Form One Biology Presentation

1.
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Definition Branches of Biology
 The word biology is derived  There are three main
from the Greek words, bios, branches of biology namely:
meaning life, and logos, 1. Zoology- This is the study
meaning knowledge. of animals. A scientist
 Therefore, Biology is the specialized in this area is
branch of science that deals called zoologist.
with the study of living 2. Botany- This is the study
organisms. of plants. A scientist is
 Science is the knowledge called botanist.
about the structure and 3. Microbiology- This is the
behaviour of the natural study of microscopic
world based on facts that can organisms. A scientist is
be approved by experiments. called microbiologist.
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Other branches of biology 5. Parasitology- This is the study of
1. Anatomy- This is the study of the parasites. A scientist is called
internal structure of living things. parastologist.
A scientist is called anatomist. 6. Entomology- This is the study of
2. Physiology- This is the study of insects. A scientist is called
body functions. A scientist is entomologist.
called physiologist. 7. Cytology- This is the study of the
3. Genetics- This is the study of cell. A scientist is called
inheritance and variation. A cytologist.
scientist is called genetist. 8. Pathology- This is the study of
4. Ecology- This is the study of the diseases. A scientist is called
relationship between organisms pathologist.
and their environment/ study of 9. Biochemistry- This is the study
living organisms and their of chemical changes inside the
surrounding. A scientist is called organism. A scientist is called
ecologist. biochemist.

10. Morphology- This is the 14. Ornithology- Study of
study of external structure birds. The scientist is called
of organisms. The scientist ornithologist.
is called Morphologist. 15. Ichthyology- study of fish.
11. Bacteriology- study of The scientist is called
bacteria. The scientist is Ichthyologist.
called bacteriologist. 16. Taxonomy- This is the
12. Histology- study of study of classification of
structure of tissues. The organisms. The scientist is
scientist is called called Taxonomist.
histologist. 17. Embryology- study of
13. Virology- study of viruses. development of organisms
The scientist is called from egg to adult. The
virologist. scientist is called
Embryologist

Importance of studying Biology.
1. It helps us to understand the 4. It helps us to promote
developmental stages in international cooperation in
human body. areas like medicine and
2. It helps in solving environmental conservation
environmental problems e.g. to solving emerging problems
pollution, shortage of food, like HIV and AIDS.
global warming / drought, 5. It helps learner to acquire
poor health, misuse of scientific skills e.g.
natural resources (forests, observation , identification,
wildlife, water and soil. drawing, recording,
3. It enables one to pursue classifying, measuring,
careers e.g. agriculture, analyzing and evaluating
veterinary, public health, data and apply them in daily
medicine, tourism, life.
pharmacy, dentistry, nursing,
biology education/ teaching,
and horticulture.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
ORGANISMS
1. Nutrition- a process by which 3. Gaseous exchange- this is the
living things acquire and utilize process whereby respiratory gases
nutrients. Plants (oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide)
synthesize/make their own food pass across the respiratory
using light energy, carbon (IV) surface.
oxide, water and mineral salts,  Examples of respiratory surfaces
while animals feed on already include stomata in leaves, Alveoli in
manufactured foods. lungs, gills in fish, skin in frogs, cell
2. Respiration- a process in which membrane in unicellular organisms.
organic compounds are broken  Living organisms carry out gaseous
down to produce energy. Energy exchange.
is used by the organisms to carry
out essential activities e.g. growth 4. Excretion- is the process by which
and movement. metabolic wastes are separated
and eliminated from the body
 During respiration, oxygen is usually cells. This is to avoid
used while energy, carbon (IV) accumulation to toxic levels
oxide and water are the products. leading to death.
 Living organisms carry out  Living organisms carry out
respiration. excretion/ excrete.

5. Growth and Development- Growth 7. Irritability/sensitivity- This is the
is an irreversible/permanent increase ability of living organisms to
in size and mass while Development perceive/detect changes in their
is the irreversible change in the surroundings and respond
complexity of the structure of living appropriately .
things.  For example living things react to changes
 Living things grow in order to attain in temperature, humidity, light, pressure
the maximum size and mass which are and to presence or absence of certain
essential for their body function. chemicals.
 Living organisms grow and develop. 6. Movement- is a change in position by
either a part of or the whole living
6. Reproduction - is the process by
organism. Living organisms move.
which living organisms give rise to
new individuals of the same kind.  Movement from one place to another is
called locomotion.
 Living organisms reproduce.
 Movement in animals include swimming,
walking, running, flying e.t.c.
 Movement in plants include closing of
leaves, folding of leaves, closing of
flowers and growing of shoots towards
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Study questions.
1. A car/aeroplane is able to move 3. State the characteristics of living
from place to place and give out organisms that are specific to
exhaust gases however it is not plants.
classified as a living organism. i. Autotrophic/ manufacture
Explain. their own food/
This is because it does not reproduce, photosynthesis;
respond to changes in the ii. Show alternation of
environment, grow, develop, excrete, generation;
carry out nutrition and respire. iii. Have limited movement;
2. How does nutrition differ in plants iv. Have limited excretory
and animals? products/ unspecialized
Plants manufacture their own food/ are respiratory structures;
autotrphic; while animals do not v. Have localized growth/ growth
manufacture their own food/ are occurs at specific regions;
heterotrophic;

4. The photograph below 5. Name the characteristic
illustrates living organisms. of living organisms
Study it and answer the illustrated by each of
question that follow. the activities described
below;
a) Dressing heavily-
 Irritability/ sensitivity/
response to a stimulus
b) Bursting of the
sporangium in Rhizopus
 State two characteristics of
sp.
living organisms illustrated in  Reproduction.
the photograph
1. Reproduction
2. Growth and development.
Collection of specimens
 A specimen is a whole organism or 3. Do not destroy the natural
part of an organism being studied or habitat of the of specimens.
examined. 4. Live specimens should be
Importance of collection of specimens returned to their habitats
 It is important for further study, whenever possible to maintain
observations and preservation for ecological balance.
future reference in the laboratory. 5. Dangerous or injurious
Precautions during collection and specimens (e.g. stinging insects or
observation of specimens plants) should be handled with
care (using forceps and gloves) to
1. Collect only the number of avoid injury/ for protection.
specimens needed to avoid
wastage. 6. Highly mobile animals should be
immobilized using suitable
2. Do not harm the specimens chemical substances (e.g.
during the collection exercise Chloroform or diethylether) for
because it can distort the features easy observation.
of the specimens

Apparatus used for collection of
specimens
1. Sweep net- used to catch 5. Pooter- it is used for sucking
flying insects e.g. bees, small animals from rock
butterflies, grasshoppers. surfaces or barks of trees e.g.
2. Bait trap-used for attracting ants, termites.
and trapping small animals 6. Pair of forceps- it is used for
e.g. rats and mice. picking up stinging animals
3. Pitfall trap- it is used for and plants e.g. centipedes,
catching crawling animals e.g. spiders, stinging nettle.
millipedes, spiders, ants, 7. Specimen bottle- it is required
cockroach. for keeping collected
4. Fish net- used for trapping specimens.
small fish and other water 8. Hand lens- it is used to
animals e.g. crabs and enlarge objects and observe
shrimps. external features of collected
specimens

Apparatus used for collection of
specimens
1. Sweep 3. Pit fall Cover to
net trap prevent rain
from getting in
2. Bait
trap Trap
4. Fish net

5. Pooter 7. Specimen
bottle
6. Pair of 8. Hand lens

forceps

Differences between plants and
animals
Plants Animals
1. Most plants are green in colour/ 1. They lack chlorophyll hence do not
have chlorophyll hence make their make their own food/ feed on
own food. already manufactured food.
2. They respond to changes in their 2. They respond to changes in their
environment slowly. environment faster.
3. They do not locomote/ move from 3. They locomote/ move from one
one place to another. place to another.
4. Growth occurs at specific regions/ 4. Growth occurs all over the body.
meristematic cells only.
5. They lack complex excretory and 5. They have complex respiratory and
respiratory organs/ structures. excretory organs/ structures.

2. CLASSIFICATION 1
1
 Classification is the grouping of  External features are used when
living organisms based on their classifying organisms e.g.
structure. a) In plants-
 Those with similar structures are i. Rhizoids and seta in moss
put under one group called plant.
taxon (plural- taxa) ii. Fronds, sori and rachis in ferns.
 A science/study of classification
iii. Roots, stems, leaves, flowers,
is called taxonomy and seeds, fruits and cones in
scientists are called higher plants.
taxonomists.
 Taxonomy involves the placing of
organisms into taxa and assigning
them names.
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b) In animals- Significance/ importance / necessity
i. Tentacles in hydra. of classification.
ii. Feathers and wings in birds. 1. It groups together living organisms
iii. Shells in snails. with similar characteristics but
separates those with different features.
iv. Sensory organs e.g. eyes, ears, 2. Helps in placing living organisms into
antennae. their correct groups for easy
v. Fur, hair and mammary glands in reference.
mammals. 3. Helps to arrange the information
vi. Scales and fins in fish. about living organisms in an orderly
vii. Proglotids and scolex in tapeworms. manner to avoid chaos and confusion.
viii. Locomotory structures e.g. limbs in 4. Helps to understand the evolutionary
arthropods and vertebrates. relationships between different
ix. Body pigmentation. organisms.
5. It makes it easier for scientists to
communicate since the whole world
uses the same groupings.
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 Some organisms are small or have
tiny features which cannot be
seen clearly, therefore require the
use magnifying instruments
 A common magnifying
instrument used is called a hand
lens.
 It is used to magnify organisms/
make them look bigger.
 It is made up of a convex lens
mounted on a frame.
 The handle is either wooden or
plastic.
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How to use a hand lens. Magnification =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
i. Place the object on the bench
near the light source. Example 1
ii. Move the lens to and from the  A form one student examined a
eyes until the object becomes specimen whose length was 43mm,
clear. When the object is clear, it then drew the diagram whose length
is said to be in focus and an was 86mm. Calculate the
enlarged image is seen. magnification of the drawing.
iii. If a drawing is made with the help Solution.
of the magnifying lens then the Magnification = length of the
magnification of the drawing in drawing
relation to the size of the object length of the object
must be worked out as shown = 86 mm
below.
43 mm
= x2.
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Example 2 BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS
 If the magnification of a drawing is x5  The following are important points to note
and the drawing length is 10cm. What when making biological diagrams:
is the actual length of the object? 1. Use a well sharpened pencil.
solution 2. The drawing should occupy ½ or ¾ of
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 the space provided.
Magnification =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 3. Each drawing should have a title.
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
Act𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 4. Enough space should be left all round
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 the drawing for labeling.
10𝑐𝑚
Act𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 5. Avoid using double lines when making
5 outlines of a drawing.
Act𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2𝑐𝑚
6. Label lines should not have arrow heads.
7. The magnification of a drawing should
always be worked out.
8. The drawing should not be shaded.
9. The label lines should never cross each
other.
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Taxonomic Units of Classification.
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 These refer to the groups (or taxa)  Moving down the taxonomic units
into which organisms are placed. the number of organisms in each
group decreases but the similarities
 There are seven major taxonomic units between then increases.
as shown below.
 Phylum is used when classifying
i. Kingdom. animals while division is used when
ii. Phylum (or Division). classifying plants.
 The kingdom has the highest number
iii. Class. of organisms/members while species
iv. Order. has members with more common
characteristics.
v. Family.
 The species is the smallest unit of
vi. Genus. classification whose members can
naturally and freely interbreed
vii. Species. and produce/give rise to fertile
offspring.
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KINGDOMS OF CLASSIFICATION SCIENTIFIC NAMING OF ORGANISMS.
1. Monera-This includes the bacteria  The present system of naming organisms is
and viruses. called Binomial nomenclature.
2. Protoctista- This includes the  It was developed by Swedish biologist
algae, e.g. spirogyra and protozoa, called Carolus Linnaeus in 18th century.
e.g. amoeba, Paramecium and  It involved giving organisms two latin
Plasmodium. names because:
3. Fungi- This includes moulds, e.g. i. They rarely change/ are static.
moulds, yeasts and mushrooms. ii. They are written in the same language
4. Plantae- Examples include moss, all over the world.
blacken fern, maize, beans and Importance of giving organisms two
jacaranda. names
5. Animalia- This includes housefly, i. Enables biologists to arrange organisms
spider, crab, lizard, elephant, in an orderly manner.
hawk and cow.
ii. It provides names that have the same
meaning world wide.
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BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE Example,
 This is the scientific system of  The lion is called Panthera leo
giving organisms two names, when printed and Panthera leo
generic/ genus name and when hand written the leopard is
specific/ species name. called Panthera pardus when
Rules of binomial typed and Panthera pardus
nomenclature. when hand written.
1. The first name/ genus name  The name Panthera represents
should begin with capital letter genus while leo and pardus
and the second name/ specific represent species.
name should be written in small  Lion and leopard belong to the
letters. same genus but different species.
2. The names should be printed in
italics in books but underlined
separately when handwritten.
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3. THE CELL
1
 The cell is the basic unit of  Multicellular organisms are made

structure and functions in up of many cells, e.g. moulds,
organism. grasshopper, moss, eucalyptus,
 The cells make up the structures man and elephant.
of the living organisms and are  A cell being a very small
responsible for carrying out the structure that cannot be seen with
various biological processes. the naked eye, hence it requires
 Unicellular organisms comprise the use of a powerful magnifying
of only one cell, e.g. amoeba, instrument known as the
Paramecium, and plasmodium. microscope.
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Functions of a microscope. LIGHT MICROSCOPE

1. Magnification- making very small
organisms to appear bigger so that they
can be seen.
2. Resolution- ability to distinguish two
structures that are very close together as
distinct entities.
Types of microscope.
1. Light microscope- It uses light for
illumination of the specimen to be viewed.
2. Electron microscope- The electron
microscope uses an electron beam instead
of light for illumination of the specimen to
be viewed. Sam obare 21-Dec-20
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Uses of different parts of a light microscope. 5. Coarse adjustment knob- it brings

1. Arm/ limb- it supports the body tube and image into rough focus (by raising
stage. and lowering the body tube through
long distances).
2. Base/ stand- it provides a firm and stable
support. 6. Fine adjustment knob- it brings the
image into sharp focus (by raising
3. Body tube- it holds the eye-piece and
and lowering the body tube through
revolving nose piece.
smaller distances).
4. Eye piece- it contains a lens which
7. Diaphragm- it is an aperture that
contributes to the magnification of the
regulates the amount of light passing
image of the specimen under view.
through the condenser to illuminate
the specimen.
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8. Objective lenses- they 11. Condenser- it concentrates light

contribute to the magnification onto the stage.
of the image of the specimen. 12. Stage- it is a flat platform where
9. Mirror- it reflects light through specimen on the slide is placed.
the condenser onto the stage. 13. Clip- it holds the slide in
10. Revolving nose piece- it holds position.
the objective lens in place thus
enabling change from one
objective lens to another.
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HANDLING AND CARE OF A LIGHT 5. Other parts of the microscope may be

MICROSCOPE. cleaned using a soft cloth or tissue paper.
1. Always use both hands when carrying a 6. Do not wet any part of the microscope as it
microscope. can cause rusting.
 One hand should hold the base to provide 7. Make sure the low power objective lens
support while the other hand holds the clicks into position in line with the eye-
limb/arm. piece before and after use.
2. Never place the microscope too close to the 8. After use, always clean and store the
edge of the working bench or table as it can microscope in a safe place, free from
easily fall off. moisture and dust.
3. Do not touch the mirror and the lenses with
your fingers as it can make them wet or dirty.
4. Dirty lenses should be cleaned using a special
soft lens tissue paper or tissue paper moistened
with ethanol to avoid scratches. Sam obare 21-Dec-20
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USING THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE 5. Place the slide containing the specimen
1. Place the microscope on the bench on the stage and clip it into position.
with the stage facing away from you. Make sure that it is in the centre of the
field of view.
2. Turn the low power objective lens until
it clicks into position. 6. Again, look through the eye-piece
while adjusting the mirror under the
3. Ensure that the diaphragm is fully stage to ensure that sufficient light is
open. passing through the specimen.
4. Look through the eye-piece with one 7. Use the coarse adjustment knob to
eye. Meanwhile adjust the mirror bring the low power objective lens to
under the stage to ensure that the lowest point. Viewing through the
maximum light can pass through. The eye-piece, turn the coarse adjustment
circular area seen is referred to as the knob gently until the specimen comes
field of view. into focus.
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8. Use the fine adjustment knob to 11. If finer details are required, turn
bring the image into sharp focus. the high power objective lens
9. Make a drawing of what you see. into position. Now use only the
10. For higher magnifications, turn fine adjustment knob to bring
the medium power objective lens details into sharper focus.
into position and adjust the focus  Sometimes a camera can be
using the coarse adjustment fixed at the eye piece lens in
knob. For sharper images, use the order to take a photograph of the
fine adjustment knob. specimen. The photograph is
called photomicrograph.
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Study questions 2. Give a reason why only the fine

1. How is the low objective lens adjustment knob should be used
manipulated to focus a specimen for when using high power objective/
observation under a light coarse adjustment knob should not
microscope.? be used to lower the high power
objective lens.
 Click the low power objective lens in
position (bring it down to the lowest i. To avoid breaking the slide, cover
level using coarse adjustment knob) slip and lens.
 With the eyes on the two eye piece lens ii. To avoid destroying the specimen/
and using the coarse adjustment knob dirtfying the lens.
gradually raise/the low power objective
lens to bring the specimen into focus.
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Differences between the light and
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electron microscopes
Light microscope Electron microscope
1. Uses light to illuminate the specimen. 1. Uses a beam of electrons to illuminate the
specimen.
2. Uses glass lenses for magnification. 2. Uses magnetic lenses for magnification.
3. Has low resolving power. 3. Has very high resolving power.
4. Has low magnification power. 4. Has very high magnification power.
5. The specimen under view can be living or 5. The specimen under view is dead.
dead.
6. The specimen is stained using normal dyes. 6. The specimen is stained using complex
stains.
7. The specimen is mounted on a slide and 7. The specimen is mounted on a grid and
placed on the stage in the open. placed in Sam
a vacuum.
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Study question. Name the parts of the light
microscope shown below.
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a. Eyepiece
b. Coarse Adjustment
c. Fine Adjustment
d. Objectives (LP, HP)
e. Arm
f. Stage
g. Light source
h. Base
i. Diaphragm
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Magnification of a light microscope.
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 The magnification of the image Example

of the object viewed is calculated If the eye-piece lens has a
by multiplying the eye piece lens magnification of X5 and the low
magnification by the objective power objective lens has a
lens magnification i.e. magnification of X10, then the total
Magnification = eye piece lens magnification is 5 x 10 = X50.
magnification x objective lens
magnification.
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Study question.
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 Copy and complete table below.

Eye-piece lens magnification. Objective lens magnification. Total magnification.
X5 X4 X20
X10 X5
X10 X100
X40 X600
X10 X100
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PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS AS SEEN
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UNDER THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE.
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Animal cell as seen under the electron
microscope.
14
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Plant cell as seen under electron microscope.
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Functions of cell organelles.
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 The cell is the basic unit of life while Cell

organelles are structures within the cells
1. THE CELL MEMBRANE/ PLASMA
MEMBRANE/ PLASMALEMMA-
 It consists of three layers under the electron
microscope. The three layers are composed
of one layer of phospholipid found between
two protein layers.
Functions of the cell membrane.
i. Enclose the cell contents.
ii. Controls the movement of materials in
and out of the cell hence said to be semi-
permeable/selectively permeable.
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2. Cytoplasm  The cytoplasm is not static but

Functions/ roles. has movement called cytoplasmic
i. It is fluid medium in which streaming.
chemical reactions take place.  This movement is important
ii. It contains other cell organelles because it distributes materials
and dissolved substances e.g. and cell organelles within the cell.
starch, glycogen, fat droplets.
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3. Mitochondria (Singular-  N/B Actively/ rapidly respiring cells e.g.

mitochondrion) muscle cell, sperm cell, apical meristems,
kidney cell have numerous mitochondiria.
Functions/ roles. This is because they require a lot of energy.
i. They provide a site for respiration
(to provide energy). Mitochondria
are bound by two membranes.
Structure
 The inner membrane is greatly folded
into cristae to increase the surface area
for attachment of respiratory enzymes.
 Has the matrix to provide a site for
respiration.
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4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- they are

interconnected channels continuous with the
outer membrane of the nuclear membrane.
 They include:
i. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- they lack

ribosomes on the surface.
ii. Rough endoplasmic reticulum- have
ribosomes on the surface.
Functions.
i. The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports
proteins.
ii. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
manufactures/ synthesizes and transports
lipids.
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5. Ribosomes- Ribosomes are 6. Lysosomes.

spherical in shape. Functions
 Some are scattered within the i. Contain lytic enzymes which
destroy worn out
cytoplasm while others are bound organelles/cells/tissue.
to the surface of rough ii. Digestion of food/bacteria.
endoplasmic reticulum.  White blood cells contain numerous
Function. lysosomes because they destroy
pathogens hence contain numerous
i. They form sites for protein lysosomes because they contain
synthesis. lytic enzymes that destroy
pathogens.
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7. Golgi bodies (Golgi apparatus)- they iii. Secretion of synthesized/

are stacks of membrane-bound tube manufactured glycoproteins
like sacs. (proteins and carbohydrates).
 They are found close to the cell iv. Formation of lysosomes.
membrane.
Functions of golgi apparatus/bodies
i. Packaging and transport of
glycoproteins (glycogen/
carbohydrates and proteins) as
secretions.
ii. Transport of synthesized
materials/substances out of the cell
as secretions e.g. enzymes.
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8. Centrioles- they are rod-shaped ii. They help in the formation of

structures located just outside the cilia and flagella in cells and
nuclear membrane. organisms where those
structures occur e.g. protoctista.
Functions.
i. They form spindle fibres during cell
division in animal cells.
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9. Chloroplasts- they are found in

plant cells only.
Function.
i. They provide a site for
photosynthesis/ they contain
chlorophyll that traps light
for photosynthesis.
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10. Vacuoles- they are sacs which are filled Functions/ roles.
with a fluid and vary in size. i. They store salts and sugars.
 Animal cells contain small vacuoles which ii. The sap contributes to the osmotic
are small and temporary while plant cells properties of the cell.
contain large and permanent vacuoles.
 In unicellular organisms:
 In plants vacuoles are centrally placed and
surrounded by a membrane called i. Contractile vacuole removes/
tonoplast. excretes excess water
(osmoregulation)
 They contain a solution of salt and sugars
called cell sap hence they are called sap ii. Contractile vacuole removes/
vacuoles. excretes metabolic wastes.
iii. Food vacuole is used for feeding/
digestion/ storage of food.
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11. Cell wall- is is a membrane found in 12. Nucleus (plural-nuclei)- contains:

cells of plants and fungi; and in some i. Nuclear memmbrane which has
protoctists but not in animal cells. Nuclear pore/ nucleopore– which
 It is made up of cellulose in plant cells allows and controls the movement
and either cellulose or chitin in fungi. of substances in and out of the
It is rigid and tough. nucleus.
Functions. ii. Nucleoplasm – it is a viscous fluid
i. Protects the cell against mechanical which has nucleolus and chromatin.
injury. iii. Nucleolus- manufactures the
ii. It gives the cell a definite shape. ribosomes.
iii. Provides mechanical support iv. Chromatin- contains hereditary/
genetic materials/ DNA.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20
33
Function of nucleus
i. The nucleus controls all the
cell activities e.g. cell division,
protein synthesis, respiration,
cell secretion, excretion and
cell growth.
 N/B A cell without a nucleus
would only survive for a short
time because it is not able to carry
out normal cell functions.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND
ANIMAL CELLS.
35
Plant cell. Animal cell

1. It is usually large. 1. It is usually smaller.
2. It is regular in shape. 2. It is irregular in shape.
3. It has a cell wall. 3. It lacks a cell wall.
4. It has a large central vacuole. 4. It has no vacuoles but if they are present , they
are small and temporary and scattered within the
cytoplasm.
5. The cytoplasm and nucleus are located towards 5. The cytoplasm occupies most space in the cell
the periphery. with the nucleus centrally placed.
6. It has chloroplasts. 6. It lacks chloroplasts.
7. It stores starch, oils and proteins. 7. It stores glycogen and fats.
8. It lacks centrioles. 8. It has centrioles.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20
36
STUDY QUESTION b) State the function of F.

1. The diagram below represents a nucleus.  Allows/ facilitates the movement of materials
in and out of the nucleus.
2. State two main functions of the vacuole.
i. Osmoregulation/ removal of excess water
(by contractile vacuole)
ii. Feeding/ digestion of food (by food
vacuole)
iii. Excretion/ removal of metabolic wastes.
a) Name the structures labeled E and F. 3. Name the plant cell organelle:
E- Nucleolus. i) That stores chlorophyll- Chloroplast
F- Nuclear pore/ Nucleopore. ii) Responsible for intracellular digestion-
Lysosome.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

PREPARATION OF TEMPORARY SLIDES.
37
 To observe specimen under the microscope, 2. Adding a drop of water/ placing the
we need to prepare slides. sections in water- to keep the cells turgid
 There are two types of slides, namely:
and prevent dehydration.
a) Temporary or fresh slides- for immediate 3. Staining- to make different parts of the
use during a laboratory exercise and cell more distinct and clear. Stains
commonly used are iodine solution,
b) Permanent slides-which can be preserved methylene/bromothymol blue, neutral red
for reuse. and eosin.
Procedures carried out when preparing temporary 4. Mounting- This is putting the specimen on
slides. the slide in the appropriate medium before
1. Sectioning- It refers to cutting/ making of covering it with a cover slip.
thin sections to allow light to pass through
or make them transparent.
 It is done by use of a sharp razor blade to
ensure that cells are not distorted.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

38
Advantages of using/placing a coverslip 5. Fixation- It helps to make the

over the specimen. specimen hard or stiff for
1. To hold the specimen in place. sectioning.
2. Protects specimen from  It can also be done after sectioning
dehydration/drying up/dust to help maintain the structure of the
particles. specimen.
3. Protect the objective lens.  Commonly used fixative is 70%
 The stage should be kept dry for
ethanol. Plant materials are stiff
enough and do not require fixation.
easy manipulation of specimen as
wetness causes the specimen to stick
onto the stage.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20
Practical Activity
39
Aim: To prepare and observe 6. Iodine solution.

temporary slide of onion cells 7. Onion bulb.
under the light microscope. 8. Pair of forceps.
Requirements: 9. Dropper.
1. Microscope 10. Mounted needle.
2. Clean microscope slides
3. Cover slips
4. Scalpel or a new razor blade
5. Distilled water
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Procedure
40
1. Cut the onion bulb vertically into 5. Quickly spread the piece of
four parts. epidermis onto the drop of water.
2. Separate a fleshy leaf from one of 6. Using a mounted needle, lower a
the parts. clear cover slip on to the
3. Remove/ peel a thin piece of epidermis strip. Do this gently to
epidermis from this leaf using avoid trapping air bubbles.
forceps. Trim down the epidermis 7. Examine this temporary slide
to 5mm long. under the low and medium power
4. Place a drop of iodine at the objective lenses of microscope.
centre of a clean slide. Add a drop
of water to dilute it.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20
41
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Estimation of cell size.
42
 Most cells are shorter than a Practical activity

millimetre and therefore, their Aim: To estimate the size of onion
sizes are measured in smaller epidermal cells.
units called micrometres (µm). Requirements:
 1 millimetre (mm) = 1 000 i. Microscope.
micrometres/microns (µm).
ii. Transparent ruler marked in
 1 (µm) = 1 000 nanometres (nm) millimetres.
iii. Prepared slide of onion
epidermis.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20
Procedure.
43
1. With the low power objective lens

in place, keep a transparent ruler on
the stage of the microscope.
2. Focus so that the millimetres marks
on the ruler are seen as thick dark
lines.
3. Estimate the diameter of the field
of view by counting the one-
millimeter spaces between the first
mark and the last one across the
field of view e.g. from the figure
below the diameter of field of view
is 6.0 mm.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20
44
4. Convert the diameter of the field of

view from millimetres to
micrometres.
 1 mm = 1 000 µm
6 mm =(6xl 000) µm
= 6 000 µm
5. Remove the ruler and place the
prepared slide of the onion
epidermis.
6. Count the number of cells along the
diameter of the field of view e.g. 6
cells as shown below.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

45
7. Calculate the diameter of one cell using Limitations of using the light microscope to
the following formula estimate the size of the cells.
 Cell diameter = Diameter of field of view in 1. Cells vary in size and shape.
µm
No. of cells along the diameter the field of view.
2. Cells in a tissue are not linearly arranged
(not in a straight line)/cells are irregularly
Using the example above: arranged.
Cell diameter = 6 000= 1 000µm 3. Changes in osmotic pressure will affect
6 cells the animal cells.
 Therefore, diameter of 1 cell = 1 000µm. Other dimensions/parameters used to
estimate the cell size.
1) Diameter.
2) Length.
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46
Question 1.
 A student carried out an
experiment on microscope work.
The field of view was as shown in
the following diagram.
 If she counted 20 cells on the
diameter of the field of view, Millimeter marks
what was the approximate size of
each cell in micrometers (μm).
Show your working.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

47
Solution  Cell size = Diameter of field of view

 Diameter of field of view
No. of cells
4 + ½ + ½ = 5 spaces Cell size = 5000 m
space = 1 mm 20 cells.
1000 m = mm = 250 m.
5000 m = 5mm
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48
Study question 2  Cell diameter= Field of view diameter(in

 A student viewed and drew a plant cell of a diameter
micrometers)
4mm using a light microscope whose eyepiece lens was No. of cells (Y)
marked X1 and objective lens marked X5. How many 800 µm =8000 µm
cells were linearly arranged along the microscope’s field Y
of view whose diameter was 8mm. (show your work.)
Y =8000 µm
Solution
800 µm
1mm = 1 000 µm.
=10 cells;
Total magnification= Cell drawing diameter
Actual cell diameter
X 5= 4 000
X
x= 4 000
5
= 800µm Sam obare 21-Dec-20
49
Study question 3 Solution

 The diameter of the field of view 1 mm= 1000 m
was estimated to be 5mm under a 50 mm= 5 x 1000
certain magnification. 5 cells 1
were observed along the diameter = 5,000 m.
of the field of view. What was the Cell diameter= Diameter of field of view
diameter of one cell in microns Number of cells.
(μm)? = 5,000
5
= 1,000 m.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20
50
Study Question 4. b) What is the average size of the cell in

A student used a microscope with x40 objective micrometers?
lens and x5 eye piece lens. He observed 5 Cells Size of the cell= diameter of field of view
in the field of view which had 2.2mm radius. number of cells
a) Calculate the area of field of view in = 4 000 µm
square micrometers (µm2).
5
1 mm = 1 000 µm.
= 800 µm.
2 mm = 2 x 1 000 µm
= 2 000 µm.
Area = 22 x 2000 x 2000
7
= 125714.29 µm2 Sam obare 21-Dec-20
51
c) Estimate the actual size/length of the cell. 200= 800 µm

Total magnification= eye lens magnification x x
objective lens magnification
x= 800
= 5 x 40
200
= X 200
= 4 µm.
Total magnification= Size/Length of cell image
Actual length/size of cell (X)
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52
Study question 5. Total magnification= Diameter of the

 Study the photomicrograph nucleus photomicrograph.
below. Calculate the actual Actual
size/diameter of the nucleus in length/diameter/size
microns (µm). 2,200 = 35 000 µm
Solution Actual size (Y)
Measure the diameter of the Y=35 000 µm
organelle nucleus e.g. 35 mm 2 200
1 mm = 1 000 µm = 15. 90 µm.
35 mm = 35 000 µm.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20
35 mm

CELL SPECIALIZATION.
54
 This is the structural modification b) Specialized animal cell

of the cells to perform specific 1. Nerve cell
functions. 2. Sperm cell.
a) Specialized plant cells 3. Red blood cell.
1. Root hair cell. 4. White blood cell.
2. Guard cell. 5. Muscle cell.
3. Palisade cell.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Specialized plant cell Diagram Structural modification/ Function
adaptation
1. Root hair cell - It has extension/ root -Increase surface area for
hair absorption of water and
mineral salts from the
soil
2. Guard cell - It has chloroplasts, - Controls opening

thick inelastic inner wall and closing of
and thin elastic outer stomata.
wall - Carries out
55 Sam obare 21-Dec-20 photosynthesis.
Specialized plant cell Diagram Structural modification/ Function
adaptation
3. Palisade cell - It contains numerous - Photosynthesis.
chloroplasts

Specialized animal cell Diagram Structural modification/ Function
adaptation
1. Nerve cell - It has axons and - Receive and transmit
dendrites. nerve impulses.
2. Sperm cell - It has numerous - Swim to reach and

mitochondria and long fertilize egg cell/ ovum
tail.

adaptation
3. Red blood cell - It has biconcave shape, - Transports oxygen and
contain haemoglobin and carbon (IV) oxide within
lacks nucleus. the body.
4. White blood cell - It has large nucleus, - Protect the body

show amoebic against infections.
movement/ are able to
change shape.

adaptation
5. Muscle cell. - It has contractile fibrils. - Brings about
movement.
6. Egg cell/ ovum - Large cytoplasm. - Stores food for

developing embryo.

TISSUES
60
A tissue is a group/ collection of cells that are 2. Connective tissue- consists of

specialized to perform similar functions
strong fibres that connect other
Animal tissues.
tissues and organs holding
1. Epithelial tissue- it consists of epithelial cells
that form layers. They are found on the outside of them together in position.
the body or around internal organs.
Function.
i. It protect the internal and external surfaces.
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61
3. Skeletal tissue- it consists of 4. Blood tissue- it consists of platelets, white

elongated cells with fibres that blood cells and red blood cells.
contracts and relax to bring Function.
about movement. i. Protects the body against
infection/diseases.
ii. Transport materials in the body e.g.
oxygen, metabolic wastes and nutrients.
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62
PLANT TISSUES 2. Palisade / photosynthetic tissue.

1. Epidermal tissue- It consists of a single layer  It consists of numerous
of epidermal cells covering the outer surface
of leaves and on young parts of the stem and chloroplasts to trap light energy
roots. for photosynthesis.
Function
i) It protects inner tissues of plant from
mechanical damage and infection.
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63
3. Vascular tissue- It is composed of 4. Meristematic tissue- It consists

xylem which transports water from of meristematic cells found at
the roots to the leaves and phloem growing regions of plants that
which transports manufactured food actively divide to allow growth.
from the leaves to other parts of the
plant.  Apical meristems bring about
increase in height of roots and
shoots.
 Lateral meristem bring about
secondary thickening.
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64
5. Parenchyma tissue. ORGANS

 It consists of thin walled and  An organ is a group of tissues that
irregularly shaped cells. are specialized to perform

Role/ function. similar/same function.
 Provide mechanical support  Examples of animal organs
(packaging) and storage of include: stomach, brain, kidney,

substances. liver, heart, eye, ear e.t.c.
 Examples of plant organs include:
roots, leaves, flowers, stem e.t.c.
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65
ORGAN SYSTEM  Example in plants is transport

 An organ system is a group of system.
organs that perform the
same/similar function.
 Examples of animal organ
systems include: digestive
system, circulatory system,
respiratory system, excretory
END
system, nervous system,
reproductive system e.t.c.
Sam obare 21-Dec-20

4. CELL PHYSIOLOGY
 Cell physiology is the study of

functions a cell e.g. photosynthesis, 3. Mitochondrial membrane- which
respiration, excretion, protein encloses the mitochondrion.
synthesis, 4. Chloroplast membrane- which
Membrane Structure and Properties encloses the chloroplast.
• A membrane is a surface structure 5. Nuclear membrane- encloses the
which encloses a cell and its contents. nucleus.
There are different membranes and  All these membranes have the
they are name according to the same structure and function.
structure each encloses e.g. Function of a membrane
1. Cell membrane- which encloses the • It regulates the flow of materials in
cell. and out of the cell/ cell organelle.
2. Tonoplast- which encloses the plant
sap vacuole.
Sam obare 1 21-Dec-20
Structure and functions of
Cell/plasma Membrane
Functions of the cell membrane.
1. Encloses the cell contents.
2. Controls/ regulates the movement
of materials/ substances in and out
of the cell.
Structure of cell membrane.
 It consists of the following
components:
a) Two layers of phospholipids.
b) Two protein layers.
c) Small pores that allow the passage of
substances into and out of a cell.

Properties of a Cell Membrane
(a) Semi-Permeability/selective
permeability.
 The cell membrane has pores that (b) Sensitivity to Changes in
allow molecules of small sizes to pass Temperature and pH.
but not those with large sizes.
 For example, when a cell is  Cell membrane has proteins
surrounded by a dilute sugar which are destroyed by high
solution, water molecules will enter
the cell but the larger sugar temperatures and extreme pH
molecules will not enter. e.g. strong acids. This affects
Importance/ significance of semi- the normal functions of the
permeability.
• It allows the cell membrane to select cell membrane.
what enters and leaves the cell.

(c) Possession of Electric Charges/
it is polarised/ polarization.
 A membrane has positive charges Difference between cell wall
on the outside and negative and cell membrane.
charges to the inside.
Importance or significance of • The cell membrane is semi-
polarization of cell membrane permeable while the cell
1. It affects the manner in which wall is permeable i.e. allows
substances are moved in and out
of the cell. both water and sugar
2. It helps the cell membrane to molecules to pass through
detect changes in the
environment. because it has large pores.

Adaptation of the cell membrane to its Study questions.
functions. 1. Name the components of a cell
1. It has pores for semi- membrane. (2mks)
permeability/to allow molecules of 2. Give two functions of the cell
small sizes to pass through but not membrane? (2mks)
large sized molecules.
3. Explain how the cell membrane
2. It is thin to reduce distance hence is adapted to its functions?
faster movement of materials. (3mks)
3. Has electric charges (polarity) to 4. Explain the importance/
allow movement of materials in significance of the electric
and out of the cell and to detect charges/ polarity of the cell
changes in the environment. membrane. (2mks)

Physiological Processes
 The movement of materials A. DIFFUSION

 This is the process by which particles/
across the cell membrane is molecules move from a region of high
facilitated by physiological concentration to a region of low
concentration.
processes namely:  The difference in concentration of
A. Diffusion. molecules between the regions of low
concentration and the region of high
B. Osmosis and concentration is called concentration/
diffusion gradient.
C. Active transport.  Therefore diffusion is a passive process
(it is not energy-driven process) where
particles/ molecules move along
concentration gradient.
Practical activity 1.
Procedure:
Aim: To demonstrate 1. Hold a glass tubing vertically in a beaker so that one
end of the tubing rests flat on the bottom of the
diffusion using beaker.
potassium manganate 2. Carefully drop a crystal of potassium manganate
(VII). (VII) through the upper opening of the glass tubing.
Requirements: 3. Close the upper end of the glass tubing with the
thumb.
1. Potassium 4. Half-fill the beaker with water.
manganate (vii) 5. Carefully withdraw vertically the glass tubing so that
crystals the crystal is left undisturbed at the bottom of the
beaker.
2. Glass tubing 6. Record your observations for the first 15 minutes.
3. 100 cm3 beaker 7. Explain your observations.
4. Water.
Observation. Explanation.
 The purple colour of the  In the crystals, the particles of
potassium manganate (VII) potassium manganate (VII)
which is purple in colour spreads are highly concentrated
throughout the water and  Potassium manganete (VII)
eventually all the water turned particles break away from the
purple. crystals, dissolve in water and
then diffuse through the
water until they are evenly
distributed.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 2
Aim- To demonstrate diffusion Procedure

using a visking tubing. 1. Tie one end of the visking tubing using
Requirements. the thread provided.
1. Visking tubing 8cm long. 2. Pour starch solution into the visking
tubing to ¾ full and tie the open end of
2. 5ml Starch solution. the visking tubing. Ensure that there is
3. 10ml Dilute iodine solution no leakage on both ends of the tubing.
in 100 ml beaker. Rinse the sides of the visking tubing
with water. Note the initial color of
4. Thread. starch and record in the table below.
5. Glass rod. 3. Immerse the visking tubing in a beaker
containing iodine solution and let the
6. Dropper. set up stand for 20 minutes.
7. Water in a beaker. 4. After 20 minutes remove the visking
tubing from the beaker and record the
observations.
Observation
 The contents of the visking tubing
turned blue-black and the contents in
the beaker remained brown.
Explanation.
 The wall of the visking tubing is semi-
permeable hence allowed small iodine
molecules to pass through it from the
beaker into the beaker where they
reacted with starch to form blue black
colour.
 Starch molecules are too large to move
out of the tubing into the beaker.
Factors affecting the rate of
diffusion.
1. Temperature- an increase in 2. Concentration / diffusion

temperature increases the gradient- The greater the
energy content of concentration gradient the
molecules (particles) which higher the rate of diffusion
hence increases the rate of
make them to move faster diffusion.
therefore increasing the rate  The lower the concentration
of diffusion while decrease gradient the lower the rate of
in temperatures decrease diffusion.
the energy content of the  Therefore increasing the
molecules, this decreases concentration of diffusing
diffusion rate. molecules at one of the points
increases the rate of diffusion.
3. Size of molecules- small and
light molecules diffuse faster 5. Thickness of the membrane- If the
than large and heavy membrane is thicker, it increases
molecules. the distance travelled by particles
4. Surface area to volume ratio- hence slow rate of diffusion. If the
the higher the ratio the faster membrane is thin, it decreases the
the rate of diffusion and the distance travelled by particles
lower the ratio the lower the hence faster rate of diffusion.
rate of diffusion. This implies 6. Surface area- the larger the surface
that small organisms have area over which diffusion occurs,
large surface area to volume the higher the rate f diffusion.
ratio than large animals.
7. Type of medium- diffusion is faster
in gases than liquids.
ROLE/IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION
IN LIVING ORGANISMS
Importance/ role of diffusion in Importance/ role of diffusion in

animals plants.
1. Excretion/ removal of nitrogenous
wastes in some organisms e.g. 1. Absorption of mineral salts
unicellular organisms like amoeba by plant roots from the soil.
found in fresh water. 2. Helps in gaseous exchange
2. Gaseous exchange in respiratory through the stomata and
surfaces e.g. alveoli and gills.
lenticels.
3. Absorption digested food (e.g.
amino acids, glucose) in the ileum 3. Transport/ translocation of
into blood stream. manufactured food from the
4. Reabsorption of useful substances leaves to other parts off the
and some salts in the kidney plant.
tubules.
Study question 1 a) Name the physiological
process. (1mk)
The set up below illustrates  Diffusion.
a certain physiological b) Give two examples of the
process. process named in a) above in
plants. (2mks)
 Gaseous exchange/ excretion
of carbon (IV) oxide.
 Absorption/ uptake of mineral
ions.
 Translocation/ transport of
manufactured food.
c) State two ways by which the Study question 2
movement of the dye in the a) What is the significance of
diffusion in pollination?
set up would be slowed
• Insects that carry out pollination
down. (2mks) are attracted by the smell from
 Lowering temperature. the flowers. This may lead to
pollination.
 Increasing thickness of the b) Is diffusion an energy driven
membrane. process? Explain.
 Using less dye/ adding more  Diffusion is not energy driven
process or it is a passive process.
water/ reducing This is because molecules/
concentration gradient. particles move along the
diffusion/ concentration gradient.
Study question 3
 A group of students set up an  After 10 minutes the students
experiment to demonstrate a certain recorded their observation in a
process. The experiment was set up table as shown below.
as shown in the diagram below.
Observation Observation
inside the outside the
visking visking
tubing tubing
At the start White Brown
of the colour colour
experiment
At the end Black Brown
of the colour colour
experiment
a) Name the physiological process
being investigated. c) Explain the results expected if the
Diffusion. experiment was repeated using
b) Explain the results obtained in the starch solution which has been
set up. boiled with dilute hydrochloric
 The wall of the visking tubing is acid.
semi-permeable hence allowed small  There would be no colour change
iodine molecules to pass through it
from the beaker into the beaker inside the visking tubing/ the brown
where they reacted with starch to colour of iodine would persist.
form blue black colour.  This is because hydrochloric acid
 Starch molecules are too large to hydrolyzed/ broke down starch into
move out of the tubing into the simple sugars which do not react
beaker. with iodine.

(B) OSMOSIS.
Definition of osmosis.
1. This is the movement of • Osmosis is a special type of
water/solvent molecules from a
region of high concentration of diffusion because:
water molecules to a region of low i. It involves the movement of
concentration of water molecules water molecules only.
through a semi-permeable ii. It is involved a semi-
membrane. permeable membrane -
2. This is the process through which which allows some
solvent/ water molecules move from substances to pass through
dilute/ hypotonic solution to a
highly concentrated solution across/ but denies others.
through a semi-permeable
membrane.

Terms used in osmosis.
1. Isotonic solution- This is a solution

with the same concentration as the  Water/solvent molecules
adjacent/next solution separated by move from the hypotonic
a semi-permeable membrane.
solution to the adjacent
 There is no movement of solution through a semi
water/solvent molecules between the permeable membrane.
two solutions as there is no
concentration gradient. 3. Hypertonic solution- This is
2. Hypotonic solution- This is a a solution with high
solution with low solute salt/sugar concentration or
(salt/sugar) concentration or dilute low water potential or low
or with high water potential/with water concentration than
high water molecules than the the adjacent solution
adjacent solution separated by a separated by a semi
semi permeable membrane. permeable membrane.
4. Osmotic pressure- This is a force
developed by a solution to draw in 5. Osmotic potential- This is a
water through a semi-permeable hidden pressure of a
membrane or to stop water from concentrated solution which
passing through a semi- permeable manifests itself when it is
placed next to the distilled
membrane. water separated by a semi-
• Highly concentrated/hypertonic permeable membrane.
solution has high osmotic pressure • It is also a measure of the
while hypotonic solution has low pressure a solution would
develop to draw water molecules
osmotic pressure. from distilled water when
separated by a semi- permeable
membrane.

Water relations in plants.
 Plant cells have both cellulose cell

wall and cell membrane and the  When a plant cell is placed in
centre of the cell contains a distilled water/ hypotonic
vacuole with sap. solution, water will move into the
 The sap is a solution of salts and cell through osmosis and cause
sugar and is surrounded by a the cell wall to distend.
membrane called tonoplast.  The plant cell does not burst
 The cell membrane and tonoplast because it has rigid cellulose cell
wall.
are semi-permeable while the
cellulose cell wall is fully  As the cell gains more water
permeable hence allowing solutes through osmosis, its vacuole
enlarges and exerts an outward
and water to pass through. pressure on the cell wall called
turgor pressure.

 This pressure increases as more Study question.
water is taken into the vacuole
which pushes the cytoplasm Differentiate between wall pressure
against the cell wall which causes and turgor pressure.
increase in length until the cell  Wall pressure is the inward
wall cannot stretch any more. pressure exerted by the cell wall
The cell then becomes firm/ on the cell membrane to resist
rigid and is said to be turgid. expansion as the cell takes in
 When the cell wall is being water through osmosis.
stretched towards the outside, it  Turgor pressure is the outward
develops a resistant pressure on pressure exerted by the expanded
the cell membrane which is vacuole on the cell wall as the
equal and opposite to turgor cell takes in water through
pressure called wall pressure. osmosis.

 When a plant cell is placed in
hypertonic solution, water
molecules move out of the cell  When the plant cells are
into the solution through osmosis. plasmolysed, they reduce in
 As water moves out of the cell, the length and the tissue becomes
membrane pulls away from the cell soft and less rigid/ flabby and
wall and the cell becomes the tissue is said to be flaccid.
plasmolyzed.  A plasmolysed/ flaccid cell is
 Plasmolysis is the process by made turgid by placing it in
which the cell membrane shrinks distilled water/ hypotonic
and pulls away from the cell wall solution. This process is called
when the plant cell is placed in a deplasmolysis.
hypertonic solution.

WILTING
 This is the process where the  If the water supply from the
rate of water loss to the soil is inadequate, the plants
atmosphere is more than that of do not recover from wilting
absorption from the soil. and are said to have
 Turgor pressure in cells is undergone permanent wilting.
reduced, the cell wall loses its Importance/ significance of
rigidity, the cells shrink and the wilting.
plant droops.
 Wilting results to drooping of
 At night, plants recover from leaves. This in turn reduces the
wilting because their stomata total surface area of the leaf
are closed and the rate of water exposed to the environment
loss/ transpiration and hence reducing water loss.
evaporation are reduced.

WATER RELATIONS IN
ANIMALS
 The cell membrane of animal cell
e.g. red blood cells is semi-  If the animal cell (e.g. red blood
permeable and the cytoplasm cell) is placed in a hypotonic
contains dissolved salts and sugars solution/ distilled water, it will
in solution form. take in/gain water by osmosis,
 If the animal cells are placed in a swell and burst because it lacks
hypertonic/ concentrated solution cell wall. This is called
e.g. 1.2% sodium chloride, they haemolysis.
will lose water (from the cytoplasm)  If human red blood cells are
by osmosis across the semi- placed in a 0.9% sodium
permeable membrane, shrink and chloride solution, they will
the cell membrane becomes neither shrink nor swell. This is
wrinkled. This is known as laking or because the solution is isotonic
crenation. to human cells.

FACTORS AFFECTING
OSMOSIS 3. Temperature- low
1. Concentration of solutions temperature slows down the
and concentration gradient- rate of osmosis. Increase in
the greater the concentration temperature increases the
gradient between two energy content of water/
solutions the higher the rate solvent molecules increasing
of osmosis and vice versa. the rate of osmosis.
2. pH- Extreme pH e.g. strong  Extremely high temperature
acids destroy the structure of destroys the structure of the
the cell membrane thus cell membrane thus hindering
hindering osmosis. osmosis.

ROLE OF OSMOSIS IN PLANTS.
1. Helps in absorption of water from
the soil (through root hair). 5. It helps in feeding in
2. Helps in support in herbaceous insectivorous plants. The plants
plants/ non-woody plants through have special structures that
turgidity. This is because plant change turgor pressure when
cells take in water through touched. The change in turgor
osmosis, become turgid hence pressure causes those structures
become firm/ rigid providing to close trapping insects.
support. 6. Folding of leaves. This reduces
3. Helps in movement of water from the surface area exposed to the
cell to cell. environment reducing water loss.
4. Enables opening and closing of 7. Support in
stomata to facilitate gaseous leaves/flowers/seedlings through
exchange. turgidity.

ROLE OF OSMOSIS IN ANIMALS.
1. Enables re-absorption of water in the
kidney nephron (osmoregulation).
This helps the animal to regulate its
osmotic pressure.
2. Helps in movement of water from cell
to cell.
3. Helps in absorption of water from
the alimentary canal/ gut (colon) into
bloodstream.

Differences between osmosis and
diffusion.
Diffusion. Osmosis.
i. Involves the movement of i. It involves the movement of
particles or molecules of liquid solvent/ water molecules.
or gas. ii. It is through a semi-permeable
ii. It may be through a membrane membrane.
or air. iii. It is affected by changes in pH.
iii. It is not affected by changes in
pH.

Study questions
1. The diagram below
illustrates the appearance of a) Explain the appearance of the cell at
a plant cell after it had been the end of the treatment.
placed in a certain solution.  The cell sap was hypertonic compared
to the solution in which it was placed.
Water molecules moved into the cell
sap through osmosis across its semi-
permeable membrane. This causes
the cell to swell and become turgid.
b) Explain the results obtained if the
red blood cell is subjected to the
same treatment.
 The red blood cell lacks a cell wall,
water moves across its semi-permeable
membrane into the cytoplasm
through osmosis. The red blood cell
Sam obare
then
34
swells and bursts (haemolyze) 21-Dec-20
2. A student at Enkinda
secondary school observed  Note- The same phenomenon is
that when sodium chloride observed that around the urinal pit
was poured onto grass, the as grass dries up because urine
grass dried up. Explain this contains salts that dissolve in soil
solution forming hypertonic
observation in relation to environment.
osmosis. 3. Distinguish between plasmolysis
 Sodium chloride dissolved in and wilting.
the soil solution forming a  Plasmolysis involves loss of water
hypertonic environment. This from plant cells to a hypertonic
caused plant cells to lose solution while wilting involves
water by osmosis hence drying loss of water from plant cells to
up. the atmosphere.

4. Describe how turgor pressure 6. Explain how the visking tubing
builds up. is different from the cell
As the cell gains water by osmosis, membrane.
the cell sap/sap vacuole enlarges
pushing the cytoplasm outwards;  The visking tubing has a thin
exerting pressure on the cell wall. layer of polythene with pores
5. Explain what would happen to while the cell membrane is a
onion epidermal cells if they layer made up of lipids and
were placed in distilled water.
 The cells would absorb water proteins (lipo-protein layer).
through osmosis, the cell
swells/becomes turgid but does
not burst due to the cell wall.
7. A freshly obtained
dandelion stem measuring 5
cm long was split lengthwise
to obtain two similar pieces.
The pieces were placed in
solutions of different
concentrations in Petri
dishes for 20 minutes. The
appearance after 20 minutes
is as shown.
a) Name the physiological process
investigated.
 In L2 cortical cells/cells of the
 Osmosis cortex/inner cells lost water by
b) Account for the appearance of the osmosis leading to decrease in
pieces in solutions L1 and L2 length. The epidermal cells did
 In L1 cortical cells/cells of the not gain water because they are
cortex/inner cells gained water by covered by a water proof cuticle
osmosis becoming turgid hence
increasing in length. The epidermal leading to curvature.
cells did not gain water because they
are covered by a water proof cuticle
leading to curvature.

8. An experiment was carried
out to investigate the effect
of different concentrations Sodium Number Number
of sodium chloride on chloride of cells at of cells at
concentra the the end
human red blood cells.
tion beginnin of the
Equal amounts of blood g of the experime
were added to equal volumes experime nt
of the salt solution but of nt
different concentrations. A 0.9 % Normal No
The results are shown in the change in
table below. number
B 0.3% Normal Fewer in
Sam obare 39 number 21-Dec-20
a) Account for the results set up in A
and B. b) If the experiment was repeated
 A – There was no change in number using 1.4% sodium chloride
because 0.9% sodium chloride solution state the expected
solution is isotonic to red blood cell results with reference to:
hence they did not lose water i) The number of red blood cells.
through osmosis.  The number of cell will remain
the same.
 B- There was fewer in number
because 0.3% sodium chloride ii) The appearance of red blood
cell if viewed under the
solution is hypotonic to red blood
microscope.
cells. This caused the red blood cells
 The red blood cells will appear
to gain water through osmosis, swell
small in size, wrinkled/ crenated
and burst/ to haemolyze.
(C) ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Active transport is the process by

which substances move across the Factors affecting active transport.
cell membrane against 1. Concentration of oxygen- higher
concentration gradient. oxygen concentration leads to
 The process requires energy and higher rate of respiration to provide
carriers for the substances to move enough energy for faster rate of
across the cell membrane. active transport.
 The carrier binds the molecule or 2. Concentration of glucose- higher
ion to be transported on one side glucose concentration increases the
of the membrane and takes it to rate of respiration thus increasing
the other side. the rate of active transport.
 The carrier releases the molecule 3. Temperature- Respiration is
and returns to the other side where enzyme controlled process Enzymes
it repeats the process. function best at a given optimum
temperature.
4. Enzyme inhibitors- they Role of active transport in animals.
inhibit the process of 1. Helps in the re-absorption of sugars and
respiration thus affecting some salts in the kidney into the blood
active transport. stream.
5. Change in pH.- extreme 2. Helps in absorption of digested food from
change in pH affects the alimentary canal into the blood
respiration hence affecting stream
active transport. 3. Helps in excretion of waste products from
Role of active transport in the body cells.
plants. 4. Helps in pumping of sodium and
1. It enables the absorption of potassium ions across the nerve cell
mineral salts from the soil membrane.
by the plants. For example 5. It helps in accumulation of substances
uptake of large quantities into the body to offset osmotic imbalance
of iodide by sea weeds from in arid and saline/ salt environments.
surrounding sea water
Differences between osmosis
and active transport.
Osmosis. Active transport

i. It involves the movement i. It involves the movement of
water molecules. ions/particles.
ii. It involves the movement ii. It involves movement against
along the concentration the concentration gradient.
gradient. iii. It requires the use of energy.
iii. It does not require energy. iv. It requires carriers.
iv. It does not require carriers.

Differences between active
transport and diffusion.
Active transport. Diffusion.

i. It involves the movement of i. It involves the movement of
particles or molecules from a particles or molecules from a
region of high concentration to region of low concentration to a
a region of low concentration. region of high concentration.
ii. It involves the movement against
ii. It involves the movement along the concentration gradient.
the concentration gradient.
iii. Does not require the use of
iii. It requires the use of energy. energy.
iv. It requires the use of carriers. iv. It does not require the use of
carriers.
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.
Aim: To demonstrate osmosis

using a visking tubing. Procedure:
1. Put 350 ml of distilled water
Requirements:
into the beaker.
1. Visking tubing 8cm long. 2. Dip the visking tubing in water
2. 500 ml Beaker. to moisten it. Rub it between
3. 500 ml distilled water. the finger top open and tie one
end with a thread.
4. Concentrated salt/ sugar
3. Half-fill the visking tubing with
solution. salt/ sugar solution and tie the
5. A piece of thread. open end of the visking tubing.
6. Glass rod. Ensure that no salt solution
spills out of the visking tubing.
7. 500 ml measuring cylinder

4. Immerse the visking tubing
into the distilled water and
suspend it using the glass
rod.
5. Leave the set up for about
30 minutes.
6. Record your observation.
7. Explain the observation.

Observation Explanation
• The visking tubing swells/  Distilled water in hypotonic to
sugar/salt solution OR
increases in size/ become sugar/salt solution is
turgid. hypertonic to distilled water.
 Water molecules moved from
distilled water in the beaker
into the visking tubing
through osmosis across the
semi-permeable membrane.

Aim: To investigate osmosis Procedure:

in a potato tissue. 1. Use the scalpel to cut the
Requirements: Irish potatoes into cup
1. Three Irish potatoes. shapes then set up
2. Scalpel. apparatus as shown.
3. Distilled water. 2. Leave the set up for 4
4. 3 beakers. hours.
5. Sugar solution.

Boiled potato
Sugar
solution
Petri
dish
Distilled water.

1. State the observation made 2. State the observations that
would be made if a boiled
after the experiment. potato was used in set up D.
 In Set up A, the depression is  There would be rise in the level
filled with sugar solution. of sugar solution.
3. Give a reason for your answer
 In B the level of distilled in (2) above.
water is reduced in the  Boiling/ high temperature
depression. destroys the structure of the
membranes hence they are no
 In set up C, no observation is longer semi-permeable and as
made. such no osmosis takes place.

4. Explain/account for the  This makes the cell sap less
observations in 1 above. concentrated/ hypotonic than
the cell sap of adjacent cells.
 In set up A, water is more
concentrated/hypertonic in  Water continuously moves
from one cell to another
the Petri dish than in the cells through osmosis until it
of the Irish potato. Water reaches the sugar solution by
moves from the Petri dish to resulting into a rise of the
the adjacent cell sap of the volume of the sugar solution
Irish potato cells through in the cup shaped depression
osmosis. of the Irish potato.
.
 In set up B, water is more  Water continuously moves from
concentrated/hypertonic in the one cell to another through
cup shaped depression than in osmosis until it reaches the sugar
the cell sap of the adjacent cells solution in the petri dish
of the Irish potato.
resulting into the drop volume
 Water moves from the cup of water in the cup shaped
shaped depression to the cell sap
of the adjacent cells of the Irish depression of the Irish potato.
potato through osmosis.  In C, there was no sugar solution
 This makes them hypotonic/ less hence no concentration gradient
concentrated than the cell sap of existed therefore no osmosis took
the adjacent cells. place.

1. You are provided with Irish potato, 4. Place one cylinder in distilled
5 ml of distilled water in a beaker water (R1), another in sodium
labeled R1, 5 ml of 10% sodium
chloride solution in a beaker labeled chloride solution (R2) and the
R2, an empty beaker labeled R3 and third cylinder in an empty
ruler. beaker (R3). Leave the set up to
2. Push a cork borer through the Irish stand for 30 minutes.
potato and remove the cylinder
tissue from the borer. Repeat the 5. After 30 minutes remove the
procedure obtain three cylinders. cylinders from the solutions
3. Chip off one end of each cylinder and gently wipe it with a tissue
and starting from the chipped end paper provided.
measure exactly 30 mm and cut the
cylinder. Repeat this for the other
two cylinders.
1. Which physiological process is
being investigated? Osmosis.
2. Measure and record new lengths 3. Feel the textures of the cylinders
of the cylinders and record your and record your observations in the
results in the table below. table below.
Cylinder in Initial Final Cylinder in Observation

length in length in R1 Hard/ firm/
mm mm turgid/ rigid.
R1 30mm 32±1 mm
R2 Soft/ flaccid.
R2 30mm 28±1 mm R3 Hard/ firm/
R3 30mm 30mm turgid/ rigid.

4. Explain/ account for
observation made in; b) R2
a) R1  Sodium chloride solution was
 Distilled water was hypertonic/highly
hypotonic/less solute concentrated than the cell
concentrated than cell sap of sap of potato cells. Water
potato cells. Water moved into moved from cell sap of potato
potato cell sap of potato cells cells (into the beaker)
(from the beaker) through through osmosis. This caused
osmosis. This increased the potato cells to be flabby/
turgidity of potato cells which flaccid decreasing the length
also increased in length. of cells.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. The students set up the

experiment as shown below. a. State the reason for the set up.
To demonstrate osmosis.
b. Explain the observations
made.
 The level of the solution rises in
the capillary tube. This is because
water molecules move from the
beaker to the visking tubing
through osmosis across the semi-
permeable membrane.
2. Study the setup below 1. Name the process that is being investigated.
and answer the  Osmosis.
2. State the expected observations after the setup
questions that follow. is left for 3 hours.
 The visking tubing will become turgid/increase
in size.
3. Explain the answer you have given in (b) above.
 Water moves by osmosis from the beaker into
the visking tubing across the semi-permeable
membrane.
4. State and explain the expected observation if
the experiment is repeated with distilled water
in both the visking tubing and the beaker.
 There would be no change because a
concentration gradient does not exist between
the liquids in the beaker and in the visking
tubing.
3. A 4 cm straight piece of
stem from a herbaceous
plant was split lengthwise
into two similar pieces. The
pieces were placed in sugar
solutions of different
concentrations for 30
minutes. Their appearance
after 30 minutes is as shown
below:

1. Which biological process is being
investigated?
 Osmosis.  Piece B was placed in a
2. Account for the appearance of hypertonic solution. The inner
the pieces in solutions A and B. cells lost water by osmosis. They
 Piece A was placed in a hypotonic became flaccid and decreased in
solution. The inner cells gained size/length.
water by osmosis. They became
turgid and increased in  Epidermis does not gain water
size/length. because it is covered by
 Epidermis does not gain water
because it is covered by waterproof waterproof cuticle This leads to
cuticle. This leads to curvature of curvature in a direction
the whole piece outwards. opposite to that of A.
4. Study the experimental setup
below and answer the questions a) Name the process that is being
that follow. investigated.
 Osmosis.
b) State and explain what would be observed
if the setup was left for 12 hours.
 The level of the liquid in the cavity of the
potato will rise while that in the Petri dish
will drop because cells adjacent to the sugar
solution will lose water into the solution by
osmosis. Those cells become hypertonic to
the adjacent cells hence draw in water
through osmosis. Finally water will be
drawn from the Petri dish through osmosis.

c) State and explain what (ii) Petri dish contained sugar
would be observed if the solution and the cavity in the
potato contained distilled water.
experiment was repeated:  The level of the liquid in the cavity
(i) Using boiled potato of the potato will fall while that of
the Petri dish will rise.
instead of living potato.  Because cell sap of cells adjacent to
 No change in the level of the sugar solution will lose water
into the solution by osmosis. Those
the liquids. Because boiling cells become hypertonic to the
adjacent cells hence draw in water
destroys the cell membrane. through osmosis. Finally water will
be drawn from the cavity of the
potato to the Petri dish through
osmosis.

5. In an experiment, two  The cuboid that was
cuboids of equal size were immersed in distilled water
will be larger because the
made out of a peeled potato cells take up water through
tuber. One was placed in osmosis hence become
concentrated salt solution turgid and increase in size.
(brine) and the other was  The cuboid that was
placed in distilled water for immersed in brine
(concentrated solution) will
one hour. State and explain be smaller because the cells
the expected changes in the lost water through osmosis
size of the cuboids. and reduced in size.
5. NUTRITION IN PLANTS
AND ANIMALS.
Definition. Types/modes of nutrition.
 Nutrition is the process by which 1. Autotrophism- this is the
organisms obtain/acquire and process through which
utilize nutrients. organisms manufacture/make
Importance of nutrition. their own food from simple
 It helps organisms to acquire and
substances e.g. Carbon (IV)
utilize nutrients for metabolic oxide, water in the presence of
activities for respiration, growth light/ chemical energy.
and repair of worn out tissues.  The organisms that make their own
food are called autotrophs e.g.
green plants, algae and some
bacteria.
13-May-21 © Sam obare 1

2. Heterotrophism- this is the NUTRITION IN PLANTS
mode of nutrition where  Nutrition in plants is called
organisms feed on already autotrophism.
manufactured food/ complex Types/ modes of autotrophism
food materials e.g. carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids (fats and oils). 1. Photosynthesis- this is the
 Organisms that feed on already
process by which green plants
manufactured food are called manufacture their own food
heterotrophs e.g. animals, protozoa using light energy.
(e.g. amoeba) and some bacteria.  During photosynthesis light energy
is converted into chemical energy
and stored in food.
2. Chemosynthesis- this is the
process through which
organisms (e.g. bacteria)
manufacture their own using
chemical energy obtained from
chemical reactions.

External parts of a dicot
leaf.
1. Leaf lamina/blade- it is flat and broad
to increase surface area for trapping light
energy for photosynthesis. The lamina is
green in color and contains the
photosynthetic tissue.
2. Mid rib and veins- the mid rib is
thick and runs in the middle from the
petiole to the apex. The veins un into the
lamina forming an extensive network of
veins. The veins have:
i) Xylem- which transports water and
mineral salts to the photosynthetic cells.
ii) Phloem- which transports
manufactured food from photosynthetic
cells.
3. Petiole- Attaches the leaf to the branch
or stem.
4. Margin- it is either smooth or serrated.
5. Apex- It is located at the tip of the
blade.
EXTERNAL PARTS OF A MONOCOT LEAF.
1. Leaf lamina/blade- it is flat and
narrow to trap light energy for
photosynthesis. The lamina is green in
color and contains the photosynthetic
tissue.
2. Parallel veins- they run parallel from
sheath to apex. The veins have:
i) Xylem- which transports water and
mineral salts to the photosynthetic cells.
ii) Phloem- which transports
manufactured food from photosynthetic
cells.
3. Margin- it is either smooth or serrated.
4. Apex- It is located at the tip of the blade.
5. Leaf sheath- it attaches the leaf to the
stem/ branch.

Differences between dicot
and monocot leaf
Dicot leaf Monocot leaf
1. Has broad lamina/ blade. 1. Has narrow lamina/ blade.
2. Has leaf petiole. 2. Has leaf sheath.
3. Has midrib. 3. Lacks midrib.
4. Has network veins. 4. Has parallel veins.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF.

Internal parts of a leaf
1. Cuticle- This is a thin non- 2. Epidermis- This is a thin tissue,
cellular, waxy, waterproof and usually one cell thick, on the
transparent layer that covers the upper and lower surfaces of the
upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. The epidermal cells have no
leaf. The cuticle is transparent to chloroplasts except the guard
allow penetration of light for cells. Chloroplasts are the
photosynthesis. organelles that contain the
photosynthetic material known
Functions of cuticle
as chlorophyll.
i. It reduces excessive loss of
water.
ii. Protects the inner tissues of the
leaf from mechanical damage.
iii. Prevents entry of disease-
causing microorganisms.

3. Guard cells- they are specialized epidermal
Functions/ adaptations of
epidermis. cells used to control opening and closing of
a) It secretes the cuticle. stomata.
b) It is transparent to allow light  Unlike the epidermal cells, the guard cells are
penetrate to the photosynthetic bean-shaped while other epidermal cells are
tissue.
blocky shaped. They also contain chloroplasts/
c) It has a single layer of cell (i.e.
thin) to reduce the distance over are able to carry out photosynthesis
which light penetrates to Structural adaptations of guard cells.
photosynthetic tissue and carbon
(IV) oxide diffuses to a) They have thicker inner less elastic walls
photosynthetic cells. which curve to open the stomata and
d) It has stomata for gaseous straighten to close the stoma.
exchange.
e) There are guard cells to control b) They have outer thinner and less elastic walls
opening and closing of stomata. which bulge outwards.
f) It is covered with thick, waxy c) They contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis/
and has waterproof cuticle to manufacture glucose which is osmotically
prevent excessive water loss and
protect the inner parts of the active.
leaf.

4. Palisade layer/ cells- This is a layer  The air spaces provide communication
of cells located beneath/below the pathways through which gases diffuse in
upper epidermis. It consists of between the cells.
cylindrical shaped cells closely packed  Unlike the palisade cells, spongy mesophyll
cells contain fewer chloroplasts.
together and with the long axis
 This explains why the lower surface of the leaf
perpendicular to the surface. is lighter in colour than the upper surface.
Adaptation to function 6. Vascular bundle- consists of xylem and
phloem tissues.
a) They have numerous chloroplasts  The xylem transport water and mineral salts
containing chlorophyll which is from the roots to the leaf cells.
necessary for photosynthesis. Their  The phloem transports/translocates
position and arrangement enables them manufactured food from the leaf cells to the
rest of the plant.
to receive maximum sunlight. Study question
5. Spongy mesophyll layer- this is a Name three cells in a leaf which contain
layer of cells between the palisade and chloroplasts.
i. Palisade.
the lower epidermis. The cells are
ii. Spongy mesophyll.
irregularly shaped and loosely arranged iii. Guard cells.
creating large air spaces in between
them.
ADAPTATIONS OF THE LEAF TO PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
1. It is green in colour/ contain chlorophyll 7. The palisade cells and mesophyll cells
which traps sunlight energy needed for contain large numbers of chloroplasts
photosynthesis. located next to the upper epidermis
2. Has broad and flat lamina which provides a enables them to receive maximum
large surface area for the absorption of carbon sunlight.
(IV) oxide trapping sunlight. 8. The mid-rib and veins contain xylem
3. It has thin lamina to allow light and carbon which transports water and mineral salts to
(IV) oxide to pass through a short distance to photosynthetic cells and phloem; which
reach the photosynthetic cells. transports manufactured/ photosynthetic
4. It has stomata to ensure efficient diffusion of materials from photosynthetic cells
respiratory gases in and out of the leaf. 9. Spongy mesophyll cells have large air
5. It contains guard cells which control opening spaces which allow circulation of air to
and closing of stomata; and contain facilitate gaseous exchange.
chloroplasts/ chlorophyll to trap light 10. The regular /mosaic arrangement of leaves
energy/ carry out photosynthesis. on the stem minimizes overlapping and
6. It has transparent cuticle and epidermis to overshadowing so that each leaf receives
allow penetration of light to the palisade cells. adequate light
11. Has xylem, parenchyma and sclerenchyma
tissues to support the leaf exposing it to
sunlight.

Study questions
2. Explain how aquatic plants are adapted to
1. List three adaptations of leaves photosynthesis.
that maximize efficiency in
trapping sunlight for  Emergent and floating hydrophytes
photosynthesis. have broad leaves with numerous
stomata on the upper surface to increase
i. Flat broad lamina. the surface area for transpiration and for
ii. Transparent cuticle. efficient gaseous exchange.
iii. Thinness of the leaf.  Submerged hydrophytes have highly
dissected leaves into thread-like
straws to increase surface area for
absorption of maximum light and CO2
for photosynthesis and gaseous exchange.
 The leaves of Submerged hydrophytes
have numerous and sensitive
chloroplasts that photosynthesize under
low light intensities.

THE CHLOROPLAST.
Parts of chloroplast Adaptations of chloroplast
1. The outer and inner membranes. to its function
2. Inner membrane is folded to (photosynthesis).
form lamellae suspended in an 1. It has lamellae/grana that
aqueous matrix called stroma. contains chlorophyll that
3. The lamellae may at certain traps light energy.
intervals form several layers of 2. The grana has a large surface
membranes grouped together to area for accommodation or
make a granum (plural – grana). packing of the chlorophyll.
4. Granum contains chlorophyll- 3. The stroma contains the
which absorb light energy which enzymes that speed
is necessary for photosynthesis. up/catalyze the process of
5. Stroma contains enzymes that photosynthesis.
speeds up the process of
photosynthesis.

The process of Photosynthesis.
 The raw materials for photosynthesis
are:
i. Water
ii. Carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Conditions required for Importance of photosynthesis.
photosynthesis to take place 1. Acts as a source of energy.
i. Light and 2. It provides oxygen in the air.
ii. Chlorophyll 3. It prevents the accumulation of
 Water and carbon (IV) oxide carbon (IV) oxide in the
molecules undergo several chemical atmosphere.
processes in the presence of sunlight Stages of photosynthesis.
to form carbohydrates/glucose, A. Light stage/ light dependent stage.
oxygen and energy (ATP) are given
out as a by-product. B. Dark stage/ light independent
stage/ Carbon (IV) oxide fixation.

A. Light stage (light dependent stage).
 This is the initial stage in the process of  Oxygen is released to the atmosphere or
photosynthesis. used by the plant for respiration.
 It occurs in the grana of the chloroplasts.  Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is
 The chlorophyll molecule absorbs/traps formed by energy light which is later
light energy which is used to split used in the dark stage.
water molecules into oxygen and  This reaction involves conversion of light
hydrogen atoms. energy to chemical energy.
 This process is called photolysis of Importance of light stage.
water.  It provides hydrogen atoms and ATP
 The hydrogen atoms that are produced molecules useful during carbon (IV)
enter the dark stage. oxide fixation.
Fate of end products of light stage.
(what happens to the end products of
light stage?
i) Hydrogen atoms enter the dark stage.
ii) Oxygen atoms are released to the
atmosphere as a gas or used for
respiration.

B. The Dark Stage/carbon (IV) oxide
fixation/ (Light Independent Stage).
 It occurs in the stroma in the  If the leaf is kept in darkness for 48
presence or absence of light. hours, starch is converted into glucose.
 It involves the combination of carbon This is called destarching.
(IV) oxide with hydrogen atoms
to form simple sugar /glucose, fatty
acids and amino acids.
 The energy required for this reaction is
provided by ATP from light stage
reaction.
 Glucose formed is converted into
starch for storage. This is important
because starch is osmotically
inactive (compared to glucose)
hence the plant cells do not lose
water through osmosis.

Study questions.
What happens to end products of 1. State four requirements and sources for
photosynthesis?/ the Fate of end the process of photosynthesis to occur.
products of photosynthesis.  Water- soil.
 Carbon (IV) oxide- atmosphere.
 Some glucose is used in respiration.
 Chlorophyll- available on the
 Some glucose is converted into starch for chloroplasts.
storage.  Light- sunlight
 Some glucose is converted into sucrose which 2. Give the role of each of the following
is translocated to other parts of the plant. structures in the leaf during
photosynthesis.
 Some glucose is used in making cellulose for a) Xylem vessels- transports water from
the cell wall. the soil to the leaves where
 Fatty acids and glycerol are combined to form photosynthesis takes place.
oils and fats (lipids). b) Chlorophyll- traps light energy (used
for photolysis).
 Amino acids are converted to proteins. c) Guard cells- control opening and
 Oxygen is used by plants in respiration. closing of stomata which allow in
carbon (IV) oxide for use during
 Excess oxygen is released into the atmos- photosynthesis.
phere.
3. Explain why plants will not photosynthesise a) Name the gases labelled X and Y.
in the dark.  X – Carbon (IV) Oxide.
 Photosynthesis is the process by which green  Y – Oxygen.
plants manufacture food in the presence of b) Give two ways in which leaves are adapted
light hence it does not take place in the to absorb light.
absence of light.
 Broad and flat to absorb maximum light.
4. Explain why most leaves are thin with broad
surface.
 Have chloroplast with chlorophyll to trap
 They are thin and broad to provide a large
surface area for absorption of light and light.
carbon (IV) oxide for maximum  Transparent cuticle to allow light to pass
photosynthesis. through.
5. The following diagram of a leaf shows what c) Name the tissue that transports water into
happens in a plant leaf during the leaf and sugars out of the leaf.
photosynthesis.  Xylem – Transports water.
 Phloem – Sugars out of the leaf.
d) Explain why it’s an advantage for the plant
to store carbohydrates as starch rather than
as sugars.
 Starch is insoluble in water, hence
osmotically inactive. This reduces effect on
absorption of water by cells.
13-May-21 20
© Sam obare
6. A group of students placed a fresh 7. Explain the formation of starch
leaf in warm water. They observed in green plants.
that air bubbles formed on the  Green plants manufacture food through the
surface of the leaf. process of photosynthesis; the leaves contain
chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll where
a) What biological process were they photosynthesis take place;
investigating?  Light stage occurs in the granum; where
Photosynthesis. chlorophyll traps light energy; which splits
b) Name the structures from which water into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms/
the air bubbles were coming from. photolysis; and ATP/ energy used in dark
stage;
Stomata.  Dark stage occurs in the stroma; where
c) Explain the distribution of the carbon (IV) oxide from the atmosphere;
structures named in (b) above on combines with hydrogen atoms to form simple
the leaf surfaces. sugars/ glucose molecules; which are
converted into starch for storage;
They are more on the lower surface
and fewer on the upper surface of
terrestrial plants to reduce the rate of
transpiration.

8. Other than photosynthesis, FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
explain how carnivorous/ OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
insectivorous plants obtain a) Environmental/ external
nutrients. factors
 They grow in nitrogen deficient soil 1. Light intensity and quality.
and obtain nitrogen from insects. 2. Carbon (IV) oxide
 Insects are attracted by colour/ concentration.
scent/ sugary baits and are trapped 3. Temperature.
by plant (nastic responses) and 4. Water.
digested by proteases secreted by b) Internal factors
insects. 1. Chlorophyll concentration.
2. Enzyme concentration.

1. LIGHT INTENSITY/ QUALITY OF LIGHT
 Light provides the energy required for the process of
photosynthesis.
 Decrease in light intensity decreases the rate of
photosynthesis.
 The rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity
increases up to an optimum level.
 Beyond the optimum level the rate off photosynthesis
remains constant due to other limiting factors.
 At very high light intensity, chlorophyll is damaged/
bleached and the rate of photosynthesis falls.
Note.
 There is no grass/ vegetation in dense forests because
forests form canopies/ shadow which prevents light from
reaching grass/ vegetation thus grass/ vegetation die/ fail
to flourish due to inactivity to photosynthesize.

2. CARBON (IV) OXIDE
CONCENTRATION.
 Carbon (IV) oxide is a raw
material for photosynthesis.
 Decrease in carbon (IV) oxide
decreases the rate of
photosynthesis.
 An increase in carbon (IV) oxide
(beyond 0.04%) leads to an
increase in the rate of
photosynthesis up to a given
optimum.
 Beyond optimum, the rate of
photosynthesis remains constant
due to other limiting factors.

3. TEMPERATURE.
 Photosynthesis reactions are
catalyzed/controlled by enzymes.
 Decrease in temperature
decreases the rate of
photosynthesis because enzymes
are inactivated.
 Increase in temperature activates
enzymes thus increasing the rate
of photosynthesis up to optimum.
 High temperatures above
optimum denatures enzymes, thus
reducing the rate of
photosynthesis.
 These parts lack chlorophyll hence do not
4. WATER. photosynthesize and therefore gives
 Water is a raw material for negative results with starch test.
photosynthesis.  The variegated leaf has less starch than a
 It influences opening and closure of normal leaf because it has less
stomata which affects the diffusion of chlorophyll hence manufactures
less food.
carbon (IV) oxide into the leaf thus
further affecting the rate of
photosynthesisi.
5. CHLOROPHYLL
CONCENTRATION.
 Chlorophyll is the pigment that traps
light energy during photosynthesis.
 The higher the chlorophyll concentration
the higher the rate of photosynthesis and
vice versa.
 A variegated leaf is one that has some
patches that lack chlorophyll. These
patches have other colours e.g. yellow.

6. ENZYME Study question
CONCENTRATION 1. Variegated plants
 Enzymes catalyze the accumulate less food than
photosynthetic reactions. non-variegated plants
 Increase in enzyme under similar conditions.
concentration increases the rate explain
of photosynthesis.  Variegated leaves have less
 A decrease in enzyme chlorophyll compared to
concentration decreases the non-variegated leaves.They
rate of photosynthesis. absorb less light hence
facilitate less
photosynthesis.
Aim: To investigate the gas produced during photosynthesis.
Requirements:
1. Water plant, e.g. Elodea spp., Spirogyra or Nymphea (water
lily)
2. Glass funnel.
3. Beaker.
4. Small wooden blocks.
5. Test tube.
6. Wooden splint.
7. Sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Procedure
1. Set-up the experiment as
shown below.
2. Place the set-up in the
sunlight to allow
photosynthesis to take
place.
3. Leave the set-up in the sun
until sufficient gas has
collected in the test-tube.
4. Test the gas collected with a e.g.
glowing splint. Elodea

Questions.
1. What gas is produced during 4. Name other factors that can be
photosynthesis? tested using the set up above.
 Oxygen.  Temperature.
2. Why was sodium hydrogen  Light intensity.
carbonate used during the  Carbon (IV) oxide concentration.
experiment?
 To increase the amount of carbon
(IV) oxide in water and
accelerates the rate of
photosynthesis
3. Explain why only submerged water
plants are used instead of terrestrial
plants in the experiment.
 Submerged plants are adapted to
aquatic conditions hence can
carry out photosynthesis in water.

Aim: To test / investigate the Procedure:
presence of starch in a leaf. 1. Obtain a leaf that has been exposed to light for at
Requirements: least 5 hours.
1. Water. 2. Boil water in a beaker.
2. Dropper. 3. Dip the leaf in the boiling water for 3 to 4 minutes.
3. Beaker. 4. Put the leaf in a boiling tube containing methylated
spirit and stand the tube in the beaker containing
4. Source of heat. boiling water (water bath) for about 10 minutes to
5. Boiling tube. decolorize the leaf. Avoid direct heating because
6. A normal and variegated spirit is highly flammable.
leaf. 5. Remove the leaf from the test-tube and wash it in
7. Petri dish. warm water in the beaker to soften it.
8. White tile. 6. Spread the leaf in a Petri-dish and add drops of
9. Iodine solution. dilute iodine solution.
10. Methylated spirit. 7. Observe and record the colour changes.
Observation.
 The colour changes to blue-black indicating the
presence of starch.

Questions.
1. Why is it important to use the leaf 4. Why was the leaf decolourised?
that has been exposed to light for a  To make the color change in iodine
few hours? to be seen clearly.
 To ensure that photosynthesis occurs 5. Why is methylated spirit boiled
and starch is formed. indirectly?
2. Why is a fresh leaf dipped in boiling  It is highly flammable.
water? 6. Why was the leaf dipped in water?
 To kill the protoplasm of the  To soften it.
cell/kill the leaf cells/breakdown
starch granules/ stop enzymatic 7. Explain why a leaf cannot be tested
activity. for starch by adding iodine solution
3. Give a reason why the leaf was directly.
dipped in ethanol/ methylated  The leaf must be dipped in water to
spirit. kill it then boiled in methylated
 To remove chlorophyll/ dissolve spirit to decolorise it to make color
chlorophyll /decolorize the leaf. change in iodine to be seen clearly.

Aim : To investigate whether light is necessary for Procedure.
photosynthesis.
1. Cover one leaf of a potted plant
Requirements: with a light-proof material as
1. Methylated spirit. shown below.
2. Iodine solution. 2. Place the plant in a dark place for
3. Water. 48 hours to destarch it/ ensure
4. White tile. that all starch has been used
up.
5. Droppers.
3. Transfer the potted plant to light
6. Beaker.
for 2-3 hours.
7. Source of heat.
4. Detach and uncover the leaves and
8. Boiling tube. immediately carry out the test for
9. Light proof material (e.g. Aluminium foil). starch.
10. Potted plant.
11. Clips.

Questions
1. Why was the plant kept in the
dark for 48 hours?
 To destarch it / to ensure that
all starch in it is used up.
2. Why was it necessary to transfer
the plant to light?
 To allow the plant to
photosynthesize and hence
manufacture starch.
3. What was the role of the
lightproof paper?
 To reflect light so that none is
absorbed by the leaves.

Aim: To investigate whether 8. Iodine solution.
carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for 9. Methylated spirit.
photosynthesis. 10. Water.
Requirements: 11. Beakers.
1. Conical flasks/polythene
bags. 12. Droppers.
2. Potted plant.
13. White tiles.
3. Sodium hydroxide pellets.
14. Boiling tubes.
4. Cork or plasticine or clay.
15. Source of heat.
5. Cork borers.
16. Wooden support.
6. Scalpel.
7. Petroleum jelly.

Procedure.
1. Keep the potted plant in a dark 6. Seal the mouth of the conical
place for 48 hours. flask with petroleum jelly to
2. Place a few pellets of sodium make it airtight.
hydroxide in the flask. 7. Keep the set up in the light for
3. Bore a hole in the cork of the two to three hours.
same size as the petiole of the 8. Detach and test for the presence
leaf being used. of starch in both leaves A and B.
4. Using the scalpel, cut the cork
lengthwise.
5. Remove the plant from the dark
and immediately fit the petiole
of a leaf A in the groove and cork
the flask as shown below.

C

Questions
1. What is the function of the 4. Explain the result obtained after testing
for the presence of starch in leaves A and
sodium hydroxide pellets? B.
 Starch was present in leaf B.This is
To absorb carbon (IV) oxide. because it was exposed to sunlight hence
carried out photosynthesis forming
2. Why was the leaf outside the starch.
flask also tested for starch?  Starch was absent in leaf A.This is
because sodium hydroxide pellets
 It was the control experiment. absorbed carbon (IV) oxide which is a
raw material for photosynthesis.
3. Giving a reason explain the 5. What is the expected result for starch in
leaf A if sodium hydrogen
expected result after testing for carbonate is used instead of sodium
starch on the part labeled C. hydroxide?
 Starch was present in leaf A.This is
 Starch absent.This is because of because sodium hydrogen carbonate
breaks down to give carbon (IV) oxide
the absence of light and carbon which is a raw material for
(IV) oxide. photosynthesis.

Aim: To investigate whether Procedure
chlorophyll is necessary for
photosynthesis. 1. Detach a variegated leaf
Requirements.
from the plant that has
been exposed to light for
1. Variegated leaves. at least 3 hours.
2. Iodine solution. 2. Draw a large labeled
3. Methylated spirit. diagram of the leaf to
4. White tile. show the distribution of
5. Water. the chlorophyll pigment
6. Boiling tubes. in the leaf as shown.
7. Beaker. 3. Test for the presence of
8. Dropper. starch.
9. Source of heat
Observation and explanation.
 The green parts/ patches give
blue-black color with iodine.
This is because they contain
chlorophyll hence carry out
photosynthesis forming starch.
 The white parts/ patches
retained brown color with
iodine. This is because they lack
chlorophyll hence did not carry
out photosynthesis forming
starch.
 Starch was found on green
patches but not on white
patches.
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS WHICH
CONSTITUTE LIVING ORGANISMS/
CHEMICALS OF LIFE
 Some of the chemical

 These are compounds found in cells,
compounds are organic e.g.
tissues and organs.
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
 The study chemical compounds nucleic acids and vitamins.
found in living organisms and
 Other chemical compounds are
reactions in which they take place is
called biochemistry. inorganic compounds e.g.
mineral salts, water, acids and
bases.
1. CARBOHYDRATES.
 They are compounds that contain 3. They are components of structures
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the that provide mechanical support in
ratio of 1 carbon : 2 hydrogen : 1 organisms e.g. cellulose in cell
oxygen. walls, chitin in exoskeleton and
 The basic formula is (CH2O) n. lignin in xylem vessels and
 The constituents of carbohydrates are
tracheids.
joined by a bond called glycosidic Classes of carbohydrates.
bond.  They include:
Uses/ functions of carbohydrates. A. Monosaccharides.
1. They are sources of energy/ are B. Disaccharides.
broken down to give energy. C. Polysaccharides.
Glucose is the main source of
energy.
2. They are storage forms of food e.g.
plants store food in form of starch
while animals store food in form of
glycogen.
A. MONOSACCHARIDES.
 They are simple sugars whose general Properties of
formula is (CH2O)n where n=6. monosaccharides.
 Therefore the chemical formula of a i. They easily dissolve in
monosaccharide is C6H12O6. water.
 Examples include: ii. They are reducing sugars
i. Glucose. ( when mixed with
ii. Fructose in ripe fruits and honey. Benedict’s solution they
iii. Galactose in milk. reduce copper (II) ions in
Functions /uses of the solution into copper (I)
monosaccharides. ions which are brown in
i. Used in respiration to provide
color).
energy. iii. They have a sweet taste.
ii. When condensed they are storage iv. They form crystals/ they
forms of food e.g. plants store food in are crystallisable.
form of starch while animals store
food in form of glycogen.

B. DISACCHARIDES.
 They are formed by combining two i. Maltose- It is found in
monosaccharides in the process called germinating seed and formed by
condensation releasing water. combining two glucose
 Examples include: molecules
i. Maltose
ii. Sucrose. Glucose + Glucose(Condensation)
iii. Lactose. Maltose + Water
Monosaccharide + monosaccharide  Maltose is a reducing sugar.
Disaccharide + water
(Condensation)
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O12
+H2O

ii. Sucrose- it is found in sugarcane Characteristics/ properties of
juice formed by combining glucose disaccharides.
and fructose. i. They are soluble in water.
 Sucrose is non-reducing sugar. ii. They have a sweet taste/ form
(Condensation) sweet tasting solutions.
Glucose + Fructose Sucrose + iii. Some disaccharides are
Water reducing sugars e.g. maltose
iii. Lactose- It is found in milk and and lactose while sucrose is
formed by combining galactose and non-reducing sugar.
glucose. iv. They can easily be broken
 Lactose is a reducing sugar. down into monosaccharides
through hydrolysis.
(Condensation)
Glucose + Galactose Lactose
+ Water
(Hydrolysis)
Hydrolysis of disaccharides. Disaccharide + water
 It involves disaccharides into Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide.
monosaccharides/ simple sugars in Examples
the presence of water.
(Hydrolysis)
 Hydrolysis is brought about by: i. Maltose+ Water Glucose +
i) Enzymes (in nature/ naturally) Glucose.
ii) Heating with the acid e.g.
Hydrochloric acid (in the (Hydrolysis)
laboratory)
ii. Lactose + Water Glucose +
Galactose.
(Hydrolysis)
iii. Sucrose + Water Glucose
+Fructose.
C. POLYSACCHARIDES.
 They are made up of many
c) Cellulose- found at cell walls of
monosaccharides.
plant cells giving them definite
 Examples include: shape.
a) Starch- stored in plant tissues. d) Chitin- it is found on
Plants with a lot of starch exoskeleton of arthropods and
include maize, wheat, potato and cell wall of fungal hyphae.
rice.
e) Lignin- it is found in xylem
b) Glycogen- stored in animal vessels and tracheids and provide
tissues. It is synthesized from mechanical support.
excess glucose.

Characteristics / properties Study question
of polysaccharides. 1. Name the carbohydrate:
i. Are insoluble in water. a) Present in abundance in
ii. They do not have a sweet germinating seed- Maltose.
taste. b) Stored in plant cells- Starch.
iii. They are non-reducing c) Found on plant cell walls-
Cellulose.
sugars.
d) Found in animal
iv. They are hydrolyzed into tissues/muscles- Glycogen.
monosaccharides (by heating
e) Found in blood- Glucose.
with acids or by enzymes)

PRACTICAL 1.
Aim: Testing for starch. Observation.
Requirements:  The colour turns/ changes
1. Food substance in solution (from brown) to blue-black/
form. dark blue/ black.
2. Test tubes. Conclusion.
3. 10 ml measuring cylinder  Starch present.
4. Dropper Note: If brown colour (of
5. Iodine solution (Reagent)
iodine) persists / is retained
then starch is absent
Procedure.
1. Into a clean test tube, add 2ml
of food substance.
2. Add 3 drops of iodine solution
to the food substance and
shake.
Observations
Aim: To test for the presence of reducing sugar.  The colour changes from blue to green to
 Reducing sugars include glucose, fructose, yellow and finally orange/ brown.
galactose, maltose and lactose. Conclusion.
Requirements:  Reducing sugar present.
1. Food substance in solution form. N/B.
2. Benedict’s solution (reagent).  If the colour changes to:
3. Test tube. i. Green with no further change- very
4. Means of heating/ hot water bath. little amount of reducing sugar is present.
5. Test tube holder. ii. Yellow –average amount of reducing sugar
6. 10 ml measuring cylinder. present.
7. Dropper. iii. Orange/ brown- high amount of reducing
sugar present.
Procedure:
 If the blue color (of Benedict’s solution)
1. Put 2 ml/cm3 of reducing sugar in a test is retained, then reducing sugar is absent.
tube.
 Reducing sugar changes copper sulphate in
2. Add equal amount of Benedict’s solution. Benedict’s solution to copper oxide (which is
3. Heat to boil. orange).

Aim: Testing for the presence of non-reducing sugar 4. Cool the mixture in cold water.
(e.g. sucrose). 5. Add sodium hydrogen carbonate drop wise
Requirements: until fizzing stops.
1. Food substance. 6. Add equal amount of Benedict’s solution to
2. Benedict’s solution. the mixture.
3. Dilute hydrochloric acid. 7. Heat the mixture to boil/ boil the mixture.
4. Sodium hydrogen carbonate. Observations
5. Means of heating/ bunsen burner.  The colour changes from blue to green to
6. Dropper. yellow and finally orange/ brown.
7. 10 ml measuring cylinder. Conclusion.
 Non- reducing sugar present.
Procedure.
1. Put 2ml of the food substance into a clean Points to note.
test tube.  Dilute hydrochloric acid is used/ added to
2. Add 4 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid and hydrolyze non-reducing sugar to reducing
shake. sugar.
3. Boil the mixture.  Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used/ added
to neutralize the acid.


2. PROTEINS.
They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen  A protein consists of several amino
and nitrogen (hence they are called acids joined together by a bond called
nitrogenous compounds). peptide bond.
 Proteins may also contain other  Two amino acids combine to form
compounds e.g. phosphorus, sulphur dipeptide molecule in the process
and iron. of condensation.
 They are made up of amino acids as  When 2 amino acids combine they
building blocks i.e. amino acids form form a dipeptide joined by a
proteins. peptide bond.
Structure of amino acid.  A molecule consisting of few amino
 It consists of acids are called peptides.
i. Amino group (NH3 )- consisting of  When peptides combine they form a
hydrogen and nitrogen. polypeptide which makes up a
ii. Carboxyl group (COOH)- protein.
consisting of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen.

 Therefore a protein is made up of
one polypeptide or many  The amino acids that can be
polypeptides. synthesized in the human bodies are
called non-essential amino
 Joining of amino acids to form acids.
peptides is called condensation.
 Those amino acids that cannot be
 Break down of peptides to form synthesized but are supplied from
amino acids is called hydrolysis. diet are called essential amino
 There are 20 naturally occurring acids.
amino acids which can be  Proteins that contain all the
synthesized by plants. essential amino acids are called 1st
 Human beings can only synthesize class proteins e.g. animal
11 amino acids in their bodies proteins.
while 9 are supplied from diet.  Proteins that lack one or more of
the essential amino acids are called
2nd class proteins e.g. plant
proteins.

Amino acid
Condensation Hydrolysis
Peptides
Condensation Hydrolysis
Polypeptides

Properties of proteins. Functions of proteins.
1. They dissolve in water forming colloidal 1. They are components of structures in
suspensions. living organisms (e.g. plasma/ cell
membranes, connective tissue, hair,
2. They are denatured by high hooves, nails, muscle fibre, skeletal
temperatures above 40 degrees Celsius materials).
and extreme pH values. Denaturing
changes the structure of protein 2. They are used for making, repair and
molecules hence changing physical and replacement of worn out tissues in
chemical properties of protein. plants and animals.
3. Have acidic and basic properties hence 3. They act as metabolic regulators (e.g.
described as amphoteric. enzymes which speed up metabolic
reactions, hormones which regulate
 They therefore react with acids and bases body processes like growth,
enabling them to form conjugated reproduction, antibodies that provide
proteins (i.e. proteins containing non- immunity against diseases.
protein components).
4. They are broken down to give energy
 Examples of conjugated proteins include: during starvation.
i) Mucus which contains a
carbohydrate.
ii) Haemoglobin which contains iron.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY.
Aim: To test for proteins (biuret test). Observation:
Requirements:  Colour changes to purple.
1. Food substance in solution form Conclusion:
2. 1% Copper (II) sulphate solution.  Proteins present.
3. 10% sodium hydroxide solution Note: Sodium hydroxide is used to break
4. Test tube the peptide bond.
5. Droppers If blue color is retained/ persists then
6. 10 ml measuring cylinder. protein is absent.
Procedure:
1. Put 2ml of food substance into a test
tube.
2. Add equal amount of 10% sodium
hydroxide and shake.
3. Into the mixture, add 1% copper (II)
sulphate dropwise and shake after
every addition.

3. LIPIDS (fats and oils).
 Fats are found in animals while oils are
found in plants.
 Fats are solid at room temperature while
oils are liquid at room temperature.
 They are like carbohydrates only that they
have fewer number of oxygen molecules
than carbohydrates.
 The building blocks of lipids are fatty
acids and glycerol joined by ester
bond in the process called Hydrolysis
condensation.
 The lipids can be broken down to form
glycerol and fatty acids through
hydrolysis.
 Fatty acids are of different types because
they contain different fatty acids e.g. Oils
are different in different plants because
they have different fatty acids.

Properties of lipids/ fats and oils. 3. They are broken down/ oxidized to
1. Fats readily/ easily change into liquid release metabolic water (to supplement
when heated and oils solidify when water requirements in the body.
subjected to low temperature. 4. Lipids are components of plasma
2. They are insoluble n water. membrane and protoplasm while oils
3. They dissolve in organic solvents are storage structures in some seeds
forming emulsions and suspensions. (e.g. ground nuts, castor seed, maize
grains etc).
4. They are inert (hence can be stored in 5. Fats are deposited under the skin as
tissues of organisms). adipose tissue which insulates the body
Functions of lipids/ fats and oils. against heat loss/ prevents heat loss.
1. They are broken down/ oxidized to 6. Thick adipose tissue in some aquatic
release/ give energy. organisms (e.g. whale and
2. They are storage forms of food in the hippopotamus) makes them buoyant in
body of living organisms e.g. excess can water.
be converted into fats for storage. 7. Fats are deposited around body organs
(e.g. kidney, heart and back of eyeball)
where it acts as shock absorber.
8. Lipid (wax) found on the cuticles reduce
excessive water loss in plants.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY.
Aim: Testing for the lipids (fats and oils). Observation:
A. The grease spot test.  A permanent translucent spot is
Requirements: formed.
1. Food substance. Conclusion:
2. Filter paper.  Lipids (fats and oils) present.
3. Bunsen burner. N/B If the permanent translucent spot is
Procedure: absent, then lipids are absent.
1. Rub a little amount of food
substance on a filter paper.
2. Hold the paper above the flame to
dry taking care not to burn it.
3. Hold the paper against light.

B. Emulsion test. Observation:
Requirements:  Formation of a white emulsion.
1. Food substance. Conclusion:
2. Ethanol/alcohol.  Fats or oils present.
3. 2 test tubes. Note:
4. 10ml measuring cylinder.  Emulsification of fats occurs in the
Procedure: duodenum to increase the surface
1. Into a clean test tube, put a little
area for digestion by enzymes.
amount of food substance.
2. Add 2 ml of ethanol/alcohol to
2ml of the food substance and
shake thoroughly.
3. Transfer the contents of the test
tube into another test tube half
filled with water.
4. ENZYMES.
 They are organic biocatalysts i.e. they b) Use of suffix- ase- the suffix –ase is added
speed up or slow down the rate of to the type of food/ substrate or reaction
chemical reactions but they are not used the enzymes catalyze e.g.
up in the process.
 Enzymes are protein in nature and are produced Food/ substrate Enzyme
in living cells. Carbohydrate Carbohydrase
Types of enzymes
a) Intracellular enzymes- they are secreted/ Amylose/ starch Amylase
produced and used within the cells that
produce them e.g. respiratory enzymes. Sucrose Sucrase
b) Extracellular enzymes- they are Maltose Maltase
secreted/ produced by cells but used outside
the cells that produce them e.g. digestive Protein Protease
enzymes.
Naming of enzymes Lipids Lipase
a) Trivial naming- naming of enzymes based Chemical reaction Enzyme
on the persons who discovered them. The
names of such enzymes end with suffix- in, Hydrolysis Hydrolase
e.g. Pepsin, Rennin, Trypsin, Ptyalin.
Oxidation Oxidase
Reduction Reductase
Properties of enzymes. Importance of enzymes.
1. They are affected by changes in  They control and regulate
temperature and pH (because biochemical reactions in the
they are protein in nature). body so that they proceed at a
2. They are substrate specific i.e. pace suitable for sustaining life.
they act on specific substrate.  This is because the biochemical
3. They are very efficient hence reactions in body cells are too
required in small quantities. fast and others too slow. This
4. They are not affected by
ensures order in living systems.
reactions they catalyze hence N/B
they are available for reuse.  The speed of enzyme-catalyzed
5. Most reactions catalyzed by reaction is called enzymes
enzymes are reversible. turnover.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME CONTROLLED
REACTIONS/ ENZYME ACTIVITY.
1. TEMPERATURE- enzymes work best
within narrow range of temperature
(between 35oC- 40oC).
 Increase in temperature increases the rate of
enzyme activity up to optimum point.
Optimum temperature gives maximum
enzyme activity.
 Above the optimum temperature the rate of
enzyme activity decreases sharply because
higher temperature denatures /
destroys the enzymes making them non
effective.
 When the temperature decrease, the rate of
enzyme activity decreases because
enzymes are inactivated.
 Low temperature does not destroy the
enzymes because when temperature is
increased again the enzymes become active.
2. pH- This is acidity or alkalinity
of an substance.
 Most enzymes work best at
optimum pH of 7 but others work
best in acidic conditions others in
basic conditions.
 Change of pH from optimum
decreases the rate of enzyme
activity.
 Extreme changes of pH range from
the optimum denatures the
enzymes hence the rate of enzyme
activity stops.

3. SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
AND ENZYME
CONCENTRATION- when the
substrate concentration is increased,
the rate of enzymatic reaction also
increases up to a certain/ maximum
level.
 Further increase in concentration of the
substrate does not increase the rate of
enzymatic reaction.
 This is because all active sites of an
enzyme are occupied by the
substrate. At this point, the enzyme
concentration becomes a limiting factor.
 An increase in amount or concentration
of enzyme molecules increases the rate
of enzyme reaction. This is because of an
increase in the number of active
sites of enzymes.

4. ENZYME INHIBITORS- they are  The competitive inhibition can be overcome by:
chemical substances that prevent an i. Increasing the substrate concentration.
enzyme from catalyzing a reaction ii. Reducing the amount of inhibitor.
hence decrease the rate of enzyme
activity. b) Non-competitive inhibitors- they attach
 This is because they compete for active
themselves onto the enzyme molecules
sites of enzymes. changing the shape of the active sites of the
enzymes.
 There are two types of inhibitors namely:
 The substrate molecules are not able to bind
 Competitive inhibitors. onto the active sites of the enzymes.
 Non-competitive inhibitors.  They do not compete for the active sites of
a) Competitive inhibitors- They have the enzymes with the substrate molecules.
the same shape as that of the substrate  Examples of non-competitive inhibitors
and compete for the same active sites include cyanide, mercury, silver-arsenic
of the enzyme. This slows down the compounds.
rate of enzyme activity.
 The inhibitor stays attached to the
active sites of the enzyme preventing
the enzyme substrate from binding
onto the active sites, hence slowing
down the rate of reaction.

5. ENZYME CO-FACTORS- are non-protein Study question
substances that activate the enzymes hence  The figure below shows the rate of
increase the rate of enzyme activity.
enzyme action in relation to changes in
 Examples include metallic ions e.g.
temperature. Study it and answer the
magnesium ions, zinc ions, copper,
calcium ions, chloride ions,
questions that follow.
molybdenum ions, manganese ions
 They are required in small quantities.
6. ENZYMES CO-ENZYMES- are organic co-
factors that activate enzymes hence increase the
rate of enzyme activity e.g. vitamins.
7. PRODUCT CONCENTRATION- low
product concentration increases the rate of
enzyme activity while high product
concentration reduces the rate of enzyme
activity.
8. ENZYME SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY-
enzyme act on specific substrate.

1. Explain giving reasons, the rate of 2. Other the factor being investigated
enzyme action : above, state three other factors that
i. Between Q and R. affect the rate of enzyme activity.
 The rate of enzyme activity  pH
increases with increase in  Substrate concentration.
temperature, because enzymes  Enzyme concentration.
are activated.  Enzyme co-factors.
ii. At S.  Enzyme co-enzymes
 At S there is maximum rate of
 Enzyme inhibitors.
enzyme reaction because it is
the optimum temperature.  Product concentration.
iii. Between T and U.  Enzyme specificity
 There is drastic drop in the rate 3. State the collective name of the
of reaction of enzymes because enzymes that work on:
very high temperature denatures a) Carbohydrates- carbohydrases.
/destroys the enzymes. b) Proteins- proteases
c) Lipids- lipases

70
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS.
 Nutrition in animals is called
heterotrophism. ii. Carnivores- they feed on
flesh/meat/other animals e.g. lions,
Heterotrophism/ heterotrophic dogs, hyenas, eagles.
mode of nutrition. iii. Omnivores- they feed on both plants
 This is a type of nutrition in which and animals/flesh e.g. man and pigs.
organisms feed on other organisms or feed iv. Saprophytes- they feed on dead
on already manufactured food. decaying matter leading to
decomposition e.g. fungi and bacteria.
 These type of organisms are called v. Parasites- they live on or in other
heterotrophs. organisms called hosts and depend on
Types of heterotrophs. them for nutrients.
Types/modes of heterotrophism
They include:
A. Holozoic nutrition.
i. Herbivores- they feed on plant B. Saprophytic nutrition.
materials e.g. cows, goats, sheep, C. Phagocytosis.
grasshoppers. D. Parasitic nutrition/parasitism.
Sam obare E. Symbiosis.May-21
71
a) Holozoic nutrition- this is a type of d) Symbiosis- this is an association
nutrition where organisms/ animals where two organisms live together and
ingest/take in, digest and assimilate mutually benefit from each other e.g.
complex food materials. It is common in Rhizobium bacteria and
mammals and birds. leguminous plant.
b) Saprophytism- this is a type of e) Phagocytosis- This is a type of
nutrition where organisms obtain nutrition where single celled organisms
nutrients from dead decaying matter e.g. amoeba and some white
causing decomposition. blood cells feed on solid food
 They release enzymes that break down materials.
decaying matter into simpler soluble  They engulf food material by forming
substances that are absorbed directly into pseudopodia and enclose it in food
the body. It is common in bacteria and vacuole.
fungi.  The enclosed food in digested by enzymes
c) Parasitism- this is a mode of nutrition into soluble substances that are absorbed
where one organism (parasite) feeds on into the cytoplasm.
or obtains nutrients from the tissues of Food vacuole
another living organism (the host) e.g.
ticks and roundworms. Nucleus
Sam obare May-21

Pseudopodium
Animal dentition and dental
72
formula.
 Dentition refers to the description of  Dental formula describes the
the types, arrangement and number, type and position of teeth in
specialization of teeth in animals. the jaw of the animal.
 Dentition is related to the type of  The number usually given is for half of
food the animal feeds on. each jaw.
Types of dentition.  To get the total number of teeth in an
i. Homodont dentition-in this animal, the total number in the
type, all teeth have similar shape formula is multiplied by 2.
and size e.g. in fish, frogs, Types of teeth.
crocodiles.  There are four types of teeth namely:
ii. Heterodont dentition-in this A. Incisors.
type, teeth have different shape and B. Canines.
size e.g. in mammals.
C. Premolars.
D. Molars.
Sam obare May-21

73
A. INCISORS.
 Incisors are located at the
front of the jaw.
Adaptations of incisor.
1. The crown in chisel-
Neck
shaped/ flat and sharp for
holding, biting and cutting
food.
2. Have one root to support
them in the jaw.
Sam obare May-21

74
B. CANINES
 They are located next to the
incisors.
Adaptations of canine.
1. It has curved and pointed Neck
crown for holding/ seizing
Root
prey and tearing flesh.
2. Have one pointed root for
firm support in the jaw.
Sam obare May-21

75
C. PREMOLARS.
Cusp
 They are located after the Ridge
canines towards the back of
the jaw.
Adaptations of premolar. Crown
1. The crown is broad , Neck

ridged with cusps to Root
increase the surface area
for crushing and grinding
food.
2. It has 2 roots for firm
support in the jaw.
Sam obare May-21
76
D. MOLARS
 They are located at the back
of the jaw
Crown
Adaptations of premolar.
1. The crown is broad , Neck
ridged with cusps to
increase the surface area Root
for crushing and grinding

food.
2. It has 3 roots for firm
support in the jaw.
Sam obare May-21
77
HERBIVORE DENTITION
 Herbivores are animals which feed on 3. It lacks canines to facilitate side ways
vegetation e.g. cow, goat, sheep, donkey, zebra movement.
e.t.c. 4. The lower incisors have chisel shaped
 The mode of nutrition is called crown with sharp edge for cutting
herbivorous. vegetation.
0 0 3
 The dental formula is i c pm m = 30 5.
3 The crown of premolars and molars has
3 1 2 3 broad surface with cusps and ridges to
Adaptations of herbivore dentition. increase surface area for grinding of
1. They lack upper incisors and canines food/ vegetation.
instead they have a rough horny pad 6. The teeth grow continuously
against which grass/ vegetation is pressed throughout the life of the animal to
and cut by lower incisors. replace worn out enamel worn out due
2. They have diastema (a gap in the lower to continuous grinding.
jaw between canines and premolars) 7. The jaws move side to side to enable
which provides a space for the tongue to premolars and molars to grind
manipulate grass/ vegetation/ plant vegetation.
materials (so as to separate the newly cut
vegetation from that which is being chewed
at the back of the mouth).
Sam obare May-21

Study question.
 The diagram below represents the lower jaw of a
mammal d) State one structural and one functional
difference between the teeth labelled J
and L. (2mks)
Structural
 Tooth J is narrow / sharp / chisel like
while tooth L is broad / ridged.
 J has one root while L has 3roots.
Functional
a) Name the mode of nutrition of the mammal  Tooth J is used for cutting food while
whose jaw is shown. (1mk) tooth L is used for crushing food;
 Herbivorous. e) Name the substance that is responsible for
b) Give a reason for your answer in a) above. hardening of teeth. (1mk)
(1mk)  Calcium phosphate/ calcium carbonate.
 It has diastema.
c) Name and give the function of the toothless
gap labeled K. (2mks)
 Diastema- to provide room for manipulation
of food to separate ground and unground food.
Sam obare May-21 78

79 OMNIVORE DENTITION
 Omnivores are animals which feed on  There are two sets of teeth in
both vegetation and flesh e.g. man. humans:
 The mode of nutrition is called i. Milk teeth- they are first set
omnivorous. of teeth and are 20 in number.
2 1 2 They are lost between the age
 The dental formula is i c pm m of 6-12 years.
3 2 1 2
= 32 ii. Permanent teeth- they
3
Adaptations of omnivore dentition. replace the milk teeth are 28
1. The incisors are flat and chisel in number.
shaped for cutting and biting food. iii. Wisdom teeth- they are
2. The canines are small and pointed back molars that appear last at
for tearing of food. the age of 17-25 years. They
are 4 in number
3. Premolars and molars have cusps on
the upper surface of the crown to
increase the surface area for grinding
and crushing of food.
Sam obare May-21
May-21 Sam obare 80
CARNIVORE DENTITION
 Carnivores are animals which feed on flesh e.g.
lion, dog, cheetah, cat e.t.c. 3. The crown of premolars and
 The mode of nutrition is called carnivorous molars has broad surface with
3 1 4 2 cusps and ridges to increase
 The dental formula is i c pm m = surface area for grinding flesh.
3 1 4 3
42. 4. The carnassial teeth
Adaptations of carnivore dentition. (modified last premolar in the
1. The incisors are chisel-shaped, small upper jaw and first molar in the
and closely fitted to seize/ hold the lower jaw) have smooth sides
prey and stripping flesh from the and sharp edges to slice through
bone. flesh and crush bones.
2. The canines are long, curved and 5. The jaws are attached to
sharply pointed to hold, kill and tear powerful muscles to crash the
the prey. bones.
Sam obare May-21 81

82 STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE.
 It consists of:
1. The crown- the part that projects above the Neck
gum. It is covered by a hard and white non-
living layer called enamel.
 The enamel is hardened by calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate.
Role/ functions of enamel.
a) It protects internal structures from Crown
mechanical/ physical injury.
b) It provides a hard surface for biting and Neck
grinding of food.
Root
2. The neck- it is a parts between the crown
and root. It is covered by gum.
3. The root- it is part of the tooth that is firmly
fixed into the jaw by cement.
Sam obare May-21
83
INTERNAL STRUCTURE. 2. Dentine- it is located

1. Enamel- is hardened by below the enamel and
calcium phosphate and extends to the root.
calcium carbonate.
Functions/ role of dentine.
Role/ functions of enamel.
i. It is made up of living cells
i. It protects internal structures
that give rise to the enamel.
from mechanical/ physical
injury.
ii. It provides a hard surface for
biting and grinding of food.
Sam obare May-21

3. Pulp cavity- it is located 4. Cement- It holds the tooth
within the dentine. firmly into the jaw bone.
Functions/ role of pulp 5. Periodontal membrane-
cavity. It is found between the
i. It has blood cement and jaw bone.
vessels/capillaries to supply Functions/ role of
nutrients and oxygen to the periodontal membrane.
cells of the tooth and remove i. Contains living cells that
waste products (nitrogenous secrete the cement.
wastes and carbon (IV) ii. They act as shock absorbers
oxide). i.e. allow some slight
ii. Has sensory nerves/ nerve movement during chewing
cells that detect heat, cold to avoid breakage.
and pain.

85
Sam obare May-21

86 DENTAL DISEASES
 Dental diseases include:  The acids react with the
A. Dental carriers/ tooth decay. enamel and dentine causing
them to dissolve forming a
B. Periodontal disease. hollow cavity.
A. Dental carriers.  When the decaying process
 It is caused by plaque (mixture of continues to the pulp cavity,
sugars, starch and micro-organisms) it affects the nerves leading
which accumulates between the to pain/tooth ache.
tooth.  In serious cases, the pulp
cavity may be destroyed and
 The micro-organisms breakdown the infection spread to the
sugars in the plaque to form/ gums.
produce acids.
Sam obare May-21

Prevention of dental 5. Filling of cavities to prevent
carriers. further decay.
6. If the cavities affect the pulp
1. Avoiding too much sweet
cavity, root canal procedure
and sugary food. can be performed by a dentist.
2. Taking a diet rich in 7. Extraction of the tooth by the
calcium and vitamin D. dentist in serious cases.
3. Eating hard foods.
4. Cleaning the teeth
regularly.
88
Sam obare May-21

B. PERIODONTAL DISEASE Control of periodontal
89
 It affects the gum, caused by diseases.
bacterial infection. 1. Eating balanced diet and rich in
 The disease makes the gums to vitamin A and C.
become soft and flabby, so that 2. Brushing the teeth regularly (to
they do not support the teeth. encourage blood circulation)
Types of periodontal disease. 3. Dental hygiene
1. Gingivitis- characterized by
reddening of gums, bleeding of
gums and presence of pus in the
gums.
2. Pyorrhoea- is a condition
where the teeth become loose
due to infection and the teeth are
Sam obare May-21
finally lost.
Healthy practices that
4. Taking a diet rich in
minimize dental diseases.
calcium, phosphate, and
1. Regular brushing/ cleaning vitamins A, C and D.
of teeth after every meal.
5. Teeth should be used for
2. Avoid too much sugary proper purpose. They
foods. should not be used to open
3. Eating hard foods e.g. raw beverage bottles or crack
carrots, cassava, yams and hard nuts.
sugarcane. This helps to 6. Regular dental check up.
exercise the teeth and
remove soft materials from
gums and teeth.
91 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN MAN.
 It is used for digestion and iii. Small intestines
absorption and consists of: (duodenum and ileum).
A. Alimentary canal/ gut/ iv. Large intestines/colon.
digestive tract. v. Rectum.
B. Associated organs  Along its length there are
 The alimentary canal/ gut/ associated organs e.g. liver,
digestive tract consists of: gall bladder, pancreas,
i. Mouth. digestive glands.
ii. Oesophagus/gullet.
iii. Stomach.
Sam obare May-21

DIGESTION
93
 Digestion refers to mechanical/ physical A. DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH.
and chemical breakdown of complex  The ingested food is chewed by teeth into
food material into simpler forms that can simpler particles. Chewing and grinding of
easily be absorbed into the body. food is called mastication.
 Physical/ mechanical digestion is done by  Chewing increases the surface area for
teeth in the mouth and by bile salts in action of enzymes on food. The tongue rolls
the duodenum. and mixes food with saliva.
 Chemical digestion is done by the  There are three pairs of salivary glands,
enzymes. namely:
 When digestion occurs inside the cells it 1. Sub-mandibular glands- located
is called intracellular digestion e.g. in near the back of the lower jaw which
amoeba and white blood cells. produce enzyme Amylase.
 When digestion occurs outside the cells 2. Sublingual glands – located below
where enzymes are secreted onto food is the tongue which produce mucus.
called extracellular digestion e.g. in 3. 2 parotid glands- located on each side
man. of the mouth and below the ear/ on the
cheeks which produce enzyme Amylase.
Sam obare May-21

 Saliva contains the following:  Therefore the following are the
1. Mucus/mucin- which functions of saliva:
lubricates food. 1. Lubricates food.
2. Water- which softens food, 2. Digestion of starch.
acts as a solvent/ dissolves 3. Moistens food/mouth.
food and moistens
food/mouth. 4. Softens food.
3. Enzyme amylase/ptyalin- 5. Provides alkaline medium for
which converts starch into action of enzyme (salivary
maltose/digests starch. amylase).
 Saliva is slightly alkaline to 6. Dissolves food.
provide optimum action of
salivary amylase.
94
Sam obare
May-21
 The tongue mixes food with saliva
95and rolls food into boluses pushes  It is brought about by contraction
them to the back of the mouth/ and relaxation of circular and
pharynx for swallowing into the longitudinal (smooth) muscles of
stomach. the gut/ alimentary canal.
Adaptation of oesophagus/gullet.
 During swallowing the soft palate
is raised to open the gullet and 1. It is made up of smooth muscles
with contract and relax to facilitate
close nasal cavity while the peristalsis.
epiglottis closes preventing food
from entering into the 2. Inner lining has goblet cells that
secrete mucus to lubricate food
trachea/wind pipe. hence facilitate smooth movement of
 Food moves down the gullet/ food/ boluses.
oesophagus through the process
called peristalsis.
 Peristalsis refers to involuntary
movement of food in alimentary
canal/ gut.
Sam obare May-21
Study question
 How is the mouth adapted/  Saliva contains salivary
suited to its function? amylase/ ptyalin which digest
 Has teeth for chewing / starch into maltose.
grinding food to increase  It has muscular tongue to mix
surface area for digestion by food with saliva and roll food
enzymes. into boluses and pushes them
 Has salivary glands which to the back of the mouth (for
secrete saliva which lubricate, swallowing).
soften, moisten, dissolve food
and provide alkaline medium
for action of enzymes.

98
B. DIGESTION IN THE  The stomach walls have thick

STOMACH. muscles (circular and
 Food from the oesophagus enters longitudinal) which contract and
the stomach through the cardiac relax to mix food into chyme in
sphincter muscle which closes to the process called churning.
prevent the food from moving up  Churning helps to mix food with
the oesophagus. digestive enzymes.
Role of stomach.  The presence of food in the
1. Churning of food. stomach/ smell/ taste of food
2. Digestion of food/ proteins. makes the stomach to secrete
gastrin hormone.
3. Absorption of alcohol, some
water, water soluble vitamins  This hormone stimulates the
(Vitamin B and C) and water gastric glands on the stomach
soluble salts. walls to secrete gastric juice.
Sam obare May-21

 In the stomach food is mixed with Study question.
gastric juice which contains: How is the stomach adapted to:
1. Pepsin enzyme- It catalyzes/ i. Churning-The stomach walls have
speeds up conversion of proteins into thick muscles which contract and
peptides/peptones. relax.
 It is secreted by peptic cells in ii. Protein digestion- The stomach
inactive/ precursor form called walls contain gastric glands which
pepsinogen to avoid digesting / secrete gastric juice containing
auto digestion of the stomach Pepsin and Rennin.
walls/lining (when no food is present 2. Rennin enzyme- It is secreted in
in the stomach). inactive/ Precursor form called
 Pepsinogen is converted into prorennin by gastric glands in
pepsin by hydrochloric acid young mammals.
present in the stomach.  Rennin which is abundant in young
children converts soluble milk protein
(caseinogen) into insoluble form
(casein)/ curdles milk.
 Curdling of milk provides enough time
for digestion.

3. Mucus- secreted by goblet Adaptation of stomach
cells to protect the stomach 1. It has muscular wall which
walls against corrosion by contract and relax to facilitate
hydrochloric acid and auto churning of food into chyme.
digestion by enzymes. 2. The stomach lining has goblet cells
4. Dilute hydrochloric acid- that secrete mucus to protect them
It is produced by cells of the against auto digestion by enzymes.
stomach walls. 3. The inner lining has gastric glands
i. It provides acidic medium that secrete gastric juice containing
suitable for action of pepsin pepsin and rennin for digestion of
and rennin enzymes. proteins, hydrochloric acid to
ii. It kills any bacteria which may provide acidic medium for action
be present in food. of enzymes and kill bacteria.
iii. It converts inactive forms of 4. It has cardiac sphincter to allow
rennin and pepsin into active food into the stomach.
forms. 5. It has pyloric sphincter to retain
food in the stomach for digestion.
Sam obare 100 May-21
101
C. DIGESTIOIN IN THE b) Cholescystokinin into blood

DUODENUM. which:
 Food/chyme enters the duodenum from i. Stimulates the gall bladder to
the stomach through the pyloric release the bile and
sphincter. ii. Stimulates the pancreas to
 In the duodenum, food is mixed with bile secrete pancreatic juice.
and pancreatic juice. Note; The pancreas secrete hormones and
 The presence of food in the duodenum secretes digestive enzymes (hence it has
stimulates the duodenal walls to secrete: endocrine and digestive roles).
a) Secretin into blood stream which
stimulates the liver to secrete bile which
is stored in the gall bladder.
Sam obare
May-21
 Bile contains salts (sodium hydrogen
102 carbonate, sodium glycocholate and
sodium taurocholate) which:
i. Neutralize the acidic chyme from the
stomach.
ii. Provide suitable alkaline medium for
pancreatic enzymes.
iii. Emulsify fats (break down fats into
tiny fat droplets) to increase the
surface area for digestion by lipases.
This is called emulsification.
Note: Emulsification is not chemical but
physical/mechanical because fats are not
broken down to fatty acids and glycerol.
Sam obare May-21

 Pancreatic juice contains: 4. Trypsin (enzyme)--which digests
103
1. Pancreatic lipase (enzyme)- proteins into peptides/peptones.
which converts lipids to fatty  Trypsin is secreted in inactive/ precursor
acids and glycerol. form called trypsinogen to prevent the
2. Pancreatic amylase (enzyme)-- digestion of duodenal walls.
which catalyzes the digestion/  It is converted into trypsin by an enzyme
conversion of remaining/ called enterokinase.
undigested starch into maltose.
3. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (Enterokinase enzyme)
(salt) – which emulsifies fats, Trypsinogen Trypsin
neutralizes the acidic chyme and
provides alkaline medium suitable
for action of pancreatic and
intestinal enzymes.
Sam obare May-21

Adaptation of duodenum.
1. It has Brunner’s gland on its 3. It is connected to the
walls to secrete mucus for pancreas and the liver to
lubrication of food supply pancreatic juice and
2. It has crypts of Liberkuhn bile respectively bile
whose cells secrete emulsifies fats/ lipids and
digestive enzymes for neutralizes the acid from
digestion of food. the stomach pancreatic
juice contains enzymes for
digestion of food.

105
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY.
Aim: To demonstrate Procedure:
emulsification of fats. 1. Pour 2 cm3 of cooking oil into the
test tubes labelled A and B.
Requirements:
2. Add 2 cm3 of sodium hydrogen
1. Sodium hydrogen carbonate carbonate solution into test tube A.
solution. Rinse the measuring cylinder.
2. Cooking oil. 3. Add 2 cm3 of water into test tube B.
4. Shake the contents in both test
3. Water.
tubes.
4. Test tubes. 5. Write down your observations.
5. Ruler. Observation.
6. Measuring cylinder.  Formation of white emulsion.
Sam obare May-21

 The inner walls of ileum has
D) DIGESTION IN THE
106
goblet cells which secrete
ILEUM. mucus which;
 In the ileum, food is mixed with i. Protects the wall of the
mucus and intestinal juice/ succus intestines from being
entericus. digested by protein digesting
Functions of the ileum enzymes.
i. To complete chemical ii. Lubricates food/ allows
breakdown of food. smooth movement of food
along the intestines.
ii. It provide a site for absorption
of digested food into the  The ileum walls also contain
blood. secretory/ epithelial cells (Cryts
of liberkuhn) which secrete
intestinal juice / succus entericus.
Sam obare May-21
107
 Intestinal juice contains the d) Polypeptidase-Which
following enzymes: catalyzes the breakdown of
polypeptides to amino acids.
a) Maltase- which catalyzes
e) Lipase- which catalyzes
breakdown of maltose breakdown of lipids (fats and
into glucose. oils) into fatty acids and
b) Sucrase/ invertase- glycerol
which catalyzes f) Lactase- which catalyzes
breakdown of sucrose into breakdown of lactase into
glucose and fructose. glucose and galactose.
c) Peptidase- which Note; Digestion of food is
catalyzes breakdown of completed at ileum forming chyle.
Chyle is food ready for
peptides into amino acids. absorption.
Sam obare May-21
ADAPTATIONS OF SMALL
INTESTINES/ ILEUM.
1. The small intestines are long to 4. Their walls have glands (crypts
increase the surface area for of liberkurn ) that secrete
absorption of food. intestinal juice which
2. They are highly coiled to slow contains enzymes for
down movement of food to digestion of food.
allow more time for digestion 5. Inner lining has goblet cells
and absorption of digested food that secrete mucus to lubricate
substances. food and protect their walls
3. Inner lining has numerous villi against digestion by enzymes and
and micro-villi to increase the lubrication of food.
surface area for absorption of 6. It is narrow/ has narrow
food substances. lumen to bring food into
contact with intestinal walls/
blood vessels rapid/ faster
absorption of food substances.

7. The walls have smooth muscles 9. They have lacteal vessels for
which contract and relax to
absorption of fatty acids and
facilitate peristalsis. glycerol.
8. They are highly
10. They have thin epithelium to
vascularized/well supplied with
reduce the distance travelled by
blood capillaries to create a digested food hence faster
steep/high concentration absorption.
gradient hence faster diffusion
of digested food/ for rapid and 11. They have numerous
efficient of removal of absorbed mitochondria to provide
products. energy for absorption of food.
Sam obare May-21

109
ADAPTATION OF THE VILLUS.
1. The villus has lacteal for 4. Has microvilli to increase the
absorption and transportation surface area for absorption of
of fatty acids and glycerol. nutrients.
2. It has a network of 5. Has numerous mitochondria
capillaries/highly to provide energy for active
vascularized to transport transport of nutrients.
absorbed food substances.
3. It has thin epithelium to
reduce the distance travelled
by materials hence faster
diffusion of digested food
substances.

Structure of small Structure of villus
intestine/ ileum
Villi
May-21 Sam obare 111

ABSORPTION OF FOOD.
 Absorption is the process by  The capillaries drain into the
which soluble products of hepatic portal vein into the liver
digestion diffuse into the cellular where amino acids and glucose
lining of the villi into blood. are regulated before distributed
 Glucose, fructose, galactose, to all body parts.
Amino acids, mineral  Vitamins, mineral salts and
salts/ions, vitamins, Fatty water are absorbed directly
acids and glycerol are absorbed without digestion.
into the blood stream/capillaries  Water is absorbed through
through the epithelium of the villi osmosis.
by diffusion and active
transport.

 Fatty acids and glycerol are  Glucose is oxidized to release
absorbed into lacteals of the villi energy during respiration and
and combine to form lipids that the excess is stored in the body
pass into the lymphatic vessels and as fats under the skin or in form
finally into the blood circulatory of glycogen in the liver or
system. muscles.
 This distributes the fatty acids and  Fatty acids and glycerol are
glycerol to all parts of the body. oxidized to release energy, form
 The lacteals form the lymphatic new cell membranes and
system. converted into fats and stored
ASSIMILATION OF FOOD. under the skin to insulate the
body against heat loss and
 Assimilation is the incorporation protect delicate internal organs.
of absorbed food substances into
cell metabolism.
Adaptation of colon.
 Amino acids- are used to 1. Its walls consists of smooth muscles
114
synthesize proteins for body which contract and relax to
growth, repair of worn out tissues facilitate peristalsis.
and also oxidized to provide 2. Inner lining has goblet cells which
energy during starvation (in the secrete mucus for lubrication.
absence of glucose and fats). 3. Inner membrane is highly folded to
 Excess amino acids are excreted in increase surface area for absorption
the process called deamination. of water, mineral salts and
FUNCTIONS OF THE COLON. attachment of micro-organisms.
i. Absorption of water and ROLES/ FUNCTIONS OF CAECUM
mineral salts. AND APPENDIX.
ii. Contain symbiotic bacteria  The caecum and appendix in man have
which manufacture/ synthesize no functions but in herbivores they
vitamin K, B1,B2, and B12 and contain numerous symbiotic bacteria
amino acids (which are which secrete enzyme cellulase
absorbed into the blood which digest cellulose into glucose.
stream).
Sam obare May-21
ROLE OF ROUGHAGE IN EGESTION
115DIGESTION.
 This is the removal of undigested
and indigestible food substances
 It is composed of cellulose and plant from the body (through the anus).
fibres.
ROLE OF WATER IN DIET.
 It adds bulk to food enabling it to 1. Acts as a solvent in which
have a grip/hold to the walls of the substances dissolve.
gut facilitating peristalsis allowing 2. It acts as a medium for
smooth movement of food in the transportation of substances.
alimentary canal.
3. It acts as a medium in which
 Lack of roughage in diet leads to metabolic reactions occur.
constipation characterized by 4. It facilitates hydrolysis of food
egestion of hard faeces. substances.
 This is because food stays long in 5. It facilitates osmoregulation and
the gut and a lot of water is bring about cooling effect in the
reabsorbed. body.
Sam obare May-21

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Describe digestion of fats  Pancreatic juice contains lipase
and oils/lipids in humans which converts lipids into fatty
 In the duodenum, food is mixed acids and glycerol.
with bile and pancreatic juice.  In the ileum, food is mixed with
 Bile salts emulsify fats hence intestinal juice secreted by
providing a large surface area for intestinal wall. Intestinal juice
action of lipase enzymes and contains lipase which converts/
neutralizes the acidic chyme and breaks down the remaining
provides alkaline medium for lipids into fatty acids and
action of lipase enzyme. glycerol.

117
2. Describe digestion of
proteins in humans.  Rennin (which is abundant in young
 In the mouth, food is broken down children) converts the milk protein (
mechanically by the teeth to Caseinogen) into Casein increasing its
increases the surface area action of surface area for digestion by pepsin.
enzymes.
 The tongue rolls food into boluses  Pepsin converts protein into
and swallowed into the stomach. peptides.
 In the stomach, food is mixed with  In the duodenum, food is mixed
gastric juice which contains Rennin pancreatic juice which contains
and Pepsinogen. Trypsin which digests proteins into
 Pepsinogen is activated into Pepsin peptides.
by Hydrochloric acid.
Sam obare
May-21
 In the ileum food is mixed with  Saliva contains salivary amylase/
intestinal juice (Succus entericus) ptyalin which acts on
secreted by intestinal walls. starch/amylose and converts it
 Intestinal juice contains peptidase into maltose. Saliva mixes with
enzyme which converts/ breaks food and provides an alkaline
down peptides into amino acids, medium for action of amylase.
polypeptidase enzyme which
breaks down polypeptides into  The tongue rolls food into
amino acids. boluses for swallowing into the
stomach through peristalsis.
3. Describe digestion of
carbohydrates in humans.  In the duodenum, food is mixed
with bile and pancreatic juice.
 In the mouth food is chewed/
mechanically broken down to
increase the surface area for
enzyme activity.
 Bile salt/sodium hydrogen carbonate
FACTORS AFFECTING ENERGY
119
provides alkaline medium for activity
REQUIREMENTS IN MAN
of duodenal enzymes and neutralizes
acidic chyme/ food from the stomach. 1. Age-Young children are
actively growing/have many
 Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic
actively dividing cells/are
amylase which converts starch to
physically more active hence
maltose.
require more energy than
 In the ileum epithelial cells in the adults.
ileum secrete succus
2. Sex- Males need more energy
entericus/intestinal juice which
than females because they are
contains enzymes sucrase/invertase
more muscular hence have
which converts sucrose to fructose
more cells that respire.
and glucose, lactase which converts
lactose to galactose and glucose and
maltase which converts maltose to
glucose.
Sam obare May-21

120
3. Body size- A small bodied 5. Lactation and pregnancy-

person requires more energy Pregnant mothers need more
because they have large surface energy for foetal development
area to volume ratio thus lose while lactating mothers require
more energy than a person with more energy for milk production.
big body. Some big bodied people 6. Basal metabolic rate (BMR)-
may eat a lot of food to maintain this is the energy required by the
energy demands of their large body when it is at rest or the
bodies. minimum amount of energy man
4. Activity/occupation- A requires to keep the body cells
manual worker requires more alive. The higher the BMR the
energy than a sedentary worker. higher the energy requirement.
Sam obare May-21

ROLE OF VITAMINS IN THE BODY OF MAN/ HUMAN BEINGS.
VITAMIN SOURCES USES/ ROLE IN THE DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS.
BODY
Vitamin A Liver, milk, eggs,  Night vision.  Poor night vision.
(retinal) carrots, fresh green  Protects the skin  Sore eyes.
vegetables, and cornea from  Dry and scaly skin and cornea.
drying and  Poor resistance to diseases.
becoming scaly.  Cold and bronchitis diseases.
Vitamin B1 Groundnuts, beans,  Cell respiration.  General weakness.
(Thiamine) whole cereals, egg  Proper growth in  Retarded growth in children.
yolk, milk, liver and children.  Beriberi disease.
kidney. Symptoms of beriberi disease
 Limb paralysis.
 Heart failure.
 Swelling of legs (oedema).
 Loss of appetite/
diarrhoea/vomiting.
 Weight loss/muscle wasting.
 Pale skin.
Vitamin B2 Groundnuts, beans,  Proper  Pellagra disease.
(riboflavin) whole cereals, egg functioning of Symptoms of pellagra disease
yolk, milk, liver and skin. a) Skin disorders.
13-May-21 kidney. © Sam obare Cell respiration. b) Sores and bleeding in the mouth
121
VITAMIN SOURCES USES/ ROLE IN THE BODY DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS.
Vitamin B5 Groundnuts, beans,  Respiration.  Malfunctioning of the nervous

(Pantothenic whole cereals, egg yolk,  Proper functioning of the and alimentary canal.
acid milk, liver and kidney. nervous system and
alimentary canal.
Vitamin B12 Liver, beef and kidney.  Formation of blood cells  Anaemia.
(Cobalamine)
Vitamin C Fresh fruits, green  Enhances absorption of  Scurvy characterized by:
(Ascorbic vegetables. iron. a) Bleeding of gums.
acid)  Promotes healing of b) Anaemia.
wounds. c) Swelling on the skin.
 Prevents d) Poor healing of wounds.
infection/provides e) Reduced/ poor resistance of
immunity against diseases.
diseases. f) Degeneration of muscles.
 Helps in synthesis of
connective tissues.
 Helps in development of
healthy gums.
Vitamin D - It is a fat soluble  Formation and hardening  Rickets characterized by:
(Calciferol) vitamin manufactured in of bones. a) Abnormal bone formation in
human body in the skin  Strong teeth formation. children.
Sources are: Milk, fish,  Absorption of calcium b) Soft and brittle bones in
May-21 liver, egg yolk,Sam obare and phosphorus. adults. 122
123
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY.
Aim- Testing for vitamin C/ Procedure
Ascorbic acid. 1. Into a clean test tube put 1ml of
DCPIP.
Requirements.
2. Add the food substance drop wise
a) Food substance in solution into the DCPIP in the test tube and
form. shake well after each drop.
b) 0.1% Dichlorophenol Observation
indophenol (DCPIP)  DCPIP is decolorized i.e. it becomes
colorless.
c) Test tube. Conclusion.
d) Dropper.  Vitamin C/ Ascorbic acid present.
e) 10 ml measuring cylinder. Note- If the blue color of DCPIP is
retained then vitamin C/ ascorbic acid is
absent
Sam obare May-21

ROLE OF MINERAL SALTS / ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY
ELEMENT SOURCE FUNCTIONS IN THE DISEASE CAUSED
BODY BY DEFICIENCY
Nitrogen Meat, milk,  Protein synthesis.  Kwashiorkor.
eggs, fish  Formation of cells,  Stunted growth.
tissues, hair and nails.
Phosphorus Protein foods  Synthesis of proteins.  Rickets

 Formation of bones (characterized by
and teeth. poorly developed
 Formation of ATP. bones)
Calcium Green  Blood clotting.  Rickets

vegetables,  Muscle contraction.  Muscle cramps
milk and  Formation of bones
cheese. and teeth.
Iodine Iodinised salts,  Formation of the  Goitre

sea fish, cheese hormone thyroxine (characterized by
swelling of
thyroid glands in
the neck region.
ELEMENT SOURCE FUNCTIONS IN THE BODY DISEASE CAUSED
BY DEFICIENCY
Potassium Liver, beef,  Transmission of nerve  Muscular
vegetables, impulses. weaknesses
milk, eggs  Contraction of muscles.  Paralysis
 Ionic/ osmotic balance.  Nausea
Iron Liver, eggs,  Formation of haemoglobin  Anaemia.
green in re d blood cells.  Low resistance
vegetables  Used in respiration. to diseases/
low immunity.
Sodium Table salt, fish,  Maintains osmotic balance  Reduced

milk, green of body. appetite
vegetables  Transmission of nerve  Muscle cramps
impulses
Chlorine Table salt  Maintains osmotic balance  Reduced

of body. appetite
 Transmission of nerve  Muscle cramps
impulses

ELEMENT SOURCE FUNCTIONS IN THE DISEASE CAUSED BY
BODY DEFICIENCY
Sulphur Protein foods  Protein synthesis  Kwashiorkor.

 Formation of body  Stunted growth.
tissues
Zinc Liver, fish  Activates enzymes
Magesium and calcium Meat, green vegetables  Activates enzymes.  Nervous system
 Teeth and bone disturbances
formation
Manganese Liver, kidney, tea,  Activates enzymes.  Abnormal bone and

coffee, nut, vegetables,  Teeth and bone cartilage
fruits formation development

Practical activity 1.
Aim: To investigate the effect of Water bath maintained at
temperature on enzyme 37°C and 50°C.
activities.
Source of heat.
Requirements:
 Six clean test-tubes.
Thermometer.
 White tile. 10 ml measuring cylinder.
 Test-tube holder. 5 Labels.
 A dropper. 6 cm3 of amylase/diastase
 Distilled water. solution.
 Benedict's solution. 10 cm3 soluble starch
 Iodine solution. powder.

Procedure: 5. Place the remaining test tubes
1. Label three test-tubes A, B A and B in the water bath
and C. maintained at 38°C for 30
2. Into test-tube A, B and C, add
minutes.
3 cm3 of starch solution. 6. After the 30 minutes, test for
3. Into test-tube A, B and C add
starch and reducing sugars on
2 cm3 of amylase/diastase the contents of each test tube.
solution. 7. After the 30 minutes, test for
4. Place test-tube C in the water
starch and reducing sugars on
bath maintained at 50°C for the contents of each test-tube.
30 minutes.
QUESTIONS
1. Which of the test tubes showed 4. What was the reason for
presence of starch? maintaining the test tubes at
38°C?
 Test tube C.
 This is the optimum
2. Which of the test tubes showed temperature for enzyme
presence of reducing sugar? amylase.
 Test tube A and B. 5. What was the reason for
3. Explain the results. maintaining the test tubes at
 In test tube C, the enzyme 50°C?
was denatured by boiling  At 50°C, the enzyme is
hence starch was not denatured.
hydrolyzed/broken down.
 In test tube A and B, the
enzyme amylase/diastase
digested starch into maltose
(a complex reducing sugar).
Aim: To investigate the effect of  5 cm3 of 1% pepsin solution.
pH on enzyme activity.  Means of heating.
Requirements:  Measuring cylinder.
 Water bath kept at 37°C.  5 Labels.
 Egg albumen suspension.
 2m of hydrochloric acid.
 2m sodium hydroxide,
 3 test-tubes.

Procedure: 5. Incubate the test tubes for 10
1. Label the test tubes A, B and C minutes in a water bath kept at
2. Using a measuring cylinder, 37°C.
place 2 cm3 of the egg albumen 6. Examine the test-tubes every
suspension into each of the three two minutes, noting the
test-tubes labeled A, B and C. cloudiness of the contents.
3. Add 1 cm3 of the 1 % pepsin 7. After the 10 minutes remove
solution to each of the three test the test tubes and place them
tubes A, B, C. in a test-tube rack.
4. To the contents of test-tube A,
add three drops of the 2M
hydrochloric acid, to B add three
drops of distilled water and to C
add three drops of the 2M
sodium hydroxide solution.
Questions
1. Name the tube whose content
has different appearance after
ten minutes.
Test Observation of cloudiness  Test tube A.
-
0Mi 2Mi 4Mi 6Mi 8Mi 10Mi
2. Explain the change.
tube
ns ns ns ns ns ns  The acid added provided the
A optimum pH for the enzyme
hence the protein was
B digested.
3. Which aspect of the enzyme
C
properties does the
experiment investigate?
 The optimum pH of the
enzyme.
Aim: To investigate the presence of
catalase enzyme in living tissues. Requirements:
Introduction. 1. Irish Potato.
 Catalase is an enzyme found in 2. Fresh piece of liver
living tissues of plants and animals. 3. Hydrogen peroxide.
 It breaks down hydrogen peroxide 4. 4 test-tubes.
(H2O2) produced during cellular 5. Wooden splints.
metabolism into oxygen and water 6. Means of heating.
which are less toxic substances.
7. Scalpel blade.
 Hydrogen peroxide is highly toxic
hence it should not be allowed to 8. Measuring cylinder (10 cm3).
accumulate in the tissues. 9. Labels.
 If it were allowed to accumulate in 10. Pair of forceps
in the tissues, it would interfere
with cellular metabolism.

Procedure:
1. Label four test-tubes A, B, C and 6. Immediately, introduce a
D. glowing splint into the mouth of
the test tube B and record your
2. Measure 2 cm3 of hydrogen observation in the table below.
peroxide and put in the test-tubes
A, B, C and D. 7. Cut a small piece of Irish potato
and a small piece of liver and
3. Cut a small piece of the Irish boil them for five minutes.
potato, place it in test-tube A and
record your observation 8. Remove a boiled Irish potato
from hot water using a pair of
4. Immediately, introduce a glowing forceps and place it in test tube
splint into the mouth of the test C and record your observation
tube and record your observation in the table below.
in the table below.
9. Remove a boiled liver from hot
5. Cut a small piece of the fresh liver, water using a pair of forceps and
place it in test-tube B and record place it in test tube D and record
your observation in the table your observation in the table
below. below.

Questions
Test tube Observation 1. Account for the observation made in
A - Bubbling/ test tubes A and C.
effervescence.  Test tube A- enzyme catalase present in tissue
cells breaks down hydrogen peroxide into
- Relighting of water and oxygen hence bubbling and the gas
glowing splint relights a glowing splint.
B - Bubbling/  Test-tube B- boiling denatures catalase
effervescence. enzyme hence it did not break down
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
- Relighting of
2. Why were Irish potato and liver
glowing splint used?
C - N o bubbling/  To show that catalase enzyme is found in
effervescence both animal and plant tissues.
3. Which aspect of enzyme property
does the experiment investigate?
D - No bubbling/  Sensitivity to changes in temperature.
effervescence

STUDY QUESTION.
 In an experiment to investigate on aspect of (a) What was the aim of the experiment?
digestion, two test tubes A and B were set-
up as shown in the diagram below. The test
tubes were left in the bath for 30minutes.  To investigate the effect of boiled saliva on
The content of each test tube was then starch OR to show the effect
tested for starch using iodine solution. boiled/denatured enzyme amylase has
on starch.
b) What results were expected in test-tube
A and B.
 A-brown colour/colour of iodine
persists/ no change in colour.
 B- blue black colour seen/ colour
changed to blue black.
c) Account of the results you have given in
(b) above in test tube A and B.
 A- Starch has been digested/broken
down/ hydrolysed by salivary amylase
hence no colour change.
 B- Enzymes/Amylase denatured hence
starch is not digested/broken
down/hydrolysed.

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1.

1 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

2 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

3 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

4 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

5 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

7 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

9 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

10 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

11 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

6. Pair of 8. Hand lens

12 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

13 Sam obare 19-Dec-20

 The cell is the basic unit of  Multicellular organisms are made

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Functions of a microscope. LIGHT MICROSCOPE

Uses of different parts of a light microscope. 5. Coarse adjustment knob- it brings

8. Objective lenses- they 11. Condenser- it concentrates light

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

HANDLING AND CARE OF A LIGHT 5. Other parts of the microscope may be

Study questions 2. Give a reason why only the fine

 The magnification of the image Example

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

 Copy and complete table below.

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

 The cell is the basic unit of life while Cell

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

2. Cytoplasm  The cytoplasm is not static but

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

3. Mitochondria (Singular-  N/B Actively/ rapidly respiring cells e.g.

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- they are

i. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- they lack

5. Ribosomes- Ribosomes are 6. Lysosomes.

7. Golgi bodies (Golgi apparatus)- they iii. Secretion of synthesized/

8. Centrioles- they are rod-shaped ii. They help in the formation of

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

9. Chloroplasts- they are found in

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

11. Cell wall- is is a membrane found in 12. Nucleus (plural-nuclei)- contains:

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Plant cell. Animal cell

STUDY QUESTION b) State the function of F.

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Advantages of using/placing a coverslip 5. Fixation- It helps to make the

Aim: To prepare and observe 6. Iodine solution.

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

 Most cells are shorter than a Practical activity

1. With the low power objective lens

4. Convert the diameter of the field of

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Sam obare 21-Dec-20

Solution  Cell size = Diameter of field of view