CONCRETE 1:2:4, which stands for 1 part cement, 2 parts

o most widely used construction material in the sand, 4 parts coarse aggregate)
world  1 : 1 : 2 and 1 : 1.2 : 2.4 for very high strength.
o a mixture of Portland cement, aggregates  1 : 1.5 : 3 and 1 : 2 : 4 for normal works.
(gravel and sand), water, and admixtures  1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8 for foundations
 Cement → powder  and mass concrete works
 Cement + water → cement paste
FOR DIFFERENT GRADES OF CONCRETE
 Cement paste + fine aggregate → mortar
 Cement + coarse and fine aggregate + water
→ concrete

ADVANTAGES
o High compressive strength
o Resists fire and water penetration
o Very rigid
o Low maintenance requirement
o Long service life
o Economical
o Uses inexpensive local materials
o Low-level skill labor required

DISADVANTAGES
o Low tensile strength consequently requires Cube Testing- British and Indian Standard
tension reinforcement (typically steel bars Cylinder Testing- American Standard
called rebar)
2. Water Cement Ratio
o Typically requires forms, falsework, shoring
during construction
o Heavy, resulting in a large dead weight
o Possible quality control issues with variations
in proportions, mixing, placing, and curing
o Shrinkage and creep

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
1. Compressive Strength
2. Tensile Strength
3. Flexural Strength
3. Rule of Thumb
PROPERTIES OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE

METHODS OF MIXING
1. Hand mixing
 Mixing concrete by manual labor. It is generally
for small works and in special cases where noise
METHODS FOR PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXES is to be avoided.
1. Arbitrary Method Sand + Cement >> Gravel >> Water
 determining ingredients by relative
proportion of volume or weight (for example,

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

2. Machine Mixing  Furthermore, the application of asphalt binders
 This is adopted by big projects where large extends beyond roads and highways, with its use
quantity of concrete is required continuously. prevalent in driveways, roofs, tennis courts,
 The machine mixing requires less quantity of playground surfaces, airport runways, and
cement than hand mixing. The concrete is racetracks.
produced at a much faster rate
General principles: ASPHALT PAVEMENT
o Concrete should be mixed for at least 1 minute  Asphalt pavements are typically constructed
and preferably for 3 minutes. with hot mix asphalt (HMA) concrete, which
o Under normal conditions, 10% of the mixing water is a composite material composed of sand
should be placed in the drum before adding dry and crushed rock bound together by asphalt
materials. cement.
o Water should then be added uniformly with dry  the asphalt binder or asphalt cement is a
materials leaving 10% to be added after all the specific type of petroleum- derived
materials are placed in the drum. cementitious material made of bitumen. It
o The mixer should not be loaded above their should be noted that the term "bitumen" is
rated capacity. often used interchangeably with the term
o The speed of the mixer is generally 15 revolutions "asphalt" in the civil engineering industry. For
per minute. instance, the term "asphalt" is used more
frequently in the United States; whereas,
METHODS OF COMPACTION "bitumen" is more commonly used in Europe.

1. Hand ramming According to American Society for Testing and

 For unimportant works, compaction can be Materials (ASTM) D8, Standard Terminology Relating
carried out be hand methods like ramming, to Materials for Roads and Pavements:
tamping, spading and slicing with suitable tools.  bitumen is a class of black or dark colored
Hand methods require use of fairly wet concrete. (solid, semisolid, or viscous) cementitious
2. Vibrators substances (natural or manmade) that are
 The mechanical devices which are used for primarily composed of high-molecular-weight
compaction of concrete in the formwork hydrocarbons.
  Bitumen is manufactured from crude oils or found
LABORATORY TESTS FOR CONCRETE in natural deposits and can be categorized into
• Slump Test asphalt, tar, and pitches.
• Split Tensile Strength Test (ASTM C496)  Pitch is a black or dark-brown solid
• Compressive Strength Test (ASTM C39) cementitious material that gradually
• Flexural Strength (ASTM C78) liquefies when heated and which is
obtained as the residua in the partial
SLUMP TEST evaporation or fractional distillation of tar.
 Tar is a brown or black bituminous material
with a liquid or semi-solid consistency
where the bitumen is obtained as
condensates in the destructive distillation
of coal.
 Asphalt is defined as a dark brown to black
ASPHALT
cementitious material predominately
 Roads and highways represent the lifelines of
composed of bitumen.
modern society by allowing for the transportation
BITUMEN
of people and goods
 It is the black viscous liquid, which is used as a
 In addition, roads and highways provide access
binder material in making asphalt. It is a
to employment, social, health, and educational
hydrocarbon, obtained naturally or as a
services and are often considered the most
residue in the distillation of petroleum.
important infrastructure components of all public
Bitumen is used in making paints, roofing
assets.
materials etc. other than road works.

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

PITCH  At high temperatures, asphalt binders can
 is the name of a large number of highly become too soft, which can result in
viscous liquids which appear solid Pitch may pavement deformation
be made from petroleum or plant sources.
 Durability—asphalt binder is a durable material
TAR allowing for flexible pavements that can
 It is the thick black liquid produced by the withstand occasional overloading, and resist
destructive distillation of coal. In the process wear, deformation, and weather.
of manufacturing coke and coal gas from  can be elastic at a given temperature and
coal, tar is produced as a by-product. return to its initial shape after loading, thus
 Used in making paints, synthetic dyes and in delaying the onset of permanent
manufacturing medicines, related to the skin deformation.
symptoms. Since it is carcinogenic in nature,  Furthermore, asphalt binder is unaffected by
its usage is limited in making tar roads. most acids, alkalis, or salts.
 Excellent adhesion properties —asphalt binder is
ASPHALT highly adhesive, bonding well to aggregate
 It has two basic ingredients. Sand and gravel particles
form the first part with a 95% share and 5% of  Economical —the low initial construction cost
bitumen as the other part. Here, bitumen is the associated with asphalt pavement, compared
binder material, which holds together all the to other materials, makes it the most commonly
ingredients. The primary use of asphalt is in road used material in constructing roadways.
construction. They are manufactured in hot mix  Ease and fast construction—asphalt pavement is
plant under a certain temperature. In America, placed and solidifies as the asphalt binder cools.
asphalt also refers to bitumen.  The ease and speed of construction also
allows for resurfacing during off-peak hours to
minimize service interruptions associated with
SIGNIFICANCE OF ASPHALT
concrete.
 Approximately 85 percent of all produced
 Safety—asphalt binders used to construct
bitumen is used as a binder for aggregates in
asphalt concrete pavements (discussed later)
pavement construction or maintenance for
result in smooth driving surfaces that offer high
roads, airports, parking lots, etc.
skid resistance and better contact with roads.
 After road pavement, the second most common
Furthermore, the dark color reduces glare and
application of bitumen is in roofing, such as roof
provides a high contrast for lane markings
shingles, where approximately 10 percent of all
bitumen produced is used.
PRODUCTION OF ASPHALT BINDERS
 An estimated 5 percent of all bitumen
 Asphalt binders can occur naturally or be
production is used for small volume applications
processed from crude oil.
such as sound proofing, water pipe coating,
 Naturally occurring asphalt binder
waterproofing, and sealing materials.
(sometimes referred to as "crude bitumen") is
the result of natural fractional distillation of
PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT
crude oil as it seeps through cracks and
 Temperature-dependent properties —asphalt
fissures in the earth's surface over a long time.
binder changes properties with respect to
 An emulsified natural asphalt (also referred to
temperature, which can result in advantages
as lake asphalt) can be found in relatively
and disadvantages.
pure form in oil-rich regions such as northern
 As temperature increases, asphalt binder softens
Iraq, Venezuela, or the Republic of Trinidad
and becomes a liquid.
and Tobago where La Brea Pitch Lake is
 Under normal climate conditions, asphalt is a
located.
highly durable material, elastic solid
 Natural asphalts can also be found as rock
providing strength and ductility.
asphalt, which are typically limestone or
 Under low temperatures, asphalt binder can
sandstone rock formations with minor amounts of
be too stiff and susceptible to low-
asphalt binder impregnated throughout its mass.
temperature cracking.

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

 The process is based on knowing that the react with oxygen in the environment) and
multiple fractions (e.g., naphtha, kerosene, can lose its elastic behavior and become
diesel oil, fuel oil, etc.) of crude oil boil at different increasingly brittle, which then results in
temperatures. Asphalt is the base or heavy cracking.
constituent of crude petroleum that does not
evaporate or boil during the distillation process. 2. Cutbacks - a type of liquid asphalt, are
The crude oil distillation process is summarized as produced when asphalt cement is blended with
follows: one or more petroleum in order to create a liquid
1. Crude oil is sent to a furnace where it is product that is easier to place without the use of
heated and vaporized at 300–350°C (572– high temperatures.
662°F). Superheated crude oil is delivered to  After being placed, the solvents evaporate
the base of the atmospheric distillation (also leaving the asphalt cement. Cutback
known as fractional distillation) tower. asphalts can be produced as rapid curing,
2. In the atmospheric distillation tower, fractions medium curing, and slow curing, depending
are physically separated by boiling lighter on the need.
petrochemical and fuel fractions from the  Cutbacks are not used as frequently as
non-boiling residual (non-distilled fraction) asphalt emulsions due to environmental
component of crude oil. The lightest concerns, since volatile compounds
components rise to the top, cool, condense, evaporate into the atmosphere. Cutbacks
and are collected for further processing. The are usually used as cold-patching materials or
heaviest material, the residuum, is then as a prime coat spray application.
transferred to the vacuum distillation
chamber for further processing. 3. Asphalt emulsions - liquefying asphalt cement in
3. The vacuum distillation chamber utilizes an order to improve placeability. An emulsion is a
elevated pressure and temperature to fine dispersion of minute droplets of one liquid in
separate any remaining lighter fractions, another in which it is immiscible (i.e., not soluble).
resulting in asphalt and other petroleum
residues such as lubricating oil and paraffin ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
wax. The asphalt residue can be sent  Asphalt concrete is usually produced in batch
individually to an asphalt plant for further mixing or drum mixing facilities, where the
processing or refining into different types of asphalt cement is heated, proportioned, and
asphalt (binders, liquids, etc.), depending on mixed with aggregate particles.
the desired characteristics.  After mixing, the asphalt concrete is transported
to the site, then placed and compacted while it
TYPES OF ASPHALT is still hot to produce a smooth asphalt
1. Asphalt cement or binder is a mixture of pavement.
moderate molecular weight hydrocarbons that  During the asphalt concrete production process,
is a product manufactured from refining residue asphalt cement is heated to make it flow; thus,
of the crude oil distillation process. the resulting asphalt concrete is also called a hot
 Viscoelastic material mix asphalt (HMA) concrete
 At high temperatures, asphalt cements
behave like a viscous liquid and flow. LAYERS IN ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT CROSS
 At low temperatures, asphalt cement SECTION.
behaves like an elastic solid; however, it o A well-designed asphalt concrete mix results
can still crack due tointernal stresses in a stable, durable, flexible, and skid-
developed because of shrinkage. resistant pavement that is economical. A
 Well suited in pavement applications, since it flexible pavement is a structure composed
has excellent adhesion properties and can of multiple layers
be mixed with aggregate particles at
elevated temperatures, formed and placed,
and solidified upon cooling.
 However, over time, asphalt cement
undergoes oxidation (organic molecules

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

 3. Low-Temperature Cracking
o occurs when asphalt pavement shrinks in
cold weather environments
o As the HMA concrete shrinks, tensile stresses
develop causing transverse cracking
spaced 6 to 30 m (20 to 100 ft) apart where
the tensile stresses exceed the tensile
strength of the asphalt concrete.
FAILURE OF ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS  the prevention of low-temperature cracking
is dependent on asphalt binder selection and
controlled placement of asphaltic concrete in
1. Permanent Deformation
order to minimize air void content and limit
o Permanent deformation in asphalt
pavement is the accumulation of oxidation.
unrecoverable deformation that occurs
Prior to efforts by the Strategic Highway Research
each time load is applied on to the
pavement. Program (SHRP) in the late 1980s, asphalt binders
were characterized by:
o is wheel path rutting, which primarily occurs
 penetration (ASTM D5, Standard Test Method for
due to weakness in the underlying layers or
in the asphalt layer of the pavement Penetration of Bituminous Materials) and;
o Wheel path rutting in the asphalt layer is the  viscosity tests (ASTM D2170, Standard Test
Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Asphalts).
result of an asphalt mixture that has
insufficient shear strength to resist repeated  Both tests were used to measure the
heavy loading consistency of asphalt binders with the
penetration test used to measure the
o Common during summer
hardness or softness of the material and the
2. Fatigue Cracking viscosity test used to measure absolute and
kinematic viscosity
o is a progressive failure mechanism
characterized by the formation of
longitudinal cracks along the wheel path of VISCOSITY OF ASPHALT BINDER USING A ROTATIONAL
VISCOMETER
roads due to over stressing.
 AASHTO T316 and ASTM D4402, Standard Test
o Advanced stages of fatigue cracking are
characterized by intersecting longitudinal Method for Viscosity Determination of Asphalt
at Elevated Temperatures Using a Rotational
and transverse cracks in the pavement and
Viscometer.
can lead to potholes.
Fatigue cracking in asphalt pavements is the result The high-temperature viscosity of asphalt binder is
important in assessing the pumpability, workability,
of one or more of the following factors:
and compaction of the asphalt binder during hot
 Repeated heavy loading.
 Excessive deflections due to thin pavements mixing and placement
or those with weak underlying layers (large  The rotational viscometer test is used to
determine the viscosity of an unaged (or
deflections cause horizontal tensile stresses at
bottom resulting in fatigue cracking). neat) asphalt binder at a high temperature of
 Poor drainage, poor construction, and/or an 135°C by shearing the binder at a constant
strain rate and a constant temperature.
under designed pavement.
The primary means of preventing fatigue cracking  The dynamic viscosity of the fluid is
are as follows; proportional to the measured torque,
 Conservatively accounting for the number of although most rotational viscometers will
directly output the viscosity of the fluid
heavy loads
 Specifying thicker pavements  the viscosity of unaged asphalt binder is
measured at 135°C for arotational speed
 Utilizing moisture-resistant pavement
of 20 rpm.
materials
 The viscosity of asphalt binders typically
ranges from 0.2 to 2 Pa· s.

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

  The performance grade specification
requires the viscosity of the asphalt binder
to be less than or equal to 3 Pa · s at
135°C.
 Asphalt binders with viscosities exceeding
3 Pa · s would result in asphalt mixes that
are difficult to pump, place, and
compact.

PROCEDURE
1. Preheat the asphalt binder sample, sample
holder, thermal chamber, and spindle to the test
temperature in the oven.
2. Insert the sample holder into the environmental
chamber and lower the spindle into the asphalt
binder sample such that the top conical portion
of the spindle is fully immersed.
3. Bring the asphalt binder sample to the test
temperature of 135°C within 30 min and allow it
to equilibrate at the test temperature for at least
10 min.
Natural Defects
4. Set the viscometer to 20 rpm and turn it on. Allow
 Defects are structural faults within the timber
the sample to condition for 5 min and maintain
which may impair its strength, resilience or
the sample at 135 ± 1.0°C. The resisting torque
durability and should not be confused with
should be maintained between 10 and 98
surface blemishes.
percent of the full viscometer capacity. It may
be necessary to increase RPMs or conduct the
Defects due to NATURAL FORCES
test with a different spindle size to be within the
BURLS- These are formed when a tree has received
viscometer operable range.
an injury or shock in its young age. Due to such injury,
5. Measure the viscosity or torque at 1-min intervals
the growth of the tree gets completely upset and
for a total of 3 min.
irregular projections appear on the body of the
timber.

Wood
SHAKES - These are splits along the length of the
Wood
plank where the cells or fibers
 is used to describe the fibrous substance that
makes up a tree; the very thing that supports
it when it’s in the ground, allowing growth
and stability
Timber
 refer collectively to living trees or to a
wooded area, regardless of whether the
trees will be harvested for wood
Lumber
 refers to sawn wood as well as processed
wood products used for purposes such as
home construction, cladding, decking and
furniture making.
The broad difference between timber and lumber
is that timber is less processed than lumber.

Internal Parts of Wood CHEMICAL STAINS- Due to chemical action by some

external agents, wood is sometimes discolored.

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

 Insects responsible for the decay of timber:
COARSE GRAIN- If a tree grows rapidly, annual rings  Beetles. These are small insects. They form pin
are widened. It is known as coarse grained timber holes and form tunnels in all directions. They
and such timber possesses less strength. convert timber into fine powder.
 Marine borers. These are found in marine water.
DEAD WOOD- Timber which obtained from dead They do not feed on wood. They dig holes or form
standing trees contains dead wood. It is indicated by tunnels for shelter and the wood loses colour and
light weight and reddish color. strength
 Termites. Popularly known as white ants, these
KNOTS- Knots are the remains of outgrowing insects are found in tropical and sub-tropical
branches of a tree. Their grain runs at an angle to countries. They feed on wood inside out, form
that of the main timber and where the knots are tunnels and live in colonies. They usually do not
large and numerous the fibers are distorted and the disturb out shell. Good timbers like teak, sal, etc
strength of the timber are not attacked by termites.

Defects due to Conversion Decay in Timber

During the process of converting timber to Following are the causes for the early decay of
commercial form, the following defects may occur: timber:
o Chip mark. This defect is indicated by the  Alternate dry and wet conditions.
marks or signs placed by chips on the finished  Bad storage or stacking of timber
surface of timber.  Fungi which are responsible for developing
o Diagonal grain. The improper sawing of diseases in timber.
timber.  Improper seasoning.
o Torn grain. When a small depression is made  Insects.
on the finished surface due to falling of some  Keeping timber in contact with damp wall,
tool. damp earth, etc.
o Wane. Presence of original rounded surface  Shocks or impacts received during young
on the finished surface. age from natural forces such as fast blowing
of wind, etc.
Defects due to Fungi  Use of timber without taking out sap wood
Fungi attacks timber when these conditions are all from its structure.
present:  Using seasoned timber without applying
o The timber moisture content is above 25%. suitable preservative on its surface.
o The environment is warm enough.  Using unseasoned wood with the application
o There is lots of air. Wood with less than 25% of protective coat of paint or tar.
moisture remains free of fungi for centuries.
Similarly, wood submerged in water will not Wood Seasoning
be attacked by fungi because of absence of  Seasoning of timber is the process by which
air. moisture content in the timber is reduced to
required level.
 By reducing moisture content, the strength,
elasticity and durability properties are
developed. A well-seasoned timber has 15%
moisture content in it

Defects due to Insects Methods of Seasoning Timber

Timber may be attacked in certain circumstances by
various wood-boring insects, which differ in their 1. Natural seasoning
choice of species and condition of the wood - from - is the process in which timber is seasoned by
standing trees to woodwork which has been in subjecting it natural elements such as air or
service for many years. water.

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

2. Artificial seasoning Kiln Seasoning
- is the process by which lumber is dried using  In this method timber is subjected to hot air in
man-made devices such as a kiln. air tight chamber. The hot air circulates in
 Natural seasoning gives good results but takes between the timber logs and reduces the
more time. So, artificial seasoning of timber is moisture content.
developed nowadays.  The temperature inside the chamber is raised
 By artificial seasoning, timber is seasoned with in with the help of heating coils. When the
4-5 days only required temperature is obtained moisture
content and relative humidity gets reduced
Natural Seasoning and timber gets seasoned. Even though it is
Water Seasoning costly process it will give good results strength
 is the process in which timber is immersed in wise.
water flow which helps to remove the sap
present in the timber. Electrical Seasoning
 It will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and after that  timber is subjected to high frequency
the timber is allowed to dry. Well-seasoned alternating currents.
timber is ready to use.  The resistance of timber against electricity is
measured at every interval of time. When the
Air Seasoning required resistance is reached seasoning,
 In the process of air seasoning timber logs are process is stopped because resistance of
arranged in layers in a shed. The timber increases by reducing moisture
arrangement is done by maintaining some content in it.
gap with the ground.  It is also called as rapid seasoning and it is
 A platform is built at 300mm height from uneconomical
ground. The logs are arranged in such a way
that air is circulated freely between logs. By Wood Products
the movement of air, the moisture content in  Plywood
timber slowly reduces and seasoning occurs. - is a manufactured wood panel made from
Even though it is a slow process it will produce thin sheets of wood veneer. It is one of the
well-seasoned timber most widely used wood products. It is flexible,
inexpensive, workable, re-usable and can be
Artificial Seasoning locally manufactured
Seasoning by Boiling - It is used instead of plain wood because of its
 Seasoning of timber is also achieved by resistance to cracking, shrinkage, splitting,
boiling it in water for 3 to 4 hours. After boiling and twisting/warping, and its general high
timber is allowed to drying. degree of strength.
 For large quantity of timber boiling is difficult  Veneer
so, sometimes hot steam is passed through - refers to thin slices of wood, usually thinner
timber logs in enclosed room. It also gives than 3mm (1/8inch), that typically are glued
good results. The boiling or steaming process onto core panels (typically, wood, particle
develops the strength and elasticity of timber board, or medium-density fiberboard) to
but economically it is costly produce flat panels such as doors, tops and
panels for cabinets, parquet floors (the inside
Chemical Seasoning lower horizontal surface) and parts of
 timber is stored in suitable salt solution for furniture.
some time.  Particle board is a composite product of wood
 The salt solution used has the tendency to manufactured from wood particles, such as
absorb water from the timber. So, the wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even saw dust,
moisture content is removed and then timber and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder.
is allowed to drying. It affects the strength of  Laminate is a printed surface made to look like
the timber. real wood, but usually made of plastic and
bonded to a composite base.

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

 - It is a man-made product. This means that it by original cross-sectional area) and strain
is stronger and that it tends to be heat- and (elongation divided by the original gauge
scratch-resistant, making laminate easier to length of 2.0 in). These data points can then be
care for than real wood or veneer graphed to obtain a stress-strain diagram, which
in most cases results in a straight line almost to
Properties of Wood failure. The slope of this line gives the modulus of
Tensile Strength elasticity.
 Wood is very strong in tension parallel to the 4. Note the type of fracture pattern of the
grain; though, defects, such as knots, greatly specimen and record the maximum load.
reduce this strength. 5. Calculate the tensile strength by dividing the
 For this reason, timber should never be maximum load applied on the specimen by the
loaded perpendicular to the grain. original cross-sectional area.
 It is estimated that the tensile strength 6. Determine the MC of a small section, about 3 in
perpendicular to the grain is about one-third in length, near the failure.
of the shear strength parallel to the grain.
Laboratory Test for Wood
Compressive Strength Moisture Content of Wood
 Wood is very strong in compression parallel to  is the weight of water contained in wood,
grain because the wood cells act as slender expressed as a percentage of the weight of
columns bonded together, giving and oven-dry wood weight.
receiving support from each other.

Flexural Strength
 Lumber in bending tends to experience  The standard procedure for obtaining MC of
flexural and shear stresses. wood is detailed in ASTM D4442, Standard Test
 Wood is very strong in bending, and its Methods for Direct Moisture Content
strength is characterized by the modulus of Measurement of Wood and Wood-Based
rupture. Shallow beams have relatively Materials, which covers four methods.
greater resistance to bending in comparison  The main procedure is Method A— primary oven-
to proportionately deeper beams drying, and three additional secondary
procedures used when less precision is
Laboratory Testing for Timber appropriate, or for special purposes or when
Tensile Strength Parallel to the Grain Test (ASTM D143) Method A is not desired or justified.

Main features of the specimen Method A

 length =18 in,  the test procedure is carried out using eight
 a double curvature gradual transition fillet of specimens, which should be processed using
a 17.5-in radius to a net cross section of 3/8 Guide ASTM D4933, Guide for Moisture
by 3/16 in Conditioning of Wood and Wood-Based
 2.5-in long zone of uniform cross section in Materials.
order to accommodate a 2-in gauge length  After taking the initial weight, the drying time can
extensometer take 24 h for a one- to two-inch sample in an
1. After fabricating the specimen, measure the oven at a temperature of 103 ± 2°C. The
cross-sectional dimensions of the specimen at specimens are weighed every three hours; when
the minimum section. Calculate the cross- the change in weight is less than twice the
sectional area. sensitivity of the scale (i.e., 0.2-g change in
2. Place specimen in a testing machine and slowly weight of a 100-g sample), the sample is
extend it until failure. The rate of the movement considered dry; and its weight is the oven-dry
of the crosshead should be at a rate of 0.005 in/s weight.
(1 mm/s).
3. Record the applied force (load) and the
deformation of the gauge section (elongation).
Process the data to obtain stress (load divided

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)

Sample:
A wood sample initially weighs 205 g, but decreases
to 110 g after oven drying to a constant weight.
What is its percent moisture content?

Solution:

Density and Specific Gravity

 Density of a material is the ratio of its mass to its
volume and is expressed in units of lb/ft3 in U.S.
customary units (which is technically specific
weight) and g/cm3 in SI units;
 Specific Gravity (also known as relative density)
is a dimensionless ratio of the density of a
material to the density of water at a temperature
of 4°C, when water is densest, γ (it is equal to
62.43 lb/ft3 or 1.00 g/cm3).
The standard procedure for obtaining
density/specific gravity of wood is detailed in ASTM
D2395, Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of
Wood and Wood-Based Materials,

 the volume is determined from the

dimensions (length, width, and thickness) of
the specimen; and the mass is determined
before and after oven drying.

Sample:
A red oak sample initially weighs 173.2 g, but
decreases to 152.3 g after drying to a constant
weight. The average dimensions (three points each)
after drying are 0.75 in by 3.50 in by 5.46 in. Compute
the percent MC and the specific gravity for the
specimen.
Solution:

DARLENE DISAY GOMEZ | CE221 REVIEWER (MIDTERMS)