑚
 A common magnifying instrument used is
called a hand lens.

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5
2. Protoctista- This includes the algae, e.g.
2𝑐𝑚
spirogyra and protozoa, e.g. amoeba,
Paramecium and Plasmodium.
BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS 3. Fungi- This includes moulds, e.g.
 The following are important points to moulds, yeasts and mushrooms.
note when making biological diagrams: 4. Plantae- Examples include moss,
1. Use a well sharpened pencil. blacken fern, maize, beans and
2. The drawing should occupy ‰ or of jacaranda.
the space provided. 5. Animalia- This includes housefly, spider,
3. Each drawing should have a title. crab, lizard, elephant, hawk and cow.
SCIENTIFIC NAMING OF ORGANISMS
4. Enough space should be left all-round
the drawing for labeling.  The present system of naming
organisms is called Binomial
5. Avoid using double lines when making
nomenclature.
outlines of a drawing.
 It was developed by Swedish biologist
6. Label lines should not have arrow heads.
called Carolus Linnaeus in 18th
7. The magnification of a drawing should century.
always be worked out.
 It involved giving organisms two latin
8. The drawing should not be shaded.
names because:
9. The label lines should never cross each i. They rarely change/ are static.
other.
ii. They are written in the same language
TAXONOMIC UNITS OF CLASSIFICATION
all over the world. Significance/ importance
 These refer to the groups (or taxa) into of giving organisms two names.
which organisms are placed.
i. Enables biologists to arrange organisms
 There are seven major taxonomic units in an orderly manner.
as shown below.
ii. It provides names that have the same
i. Kingdom. ii.
meaning worldwide.
Phylum (or BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE.
 This is the scientific system of giving
Division). iii.
organisms two names, generic/ genus name
Class. iv. and specific/ species name. Rules of binomial
nomenclature
Order.
v. Family. vi.
1. The first name/ genus name should
Genus.
begin with capital letter and the second
vii. Species.
name/ specific name should be written
• Moving down the taxonomic units the in small letters.
number of organisms in each group
2. The names should be printed in italics in
decreases but the similarities between
books but underlined separately when
then increases.
handwritten.
• Phylum is used when classifying animals Example
while division is used when classifying  The lion is called Panthera leo when
plants. printed and Panthera leo when hand
• The kingdom has the highest number written the leopard is called Panthera
of organisms/members while species pardus when typed and Panthera
has members with more common pardus when hand written.
characteristics.  The name Panthera represents genus
• The species is the smallest unit of while leo and pardus represent species.
classification whose members can  Lion and leopard belong to the same
naturally and freely interbreed and genus but different species.
produce/give rise to fertile offspring.
KINGDOMS OF CLASSIFICATION
1. Monera-This includes the bacteria and
viruses.

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TOPIC 3- THE CELL

• The cell is the basic unit of structure and
functions in organism.
• The cells make up the structures of the
USES OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF A LIGHT
living organisms and are responsible for
MICROSCOPE
carrying out the various biological
processes. 1. Arm/ limb- it supports the body tube and
stage.
• Unicellular organisms comprise of only
2. Base/ stand- it provides a firm and stable
one cell, e.g. amoeba, Paramecium, and
support.
plasmodium.
3. Body tube- it holds the eye-piece and
• Multicellular organisms are made up of revolving nose piece.
many cells, e.g. moulds, grasshopper,
4. Eye piece- it contains a lens which
moss, eucalyptus, man and elephant.
contributes to the magnification of the
• A cell being a very small structure that image of the specimen under view.
cannot be seen with the naked eye, 5. Coarse adjustment knob- it brings image
hence it requires the use of a powerful into rough focus (by raising and lowering
magnifying instrument known as the the body tube through long distances).
microscope. 6. Fine adjustment knob- it brings the
• Multicellular organisms are made up of image into sharp focus (by raising and
many cells, e.g. moulds, grasshopper, lowering the body tube through smaller
moss, eucalyptus, man and elephant. distances).
• A cell being a very small structure that 7. Diaphragm- it is an aperture that regulates
cannot be seen with the naked eye, the amount of light passing through the
hence it requires the use of a powerful condenser to illuminate the specimen.
magnifying instrument known as the 8. Objective lenses- they contribute to the
microscope. magnification of the image of the specimen.
FUNCTIONS OF A MICROSCOPE. 9. Mirror- it reflects light through the
1. Magnification- making very small condenser onto the stage.
organisms to appear bigger so that they 10. Revolving nose piece- it holds the
can be seen. objective lens in place thus enabling change
2. Resolution- ability to distinguish two from one objective lens to another.
structures that are very close together 11. Condenser- it concentrates light onto the
as distinct entities. stage.
TYPES OF MICROSCOPE. 12. Stage- it is a flat platform where specimen
1. Light microscope- It uses light for on the slide is placed.
illumination of the specimen to be 13. Clip- it holds the slide in position.
viewed.
2. Electron microscope- The electron HANDLING AND CARE OF A LIGHT
microscope uses an electron beam MICROSCOPE
instead of light for illumination of the
1. Always use both hands when carrying a
specimen to be viewed.
microscope. One hand should hold the base
to provide support while the other hand
holds the limb/arm.

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2. Never place the microscope too close to the details into sharper focus. Sometimes a
edge of the working bench or table as it can camera can be fixed at
easily fall off. the eye piece lens in order to take a
3. Do not touch the mirror and the lenses with photograph of the specimen. The
your fingers as it can make them wet or photograph is called photomicrograph.
dirty.
4. Dirty lenses should be cleaned using a STUDY QUESTIONS
special soft lens tissue paper or tissue 1. How is the low objective lens manipulated to
paper moistened with ethanol to avoid focus a specimen for observation under a
scratches. light microscope?
5. Other parts of the microscope may be • Click the low power objective lens in
cleaned using a soft cloth or tissue paper. position (bring it down to the lowest
6. Do not wet any part of the microscope as it level using coarse adjustment knob)
can cause rusting. • With the eyes on the two eye piece
7. Make sure the low power objective lens lens and using the coarse adjustment
clicks into position in line with the eye-piece knob gradually raise/the low power
before and after use. objective lens to bring the specimen
8. After use, always clean and store the into focus.
microscope in a safe place, free from 2. Give a reason why only the fine adjustment
moisture and dust. knob should be used when using high power
objective/ coarse adjustment knob should
USING THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE not be used to lower the high power
1. Place the microscope on the bench with the objective lens.
stage facing away from you.
2. Turn the low power objective lens until it i. To avoid breaking the slide, cover
clicks into position. slip and lens.
3. Ensure that the diaphragm is fully open. ii. To avoid destroying the specimen/
4. Look through the eye-piece with one eye. dirtfying the lens.
Meanwhile adjust the mirror under the
stage to ensure that maximum light can DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE LIGHT AND
pass through. The circular area seen is ELECTRON
referred to as the field of view. MICROSCOPES
5. Place the slide containing the specimen on
the stage and clip it into position. Make sure Light microscope Electron
that it is in the centre of the field of view. microscope
6. Again, look through the eye-piece while 1. Uses light to 1. Uses a beam of
adjusting the mirror under the stage to
illuminate the electrons to
ensure that sufficient light is passing
specimen. illuminate the
through the specimen.
specimen.
7. Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring
2. Uses glass 2. Uses magnetic
the low power objective lens to the lowest
lenses for lenses for
point. Viewing through the eyepiece, turn
the coarse adjustment knob gently until the magnification. magnification.
specimen comes into focus. 3. Has low 3. Has very high
8. Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the resolving power. resolving power.
image into sharp focus. 4. Has low 4. Has very high
9. Make a drawing of what you see. magnification magnification
10. For higher magnifications, turn the medium power. power.
power objective lens into position and 5. The specimen 5. The specimen
adjust the focus using the coarse under view can be under view is dead.
adjustment knob. For sharper images, use living or dead.
the fine adjustment knob. 6. The specimen 6. The specimen
11. If finer details are required, turn the high is stained using is stained using
power objective lens into position. Now use normal dyes. complex stains.
only the fine adjustment knob to bring 7. The specimen is 7. The specimen

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mounted on a slide is mounted on a
and placed on the grid and placed in a
stage in the open. vacuum.
MAGNIFICATION OF A LIGHT MICROSCOPE.
- The magnification of the image of the object

viewed is calculated by multiplying the eye
piece lens magnification by the objective
lens magnification i.e.
Magnification = eye piece lens magnification x
objective lens magnification.
Example Plant cell as seen under electron

If the eye-piece lens has a magnification of X5 microscope
and the low power objective lens has a
magnification of X10, then the total
magnification is 5 x 10 = X50.
Animal cell as seen under light microscope
Functions of cell organelles.

- The cell is the basic unit of life while Cell
organelles are structures within the cells
1. Plasma membrane/
Plasmalemma/ Plasma
Plant cell as seen under light microscope. Membrane.
- It consists of three layers under the electron
microscope. The three layers are composed
of one layer of phospholipid found
between two protein layers.
Functions/ roles.
i. Enclose the cell contents.
Animal cell as seen under electron

microscope.

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 Acti
hence said to be vely/
permeabl
e.
2 Cytoplasm
. Functions/ roles.
i.
ii.
-
ii. Controls the movement of materials in rapidly respiring cells e.g. muscle cell,
and out of the cell sperm cell, apical meristems, kidney cell
semi-permeable/selectively have numerous mitochondiria. This is
because they require a lot of energy.
It is fluid medium in which chemical

reactions take place. It contains other Endoplasmic reticulum-they are
cell organelles and dissolved substances interconnected 4. channels continuous with
e.g. starch, glycogen, fat droplets. the outer membrane of the nuclear
The cytoplasm is not static but has
membrane.  They include:
movement called cytoplasmic streaming.
This movement is important because it i. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- they lack
distributes materials and cell organelles ribosomes on the surface. ii. Rough
within the cell. endoplasmic reticulum- have ribosomes on
the surface.
3. Mitochondria (Singular-
Functions/ roles.
Mitochondria) Functions/ roles.
i. The rough endoplasmic reticulum
i. They provide a site for respiration (to
transports proteins.
provide energy). Mitochondria are
bound by two membranes. ii. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Structure of mitochondrion manufactures/ synthesizes and
 The inner membrane is greatly folded transports lipids.
into cristae to increase the surface area
for attachment of respiratory enzymes.
 Has the matrix to provide a site for
respiration.

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Centrioles- they are rod-shaped

structures located just 8.
outside the nuclear membrane.
Functions/ roles
i. They form spindle fibres during cell
division in animal cells.
ii. They help in the formation of cilia
and flagella in cells and organisms
where those structures occur e.g.
protoctista.
Ribosomes- Ribosomes are spherical 9. Chloroplasts- they are found in plant
in shape. 5. cells only. Functions/ roles
- Some are scattered within the cytoplasm - They provide a site for photosynthesis/
while others are bound to the surface of they contain chlorophyll that traps light for
rough endoplasmic reticulum. photosynthesis.
Functions/ roles.
i. They form sites for protein synthesis.
6. Lysosomes.
Functions/ roles
i. Contain lytic enzymes which destroy
worn out organelles/cells/tissue. ii.
Digestion of food/bacteria.
- White blood cells contain numerous
lysosomes because they destroy
pathogens hence contain numerous
Vacuoles- they are sacs which are
lysosomes because they contain lytic
filled with a fluid and 10. vary in size.
enzymes that destroy pathogens.
- Animal cells contain small vacuoles which
7. Golgi bodies/ apparatus- they are stacks
are small and temporary while plant cells
of membranebound tube like sacs.
contain large and permanent vacuoles.
- They are found close to the cell membrane.
- In plants vacuoles are centrally placed and
Functions/ roles of golgi apparatus/
surrounded by a membrane called
bodies.
tonoplast.
i. Packaging and transport of
- They contain a solution of salt and sugars
glycoproteins (glycogen/ carbohydrates and
called cell sap hence they are called sap
proteins) as secretions. ii. Transport of
vacuoles.
synthesized materials/substances out of the
Functions/ roles
cell as secretions e.g. enzymes. iii. Secretion of
i. They store salts and sugars.
synthesized/ manufactured glycoproteins
(proteins and carbohydrates). iv. Formation ii. The sap contributes to the osmotic
of lysosomes. properties of the cell.
 In unicellular organisms:
i. Contractile vacuole removes/ excretes
excess water

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(osmoregulation) ii. Contractile vacuole wall.
removes/ excretes metabolic wastes. 4. It has a large 4. It has no
iii. Food vacuole is used for feeding/ central vacuole. vacuoles but if they
digestion/ storage of food. are present, they are
11. Cell wall- this is a membrane found in small and temporary
cells of plants and fungi; and in some and scattered within
protoctists but not in animal cells. the cytoplasm.
 It is made up of cellulose in plant cells 5. The cytoplasm 5. The cytoplasm
and either cellulose or chitin in fungi. It and nucleus are occupies most space
is rigid and tough. located towards the in the cell with the
Functions/ roles periphery. nucleus centrally
i. Protects the cell against mechanical placed.
injury. 6. It has 6. It lacks
ii. It gives the cell a definite shape. chloroplasts. chloroplasts.
iii. Provides mechanical support 7. It stores starch, 7. It stores glycogen
12. Nucleus- it contains: oils and proteins. and fats.
i. Nuclear memmbrane which has 8. It lacks centrioles. 8. It has centrioles.
Nuclear pore/ nucleopore– which
allows and controls the movement of
substances in and out of the nucleus.
ii. Nucleoplasm – it is a viscous fluid Study question
which has nucleolus and chromatin. 1. The diagram below represents a nucleus.
iii. Nucleolus- manufactures the
ribosomes.
iv. Chromatin- contains hereditary/
genetic materials/ DNA.
Functions/ roles of nucleus
i. The nucleus controls all the cell activities
e.g. cell division, protein synthesis,
respiration, cell secretion, excretion and
cell growth.
- N/B A cell without a nucleus would only Name the structures labeled E and F.
survive for a short time because it is not
able to carry out normal cell functions. a)
E-Nucleolus.
F- Nuclear pore/ Nucleopore.
b) State the function of F.
- Allows/ facilitates the movement of
materials in and out of the nucleus.
2. State two main functions of the vacuole.
i. Osmoregulation/ removal of excess
water (by contractile vacuole)
ii. Feeding/ digestion of food (by food
vacuole)
Differences between plant cell and animal iii. Excretion/ removal of metabolic wastes.
cell. 3. Name the plant cell organelle:
Plant cell. Animal cell i) That stores chlorophyll- Chloroplast
1. It is 1. It is usually ii) Responsible for intracellular digestion-
usually smaller. Lysosome.
large.
2. It is regular in 2. It is irregular in PREPARATION OF TEMPORARY SLIDES
shape. shape. - To observe specimen under the microscope,
we need to prepare slides.
3. It has a cell wall. 3. It lacks a cell
- There are two types of slides, namely:

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a) Temporary or fresh slides- for 6. Iodine solution.
immediate use during a laboratory 7. Onion bulb.
exercise and 8. Pair of forceps.
b) Permanent slides-which can be 9. Dropper.
preserved for reuse. 10. Mounted needle.
Procedure
PROCEDURES FOLLOWED WHEN 1. Cut the onion bulb vertically into four
PREPARING parts.
TEMPORARY SLIDES. 2. Separate a fleshy leaf from one of the
1. Sectioning- It refers to cutting/ making of parts.
thin sections to allow light to pass through 3. Remove/ peel a thin piece of epidermis
or make them transparent. from this leaf using forceps. Trim down
- It is done by use of a sharp razor blade to the epidermis to 5mm long.
ensure that cells are not distorted. 4. Place a drop of iodine at the centre of a
2. Adding a drop of water/ placing the sections clean slide. Add a drop of water to dilute
in water- to keep the cells turgid and it.
prevent dehydration. 5. Quickly spread the piece of epidermis
3. Staining- to make different parts of the cell onto the drop of water.
more distinct and clear. Stains commonly 6. Using a mounted needle, lower a clear
used are iodine solution, cover slip on to the epidermis strip. Do
methylene/bromothymol blue, neutral this gently to avoid trapping air bubbles.
red and eosin. 7. Examine this temporary slide under the
4. Mounting- This is putting the specimen on low and medium power objective lenses
the slide in the appropriate medium before of microscope.
covering it with a cover slip.
Advantages of using/placing a coverslip

over the specimen.
i. To hold the specimen in place. ii. Protects

specimen from dehydration/drying up/dust
particles.
iii. Protect the objective lens.
- The stage should be kept dry for easy
manipulation of specimen as wetness
causes the specimen to stick onto the
stage.
5. Fixation- It helps to make the specimen
hard or stiff for sectioning.
- It can also be done after sectioning to help
maintain the structure of the specimen.
- Commonly used fixative is 70% ethanol.
Plant materials are stiff enough and do not
require fixation.
Practical activity
Aim: To prepare and observe temporary slide

of onion cells under the light microscope.
Requirements:
1. Microscope ESTIMATION OF CELL SIZE.
2. Clean microscope slides  Most cells are shorter than a millimetre
3. Cover slips and therefore, their sizes are measured
4. Scalpel or a new razor blade in smaller units called micrometres ( m).
5. Distilled water

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 1 millimetre (mm) = 1 000 7. Calculate the diameter of one cell using
micrometres/microns ( m).
 1 ( m) = 1 000 nanometres (nm) the following formula:
Practical activity
Cell diameter = Diameter of field of view in m
Aim: To estimate the size of onion epidermal
No. of cells along the diameter
cells.
the field of view.
Requirements:
Using the example above:
i. Microscope.
Cell diameter = 6 000= 1 000 m
ii. Transparent ruler marked in
6 cells
millimetres.
Therefore, diameter of 1 cell = 1 000m.
iii. Prepared slide of onion epidermis. Limitations of using the light microscope to
Procedure. estimate the size of the cells.
1. With the low power objective lens in
place, keep a transparent ruler on the
stage of the microscope.
2. Focus so that the millimetres marks on
the ruler are seen as thick dark lines.
3. Estimate the diameter of the field of
view by counting the one-millimeter
spaces between the first mark and the
last one across the field of view e.g.
from the figure below the diameter of
field of view is 6.0 mm.
Convert the diameter of the field of view

from 4.
millimetres to micrometres.
1 mm = 1 000 m
6 mm = (6xl 000) m
= 6 000 m
5. Remove the ruler and place the
prepared slide of the onion epidermis.
6. Count the number of cells along the
diameter of the field of view e.g. 6 cells
as shown below.

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1. Cells vary in size and shape. = 1,000 m.

2. Cells in a tissue are not linearly Study Question 4.
arranged (not in a straight line)/cells are A student used a microscope with x40
irregularly arranged. objective lens and x5 eye piece lens. He
3. Changes in osmotic pressure will affect observed 5 Cells in the field of view which had
the animal cells. 2.2mm radius.
Other dimensions/parameters used to estimate a) Calculate the area of field of view in
the cell size. square micrometers
1) Diameter. ( m2).
2) Length. Question 1 mm = 1 000
1. m. 2 mm = 2 x
• A student carried out an experiment on 1 000 m
microscope work. The field of view was = 2 000 m.
as shown in the following diagram. Area = 22 x 2000 x 2000
7
• If she counted 20 cells on the diameter
= 125714.29 m2
of the field of view, what was the
approximate size of each cell in
micrometers (μm). Show your working.
 Diameter of field of view

4 + ‰ + ‰ 5
b) What is the average size of the cell in micrometers?
space =
spaces
1000 m = Size of the cell= diameter of field of view mm
1 Number of cells mm
= = 4 000 m
Solution
 The diameter of the field of view was
estimated to be 5mm under a certain
magnification. 5 cells were observed along
the diameter of the field of view. What was
the diameter of one cell in microns (μm)?
Solution
1 mm= 1000 m
50 mm= 5 x 1000
1
= 5,000 m.
Cell diameter= Diameter of field of view
Number of cells.
= 5,000
5

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5000 m = 5mm X
 Cell size = Diameter of field of view x= 4 000
No. of cells 5
Cell size = 5000 = 800 m
m 5
20 cells. = 800 m.
= 250 m. c) Estimate the actual size/length of the
Study question 2 cell. Total magnification= eye lens
magnification x objective lens magnification
 A student viewed and drew a plant cell
= 5 x 40
of a diameter 4mm using a light
microscope whose eyepiece lens was = X 200
marked X1 and objective lens marked Total magnification= Size/Length of cell image
X5. How many cells were linearly Actual length/size of cell (X)
arranged along the microscope’s field of 200= 800
view whose diameter was 8mm. (show m x
your work.) x= 800
Solution 200
 1mm = 1 000 m. = 4 m.
 Total magnification= Cell drawing Study question 5.
diameter  Study the photomicrograph below.
Actual cell diameter Calculate the actual
X size/diameter of the nucleus in microns
5= 4 000 ( m).
 Cell diameter= Field of view diameter(in micrometers)
No. of cells (Y)
800 m =8000 m
Y
Y =8000 m
800 m
=10 cells;
Study question 3
Solution
Measure the diameter of the organelle nucleus e.g. 35 mm
1 mm = 1 000 m
35 mm = 35 000 m.
Total magnification= Diameter of the nucleus photomicrograph.
Actual length/diameter/size
2,200 = 35 000 m
Actual size (Y)
Y=35 000 m 2 200
= 15. 90 m.
CELL SPECIALIZATION.
 This is the structural modification of the cells to perform
specific functions.
a) Specialized plant cells
1. Root hair cell.
2. Guard cell.
3. Palisade cell.
b) Specialized animal cell 1. Nerve cell
2. Sperm cell.

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3. Red blood cell.

4. White blood cell.
5. Muscle cell.
Specializ Diagram Adaptation to
ed cell function
1.Root -Has root
hair hair to
cell increase
surface area
for
absorption
of water
and mineral
salts.
2.Guard -Has thick
cells inner
inelastic
wall and
outer thin
elastic wall
to control
opening and
closing of
stomata.
-Has
chloroplasts
to carry out
photosynth
esis.
3. -Contains
Palisade numerous
cell chloroplasts
to
carry out
photosynthes
is.
4.Nerve -Has
cell/ dendrites
neurone and axon to
receive and
transmit
electrical
impulses.
5.Sperm -Has a tail
cell and
numerous
mitochondri
a to swim to
reach and
fertilize the

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egg/ ovum.
6.Red -Has
blood
cell biconcave
shape,
lacks
nucleus and
has
haemoglobin
to
transport
oxygen and
carbon (IV)
oxide.
7.White -Has large
blood nucleus and
cell show
amoebic
movement
to protect
the body
against
infections.
8.Muscl -Has
e contractile
cell fibrils which
contract and
relax to
bring about
movement.
9. Egg -Has large
cell cytoplasm
to
store food
for
developing
embryo.
TISSUES
A tissue is a group/ collection of cells that are specialized to perform similar functions Animal tissues.
1. Epithelial tissue- it consists of epithelial cells that form layers. They are found on the outside
of the body or around internal organs.
Function.
i. It protect the internal and external surfaces.
2. Connective tissue- consists of strong fibres that connect other tissues and organs holding
them together in position.

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3. Skeletal tissue- it consists of elongated cells with fibres that contracts and relax to bring
about movement.
Blood tissue- it consists of platelets, Function

white blood cells 4. and red blood cells. i) It protects inner tissues of plant from
Function. mechanical damage and infection.
i. Protects the body against 2. Palisade / photosynthetic tissue.
infection/diseases. - It consists of numerous chloroplasts to trap
ii. Transport materials in the body e.g. light energy for photosynthesis.
oxygen, metabolic wastes and
nutrients.
5. Blood tissue- it consists of platelets,
white blood cells and red blood cells.
Vascular tissue- It is composed of

xylem which 3.
Function. transports water from the roots to the
i. Protects the body against leaves and phloem which transports
infection/diseases. manufactured food from the leaves to
ii. Transport materials in the body e.g. other parts of the plant.
oxygen, metabolic wastes and
nutrients.
PLANT TISSUES
1. Epidermal tissue- It consists of a
single layer of epidermal cells
covering the outer surface of leaves
and on young parts of the stem and
roots.
Meristematic tissue- It consists of
meristematic cells 4. found at growing
regions of plants that actively divide to
allow growth.

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- Apical meristems bring about increase in

height of roots and shoots.
- Lateral meristem bring about secondary
thickening.
5. Parenchyma tissue. TOPIC 4: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

- It consists of thin walled and irregularly  Cell physiology is the study of functions a
shaped cells. cell e.g. photosynthesis, respiration,
Role/ function. excretion, protein synthesis,
- Provide mechanical support (packaging) Membrane Structure and Properties
and storage of substances. • A membrane is a surface structure which
encloses a cell and its contents. There are
ORGANS different membranes and they are name
 An organ is a group of tissues that are according to the structure each encloses
specialized to perform similar/same e.g.
function. 1. Cell membrane- which encloses the
 Examples of animal organs include: cell.
stomach, brain, kidney, liver, heart, eye, 2. Tonoplast- which encloses the plant
ear e.t.c. sap vacuole.
 Examples of plant organs include: roots, 3. Mitochondrial membrane-
leaves, flowers, stem which encloses the
e.t.c. mitochondrion.
ORGAN SYSTEM 4. Chloroplast membrane- which
 An organ system is a group of organs that encloses the chloroplast.
perform the same/similar function. 5. Nuclear membrane- encloses the
 Examples of animal organ systems include: nucleus.
digestive system, circulatory system, - All these membranes have the same
respiratory system, excretory system, structure and function. Function of a
nervous system, reproductive system e.t.c. membrane
 Example in plants is transport system. - It regulates the flow of materials in and
out of the cell/ cell organelle.
Structure and functions of Cell/plasma
Membrane Functions of the cell
membrane.
1. Encloses the cell contents.
2. Controls/ regulates the movement of
materials/ substances in and out of the
cell.
Structure of cell membrane.
 It consists of the following components:
a) Two layers of phospholipids.
b) Two protein layers.
c) Small pores that allow the passage of
substances into and out of a cell.

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water and sugar molecules to pass through

because it has large pores.
Adaptation of the cell membrane to its
functions.
1. It has pores for semi-permeability/to allow
molecules of small sizes to pass through
but not large sized molecules.
2. It is thin to reduce distance hence faster
movement of materials.
3. Has electric charges (polarity) to allow
movement of materials in and out of the
cell and to detect changes in the
environment.
Study questions.
1. Name the components of a cell membrane.
(2mks)
2. Give two functions of the cell membrane?
Properties of a Cell Membrane (2mks)
(a) Semi-Permeability/selective 3. Explain how the cell membrane is adapted
permeability. to its functions? (3mks)
 The cell membrane has pores that allow 4. Explain the importance/ significance of the
molecules of small sizes to pass but not electric charges/ polarity of the cell
those with large sizes. membrane. (2mks)
 For example, when a cell is surrounded by PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
a dilute sugar solution, water molecules  The movement of materials across the cell
will enter the cell but the larger sugar
membrane is facilitated by physiological
molecules will not enter.
Importance/ significance of semi- processes namely: A. Diffusion.
permeability. B. Osmosis and
• It allows the cell membrane to select what C. Active transport.
enters and leaves the cell. A. DIFFUSION
(b) Sensitivity to Changes in Temperature  This is the process by which particles/
and pH. molecules move from a region of high
- Cell membrane has proteins which are concentration to a region of low
destroyed by high temperatures and concentration.
extreme pH e.g. strong acids. This affects  The difference in concentration of
the normal functions of the cell membrane. molecules between the regions of low
(c) Possession of Electric Charges/ it is concentration and the region of high
polarised/ polarization. concentration is called concentration/
diffusion gradient.
- A membrane has positive charges on the
outside and negative charges to the inside.  Therefore diffusion is a passive process (it
Importance or significance of polarization of is not energy-driven process) where
cell membrane particles/ molecules move along
concentration gradient.
1. It affects the manner in which substances
are moved in and out of the cell.
2. It helps the cell membrane to detect
changes in the environment.
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.
Difference between cell wall and cell
membrane. Aim: To demonstrate diffusion using potassium
manganate (VII). Requirements:
• The cell membrane is semi-permeable while
1. Potassium manganate (vii)
the cell wall is permeable i.e. allows both
crystals

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2. Glass tubing 3. 100 cm3 2. 5ml Starch solution.

beaker 3. 10ml dilute iodine solution in 100 ml
4. Water. beaker.
Procedure: 4. Thread.
1. Hold a glass tubing vertically in a beaker so 5. Glass rod.
that one end of the tubing rests flat on the 6. Dropper.
bottom of the beaker. 7. Water in a beaker.
2. Carefully drop a crystal of potassium Procedure
manganate (VII) through the upper opening 1. Tie one end of the visking tubing using
of the glass tubing. the thread provided.
3. Close the upper end of the glass tubing 2. Pour starch solution into the visking
with the thumb. tubing to full and tie the open end of the
4. Half-fill the beaker with water. visking tubing. Ensure that there is no
5. Carefully withdraw vertically the glass leakage on both ends of the tubing. Rinse
tubing so that the crystal is left undisturbed the sides of the visking tubing with water.
at the bottom of the beaker. Note the initial color of starch and record
6. Record your observations for the first 15 in the table below.
minutes. 3. Immerse the visking tubing in a beaker
7. Explain your observations. containing iodine solution and let the set
up stand for 20 minutes.
4. After 20 minutes remove the visking
tubing from the beaker and record the
observations.
Observation
 The contents of the visking tubing turned
Observation. blue-black and the contents in the beaker
 The purple colour of the potassium remained brown. Explanation.
manganate (VII) which is purple in colour  The wall of the visking tubing is semi-
spreads throughout the water and permeable hence allowed small iodine
eventually all the water turned purple. molecules to pass through it from the
Explanation. beaker into the beaker where they
 In the crystals, the particles of potassium reacted with starch to form blue black
manganate (VII) are highly concentrated colour.
 Potassium manganete (VII) particles break  Starch molecules are too large to move
away from the crystals, dissolve in water out of the tubing into the beaker.
and then diffuse through the water until FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF DIFFUSION.
they are evenly distributed. 1. Temperature- an increase in temperature
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 2 increases the energy content of
Aim- To demonstrate diffusion using a molecules (particles) which make them to
visking tubing. move faster therefore increasing the rate of
Requirements. diffusion while decrease in temperatures
1. Visking tubing 8cm long.

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decrease the energy content of the Study question 1

molecules, this decreases diffusion rate. - The set up below illustrates a certain
2. Concentration / diffusion gradient- The physiological process.
greater the concentration gradient the
higher the rate of diffusion hence increases
the rate of diffusion.
- The lower the concentration gradient the
lower the rate of diffusion.
- Therefore increasing the concentration of
diffusing molecules at one of the points
increases the rate of diffusion.
3. Size of molecules- small and light
molecules diffuse faster than large and Name the physiological process. (1mk)
heavy molecules. a)
4. Surface area to volume ratio- the higher  Diffusion.
the ratio the faster the rate of diffusion and b) Give two examples of the process named
the lower the ratio the lower the rate of in a) above in plants.
diffusion. This implies that small organisms (2mks)
have large surface area to volume ratio  Gaseous exchange/ excretion of carbon
than large animals. (IV) oxide.
5. Thickness of the membrane- If the  Absorption/ uptake of mineral ions.
membrane is thicker, it increases the  Translocation/ transport of manufactured
distance travelled by particles hence slow food.
rate of diffusion. If the membrane is thin, it
c) State two ways by which the movement of
decreases the distance travelled by
the dye in the set up would be slowed down.
particles hence faster rate of diffusion.
6. Surface area- the larger the surface area (2mks)  Lowering temperature.
over which diffusion occurs, the higher the  Increasing thickness of the membrane.
rate f diffusion.  Using less dye/ adding more water/
7. Type of medium- diffusion is faster in reducing concentration
gases than liquids. gradient.
ROLE/IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING Study
ORGANISMS question 2
Importance/ role of diffusion in animals a) What is the significance of diffusion in
1. Excretion/ removal of nitrogenous wastes in pollination?
some organisms - Insects that carry out pollination are
e.g. unicellular organisms like amoeba attracted by the smell from the flowers.
found in fresh water. This may lead to pollination.
2. Gaseous exchange in respiratory surfaces b) Is diffusion an energy driven process?
e.g. alveoli and gills. Explain. - Diffusion is not energy driven
3. Absorption digested food (e.g. amino acids, process or it is a passive process. This is
glucose) in the ileum into blood stream. because molecules/ particles move along the
4. Reabsorption of useful substances and diffusion/ concentration gradient.
some salts in the kidney tubules. Study question 3
Importance/ role of diffusion in plants.  A group of students set up an experiment to
1. Absorption of mineral salts by plant roots demonstrate a certain process. The
from the soil. experiment was set up as shown in the
2. Helps in gaseous exchange through the diagram below.
stomata and lenticels.
3. Transport/ translocation of manufactured
food from the leaves to other parts off the
plant.

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2. This is the process through which solvent/

water molecules move from dilute/
hypotonic solution to a highly concentrated
solution across/ through a semi-permeable
membrane.
• Osmosis is a special type of diffusion because:
i. It involves the movement of water
molecules only.
ii. It is involved a semi-permeable
 After 10 minutes the students recorded membrane which allows some
their observation in a table as shown substances to pass through but denies
below. others.
a) Name the physiological process being

investigated. Diffusion.
b) Explain the results obtained in the set up.
 The wall of the visking tubing is semi- TERMS USED IN OSMOSIS.
permeable hence allowed small iodine 1. Isotonic solution- This is a solution with
molecules to pass through it from the the same concentration as the
beaker into the beaker where they reacted adjacent/next solution separated by a
with starch to form blue black colour. semi-permeable membrane.
 Starch molecules are too large to move out of  There is no movement of water/solvent
the tubing into the beaker. molecules between the two solutions as
c) Explain the results expected if the there is no concentration gradient.
experiment was repeated using starch 2. Hypotonic solution- This is a solution with
solution which has been boiled with dilute low solute (salt/sugar) concentration or
hydrochloric acid. dilute or with high water potential/with
 There would be no colour change inside the high water molecules than the adjacent
visking tubing/ the brown colour of iodine solution separated by a semi permeable
would persist. membrane.
 This is because hydrochloric acid hydrolyzed/ - Water/solvent molecules move from the
broke down starch into simple sugars which hypotonic solution to the adjacent solution
do not react with iodine. through a semi permeable membrane.
(B) OSMOSIS. 3. Hypertonic solution- This is a solution
Definition of osmosis. with high salt/sugar concentration or
1. This is the movement of water/solvent low water potential or low water
molecules from a region of high concentration than the adjacent
concentration of water molecules to a solution separated by a semi permeable
region of low concentration of water membrane.
molecules through a semipermeable 4. Osmotic pressure- This is a force
membrane. developed by a solution to draw in
water through a semi-permeable

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membrane or to stop water from Differentiate between wall pressure and

passing through a semi- permeable turgor pressure.
membrane.  Wall pressure is the inward pressure
- Highly concentrated/hypertonic solution exerted by the cell wall on the cell
has high osmotic pressure while hypotonic membrane to resist expansion as the cell
solution has low osmotic pressure. takes in water through osmosis.
3. Osmotic potential- This is a hidden  Turgor pressure is the outward pressure
pressure of a concentrated solution exerted by the expanded vacuole on the
which manifests itself when it is placed cell wall as the cell takes in water through
next to the distilled water separated by osmosis.
a semipermeable membrane.
 When a plant cell is placed in hypertonic
4. It is also a measure of the pressure a
solution, water molecules move out of the
solution would develop to draw water
cell into the solution through osmosis.
molecules from distilled water when
separated by a semi- permeable  As water moves out of the cell, the
membrane. WATER RELATIONS IN membrane pulls away from the cell wall
PLANTS. and the cell becomes plasmolyzed.
 Plant cells have both cellulose cell wall and  Plasmolysis is the process by which the
cell membrane and the centre of the cell cell membrane shrinks and pulls away
contains a vacuole with sap. from the cell wall when the plant cell is
placed in a hypertonic solution.
 The sap is a solution of salts and sugar and
is surrounded by a membrane called  When the plant cells are plasmolysed, they
tonoplast. reduce in length and the tissue becomes
soft and less rigid/ flabby and the
 The cell membrane and tonoplast are semi-
tissue is said to be flaccid.
permeable while the cellulose cell wall is
fully permeable hence allowing solutes  A plasmolysed/ flaccid cell is made turgid by
and water to pass through. placing it in distilled water/ hypotonic
solution. This process is called
 When a plant cell is placed in distilled
deplasmolysis.
water/ hypotonic solution, water will move
into the cell through osmosis and cause
the cell wall to distend.
 The plant cell does not burst because it has
rigid cellulose cell wall.
 As the cell gains more water through
osmosis, its vacuole enlarges and exerts
an outward pressure on the cell wall
called turgor pressure.
 This pressure increases as more water is
taken into the vacuole which pushes the
cytoplasm against the cell wall which
causes increase in length until the cell
wall cannot stretch any more. The cell WILTING
then becomes firm/ rigid and is said to
 This is the process where the rate of water
be turgid.
loss to the atmosphere is more than that of
 When the cell wall is being stretched absorption from the soil.
towards the outside, it develops a
 Turgor pressure in cells is reduced, the cell
resistant pressure on the cell membrane
wall loses its rigidity, the cells shrink and
which is equal and opposite of turgor
the plant droops.
pressure called wall pressure.
Study question.  At night, plants recover from wilting because
their stomata are closed and the rate of

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water loss/ transpiration and evaporation two solutions the higher the rate of
are reduced. osmosis and vice versa.
 If the water supply from the soil is 2. pH- Extreme pH e.g. strong acids
inadequate, the plants do not recover from destroy the structure of the cell
wilting and are said to have undergone membrane thus hindering osmosis.
permanent wilting. 3. Temperature- low temperature slows
Importance/ significance of wilting. down the rate of osmosis. Increase in
 Wilting results to drooping of leaves. This in temperature increases the energy
turn reduces the total surface area of the content of water/ solvent molecules
leaf exposed to the environment hence increasing the rate of osmosis.
reducing water loss. 4. Extremely high temperature destroys
WATER RELATIONS IN ANIMALS the structure of the cell membrane
 The cell membrane of animal cell e.g. red thus hindering osmosis.
blood cells is semi- ROLE OF OSMOSIS IN PLANTS.
permeable and the cytoplasm contains 1. Helps in absorption of water from the
dissolved salts and sugars in solution form. soil (through root hair).
 If the animal cells are placed in a 2. Helps in support in herbaceous plants/
hypertonic/ concentrated solution e.g. non-woody plants through turgidity.
1.2% sodium chloride, they will lose This is because plant cells take in
water (from the cytoplasm) by osmosis water through osmosis, become turgid
across the semi-permeable membrane, hence become firm/ rigid providing
shrink and the cell membrane becomes support.
wrinkled. This is known as laking or 3. Helps in movement of water from cell
crenation. to cell.
 If the animal cell (e.g. red blood cell) is 4. Enables opening and closing of
placed in a hypotonic solution/ distilled stomata to facilitate gaseous
water, it will take in/gain water by osmosis, exchange.
swell and burst because it lacks cell wall. 5. It helps in feeding in insectivorous
This is called haemolysis. plants. The plants have special
 If human red blood cells are placed in a structures that change turgor pressure
0.9% sodium chloride solution, they will when touched. The change in turgor
neither shrink nor swell. This is because pressure causes those structures to
the solution is isotonic to human cells. close trapping insects.
6. Folding of leaves. This reduces the
surface area exposed to the
environment reducing water loss.
7. Support in leaves/flowers/seedlings
through turgidity. ROLE OF OSMOSIS
IN ANIMALS.
1. Enables re-absorption of water in the
kidney nephron (osmoregulation). This
helps the animal to regulate its
osmotic pressure.
2. Helps in movement of water from cell
to cell.
3. Helps in absorption of water from the
alimentary canal/ gut (colon) into
bloodstream.
FACTORS AFFECTING OSMOSIS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSMOSIS AND
1. Concentration of solutions and DIFFUSION.
concentration gradient- the greater
the concentration gradient between Diffusion Osmosis

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- Involves the - It involves the in soil solution forming hypertonic

movement of movement of environment.
particles or solvent/ water 3. Distinguish between plasmolysis and
molecules of molecules. wilting.
liquid or gas.  Plasmolysis involves loss of water from plant
- It may be through a - It is through a cells to a hypertonic solution while wilting
membrane or air. semipermeable involves loss of water from plant cells to the
membrane. atmosphere.
- It is not affected - It is affected by 4. Describe how turgor pressure builds up.
by changes in pH. changes in pH. - As the cell gains water by osmosis, the cell
sap/sap vacuole enlarges pushing the
STUDY QUESTIONS cytoplasm outwards; exerting pressure on
1. The diagram below illustrates the the cell wall.
appearance of a plant cell after it had 5. Explain what would happen to onion
been placed in a certain solution. epidermal cells if they were placed in
distilled water.
 The cells would absorb water through
osmosis, the cell swells/becomes turgid but
does not burst due to the cell wall.
6. Explain how the visking tubing is different
from the cell membrane.
- The visking tubing has a thin layer of
polythene with pores while the cell
membrane is a layer made up of lipids and
Explain the appearance of the cell at the end of proteins (lipo-protein layer).
the treatment. 7. A freshly obtained dandelion stem
a) measuring 5 cm long was split lengthwise
 The cell sap was hypertonic compared to the to obtain two similar pieces. The pieces
solution in which it was placed. Water were placed in solutions of different
molecules moved into the cell sap through concentrations in Petri dishes for 20
osmosis across its semi-permeable minutes. The appearance after 20 minutes
membrane. This causes the cell to swell is as shown.
and become turgid.
b) Explain the results obtained if the red blood
cell is subjected to the same treatment.
 The red blood cell lacks a cell wall, water
moves across its semi-permeable
membrane into the cytoplasm through
osmosis. The red blood cell then swells and
bursts (haemolyze)
2. A student at Enkinda secondary school
observed that when sodium chloride was
poured onto grass, the grass dried up.
Explain this observation in relation to Name the physiological process investigated.
osmosis. a)
- Sodium chloride dissolved in the soil solution  Osmosis
forming a hypertonic environment. This b) Account for the appearance of the pieces in
caused plant cells to lose water by osmosis solutions L1 and
hence drying up. L2
 Note- The same phenomenon is observed  In L1 cortical cells/cells of the cortex/inner
that around the urinal pit as grass dries up cells gained water by osmosis becoming
because urine contains salts that dissolve

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turgid hence increasing in length. The (C) ACTIVE TRANSPORT

epidermal cells did not gain water because  Active transport is the process by which
they are covered by a water proof cuticle substances move across the cell
leading to curvature. membrane against concentration
 In L2 cortical cells/cells of the cortex/inner gradient.
cells lost water by osmosis leading to  The process requires energy and
decrease in length. The epidermal cells carriers for the substances to move
did not gain water because they are across the cell membrane.
covered by a water proof cuticle leading  The carrier binds the molecule or ion to be
to curvature. transported on one side of the membrane
8. An experiment was carried out to and takes it to the other side.
investigate the effect of different  The carrier releases the molecule and
concentrations of sodium chloride on returns to the other side
human red blood cells. Equal amounts of where it repeats the process.
blood were added to equal volumes of the Factors affecting active transport.
salt solution but of different
1. Concentration of oxygen-higher
concentrations. The results are shown in
oxygen concentration leads to higher rate
the table below.
of respiration to provide enough energy
for faster rate of active transport.
2. Concentration of glucose- higher
glucose concentration increases the rate
of respiration thus increasing the rate of
active transport.
3. Temperature- Respiration is enzyme
controlled process Enzymes function best
at a given optimum temperature.
4. Enzyme inhibitors- they inhibit the
process of respiration thus affecting
active transport.
5. Change in pH.- extreme change in pH
Account for the results set up in A and B.
affects respiration hence affecting active
a)
transport.
 A – There was no change in number Role of active transport in plants.
because 0.9% sodium chloride solution is - It enables the absorption of mineral salts from
isotonic to red blood cell hence they did the soil by the plants. For example uptake of
not lose water through osmosis. large quantities of iodide by sea weeds from
 B- There was fewer in number because surrounding sea water Role of active transport
0.3% sodium chloride solution is in animals.
hypotonic to red blood cells. This caused 1. Helps in the re-absorption of sugars and
the red blood cells to gain water through some salts in the kidney into the blood
osmosis, swell and burst/ to haemolyze. stream.
b) If the experiment was repeated using 1.4% 2. Helps in absorption of digested food from
sodium chloride solution state the the alimentary canal into the blood stream
expected results with reference to: 3. Helps in excretion of waste products from
i) The number of red blood cells. the body cells.
 The number of cell will remain the same. 4. Helps in pumping of sodium and potassium
ii) The appearance of red blood cell if ions across the nerve cell membrane.
viewed under the microscope. 5. It helps in accumulation of substances into
 The red blood cells will appear small in the body to offset osmotic imbalance in arid
size, wrinkled/ crenated and saline/ salt environments.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSMOSIS the use of require the use of

AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT. carriers. carriers.
Osmosis Active PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.

transport Aim: To demonstrate osmosis using a visking
i. It involves the i. It involves the tubing.
movement water movement of Requirements:
molecules. ions/particles. 1. Visking tubing 8cm long.
ii. It involves the i. It involves 2. 500 ml Beaker.
movement along movement 3. 500 ml distilled water.
the concentration against the 4. Concentrated salt/ sugar solution.
gradient. concentration 5. A piece of thread.
gradient. 6. Glass rod.
iii. It does not require i. It requires the 7. 500 ml measuring cylinder Procedure:
energy. use of energy. 1. Put 350 ml of distilled water into the
iv. It does not require v. It requires beaker.
carriers. carriers. 2. Dip the visking tubing in water to moisten
v. It involves the v. It involves the it. Rub it between the finger top open and
movement water movement of tie one end with a thread.
molecules. ions/particles. 3. Half-fill the visking tubing with salt/ sugar
solution and tie the open end of the
visking tubing. Ensure that no salt
solution spills out of the visking tubing.
4. Immerse the visking tubing into the
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACTIVE TRANSPORT distilled water and suspend it using the
AND glass rod.
DIFFUSION. 5. Leave the set up for about 30 minutes.
6. Record your observation.
Active transport Diffusion 7. Explain the observation.
i. It involves i. It involves the
the movement of
movement of particles or
particles or molecules
molecules from a region
from a region of low
of high concentration
concentration to a region of
to a region of high
low concentration.
concentration
.
ii. It involves ii. It involves the
the movement
movement against the
along the concentration
concentration gradient.
gradient. Observation
iii. It requires iii. Does not
• The visking tubing swells/ increases in size/
the use of energy. require the use become turgid.
of energy. Explanation
iv. It requires iv. It does not

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 Distilled water in hypotonic to sugar/salt 2. Explain/account for the observations in

solution OR sugar/salt solution is 1 above.
hypertonic to distilled water. - In set up A, water is more
 Water molecules moved from distilled water concentrated/hypertonic in the Petri dish
in the beaker into the visking tubing than in the cells of the Irish potato. Water
through osmosis across the semi- moves from the Petri dish to the adjacent
permeable membrane. cell sap of the Irish potato cells through
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 2. osmosis.
Aim: To investigate osmosis in a potato - This makes the cell sap less concentrated/
tissue. hypotonic than the cell sap of adjacent
Requirements: cells.
1. Three Irish potatoes. - Water continuously moves from one cell to
2. Scalpel. another through osmosis until it reaches
3. Distilled water. the sugar solution by resulting into a rise of
4. 3 beakers. the volume of the sugar solution in the cup
5. Sugar solution. shaped depression of the Irish potato.
Procedure: - In set up B, water is more
1. Use the scalpel to cut the Irish potatoes concentrated/hypertonic in the cup shaped
into cup shapes then set up apparatus as depression than in the cell sap of the
shown. adjacent cells of the Irish potato.
2. Leave the set up for 4 hours. - Water moves from the cup shaped
depression to the cell sap of the adjacent
cells of the Irish potato through osmosis.
- This makes them hypotonic/ less
concentrated than the cell sap of the
adjacent cells.
- Water continuously moves from one cell to
another through osmosis until it reaches
the sugar solution in the petri dish resulting
into the drop volume of water in the cup
shaped depression of the Irish potato.
- In C, there was no sugar solution hence no
concentration gradient existed therefore no
osmosis took place.
State the observation made after the PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 3.
experiment. 1.
1. You are provided with Irish potato, 5 ml of
 In Set up A, the depression is filled with distilled water in a beaker labeled R1, 5 ml
sugar solution. of 10% sodium chloride solution in a beaker
 In B the level of distilled water is reduced in labeled R2, an empty beaker labeled R3
the depression. and ruler.
 In set up C, no observation is made. 2. Push a cork borer through the Irish potato
2. State the observations that would be and remove the cylinder tissue from the
made if a boiled potato was used in set borer. Repeat the procedure obtain three
up D. cylinders.
 There would be rise in the level of sugar 3. Chip off one end of each cylinder and
solution. starting from the chipped end measure
3. Give a reason for your answer in (2) exactly 30 mm and cut the cylinder. Repeat
above. this for the other two cylinders.
 Boiling/ high temperature destroys the 4. Place one cylinder in distilled water (R1),
structure of the membranes hence they are another in sodium chloride solution (R2)
no longer semi-permeable and as such no and the third cylinder in an empty beaker
osmosis takes place.

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(R3). Leave the set up to stand for 30

minutes.
5. After 30
Cylinder in minutes
Initial remove the cylinders
length in frominthe
Final length
solutions and
mmgently wipe it withmma tissue paper
provided. a)
QUESTIONS
R1Which physiological
1. 30mm process is being32–1 mminvestigated? 
- Osmosis. b)
R2Measure and
2. 30mm
record new lengths 28–1 mmcylinders and
of the
record your results in the table below. 
R3 30mm 30mm c)
Name the process that is being investigated.
Osmosis.
State the expected observations after
the setup is left for 3 hours.
The visking tubing will become
turgid/increase in size. Explain the
answer you have given in (b) above.

3. Feel the textures of the cylinders and
record your observations in the table below.
4. Explain/ account for observation made in;
a) R1
- Distilled water was hypotonic/less solute
concentrated than cell sap of potato cells.
Water moved into potato cell sap of
potato cells (from the beaker) through
osmosis. This increased turgidity of potato
cells which also increased in length.
b) R2 State the reason for the set up.
- Sodium chloride solution was a.
To demonstrate osmosis.
Cylinder in Observation b. Explain the observations made.
 The level of the solution rises in
R1 Hard/ firm/ turgid/ rigid. the capillary tube. This is

because water molecules move
R2 Soft/ flaccid. from the beaker to the visking
3. tubing through osmosis across
the semipermeable membrane.
R3 Hard/ firm/ turgid/ rigid.
2. Study the setup below and answer
the questions that follow.
hypertonic/highly concentrated than the Water moves by osmosis from the
cell sap of potato cells. Water moved from beaker into the visking tubing across the semi-
cell sap of potato cells (into the beaker) permeable membrane.
through osmosis. This caused the potato d) State and explain the expected observation
cells to be flabby/ flaccid decreasing the if the experiment is repeated with distilled
length of cells. water in both the visking tubing and the
beaker.
STUDY QUESTIONS There would be no change because a
1. The students set up the experiment as concentration gradient does not exist
shown below.

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between the liquids in the beaker and in  Osmosis.

the visking tubing. b) State and explain what would be observed
A 4 cm straight piece of stem from a if the setup was left for 12 hours.
herbaceous plant was split lengthwise into  The level of the liquid in the cavity of the
two similar pieces. The pieces were placed potato will rise while that in the Petri dish
in sugar solutions of different will drop because cells adjacent to the
concentrations for 30 minutes. Their sugar solution will lose water into the
appearance after 30 minutes is as shown solution by osmosis. Those cells become
below: hypertonic to the adjacent cells hence
draw in water through osmosis. Finally
water will be drawn from the Petri dish
through osmosis.
c) State and explain what would be observed
if the experiment was repeated:
(i) Using boiled potato instead of living potato.
 No change in the level of the liquids.
Because boiling
destroys the cell membrane.
(ii) Petri dish contained sugar solution and
a) Which biological process is being
the cavity in the potato contained
investigated? distilled water.
 Osmosis.  The level of the liquid in the cavity of
b) Account for the appearance of the pieces in the potato will fall while that of the
solutions A and B. Petri dish will rise.
 Piece A was placed in a hypotonic solution.  Because cell sap of cells adjacent to
The inner cells gained water by osmosis. the sugar solution will lose water into
They became turgid and increased in the solution by osmosis. Those cells
size/length. become hypertonic to the adjacent
 Epidermis does not gain water because it is cells hence draw in water through
covered by waterproof cuticle. This leads to osmosis. Finally water will be drawn
curvature of the whole piece outwards. from the cavity of the potato to the
 Piece B was placed in a hypertonic solution. Petri dish through osmosis.
The inner cells lost water by osmosis. They 5. In an experiment, two cuboids of equal size
became flaccid and decreased in were made out of a peeled potato tuber.
size/length. One was placed in concentrated salt
 Epidermis does not gain water because it is solution (brine) and the other was placed
covered by waterproof cuticle. This leads to in distilled water for one hour. State and
curvature in a direction opposite to that of explain the expected changes in the size
A. of the cuboids.
4. Study the experimental setup below and - The cuboid that was immersed in distilled
answer the questions that follow. water will be larger because the cells take
up water through osmosis hence become
turgid and increase in size.
- The cuboid that was immersed in brine
(concentrated solution) will be smaller
because the cells lost water through
osmosis and reduced in size.
a) Name the process that is being

investigated.

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energy obtained from chemical

reactions.
EXTERNAL PARTS OF A DICOT LEAF.
1. Leaf lamina/blade- it is flat and broad
to increase surface area for trapping
light energy for photosynthesis. The
lamina is green in color and contains
the photosynthetic tissue.
2. Mid rib and veins- the mid rib is thick
and runs in the middle from the petiole
to the apex. The veins run into the
lamina forming an extensive network of
TOPIC 5: NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND veins. The veins have:
ANIMALS. i) Xylem- which transports water and
Definition. mineral salts to the photosynthetic
cells.
- Nutrition is the process by which
organisms obtain/acquire and utilize ii) Phloem- which transports
nutrients. manufactured food from photosynthetic
Importance of nutrition. cells.
- It helps organisms to acquire and utilize 3. Petiole- Attaches the leaf to the branch
nutrients for metabolic activities for or stem.
respiration, growth and repair of worn out 4. Margin- it is either smooth or serrated.
tissues. 5. Apex- It is located at the tip of the
Types/modes of nutrition. blade.
1. Autotrophism- this is the process through
which organisms manufacture/make their
own food from simple substances e.g.
Carbon (IV) oxide, water in the presence of
light/ chemical energy.
 The organisms that make their own food are
called autotrophs
e.g. green plants, algae and some bacteria.
2. Heterotrophism- this is the mode of
nutrition where organisms feed on already
manufactured food/ complex food materials
e.g. carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats
and oils).
- Organisms that feed on already manufactured
food are called heterotrophs e.g. animals,
protozoa (e.g. amoeba) and some bacteria. EXTERNAL PARTS OF A MONOCOT LEAF.
NUTRITION IN PLANTS 1. Leaf lamina/blade- it is flat and
 Nutrition in plants is called autotrophism. narrow to trap light energy for
Types/ modes of autotrophism photosynthesis. The lamina is green in
1. Photosynthesis- this is the process by color and contains the photosynthetic
which green plants manufacture their tissue.
own food using light energy. 2. Parallel veins- they run parallel from
 During photosynthesis light energy is sheath to apex. The veins have:
converted into i) Xylem- which transports water and
chemical energy and stored in food. mineral salts to the photosynthetic
2. Chemosynthesis- this is the process cells.
through which organisms (e.g. bacteria)
manufacture their own using chemical

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ii) Phloem- which transports

manufactured food from
photosynthetic cells.
3. Margin- it is either smooth or
serrated.
4. Apex- It is located at the tip of the
blade.
5. Leaf sheath- it attaches the leaf to
the stem/ branch.
Internal parts of a leaf

1. Cuticle- This is a thin non-cellular, waxy,
Differences between dicot and monocot leaf waterproof and transparent layer that
Dicot leaf Monocot leaf covers the upper and lower surfaces of
1. Has broad lamina/ 1. Has narrow the leaf. The cuticle is transparent to
blade. lamina/ allow penetration of light for
photosynthesis.
blade.
Functions of cuticle
2. Has leaf petiole. 2. Has leaf
i. It reduces excessive loss of water. ii.
sheath.
Protects the inner tissues of the leaf from
3. Has midrib. 3. Lacks
mechanical damage.
midrib.
iii. Prevents entry of disease-causing
4. Has network veins. 4. Has parallel microorganisms.
veins.
2. Epidermis- This is a thin tissue, usually
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF. one cell thick, on the upper and lower
surfaces of the leaf. The epidermal cells
have no chloroplasts except the
guard cells. Chloroplasts are the
organelles that contain the
photosynthetic material known as
chlorophyll.
Functions/ adaptations of epidermis.
a) It secretes the cuticle.
b) It is transparent to allow light penetrate
to the photosynthetic tissue.
c) It has a single layer of cell (i.e. thin) to
reduce the distance over which light
penetrates to photosynthetic tissue and
carbon (IV) oxide diffuses to
photosynthetic cells.

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d) It has stomata for gaseous exchange. 6. Vascular bundle- consists of xylem and
e) There are guard cells to control opening phloem tissues.
and closing of stomata.  The xylem transport water and
f) It is covered with thick, waxy and has mineral salts from the roots to the leaf
waterproof cuticle to prevent excessive cells.
water loss and protect the inner parts of  The phloem transports/translocates
the leaf. manufactured food from the leaf cells
3. Guard cells- they are specialized to the rest of the plant.
epidermal cells used to control opening Study question
and closing of stomata. Name three cells in a leaf which contain
 Unlike the epidermal cells, the guard cells chloroplasts.
are beanshaped while other epidermal i. Palisade.
cells are blocky shaped. They also ii. Spongy mesophyll.
contain chloroplasts/ are able to carry iii. Guard cells.
out photosynthesis ADAPTATIONS OF THE LEAF TO
Structural adaptations of guard cells. PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
a) They have thicker inner less elastic 1. It is green in colour/ contain
walls which curve to open the stomata chlorophyll which traps sunlight
and straighten to close the stoma. energy needed for photosynthesis.
b) They have outer thinner and less elastic 2. Has broad and flat lamina which
walls which bulge outwards. provides a large surface area for the
c) They contain chloroplasts for absorption of carbon (IV) oxide
photosynthesis/ manufacture glucose trapping sunlight.
which is osmotically active. 3. It has thin lamina to allow light and
4. Palisade layer/ cells- This is a layer of carbon (IV) oxide to pass through a
cells located beneath/below the upper short distance to reach the
epidermis. It consists of cylindrical photosynthetic cells.
shaped cells closely packed together 4. It has stomata to ensure efficient
and with the long axis perpendicular to diffusion of respiratory gases in and
the surface. out of the leaf.
Adaptation to function 5. It contains guard cells which control
a) They have numerous chloroplasts opening and closing of stomata; and
containing chlorophyll which is contain chloroplasts/ chlorophyll to
necessary for photosynthesis. Their trap light energy/ carry out
position and arrangement enables them photosynthesis.
to receive maximum sunlight. 6. It has transparent cuticle and
5. Spongy mesophyll layer- this is a epidermis to allow penetration of light
layer of cells between the palisade and to the palisade cells.
the lower epidermis. The cells are 7. The palisade cells and mesophyll cells
irregularly shaped and loosely arranged contain large numbers of chloroplasts
creating large air spaces in between located next to the upper epidermis
them. enables them to receive maximum
 The air spaces provide communication sunlight.
pathways through which gases diffuse 8. The mid-rib and veins contain xylem
in between the cells. which transports water and mineral
 Unlike the palisade cells, spongy salts to photosynthetic cells and
mesophyll cells contain fewer phloem; which transports
chloroplasts. manufactured/ photosynthetic
 This explains why the lower surface of materials from photosynthetic cells
the leaf is lighter 9. Spongy mesophyll cells have large air
in colour than the upper surface. spaces which allow circulation of air to
facilitate gaseous exchange.

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10. The regular /mosaic arrangement of Adaptations of chloroplast to its function

leaves on the stem minimizes (photosynthesis).
overlapping and overshadowing so 1. It has lamellae/grana that contains
that each leaf receives adequate light chlorophyll that traps light energy.
11. Has xylem, parenchyma and 2. The grana has a large surface area for
sclerenchyma tissues to support the accommodation or packing of the
leaf exposing it to sunlight. chlorophyll.
Study questions 3. The stroma contains the enzymes that
1. List three adaptations of leaves that speed up/catalyze the process of
maximize efficiency in trapping photosynthesis.
sunlight for photosynthesis.
i. Flat broad
lamina. ii.
Transparent
cuticle.
iii. Thinness of the leaf.
2. Explain how aquatic plants are adapted
to photosynthesis.
 Emergent and floating
hydrophytes have broad leaves
with numerous stomata on the
upper surface to increase the surface
area for transpiration and for efficient The process of Photosynthesis.
gaseous exchange.  The raw materials for photosynthesis are:
 Submerged hydrophytes have i. Water ii. Carbon
highly dissected leaves into (IV) oxide gas.
thread-like straws to increase Conditions required for photosynthesis to take
surface area for absorption of place
maximum light and carbon (IV) oxide
i. Light and
for photosynthesis and gaseous
ii. Chlorophyll
exchange.
 Water and carbon (IV) oxide
 The leaves of submerged molecules undergo several chemical
hydrophytes have numerous and processes in the presence of sunlight
sensitive chloroplasts that to form carbohydrates/glucose,
photosynthesize under low light oxygen and energy (ATP) are given
intensities. out as a by-product.
THE CHLOROPLAST.
Parts of chloroplast
1. The outer and inner membranes.
2. Inner membrane is folded to form
lamellae suspended in an aqueous
matrix called stroma.
3. The lamellae may at certain intervals
form several layers of membranes
Importance of photosynthesis.
grouped together to make a granum
(plural – grana). 1. Acts as a source of energy.
4. Granum contains chlorophyll- which 2. It provides oxygen in the air.
absorb light energy which is necessary 3. It prevents the accumulation of carbon
for photosynthesis. (IV) oxide in the atmosphere.
5. Stroma contains enzymes that speeds Stages of photosynthesis.
up the process of photosynthesis. A. Light stage/ light dependent stage.

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B. Dark stage/ light independent stage/ because starch is osmotically inactive

Carbon (IV) oxide fixation. (compared to glucose) hence the plant
A. Light stage (light dependent stage). cells do not lose water through
 This is the initial stage in the process osmosis.
of photosynthesis.  If the leaf is kept in darkness for 48
 It occurs in the grana of the hours, starch is converted into
chloroplasts. glucose. This is called destarching.
 The chlorophyll molecule
absorbs/traps light energy which is
used to split water molecules into
oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
 This process is called photolysis of
water.
 The hydrogen atoms that are  Oxygen is released to the atmosphere
produced enter the dark stage. or used by the plant for respiration.
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is
formed by energy light which is later
used in the dark stage.
 This reaction involves conversion of
light energy to chemical energy.
Importance of light stage.
 It provides hydrogen atoms and ATP
 Oxygen is released to the atmosphere molecules useful during carbon (IV)
or used by the plant for respiration. oxide fixation.
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is Fate of end products of light stage. (what
formed by energy light which is later happens to the end products of light stage?
used in the dark stage. i) Hydrogen atoms enter the dark stage.
 This reaction involves conversion of ii) Oxygen atoms are released to the
light energy to chemical energy. atmosphere as a gas or used for
Importance of light stage. respiration.
 It provides hydrogen atoms and ATP B. The Dark Stage/carbon (IV) oxide fixation/
molecules useful during carbon (IV) (Light Independent Stage).
oxide fixation.  It occurs in the stroma in the presence
Fate of end products of light stage. (What or absence of light.
happens to the end products of light stage?  It involves the combination of carbon
i) Hydrogen atoms enter the dark stage. (IV) oxide with hydrogen atoms to form
ii) Oxygen atoms are released to the simple sugar /glucose, fatty acids and
atmosphere as a gas or used for amino acids.
respiration.  The energy required for this reaction is
B. The Dark Stage/carbon (IV) oxide provided by ATP from light stage
fixation/ (Light Independent Stage). reaction.
 It occurs in the stroma in the  Glucose formed is converted into starch
presence or absence of light. for storage. This is important because
 It involves the combination of carbon starch is osmotically inactive (compared
(IV) oxide with hydrogen atoms to to glucose) hence the plant cells do not
form simple sugar /glucose, fatty acids lose water through osmosis.
and amino acids.  If the leaf is kept in darkness for 48
 The energy required for this reaction is hours, starch is converted into glucose.
provided by ATP from light stage This is called destarching.
reaction.
 Glucose formed is converted into
starch for storage. This is important

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carbon (IV) oxide for maximum

photosynthesis.
5. The following diagram of a leaf shows

What happens to end products of what happens in a plant leaf during
photosynthesis?/the Fate of end products of photosynthesis.
photosynthesis.
 Some glucose is used in respiration.
 Some glucose is converted into starch
for storage.
 Some glucose is converted into sucrose
which is translocated to other parts of
the plant.
 Some glucose is used in making
cellulose for the cell wall.
 Fatty acids and glycerol are combined
to form oils and fats (lipids).
 Amino acids are converted to proteins. Name the gases labelled X and Y.
 Oxygen is used by plants in respiration. a)
 Excess oxygen is released into the  X – Carbon (IV) Oxide.  Y – Oxygen.
atmosphere. b) Give two ways in which leaves are
Study questions. adapted to absorb light.
1. State four requirements and sources for  Broad and flat to absorb maximum light.
the process of photosynthesis to occur.  Have chloroplast with
 Water- soil.
 Carbon (IV) oxide- atmosphere. chlorophyll to trap light. 
 Chlorophyll- available on the Transparent cuticle to allow light
chloroplasts. to pass through.
 Light- sunlight c) Name the tissue that transports water
2. Give the role of each of the following into the leaf and sugars out of the leaf.
structures in the leaf during  Xylem – Transports water.  Phloem –
photosynthesis. Sugars out of the leaf.
a) Xylem vessels- transports water from d) Explain why it’s an advantage for the
the soil to the leaves where plant to store carbohydrates as starch
photosynthesis takes place. rather than as sugars.
b) Chlorophyll- traps light energy (used for  Starch is insoluble in water, hence
photolysis). osmotically inactive. This reduces
c) Guard cells- control opening and closing effect on absorption of water by cells.
of stomata which allow in carbon (IV) 6. A group of students placed a fresh leaf
oxide for use during photosynthesis. 3. in warm water. They observed that air
Explain why plants will not bubbles formed on the surface of the
photosynthesise in the dark. leaf.
 Photosynthesis is the process by which a) What biological process were they
green plants manufacture food in the
presence of light hence it does not take investigating? - Photosynthesis.
place in the absence of light. b) Name the structures from which the
4. Explain why most leaves are thin with air bubbles were coming from.
broad surface. - Stomata.
 They are thin and broad to provide a large c) Explain the distribution of the
surface area for absorption of light and structures named in (b) above on the
leaf surfaces.

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- They are more on the lower surface and  Red and blue wavelengths/ quality of light
fewer on the upper increases the rate of photosynthesis.
surface of terrestrial plants to reduce the Note.
rate of transpiration.  Plants growing in the shade receive low
7. Explain the formation of starch in quantities and poor qualities of light which
green plants. slows the process of photosynthesis.
 Green plants manufacture food
through the process of photosynthesis;
the leaves contain chloroplasts which
contain chlorophyll where
photosynthesis take place;
 Light stage occurs in the granum;
where chlorophyll traps light energy;
which splits water into hydrogen ions
and oxygen atoms/ photolysis; and
ATP/ energy used in dark stage;
 Dark stage occurs in the stroma;
where carbon (IV) oxide from the
atmosphere; combines with hydrogen
atoms to form simple sugars/ glucose
molecules; which are converted into
starch for storage; 2. CARBON (IV) OXIDE CONCENTRATION.
8. Other than photosynthesis, explain - An increase in the amount/ concentration of
how carnivorous/ insectivorous plants carbon (IV) oxide leads to an increase in the
obtain nutrients. rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level
 They grow in nitrogen deficient soil when it slows down and remains steady.
and obtain nitrogen from insects.
 Insects are attracted by colour/ scent/
sugary baits and are trapped by plant
(nastic responses) and digested by
proteases secreted by insects.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF

PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
1. Light intensity and quality.
2. Carbon (IV) oxide concentration.
3. Temperature. 3. TEMPERATURE.
4. Water.  Photosynthesis reactions are
5. Chlorophyll concentration. catalyzed/controlled by enzymes.  At
optimum temperature, photosynthesis
1. LIGHT INTENSITY AND QUALITY proceeds faster.
 Light provides the energy required for the  At temperature below the optimum, the
process of photosynthesis. rate of photosynthesis decreases because
 The rate of photosynthesis increases as enzymes are inactivated/less activated.
light intensity increases up to a certain  At temperature above optimum, the rate of
level when it slows down and finally photosynthesis decreases because the
remains steady. enzymes are destroyed/inactivated.
 At very high light intensities, chlorophyll is
damaged and the rate of photosynthesis
falls.

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4. AVAILABILITY OF WATER.
 Water is a raw material for
photosynthesis.
 Lack of water may slow down/ reduce the
rate of photosynthesis e.g. plants whose PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.
leaves are withering due to lack of water Aim: To investigate the gas produced during
may photosynthesize at a lower rate. photosynthesis.
Requirements:
 Water also affects photosynthesis
indirectly by interfering with 1. Water plant, e.g. Elodea spp., Spirogyra or
opening and closing of stomata. Nymphea (water lily)
5. CHLOROPHYLL CONCENTRATION. 2. Glass funnel.
3. Beaker.
 Chlorophyll is the pigment that traps light
4. Small wooden blocks.
energy during photosynthesis.
5. Test tube.
 The higher the chlorophyll concentration
the higher the rate of photosynthesis and 6. Wooden splint.
vice versa. 7. Sodium hydrogen carbonate.
 A variegated leaf is one that has some Procedure
patches that lack chlorophyll. These 1. Set-up the experiment as shown below.
patches have other colours e.g. yellow. 2. Place the set-up in the sunlight to allow
 These parts lack chlorophyll hence do not photosynthesis to take place.
photosynthesize and therefore gives 3. Leave the set-up in the sun until sufficient
negative results with starch test. gas has collected in the test-tube.
 The variegated leaf has less starch than a 4. Test the gas collected with a glowing splint.
normal leaf because it
has less chlorophyll hence manufactures
less food.
Study question
 Variegated plants accumulate less food
than non-variegated plants under similar
conditions. explain
 Variegated leaves have less chlorophyll
compared to non-
variegated leaves. They absorb less light
hence facilitate less photosynthesis.
Questions.
1. What gas is produced during
photosynthesis?
 Oxygen.

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2. Why was sodium hydrogen carbonate used

during the experiment?
 To increase the amount of carbon (IV)
oxide in water and accelerates the rate
of photosynthesis
3. Explain why only submerged water plants
are used instead of terrestrial plants in the
experiment.
 Submerged plants are adapted to
aquatic conditions hence can carry out
photosynthesis in water.
4. Name other factors that can be tested
using the set up above.
 Temperature.
 Light intensity.
 Carbon (IV) oxide concentration.
Aim: To test / investigate the presence of
starch in a leaf.
Requirements:
1. Water.
2. Dropper.
3. Beaker.
4. Source of heat.
5. Boiling tube.
6. A normal and variegated leaf.
7. Petri dish.
8. White tile.
9. Iodine solution.
10. Methylated spirit.
Questions.
Procedure:
1. Why is it important to use the leaf that
1. Obtain a leaf that has been exposed to light
has been exposed to light for a few hours?
for at least 5 hours.
 To ensure that photosynthesis occurs
2. Boil water in a beaker.
and starch is
3. Dip the leaf in the boiling water for 3 to 4
formed.
minutes.
2. Why is a fresh leaf dipped in boiling
4. Put the leaf in a boiling tube containing
water?
methylated spirit and stand the tube in the
beaker containing boiling water (water  To kill the protoplasm of the cell/kill
bath) for about 10 minutes to decolorize the leaf cells/breakdown starch
the leaf. Avoid direct heating because granules/ stop enzymatic activity.
spirit is highly flammable. 3. Give a reason why the leaf was dipped in
5. Remove the leaf from the test-tube and ethanol/ methylated spirit.
wash it in warm water in the beaker to  To remove chlorophyll/ dissolve
soften it. chlorophyll /decolorize the leaf.
6. Spread the leaf in a Petri-dish and add 4. Why was the leaf decolourised?
drops of dilute iodine solution.  To make the color change in iodine to
7. Observe and record the colour changes. be seen clearly.
Observation. 5. Why is methylated spirit boiled indirectly?
 The colour changes to blue-black  It is highly flammable.
indicating the presence of starch.

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6. Why was the leaf dipped in water?  To  To allow the plant to photosynthesize and
soften it. hence manufacture starch.
7. Explain why a leaf cannot be tested for 3. What was the role of the lightproof
starch by adding iodine solution directly. paper?
 The leaf must be dipped in water to  To reflect light so that none is absorbed by
kill it then boiled in methylated spirit the leaves.
to decolorise it to make color change PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 5.
in iodine to be seen clearly. Aim: To investigate whether carbon (IV) oxide
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 3. is necessary for photosynthesis.
Aim: To investigate whether light is necessary Requirements:
for photosynthesis. 1. Conical flasks/polythene bags.
Requirements: 2. Potted plant.
1. Methylated spirit. 3. Sodium hydroxide pellets.
2. Iodine solution. 4. Cork or plasticine or clay.
3. Water.
5. Cork borers.
4. White tile.
6. Scalpel.
5. Droppers.
7. Petroleum jelly.
6. Beaker.
8. Iodine solution.
7. Source of heat.
8. Boiling tube.
10. Water.
9. Light proof material (e.g. Aluminium foil).
11. Beakers.
10. Potted plant. 12. Droppers.
11. Clips.
13. White tiles.
Procedure.
14. Boiling tubes.
1. Cover one leaf of a potted plant with a 15. Source of heat.
light-proof material as shown below. 16. Wooden support.
2. Place the plant in a dark place for 48 hours Procedure
to destarch it/ ensure that all starch has
1. Keep the potted plant in a dark place for
been used up.
48 hours.
3. Transfer the potted plant to light for 2-3
2. Place a few pellets of sodium hydroxide in
hours.
the flask.
4. Detach and uncover the leaves and
3. Bore a hole in the cork of the same size as
immediately carry out the test for starch.
the petiole of the leaf being used.
4. Using the scalpel, cut the cork lengthwise.
5. Remove the plant from the dark and
immediately fit the petiole of a leaf A in
the groove and cork the flask as shown
below.
6. Seal the mouth of the conical flask with
petroleum jelly to make it airtight.
7. Keep the set up in the light for two to
three hours.
8. Detach and test for the presence of starch
in both leaves A and B.
Questions
1. Why was the plant kept in the dark for
48 hours?
 To destarch it / to ensure that all starch in
it is used up.
2. Why was it necessary to transfer the
plant to light?

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6. Boiling tubes.
7. Beaker.
8. Dropper.
9. Source of heat
Procedure
1. Detach a variegated leaf from the plant
that has been exposed to light for at least 3
hours.
2. Draw a large labeled diagram of the leaf to
show the distribution of the chlorophyll
pigment in the leaf as shown.
Questions 3. Test for the presence of starch. Observation
1. What is the function of the sodium and explanation.
hydroxide pellets? To absorb carbon
(IV) oxide.
2. Why was the leaf outside the flask also
tested for starch?  It was the control
experiment.
3. Giving a reason explain the expected
result after testing for starch on the
part labeled C.
 Starch absent. This is because of the
absence of light and carbon (IV) oxide.
4. Explain the result obtained after  The green parts/ patches give blue-black
testing for the presence of starch in color with iodine. This is because they
leaves A and B. contain chlorophyll hence carry out
 Starch was present in leaf B. This is photosynthesis forming starch.
because it was exposed to sunlight  The white parts/ patches retained brown
hence carried out photosynthesis color with iodine. This is because they lack
forming starch. chlorophyll hence did not carry out
 Starch was absent in leaf A. This is photosynthesis forming starch.
because sodium hydroxide pellets  Starch was found on green patches but not
absorbed carbon (IV) oxide which is a on white patches.
raw material for photosynthesis. CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS WHICH CONSTITUTE
5. What is the expected result for starch LIVING
in leaf A if sodium hydrogen ORGANISMS/ CHEMICALS OF LIFE
carbonate is used instead of sodium  These are compounds found in cells, tissues
hydroxide? and organs.
 Starch was present in leaf A. This is  The study chemical compounds found in
because sodium hydrogen carbonate living organisms and reactions in which
breaks down to give carbon (IV) oxide they take place is called biochemistry.
which is a raw material for
 Some of the chemical compounds are
photosynthesis.
organic e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
nucleic acids and vitamins.
Aim: To investigate whether chlorophyll is
 Other chemical compounds are inorganic
necessary for photosynthesis. Requirements.
compounds e.g. mineral salts, water, acids
1. Variegated leaves.
and bases.
2. Iodine solution.
1. CARBOHYDRATES.
 They are compounds that contain carbon,
4. White tile.
hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1
5. Water. carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen.

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 The basic formula is (CH2O) n.

condensation releasing water.  Examples
 The constituents of carbohydrates are
include:
joined by a bond called
i. Maltose
glycosidic bond.
ii. Sucrose.
Uses/ functions of carbohydrates. iii. Lactose.
1. They are sources of energy/ are broken Condensation
down to give energy. Glucose is the main
Monosaccharide + monosaccharide
source of energy.
Disaccharide + water
2. They are storage forms of food e.g. plants
store food in form of starch while animals
Condensation
store food in form of glycogen.
3. They are components of structures that C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
provide mechanical support in organisms C12H22O12 +H2O
e.g. cellulose in cell walls, chitin in
exoskeleton and lignin in xylem vessels and i) Maltose- It is found in germinating
tracheids. seed and formed by combining two
4. Classes of carbohydrates. - They glucose molecules. Maltose is a
include: reducing sugar.
A. Monosaccharides.
B. Disaccharides. Condensation
C. Polysaccharides. Glucose + Glucose Maltose + Water
ii) Sucrose- it is found in sugarcane juice

A. MONOSACCHARIDES formed by combining glucose and
fructose. Sucrose is nonreducing
 They are simple sugars whose general
sugar.
formula is (CH2O)n where n=6.
Condensation
 Therefore the chemical formula of a
Glucose + Fructose Sucrose + Water
monosaccharide is C6H12O6.
 Examples include:
iii) Lactose- It is found in milk and
i. Glucose. ii. Fructose in
formed by combining galactose and
ripe fruits and honey.
glucose. Lactose is a reducing sugar.
iii. Galactose in milk.
Functions /uses of monosaccharides. Condensation
i. Used in respiration to provide energy. Glucose + Galactose Lactose +
ii. When condensed they are storage Water Characteristics/ properties of
forms of food e.g. plants store food in disaccharides.
form of starch while animals store i. They are soluble in water.
food in form of glycogen.
ii. They have a sweet taste/ form sweet
Properties of monosaccharides.
tasting solutions.
i) They easily dissolve in water.
iii. Some disaccharides are reducing
ii) They are reducing sugars (when sugars e.g. maltose and lactose while
mixed with sucrose is non-reducing sugar.
Benedict’s solution they reduce
iv. They can easily be broken down into
copper (II) ions in the solution into
monosaccharides through hydrolysis.
copper (I) ions which are brown in
color).
Hydrolysis of disaccharides.
iii. They have a sweet taste.
 It involves disaccharides into
iv. They form crystals/ they are monosaccharides/ simple sugars in the
crystallisable. B. DISACCHARIDES. presence of water.
 They are formed by combining two  Hydrolysis is brought about by:
monosaccharides in the process called i) Enzymes (in nature/ naturally)

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ii) Heating with the acid e.g. Hydrochloric 1. Into a clean test tube, add 2ml of food
acid (in the laboratory) substance.
Hydrolysis 2. Add 3 drops of iodine solution to the
Disaccharide + water food substance and shake.
Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide. Observation.
Examples  The colour turns/ changes (from brown)
i. Maltose+ Water Glucose to blueblack/ dark blue/ black.
+ Glucose. ii. Lactose + Water Conclusion.
Glucose + Galactose.  Starch present.
iii. Sucrose + Water Glucose Note: If brown colour (of iodine) persists / is
+Fructose. C. POLYSACCHARIDES. retained then starch is absent
 They are made up of many monosaccharides. PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 2.
 Examples include: Aim: To test for the presence of reducing
a) Starch- stored in plant tissues. Plants with sugar.
a lot of starch include maize, wheat,  Reducing sugars include glucose,
potato and rice. fructose, galactose, maltose and
b) Glycogen- stored in animal tissues. It is lactose.
synthesized from excess glucose. Requirements:
c) Cellulose- found at cell walls of plant cells 1. Food substance in solution form.
giving them definite shape. 2. Benedict’s solution (reagent).
d) Chitin- it is found on exoskeleton of 3. Test tube.
arthropods and cell wall of fungal hyphae. 4. Means of heating/ hot water bath.
e) Lignin- it is found in xylem vessels and 5. Test tube holder.
tracheids and provide mechanical support. 6. 10 ml measuring cylinder.
Characteristics / properties of polysaccharides. 7. Dropper.
i. Are insoluble in Procedure:
water. ii. They do not 1. Put 2 ml/cm3 of reducing sugar in a
have a sweet taste. iii. test tube.
They are non- 2. Add equal amount of Benedict’s
reducing sugars. solution.
iv. They are hydrolyzed into monosaccharides 3. Heat to boil.
(by heating with acids or by enzymes) Observations
Study question  The colour changes from blue to green
1. Name the carbohydrate: to yellow and finally orange/ brown.
a) Present in abundance in Conclusion.
germinating seed- Maltose.  Reducing sugar present. N/B.
b) Stored in plant cells- Starch.  If the colour changes to:
c) Found on plant cell walls- i. Green with no further change-
Cellulose. very little amount of reducing sugar is
d) Found in animal tissues/muscles- present.
Glycogen. ii. Yellow –average amount of reducing
e) Found in blood- Glucose. sugar present.
PRACTICAL 1. iii. Orange/ brown- high amount of
Aim: Testing for starch. reducing sugar present.
Requirements:  If the blue color (of Benedict’s
1. Food substance in solution form. solution) is retained, then reducing sugar
2. Test tubes. is absent.
3. 10 ml measuring cylinder 4. Dropper  Reducing sugar changes copper sulphate
5. Iodine solution (Reagent) in Benedict’s solution to copper oxide
Procedure. (which is orange).

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Aim: Testing for the presence of non- - A protein consists of several amino acids
reducing sugar (e.g. sucrose). joined together by a bond called peptide
Requirements: bond.
1. Food substance. - Two amino acids combine to form
2. Benedict’s solution. dipeptide molecule in the process of
3. Dilute hydrochloric acid. condensation.
4. Sodium hydrogen carbonate. - When 2 amino acids combine they form a
5. Means of heating/ bunsen dipeptide joined by a peptide bond.
burner. - A molecule consisting of few amino acids
6. Dropper. are called peptides.
7. 10 ml measuring cylinder. - When peptides combine they form a
Procedure. polypeptide which makes up a protein.
1. Put 2ml of the food substance into a - Therefore a protein is made up of one
clean test tube. polypeptide or many polypeptides.
2. Add 4 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid - Joining of amino acids to form peptides is
and shake. called condensation.
3. Boil the mixture. - Break down of peptides to form amino
4. Cool the mixture in cold water. acids is called hydrolysis.
5. Add sodium hydrogen carbonate drop - There are 20 naturally occurring amino
wise until fizzing stops. acids which can be synthesized by plants.
6. Add equal amount of Benedict’s - Human beings can only synthesize 11
solution to the mixture. amino acids in their bodies while 9 are
7. Heat the mixture to boil/ boil the supplied from diet.
mixture. - The amino acids that can be synthesized
Observations in the human bodies are called non-
essential amino acids.
8. The colour changes from blue to green
to yellow and finally orange/ brown. - Those amino acids that cannot be
Conclusion. synthesized but are supplied from diet are
called essential amino acids.
9. Non- reducing sugar present. Points
to note. - Proteins that contain all the essential
amino acids are called 1st class proteins
- Dilute hydrochloric acid is used/ added to
e.g. animal proteins.
hydrolyze nonreducing sugar to reducing
sugar. - Proteins that lack one or more of the
essential amino acids are called 2nd class
- Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used/
proteins e.g. plant proteins.
added to neutralize the acid.
2. PROTEINS.
 They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen (hence they are called
nitrogenous compounds).
 Proteins may also contain other
compounds e.g. phosphorus, sulphur and
iron.
 They are made up of amino acids as
building blocks i.e. amino acids form
proteins.
Structure of amino acid.
 It consists of Properties of proteins.
i. Amino group (NH3) - consisting of 1. They dissolve in water forming colloidal
hydrogen and nitrogen. suspensions.
ii. Carboxyl group (COOH) - consisting of 2. They are denatured by high
carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. temperatures above 40 degrees Celsius

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and extreme pH values. Denaturing Note: Sodium hydroxide is used to break the
changes the structure of protein molecules peptide bond.
hence changing physical and chemical If blue color is retained/ persists then protein
properties of protein. is absent.
3. Have acidic and basic properties hence 3. LIPIDS (fats and oils).
described as amphoteric.  Fats are found in animals while oils are
 They therefore react with acids and bases found in plants.
enabling them to form conjugated proteins  Fats are solid at room temperature
(i.e. proteins containing non-protein while oils are liquid at room
components). temperature.
 Examples of conjugated proteins include:  They are like carbohydrates only that
i) Mucus which contains a carbohydrate. they have fewer number of oxygen
ii) Haemoglobin which contains iron. molecules than carbohydrates.
Functions of proteins.  The building blocks of lipids are fatty
1. They are components of structures in acids and glycerol joined by ester
living organisms (e.g. plasma/ cell bond in the process called
membranes, connective tissue, hair, condensation.
hooves, nails, muscle fibre, skeletal  The lipids can be broken down to form
materials). glycerol and fatty acids through
2. They are used for making, repair and hydrolysis.
replacement of worn out tissues in plants  Fatty acids are of different types
and animals. because they contain different fatty
3. They act as metabolic regulators (e.g. acids e.g. Oils are different in different
enzymes which speed up metabolic plants because they have different
reactions, hormones which regulate body fatty acids.
processes like growth, reproduction,
antibodies that provide immunity
against diseases.
4. They are broken down to give energy
during starvation. PRACTICAL ACTIVITY.
Aim: To test for proteins (biuret test). Hydrolysis
Requirements:
1. Food substance in solution form
2. 1% Copper (II) sulphate solution.
3. 10% sodium hydroxide solution
4. Test tube
5. Droppers
6. 10 ml measuring cylinder.
Procedure:
1. Put 2ml of food substance into a test Properties of lipids/ fats and oils.
tube. 1. Fats readily/ easily change into liquid
2. Add equal amount of 10% sodium when heated and oils solidify when
hydroxide and shake. subjected to low temperature.
3. Into the mixture, add 1% copper (II) 2. They are insoluble n water.
sulphate dropwise and shake after 3. They dissolve in organic solvents
every addition. forming emulsions and suspensions.
Observation:
4. They are inert (hence can be stored in
 Colour changes to purple. tissues of organisms).
Conclusion: Functions of lipids/ fats and oils.
 Proteins present. 1. They are broken down/ oxidized to
release/ give energy.

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2. They are storage forms of food in the 2. Add 2 ml of ethanol/alcohol to 2ml of

body of living organisms e.g. excess can the food substance and shake
be converted into fats for storage. thoroughly.
3. They are broken down/ oxidized to 3. Transfer the contents of the test tube
release metabolic water (to supplement into another test tube half filled with
water requirements in the body. water.
4. Lipids are components of plasma Observation:
membrane and protoplasm while oils  Formation of a white emulsion.
are storage structures in some seeds Conclusion:
(e.g. ground nuts, castor seed, maize  Fats or oils present.
grains etc). Note:
5. Fats are deposited under the skin as  Emulsification of fats occurs in the
adipose tissue which insulates the body duodenum to increase the surface
against heat loss/ prevents heat loss. area for digestion by enzymes.
6. Thick adipose tissue in some aquatic 4. ENZYMES.
organisms (e.g.  They are organic biocatalysts i.e. they
whale and hippopotamus) makes them speed up or slow down the rate of
buoyant in water. chemical reactions but they are not
7. Fats are deposited around body organs used up in the process.
(e.g. kidney, heart and back of eyeball)  Enzymes are protein in nature and are
where it acts as shock absorber. produced in living cells.
8. Lipid (wax) found on the cuticles reduce Types of enzymes
excessive water loss in plants. a) Intracellular enzymes- they are
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY. secreted/ produced and used within
Aim: Testing for the lipids the cells that produce them e.g.
(fats and oils). A. The grease respiratory enzymes.
spot test. Requirements: b) Extracellular enzymes- they are
1. Food substance. secreted/ produced by cells but used
outside the cells that produce them
2. Filter paper.
e.g.
3. Bunsen burner.
digestive enzymes.
Procedure:
Naming of enzymes
1. Rub a little amount of food substance
a) Trivial naming- naming of enzymes
on a filter paper.
based on the persons who discovered
2. Hold the paper above the flame to dry them. The names of such enzymes
taking care not to burn it. end with suffix- in, e.g. Pepsin,
3. Hold the paper against light. Rennin, Trypsin, Ptyalin.
Observation: b) Use of suffix- ase- the suffix –ase is
- A permanent translucent spot is formed. added to the type of food/ substrate or
Conclusion: reaction the enzymes catalyze e.g.
- Lipids (fats and oils) present. Food/ substrate Enzyme
N/B If the permanent translucent spot is Carbohydrate Carbohydrase
absent, then lipids are absent. Amylose/ starch Amylase
B. Emulsion test. Sucrose Sucrase
Requirements:
Maltose Maltase
1. Food substance. Protein Protease
2. Ethanol/alcohol.
Lipids Lipase
3. 2 test tubes.
Chemical Enzyme
4. 10ml measuring cylinder.
Procedure: reaction
1. Into a clean test tube, put a little Hydrolysis Hydrolase
amount of food substance. Oxidation Oxidase

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Reduction Reductase
Properties of enzymes.
1. They are affected by changes in
temperature and pH (because they are
protein in nature).
2. They are substrate specific i.e. they
act on specific substrate.
3. They are very efficient hence required
in small quantities.
4. They are not affected by reactions
they catalyze hence they are available
for reuse.
5. Most reactions catalyzed by enzymes
are reversible. Importance of
enzymes.
 They control and regulate biochemical
reactions in the body so that they
proceed at a pace suitable for
sustaining life. 2. pH- This is acidity or alkalinity of an
 This is because the biochemical substance.
reactions in body cells are too fast and  Most enzymes work best at optimum
others too slow. This ensures order in pH of 7 but others work best in acidic
living systems. conditions others in basic conditions.
N/B
 Change of pH from optimum
 The speed of enzyme-catalyzed decreases the rate of enzyme activity.
reaction is called enzymes turnover.
 Extreme changes of pH range from the
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME CONTROLLED
optimum denatures the enzymes
REACTIONS/ ENZYME ACTIVITY.
hence the rate of enzyme activity
1. TEMPERATURE- enzymes work best stops.
within narrow range of temperature
(between 35oC- 40oC).
 Increase in temperature increases the
rate of enzyme activity up to optimum
point. Optimum temperature gives
maximum enzyme activity.
 Above the optimum temperature the
rate of enzyme activity decreases
sharply because higher temperature
denatures / destroys the enzymes
making them non effective.
 When the temperature decrease, the
rate of enzyme activity decreases
because enzymes are inactivated.
 Low temperature does not destroy the
enzymes because when temperature 3. SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION AND
is increased again the enzymes ENZYME
become active. CONCENTRATION- when the substrate
concentration is increased, the rate of
enzymatic reaction also increases up to
a certain/ maximum level.

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 Further increase in concentration of the  The competitive inhibition can be

substrate does not increase the rate of overcome by:
enzymatic reaction. i. Increasing the substrate
 This is because all active sites of an concentration.
enzyme are occupied by the ii. Reducing the amount of inhibitor.
substrate. At this point, the enzyme b) Non-competitive inhibitors- they
concentration becomes a limiting factor. attach themselves onto the enzyme
 An increase in amount or concentration molecules changing the shape of the
of enzyme molecules increases the rate active sites of the enzymes.
of enzyme reaction. This is because of  The substrate molecules are not able
an increase in the number of active to bind onto the active sites of the
sites of enzymes. enzymes.
 They do not compete for the active
sites of the enzymes with the
substrate molecules.
 Examples of non-competitive inhibitors
include cyanide, mercury, silver-
arsenic compounds.
5. ENZYME CO-FACTORS- are non-
protein substances that activate the
enzymes hence increase the rate of
enzyme activity.
 Examples include metallic ions e.g.
magnesium ions, zinc ions, copper,
calcium ions, chloride ions,
molybdenum ions, manganese ions
 They are required in small quantities.
6. ENZYMES CO-ENZYMES- are organic
co-factors that activate enzymes hence
increase the rate of enzyme activity
e.g. vitamins.
4. ENZYME INHIBITORS- they are 7. PRODUCT CONCENTRATION- low
chemical substances that prevent an product concentration increases
enzyme from catalyzing a reaction the rate of enzyme activity while high
hence decrease the rate of enzyme product concentration reduces the rate
activity. of enzyme activity.
 This is because they compete for 8. ENZYME SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY-
active sites of enzymes. enzyme act on specific substrate.
 There are two types of inhibitors
namely: Study question
 Competitive inhibitors.  The figure below shows the rate of
 Non-competitive inhibitors. enzyme action in relation to changes
a) Competitive inhibitors- They have in temperature. Study it and answer
the same shape as that of the the questions that follow.
substrate and compete for the same
active sites of the enzyme. This slows
down the rate of enzyme activity.
 The inhibitor stays attached to the
active sites of the enzyme preventing
the enzyme substrate from binding
onto the active sites, hence slowing
down the rate of reaction.

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 This is a type of nutrition in which

organisms feed on other organisms or feed
on already manufactured food.
 These type of organisms are called
heterotrophs.
Types of heterotrophs.
They include:
i. Herbivores- they feed on plant
materials e.g. cows, goats, sheep,
grasshoppers.
ii. Carnivores- they feed on
Explain giving reasons, the rate of flesh/meat/other animals e.g. lions,
enzyme action : 1. dogs, hyenas, eagles.
i. Between Q and R. iii. Omnivores- they feed on both plants
 The rate of enzyme activity increases with and animals/flesh
increase in
e.g. man and pigs.
temperature, because enzymes are
iv. Saprophytes- they feed on dead
activated.
decaying matter leading to
ii. At S. decomposition e.g. fungi and bacteria.
 At S there is maximum rate of enzyme
v. Parasites- they live on or in other
reaction because it
organisms called hosts and depend on
is the optimum temperature.
them for nutrients.
iii. Between T and U. Types/modes of
 There is drastic drop in the rate of
reaction of enzymes because very high heterotrophism A.
temperature denatures /destroys the Holozoic nutrition.
enzymes. B. Saprophytic nutrition.
2. Other the factor being investigated C. Phagocytosis.
above, state three other factors that D. Parasitic nutrition/parasitism.
affect the rate of enzyme activity. E. Symbiosis.
 pH a) Holozoic nutrition- this is a type of
 Substrate concentration. nutrition where organisms/ animals
 Enzyme concentration.  Enzyme co- ingest/take in, digest and assimilate
complex food materials. It is common
factors.  Enzyme co-enzymes  Enzyme in mammals and birds.
inhibitors. b) Saprophytism- this is a type of
 Product concentration. nutrition where organisms obtain
 Enzyme specificity nutrients from dead decaying matter
3. State the collective name of the enzymes causing decomposition.
that work on:  They release enzymes that break down
a) Carbohydrates- carbohydrases. decaying matter into simpler soluble
b) Proteins- proteases substances that are absorbed directly
c) Lipids- lipases into the body. It is common in bacteria
and fungi.
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS. c) Parasitism- this is a mode of nutrition
 Nutrition in animals is called where one organism (parasite) feeds
heterotrophism. on or obtains nutrients from the
Heterotrophism/ heterotrophic mode of tissues of another living organism (the
nutrition. host) e.g. ticks and roundworms.
d) Symbiosis- this is an association
where two organisms live together
and mutually benefit from each other

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e.g. Rhizobium bacteria and

leguminous plant.
e) Phagocytosis- This is a type of
nutrition where single celled
organisms e.g. amoeba and some
white blood cells feed on solid food
materials.
- They engulf food material by forming
pseudopodia and enclose it in food
vacuole.
- The enclosed food in digested by enzymes Adaptations of incisor.
into soluble substances that are absorbed i. The crown in chisel-shaped/ flat and
into the cytoplasm. sharp for holding, biting and cutting
Animal dentition and dental formula. food.
 Dentition refers to the description of the ii. Have one root to support them in
types, arrangement and specialization of the jaw. B. CANINES
teeth in animals.  They are located next to the incisors.
 Dentition is related to the type of food
the animal feeds on.
Types of dentition.
i. Homodont dentition-in this type, all
teeth have similar shape and size e.g.
in fish, frogs, crocodiles.
ii. Heterodont dentition-in this type,
teeth have different shape and size Root
e.g. in mammals.
 Dental formula describes the number,
type and position of teeth in the jaw of the
animal.
 The number usually given is for half of
each jaw.
 To get the total number of teeth in an
animal, the total number Adaptations of canine.
in the formula is multiplied by 2. 1. It has curved and pointed crown for
Types of teeth. holding/ seizing prey and tearing flesh.
 There are four types of teeth namely: A. 2. Have one pointed root for firm support
Incisors. in the jaw.
B. Canines. C. PREMOLARS.
C. Premolars. - They are located after the canines towards
D. Molars. the back of the jaw.
A. INCISORS.
 Incisors are located at the front of the jaw.

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Adaptations of premolar. against which grass/ vegetation is pressed

i) The crown is broad, ridged with and cut by lower incisors.
cusps to increase the surface area 2. They have diastema (a gap in the
for crushing and grinding food. lower jaw between canines and
ii) It has 2 roots for firm support in the premolars) which provides a space for
jaw. the tongue to manipulate grass/
D. MOLARS vegetation/ plant materials (so as to
 They are located at the back separate the newly cut vegetation from
of the jaw Adaptations of premolar. that which is being chewed at the back of
the mouth).
1. The crown is broad, ridged with
cusps to increase the surface area 3. It lacks canines to facilitate sideways
for crushing and grinding food. movement.
2. It has 3 roots for firm support in the 4. The lower incisors have chisel shaped
jaw. crown with sharp edge for cutting
vegetation.
5. The crown of premolars and molars has
broad surface with cusps and ridges to
increase surface area for grinding of food/
vegetation.
6. The teeth grow continuously throughout
the life of the animal to replace worn out
enamel worn out due to continuous
grinding.
7. The jaws move side to side to enable
premolars and molars to grind vegetation.
HERBIVORE DENTITION
 Herbivores are animals which feed on
vegetation e.g. cow, goat, sheep, donkey,
zebra e.t.c.
 The mode of nutrition is called Study question.
herbivorous.
0 0 3 3
 The diagram below represents the lower
3 1 2 3
jaw of a mammal
dental formula is i c pm m = 30
 The a) Name the mode of nutrition of the
mammal whose jaw is shown. (1mk)
Adaptations of herbivore dentition.  Herbivorous.
1. They lack upper incisors and canines
instead they have a rough horny pad

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b) Give a reason for your answer in a) 2. The canines are small and pointed for
tearing of food.
above. (1mk)  It has diastema.
3. Premolars and molars have cusps on the
c) Name and give the function of the
upper surface of the crown to increase the
toothless gap labeled K. (2mks)
surface area for grinding and crushing of
 Diastema- to provide room for
food.
manipulation of food to
 There are two sets of teeth in humans:
separate ground and unground food.
i. Milk teeth- they are first set of teeth
d) State one structural and one functional
and are 20 in number. They are lost
difference between the teeth labelled J
between the age of 6-12 years.
and L. (2mks)
ii. Permanent teeth- they replace the
Structural
milk teeth are 28 in number. iii.
- Tooth J is narrow / sharp / chisel like while
Wisdom teeth- they are back
tooth L is broad / ridged.
molars that appear last at the age of
- J has one root while L has 3roots. 17-25 years. They are 4 in number
Functional CARNIVORE DENTITION
- Tooth J is used for cutting food while tooth L  Carnivores are animals which feed on
is used for crushing food; flesh e.g. lion, dog, cheetah, cat e.t.c.
e) Name the substance that is responsible  The mode of nutrition is called
for hardening of teeth. (1mk) carnivorous
cis pm m = 42.
- Calcium phosphate/ calcium carbonate. 3 1 4 2
3 1 4 3
 The dental formula
OMNIVORE DENTITION
i
 Omnivores are animals which feed on both
vegetation and flesh
e.g. man.
 The mode of nutrition is called
omnivorous.
cis pm m = 32
2 1 2 3
2 1 2 3
 The dental formula
i
Adaptations of carnivore dentition.

1. The incisors are chisel-shaped, small and
closely fitted to seize/ hold the prey and
stripping flesh from the bone.
2. The canines are long, curved and sharply
pointed to hold, kill and tear the prey.
3. The crown of premolars and molars has
broad surface with cusps and ridges to
increase surface area for grinding flesh.
4. The carnassial teeth (modified last
premolar in the upper jaw and first molar
in the lower jaw) have smooth sides and
sharp edges to slice through flesh and
crush bones.
5. The jaws are attached to powerful
muscles to crash the bones.
STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH
Adaptations of omnivore dentition. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE.
1. The incisors are flat and chisel shaped for  It consists of:
cutting and biting food.

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1. The crown- the part that projects above i. It has blood vessels/capillaries to
the gum. It is covered by a hard and white supply nutrients and oxygen to the
non-living layer called enamel. cells of the tooth and remove waste
 The enamel is hardened by calcium products (nitrogenous wastes and
phosphate and calcium carbonate. carbon (IV) oxide).
Role/ functions of enamel. ii. Has sensory nerves/ nerve cells that
a) It protects internal structures from detect heat, cold and pain.
mechanical/ physical injury. 4. Cement- It holds the tooth firmly into the
b) It provides a hard surface for biting and jaw bone.
grinding of food. 5. Periodontal membrane- It is found
2. The neck- it is a parts between the crown between the cement and jaw bone.
and root. It is covered by gum. Functions/ role of periodontal membrane.
3. The root- it is part of the tooth that is i. Contains living cells that secrete the
firmly fixed into the jaw by cement. cement.
ii. They act as shock absorbers i.e. allow
some slight movement during chewing
to avoid breakage.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE.
1. Enamel- is hardened by calcium phosphate
and calcium carbonate.
Role/ functions of enamel.
i. It protects internal structures from
mechanical/ physical injury.
ii. It provides a hard surface for biting and
grinding of food.
2. Dentine- it is located below the enamel
and extends to the root.
Functions/ role of dentine. DENTAL DISEASES
i. It is made up of living cells that give rise to  Dental diseases include:
the enamel. A. Dental carriers/ tooth decay.
3. Pulp cavity- it is located within the B. Periodontal disease.
dentine. Functions/ role of pulp cavity. A. Dental carriers.

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 It is caused by plaque (mixture of

sugars, starch and microorganisms)
which accumulates between the tooth.
 The micro-organisms breakdown sugars
in the plaque to form/ produce acids.
 The acids react with the enamel and
dentine causing them to dissolve forming
a hollow cavity.
 When the decaying process continues to
the pulp cavity, it affects the nerves
leading to pain/tooth ache.
 In serious cases, the pulp cavity may be
destroyed and the
infection spread to the gums.
Prevention of dental carriers.
1. Avoiding too much sweet and sugary
food. PERIODONTAL DISEASE
2. Taking a diet rich in calcium and B.
vitamin D.  It affects the gum, caused by bacterial
3. Eating hard foods. infection.
4. Cleaning the teeth regularly.  The disease makes the gums to become
5. Filling of cavities to prevent further soft and flabby, so
decay. that they do not support the teeth.
6. If the cavities affect the pulp cavity, Types of periodontal disease.
root canal procedure can be 1. Gingivitis- characterized by reddening
performed by a dentist. of gums, bleeding of gums and
7. Extraction of the tooth by the dentist presence of pus in the gums.
in serious cases. 2. Pyorrhoea- is a condition where the
teeth become loose due to infection and
the teeth are finally lost.
Control of periodontal diseases.
1. Eating balanced diet and rich in vitamin
A and C.
2. Brushing the teeth regularly (to
encourage blood circulation)
3. Dental hygiene
Healthy practices that minimize dental
diseases.
1. Regular brushing/ cleaning of teeth
after every meal.
2. Avoid too much sugary foods.
3. Eating hard foods e.g. raw carrots,
cassava, yams and sugarcane. This
helps to exercise the teeth and remove
soft materials from gums and teeth.
4. Taking a diet rich in calcium, phosphate,
and vitamins A, C and D.
5. Teeth should be used for proper
purpose. They should not be used to
open beverage bottles or crack hard
nuts.

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6. Regular dental checkup. DIGESTIVE  When digestion occurs inside the cells
SYSTEM IN MAN. it is called intracellular digestion
 It is used for digestion and absorption e.g. in amoeba and white blood cells.
and consists of: A. Alimentary canal/ gut/  When digestion occurs outside the
digestive tract. cells where enzymes are secreted
B. Associated organs onto food is called extracellular
 The alimentary canal/ gut/ digestive tract digestion e.g. in man.
consists of: A. DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH.
i. Mouth. ii.  The ingested food is chewed by teeth
into simpler particles. Chewing and
Oesophagus/gullet. iii.
grinding of food is called
Stomach. iv. Small mastication.
intestines (duodenum and ileum).  Chewing increases the surface area for
v. Large intestines/colon. action of enzymes on food. The tongue
vi. Rectum. rolls and mixes food with saliva.
vii. Along its length there are associated  There are three pairs of salivary
organs e.g. liver, gall bladder, pancreas, glands, namely:
digestive glands. 1. Sub-mandibular glands- located
near the back of the lower jaw which
produce enzyme Amylase.
2. Sublingual glands – located below
the tongue which produce mucus.
3. 2 parotid glands- located on each
side of the mouth and below the ear/
on the cheeks which produce enzyme
Amylase.
 Saliva contains the following:
1. Mucus/mucin- which lubricates food.
2. Water- which softens food, acts as a
solvent/ dissolves food and moistens
food/mouth.
3. Enzyme amylase/ptyalin- which
converts starch into maltose/digests
starch.
 Saliva is slightly alkaline to provide
optimum action of salivary amylase.
 Therefore the following are the
functions of saliva:
1. Lubricates food.
DIGESTION 2. Digestion of starch.
 Digestion refers to mechanical/ 3. Moistens food/mouth.
physical and chemical breakdown of 4. Softens food.
complex food material into simpler 5. Provides alkaline medium for action of
forms that can easily be absorbed into enzyme (salivary amylase).
the body. 6. Dissolves food.
 Physical/ mechanical digestion is done • The tongue mixes food with saliva and
by teeth in the mouth and by bile rolls food into boluses pushes them to
salts in the duodenum. the back of the mouth/ pharynx for
 Chemical digestion is done by the swallowing into the stomach.
enzymes. • During swallowing the soft palate is
raised to open the gullet and close nasal

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cavity while the epiglottis closes

preventing food from entering into the
trachea/wind pipe.
• Food moves down the gullet/
oesophagus through the process called
peristalsis.
• Peristalsis refers to involuntary
movement of food in alimentary canal/
gut.
• It is brought about by contraction and
relaxation of circular and longitudinal
(smooth) muscles of the gut/ alimentary
canal.
Adaptation of oesophagus/gullet.
1. It is made up of smooth muscles with
contract and relax to facilitate
peristalsis. B. DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH.
2. Inner lining has goblet cells that secrete  Food from the oesophagus enters the
mucus to lubricate food hence facilitate stomach through the cardiac
smooth movement of food/ boluses. sphincter muscle which closes to
Study question prevent the food from moving up the
 How is the mouth adapted/ suited oesophagus.
to its function?
 Has teeth for chewing / grinding food Role of stomach.
to increase surface area for digestion 1. Churning of food.
by enzymes. 2. Digestion of food/ proteins.
 Has salivary glands which secrete 3. Absorption of alcohol, some water,
saliva which lubricate, soften, moisten, water soluble vitamins (Vitamin B and
dissolve food and provide alkaline C) and water soluble salts.
medium for action of enzymes. • The stomach walls have thick muscles
 Saliva contains salivary amylase/ (circular and longitudinal) which
ptyalin which digest starch into contract and relax to mix food into
maltose. chyme in the process called
 It has muscular tongue to mix food churning.
with saliva and roll food into boluses • Churning helps to mix food with
and pushes them to the back of the digestive enzymes.
mouth (for swallowing). • The presence of food in the stomach/
smell/ taste of food makes the
stomach to secrete gastrin
hormone.
• This hormone stimulates the gastric
glands on the stomach walls to
secrete gastric juice.
 In the stomach food is mixed with
gastric juice which
contains:
1. Pepsin enzyme- It catalyzes/ speeds
up conversion of proteins into
peptides/peptones.
 It is secreted by peptic cells in
inactive form called pepsinogen to

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avoid digesting / auto digestion of the 5. It has pyloric sphincter to retain food
stomach walls/lining (when no food is in the stomach for digestion.
present in the stomach). C. DIGESTIOIN IN THE DUODENUM.
 Pepsinogen is converted into pepsin  Food/chyme enters the duodenum from
by hydrochloric acid present in the the stomach
stomach. through the pyloric sphincter.
Study question.  In the duodenum, food is mixed with bile
How is the stomach adapted to: and pancreatic juice.
i. Churning- The stomach walls have  The presence of food in the duodenum
thick muscles which contract and stimulates the
relax. duodenal walls to secrete:
ii. Protein digestion- The stomach a) Secretin into blood stream which
walls contain gastric glands which stimulates the liver to secrete bile which
secrete gastric juice containing Pepsin is stored in the gall bladder.
and Rennin. b) Cholescystokinin into blood which:
2. Rennin enzyme- It is secreted in i. Stimulates the gall bladder to release the
inactive form called prorennin by bile and
gastric glands in young mammals. ii. Stimulates the pancreas to secrete
 Rennin which is abundant in young pancreatic juice. Note; The pancreas
children converts soluble milk protein secrete hormones and secretes digestive
(caseinogen) into insoluble form enzymes (hence it has endocrine and
(casein)/ curdles milk. digestive roles).
 Curdling of milk provides enough time  Bile contains salts (sodium hydrogen
for digestion. carbonate, sodium
3. Mucus- secreted by goblet cells to glycocholate and sodium taurocholate)
protect the stomach walls against which:
corrosion by hydrochloric acid and i. Neutralize the acidic chyme from the
auto digestion by enzymes. stomach.
4. Dilute hydrochloric acid- It is ii. Provide suitable alkaline medium for
produced by cells of the stomach pancreatic enzymes.
walls. iii. Emulsify fats (break down fats into tiny
i. It provides acidic medium suitable for fat droplets) to increase the surface area
action of pepsin and rennin enzymes. for digestion by lipases. This is called
ii. It kills any bacteria which may be emulsification.
present in food. Note: Emulsification is not chemical but
iii. It converts inactive forms of rennin physical/mechanical because fats are not
and pepsin into active forms. broken down to fatty acids and glycerol.
Adaptation of stomach
1. It has muscular wall which contract
and relax to facilitate churning of food
into chyme.
2. The stomach lining has goblet cells
that secrete mucus to protect them
against auto digestion by enzymes.
3. The inner lining has gastric glands that
secrete gastric juice containing pepsin
and rennin for digestion of proteins,
hydrochloric acid to provide acidic
medium for action of enzymes and kill
bacteria.
4. It has cardiac sphincter to allow food
into the stomach.

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 Pancreatic juice contains: 1. Pour 2 cm3 of cooking oil into the test
1. Pancreatic lipase (enzyme)-which tubes labelled A and B.
converts lipids to fatty acids and 2. Add 2 cm3 of sodium hydrogen
glycerol. carbonate solution into test tube A.
2. Pancreatic amylase (enzyme)--which Rinse the measuring cylinder.
catalyzes the digestion/ conversion of 3. Add 2 cm3 of water into test tube B.
remaining/ undigested starch into 4. Shake the contents in both test tubes.
maltose. 5. Write down your observations.
3. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (salt) – Observation.
which emulsifies fats, neutralizes the  Formation of white emulsion.
acidic chyme and provides alkaline D) DIGESTION IN THE ILEUM.
medium suitable for action of pancreatic
 In the ileum, food is mixed with mucus
and intestinal enzymes.
and intestinal juice/ succus entericus.
4. Trypsin (enzyme)--which digests Functions of the ileum
proteins into peptides/peptones.
i. To complete chemical breakdown of
 Trypsin is secreted in inactive form food.
called trypsinogen to prevent the ii. It provide a site for absorption of
digestion of duodenal walls. digested food into the blood.
 It is converted into trypsin by an enzyme  The inner walls of ileum has goblet cells
called which secrete
enterokinase. mucus which;
i. Protects the wall of the intestines from
(Enterokinase enzyme) being digested by protein digesting
Trypsinogen Trypsin enzymes. ii. Lubricates food/ allows
smooth movement of food along the
intestines.
 The ileum walls also contain secretory/
epithelial cells (Cryts of liberkuhn)
which secrete intestinal juice / succus
Adaptation of duodenum. entericus.
1. It has Brunner’s gland on its walls to  Intestinal juice contains the following
secrete mucus for lubrication of food enzymes:
2. It has crypts of Liberkuhn whose cells a) Maltase- which catalyzes breakdown
secrete digestive enzymes for of maltose into glucose.
digestion of food. b) Sucrase/ invertase- which catalyzes
3. It is connected to the pancreas and breakdown of sucrose into glucose and
the liver to supply pancreatic juice and fructose.
bile respectively bile emulsifies fats/ c) Peptidase- which catalyzes
lipids and neutralizes the acid from breakdown of peptides into amino
the stomach pancreatic juice contains acids.
enzymes for digestion of food.
d) Polypeptidase- Which catalyzes the
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY.
breakdown of polypeptides to amino
Aim: To demonstrate emulsification of acids.
fats. Requirements:
e) Lipase- which catalyzes breakdown of
1. Sodium hydrogen carbonate solution. lipids (fats and oils) into fatty acids
2. Cooking oil. and glycerol
3. Water. f) Lactase- which catalyzes breakdown
4. Test tubes. of lactase into glucose and galactose.
5. Ruler. Note; Digestion of food is completed
6. Measuring cylinder. at ileum forming chyle. Chyle is food
Procedure: ready for absorption.

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ADAPTATIONS OF SMALL INTESTINES/

ILEUM.
1. The small intestines are long to increase
the surface area for absorption of food.
2. They are highly coiled to slow down
movement of food to allow more time for
digestion and absorption of digested food
substances.
3. Inner lining has numerous villi and
micro-villi to increase the surface area for
absorption of food substances.
4. Their walls have glands (crypts of
liberkurn ) that secrete intestinal juice
which contains enzymes for digestion of
food.
5. Inner lining has goblet cells that secrete
mucus to lubricate food and protect their
walls against digestion by enzymes and
lubrication of food.
6. It is narrow/ has narrow lumen to bring
food into contact with intestinal walls/ blood
vessels rapid/ faster absorption of food
substances.
7. The walls have smooth muscles which
contract and relax to facilitate peristalsis.
8. They are highly vascularized/well supplied
with blood capillaries to create a steep/high
concentration gradient hence faster
diffusion of digested food/ for rapid and
efficient of removal of absorbed products. ABSORPTION OF FOOD.
9. They have lacteal vessels for absorption of  Absorption is the process by which
fatty acids and glycerol. soluble products of digestion diffuse into
10. They have thin epithelium to reduce the the cellular lining of the villi into blood.
distance travelled by digested food hence  Glucose, fructose, galactose, Amino
faster absorption. acids, mineral salts/ions, vitamins,
11. They have numerous mitochondria to Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed
provide energy for absorption of food. into the blood stream/capillaries through
ADAPTATION OF THE VILLUS. the epithelium of the villi by diffusion
and active transport.
1. The villus has lacteal for absorption and
transportation of fatty acids and glycerol.  The capillaries drain into the hepatic
2. It has a network of capillaries/highly portal vein into the liver where amino
vascularized to transport absorbed food acids and glucose are regulated before
substances. distributed to all body parts.
3. It has thin epithelium to reduce the  Vitamins, mineral salts and water are
distance travelled by materials hence faster absorbed directly without digestion.
diffusion of digested food substances.  Water is absorbed through osmosis.
4. Has microvilli to increase the surface area  Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into
for absorption of nutrients. lacteals of the villi and combine to form
lipids that pass into the lymphatic
5. Has numerous mitochondria to provide
energy for active transport of nutrients.

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vessels and finally into the blood  It adds bulk to food enabling it to have a
circulatory system. grip/hold to the walls of the gut facilitating
 This distributes the fatty acids and peristalsis allowing smooth movement of
glycerol to all parts of the body. food in the alimentary canal.
 The lacteals form the lymphatic system.  Lack of roughage in diet leads to
ASSIMILATION OF FOOD. constipation characterized by egestion of
 Assimilation is the incorporation of hard faeces.
absorbed food substances into cell  This is because food stays long in the gut
metabolism. and a lot of water
 Glucose is oxidized to release energy is reabsorbed.
during respiration and the excess is EGESTION
stored in the body as fats under the skin  This is the removal of undigested and
or in form of glycogen in the liver or indigestible food
muscles. substances from the body (through the
 Fatty acids and glycerol are oxidized to anus).
release energy, form new cell membranes ROLE OF WATER IN DIET.
and converted into fats and stored under 1. Acts as a solvent in which substances
the skin to insulate the body against heat dissolve.
loss and protect delicate internal organs. 2. It acts as a medium for transportation of
 Amino acids- are used to synthesize substances.
proteins for body growth, repair of worn 3. It acts as a medium in which metabolic
out tissues and also oxidized to provide reactions occur.
energy during starvation (in the absence 4. It facilitates hydrolysis of food substances.
of glucose and fats). 5. It facilitates osmoregulation and bring
 Excess amino acids are excreted in the about cooling effect in the body.
process called STUDY QUESTIONS
deamination. 1. Describe digestion of fats and
FUNCTIONS OF THE COLON. oils/lipids in humans
i. Absorption of water and mineral salts.  In the duodenum, food is mixed with bile
ii. Contain symbiotic bacteria which and pancreatic juice.
manufacture/ synthesize vitamin K, B 1,  Bile salts emulsify fats hence providing a
B2, and B12 and amino acids (which are large surface area for action of lipase
absorbed into the blood stream). enzymes and neutralizes the acidic chyme
Adaptation of colon. and provides alkaline medium for action
1. Its walls consists of smooth muscles which of lipase enzyme.
contract and relax to facilitate peristalsis.  Pancreatic juice contains lipase which
2. Inner lining has goblet cells which secrete converts lipids into fatty acids and
mucus for lubrication. glycerol.
3. Inner membrane is highly folded to  In the ileum, food is mixed with intestinal
increase surface area for absorption of juice secreted by intestinal wall. Intestinal
water, mineral salts and attachment of juice contains lipase which converts/
micro-organisms. breaks down the remaining lipids into
ROLES/ FUNCTIONS OF CAECUM AND fatty acids and glycerol.
APPENDIX. 2. Describe digestion of proteins in
 The caecum and appendix in man have no humans.
functions but in herbivores they contain  In the mouth, food is broken down
numerous symbiotic bacteria which mechanically by the teeth to increases
secrete enzyme cellulase which digest the surface area action of enzymes.
cellulose into glucose.  The tongue rolls food into boluses and
ROLE OF ROUGHAGE IN DIGESTION. swallowed into the stomach.
 It is composed of cellulose and plant
fibres.

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 In the stomach, food is mixed with FACTORS AFFECTING ENERGY

gastric juice which contains Rennin and REQUIREMENTS IN MAN
Pepsinogen. 1. Age-Young children are actively
 Pepsinogen is activated into Pepsin by growing/have many actively dividing
Hydrochloric acid.  Rennin (which is cells/are physically more active hence
abundant in young children) converts require more energy than adults.
the milk protein (Caseinogen) into 2. Sex- Males need more energy than
Casein increasing its surface area for females because they are more
digestion by pepsin. muscular hence have more cells that
 Pepsin converts protein into peptides. respire.
 In the duodenum, food is mixed 3. Body size- A small bodied person
pancreatic juice which contains Trypsin requires more energy because they
which digests proteins into peptides. have large surface area to volume
 In the ileum food is mixed with ratio thus lose more energy than a
intestinal juice (Succus entericus) person with big body. Some big bodied
secreted by intestinal walls. people may eat a lot of food to
 Intestinal juice contains peptidase maintain energy demands of their
enzyme which converts/ breaks down large bodies.
peptides into amino acids, 4. Activity/occupation- A manual
polypeptidase enzyme which breaks worker requires more energy than a
down polypeptides into amino acids. sedentary worker.
3. Describe digestion of 5. Lactation and pregnancy- Pregnant
carbohydrates in humans. mothers need more energy for foetal
- In the mouth food is chewed/ development while lactating mothers
mechanically broken down to increase the require more energy for milk
surface area for enzyme activity. production.
- Saliva contains salivary amylase/ ptyalin 6. Basal metabolic rate (BMR)- this is
which acts on starch/amylose and the energy required by the body when
converts it into maltose. Saliva mixes with it is at rest or the minimum amount of
food and provides an alkaline medium for energy man requires to keep the body
action of amylase. cells alive. The higher the BMR the
- The tongue rolls food into boluses for higher the energy requirement.
swallowing into the stomach through ROLE OF VITAMINS IN THE BODY OF
peristalsis. MAN/ HUMAN BEINGS.
- In the duodenum, food is mixed with bile 1. Vitamin A (Retinal)
and pancreatic juice. Sources- Liver, milk, eggs, carrots, fresh
- Bile salt/sodium hydrogen carbonate green vegetables.
provides alkaline medium for activity of Uses/ role in
duodenal enzymes and neutralizes acidic human body 
chyme/ food from the stomach. Night vision.
- Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic  Protects the skin and cornea from
amylase which converts starch to drying and becoming scaly.
maltose. Deficiency
- In the ileum epithelial cells in the ileum
symptoms 
secrete succus entericus/intestinal juice
Poor night
which contains enzymes
vision.
sucrase/invertase which converts sucrose
 Sore eyes.
to fructose and glucose, lactase which
converts lactose to galactose and glucose  Dry and scaly skin and cornea.
and maltase which converts maltose to  Poor resistance to diseases.
glucose.  Cold and bronchitis diseases.
2. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

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Sources- Groundnuts, beans, whole 7. Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

cereals, egg yolk, milk, liver and kidney. Sources- fresh fruits, green vegetables.
Role/ functions  Cell respiration. Role/ functions -
Enhances
 Proper growth in children. Deficiency
absorption of iron.
symptoms  General weakness. - Promotes healing of wounds.
 Retarded growth in children. - Prevents infection/provides immunity
 Beriberi disease. against diseases.
Symptoms of beriberi - Helps in synthesis of connective tissues.
disease  Limb paralysis. - Helps in development of healthy gums.
 Heart failure. Deficiency symptoms.
 Swelling of legs (oedema).  Scurvy characterized by:
 Loss of appetite/ diarrhoea/vomiting. a) Bleeding of gums.
 Weight loss/muscle wasting.  Pale skin. b) Anaemia.
3. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) c) Swelling on the skin.
Sources- Groundnuts, beans, whole d) Poor healing of wounds.
cereals, egg yolk, milk, liver and kidney. e) Reduced/ poor resistance of diseases.
Uses/ role in the f) Degeneration of muscles.
body - Proper 8. Vitamin D (Calciferol)
functioning of the skin.
- It is a fat soluble vitamin manufactured
- Cell respiration. in human body in the skin
Deficiency symptoms Sources-Milk, fish, liver, egg yolk,
- Pellagra disease whose symptoms are: Uses/ roles
i) Skin disorders.  Formation and hardening of bones.
ii) Sores and bleeding in the mouth and  Strong teeth formation.
gum.  Absorption of calcium and phosphorus.
4. Vitamin B3 (Nicotinic acid acid/ niasin) Deficiency
Sources- Nuts, meat, liver, whole bread,
symptoms 
grains.
Rickets
Role/ function- component of co-
characterized by:
enzymes.
a) Abnormal bone
Deficiency
formation in children.
symptoms - Skin b) Soft and brittle bones in
lesions. adults. 9. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
- Skin rashes. Sources- milk, egg yolk, green
- Gastrointestinal and nervous disorders. vegetables, vegetable oil.
5. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid Uses// roles
Sources-Groundnuts, beans, whole  Cell metabolism.
cereals, egg yolk, milk, liver and kidney.  Promotes normal fertility in some
Role/ uses in the body. animals.
- Respiration. Deficiency symptoms
- Proper functioning of the nervous system - Infertility in some animals.
and alimentary canal. 10. Vitamin K (quinone)
Deficiency symptoms
- It is a fat soluble vitamin manufactured
 Malfunctioning of the nervous and in human body in the caecum.
alimentary canal. Sources include; Liver, egg yolk, green
6. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamine) vegetables.
Sources-Liver, beef and kidney. Use/ role- Blood clotting.
Uses/ roles Deficiency symptoms- excessive
- Formation of blood cells. bleeding/ blood loss.
Deficiency symptoms- Anemia

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Observation
 DCPIP is decolorized i.e. it becomes
colorless.
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY. Conclusion.
Aim- Testing for vitamin C/ Ascorbic acid.  Vitamin C/ Ascorbic acid present.
Requirements. Note- If the blue color of DCPIP is retained
a) Food substance in solution form. then vitamin C/ ascorbic acid is absent.
b) 0.1% Dichlorophenol indophenol
(DCPIP)
c) Test tube.
d) Dropper.
e) 10 ml measuring cylinder.
Procedure
1. Into a clean test tube put 1ml of DCPIP.
2. Add the food substance drop wise into
the DCPIP in the test tube and shake
well after each drop.

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PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1. 2. Into test-tube A, B and C, add 3 cm 3

Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature of starch solution.
on enzyme activities. 3. Into test-tube A, B and C add 2 cm 3
Requirements: of amylase/diastase solution.
 Six clean test-tubes. 4. Place test-tube C in the water bath
 White tile. maintained at 50 C for 30 minutes.
 Test-tube holder. 5. Place the remaining test tubes A and
 A dropper. B in the water bath maintained at 38
 Distilled water. C for 30 minutes.
 Benedict’s solution. 6. After the 30 minutes, test for starch
 Iodine solution. and reducing sugars on the contents
 Water bath maintained at 37 C and 50 C. of each test tube.
 Source of heat. 7. After the 30 minutes, test for starch
 Thermometer. and reducing sugars on the contents
 10 ml measuring cylinder. of each test-tube.
 5 Labels. QUESTIONS
 6 cm3 of amylase/diastase solution. 1. Which of the test tubes showed
 10 cm3 soluble starch powder. presence of starch?  Test
Procedure: tube C.
1. Label three test-tubes A, B and C.

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2. Which of the test tubes showed

presence of reducing sugar?
 Test tube A and B.
3. Explain the results.
 In test tube C, the enzyme was
denatured by boiling hence starch
was not hydrolyzed/broken down.
 In test tube A and B, the enzyme
amylase/diastase digested starch
into maltose (a complex reducing
sugar).
4. What was the reason for maintaining the
test tubes at 38 C? Questions
 This is the optimum temperature for 1. Name the tube whose content has
enzyme amylase. different appearance after ten minutes.
5. What was the reason for maintaining the  Test tube A.
test tubes at 50 C? 2. Explain the change.
 At 50 C, the enzyme is denatured.  The acid added provided the optimum
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 2. pH for the enzyme hence the
Aim: To investigate the effect of pH on enzyme protein was digested.
activity. 3. Which aspect of the enzyme properties
Requirements: does the experiment investigate?
 Water bath kept at 37 C.  The optimum pH of the enzyme.
 Egg albumen suspension.  2m of PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 3.
hydrochloric acid.  2m sodium Aim: To investigate the presence of
catalase enzyme in living tissues.
hydroxide,  3 test-tubes. Introduction.
 5 cm3 of 1% pepsin solution.  Catalase is an enzyme found in living
 Means of heating. tissues of plants and animals.
 Measuring cylinder.  It breaks down hydrogen peroxide
 5 Labels. (H2O2) produced during cellular
Procedure: metabolism into oxygen and water
1. Label the test tubes A, B and C which are less toxic substances.
2. Using a measuring cylinder, place 2 cm3 of  Hydrogen peroxide is highly toxic hence
the egg albumen suspension into each of it should not be allowed to accumulate
the three test-tubes labeled A, B and C. in the tissues.
3. Add 1 cm3 of the 1 % pepsin solution to  If it were allowed to accumulate in the
each of the three test tubes A, B, C. tissues, it would
4. To the contents of test-tube A, add three interfere with cellular metabolism.
drops of the 2M hydrochloric acid, to B add Requirements:
three drops of distilled water and to C add 1. Irish Potato.
three drops of the 2M sodium hydroxide
2. Fresh piece of liver 3.
solution.
Hydrogen peroxide.
5. Incubate the test tubes for 10 minutes in a 4. 4 test-tubes.
water bath kept at 37 C. 5. Wooden splints.
6. Examine the test-tubes every two minutes, 6. Means of heating.
noting the cloudiness of the contents.
7. Scalpel blade.
7. After the 10 minutes remove the test tubes 8. Measuring cylinder (10 cm3).
and place them in a test-tube rack. 9. Labels.
10. Pair of forceps Procedure:
1. Label four test-tubes A, B, C and D.

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2. Measure 2 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide bubbling and the gas relights a

and put in the testtubes A, B, C and D. glowing splint.
3. Cut a small piece of the Irish potato,  Test-tube B- boiling denatures
place it in test-tube A and record your catalase enzyme hence it did not
observation break down hydrogen peroxide into water
4. Immediately, introduce a glowing splint and oxygen.
into the mouth of the test tube and 2. Why were Irish potato and liver used?
record your observation in the table  To show that catalase enzyme is found
below. in both animal and plant tissues.
5. Cut a small piece of the fresh liver, place 3. Which aspect of enzyme property
it in test-tube B and record your does the experiment investigate?
observation in the table below.  Sensitivity to changes in temperature.
6. Immediately, introduce a glowing splint
into the mouth of the test tube B and
record your observation in the table
below.
7. Cut a small piece of Irish potato and a STUDY QUESTION.
small piece of liver and boil them for five
minutes.
 In an experiment to investigate on
8. Remove a boiled Irish potato from hot
aspect of digestion, two test tubes A
water using a pair of forceps and place it
and B were set-up as shown in the
in test tube C and record your
diagram below. The test tubes were
observation in the table below.
left in the bath for 30minutes. The
9. Remove a boiled liver from hot water content of each test tube was then
using a pair of forceps and place it in tested for starch using iodine
test tube D and record your observation solution:-
in the table below.
Questions
Questions
(a) What was the aim of the experiment?
 To investigate the effect of boiled
saliva on starch OR to show the
effect boiled/denatured enzyme
amylase has on starch.
b) What results were expected in test-
tube A and B.?
 A-brown colour/colour of iodine
persists/ no change in colour.
Account for the observation made in test  B- Blue black colour seen/ colour
tubes A and C. 1. changed to blue
 Test tube A- enzyme catalase present in black.
tissue cells breaks down hydrogen c) Account of the results you have given
peroxide into water and oxygen hence in (b) above in test tube A and B.

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Page 69
 A- Starch has been digested/broken

down/ hydrolysed by salivary
amylase hence no colour change.
 B- Enzymes/Amylase denatured
hence starch is not
digested/broken down/hydrolysed.

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BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

the features of the specimens. Do not

They lack They have complex

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𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔

' SAM OBARE SAM OBARE

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

TOPIC 3- THE CELL

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

MAGNIFICATION OF A LIGHT MICROSCOPE.

- The magnification of the image of the object

Example Plant cell as seen under electron

Animal cell as seen under light microscope

Functions of cell organelles.

Animal cell as seen under electron

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

It is fluid medium in which chemical

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

Centrioles- they are rod-shaped

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

Advantages of using/placing a coverslip

i. To hold the specimen in place. ii. Protects

Aim: To prepare and observe temporary slide

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE

Convert the diameter of the field of view

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM ONE