THE JEWEL IN THE HEART OF THE LOTUS: BRINGING BUDDHIST WISDOM AND COMPASSION TO PSYCHOTHERAPY According to Buddhism, life

will include dukkha. Rahula (1974) advised there is no single English translation for the word dukkha, but it includes suffering, unsatisfactoriness, and imperfection. The more accurate interpretation of the Buddhist perspective is that one can not have a life without some suffering and dissatisfaction along the way. The inevitability and inseparability of unsatisfactoriness and the human condition (in Buddhism conditioned existence) is a fundamental principle of Buddhist philosophy so central that it is the first of the Buddhas four noble truths. R. J. Corless (1989) outlined the three primary types of unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) within Buddhist theory as: ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha), the suffering of change (viparinm-dukkha), and the suffering of conditioned existence (sankhradukkha). One interpretation of the three types of suffering is that ordinary suffering equates to the body, such as physical pain and discomfort. The suffering of change relates to mental states, such as desiring things. The suffering as conditioned states relates to the universal suffering of life (Govinda, 1939/1991). According to Lama Yeshe (2003), Buddhism has a broader interpretation of mental illness than Western psychology The fundamental neurosis, according to Buddhist philosophy, is the separation between I (the ego) and other (Casper, 1974). In Buddhism, the key to overcoming psychological problems lies within each person due to an inherent capacity to self-heal by revealing how the mind turns experience into neuroses (Ramaswamy, 2000). At a basic level, the Buddhist concept of mental health depends upon two factors: the absence of negative mental states, and the presence of positive mental states (e.g., Goleman, 1980b; Ramaswami & Sheikh, 1989). Because negative mental states prevent the development of the mind, such impediments to positive mental health apply in other contexts as well. They are also, for example, obstacles to Buddhist practice and meditation. In Buddhism, there are five categories of impediments, or hindrances (panca-nvarana) to mind development. They are: (a) sense desire (kmacchand), (b) ill-will and anger (vypda), (c) sloth and torpor (thnamiddha), (d) restlessness and worry (uddhacca-kukkucca), and (e) sceptical doubt (vicikicch). See Padmasiri de Silva (2000) for a discussion of these hindrances and their antidotes. students of meditation are taught that the only insight possible is selfgenerated. In whatever way the wisdom of the teacher is revealed to the students, it can

only ignite the insight process within them. Students must be receptive and then manifest understanding in their own minds to develop wisdom. The Buddhist concept of compassion also goes beyond what D. Brazier (2001) described as the ordinary compassion of sympathy, empathy, and kindness, to a recognition of unity with, and active concern for, the destinies of others. The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (1998) stated: It is a mental attitude based on the wish for others to be free of their suffering and is associated with a sense of commitment, responsibility, and respect towards the other. . . . Based on the rationale that all human beings have an innate desire to be happy and overcome suffering, just like myself. And, just like myself, they have the natural right to fulfil this fundamental aspiration. (pp. 114-115) The Second Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering From the Buddhist viewpoint, all of the suffering we experience is grounded in the perpetuation of cyclic existence. Rebirth (patisandhi; also reunion, relinking), in turn, is due to kamma (action or deed, in Sanskrit karma) that results from grasping or clinging to an unsubstantiated self. In order to appreciate Buddhist perspectives of how suffering comes about, and how they can apply to therapy, it is helpful to understand who (or what) in Buddhism suffers. It would be impossible within this chapter to explore the many different typologies and characteristics used to define and describe the human individual in Buddhist psychology. Instead, a few relevant principles are summarised based on one of the collective teachings regarding mental phenomena, the Abhidhamma, the Buddhist framework for investigation of the mind (Nyanaponika, 1998). After considering the individual, and causation and rebirth, I then explore Buddhist ideas of self and egolessness, and how they relate to therapy. Finally, I address the Buddhist teachings concerning grasping and letting go, and the emotions, and how they apply in the therapeutic context. According to Buddhism, the individual is an indivisible mind-body (nma-rpa) made up of five constituents or aggregates of grasping (updna-kkhandha; Kalupahana, 1992). These five factors are: (a) material form or corporeality (rpa), (b) experiential feeling or sensation (vedan), (c) perception or cognition (sann), (d) mental formations or imagery (sankhra), and (e) consciousness (vinnna). Material form is physical in the sense of appearance rather than substance, and includes the four elements of earth, water, fire, and wind in their experienced forms of solidity, fluidity, heat, and motion (Reat, 1987). The other four factors are mental in nature (Harvey, 2000). Within Buddhist nomology, consciousness cannot arise independent of the other four factors (Rahula, 1974). The subject of consciousness is complex in Buddhism, and, according to the

Abhidhamma (Govinda, 1939/1991), 121 types have been classified. There are many ways of analysing consciousness in Buddhism, including by type, mental factors (e.g., absorption, powers, wholesome and unwholesome roots), cognitive perception, and so on, (see Govinda or Nyanaponika 1998), as well as by theories within different schools of Buddhism. The first Dalai Lama (1391-1474), Gyalwa Gendun Drub (in Mullin, 1981), explained the perpetuation of birth after birth as being due to virtuous and non-virtuous actions tainted by contaminated perception (p. 95) with the three poisons of aversion (doha), attachment (lobha), and delusion (moha) as the source of these actions. Such actions of body, speech, and mind are known in Buddhism as kamma, where a wholesome cause yields a pleasant result; an unwholesome cause yields an unpleasant result (Kongtrul, 1986, p. 38). According to Narada Maha Thera (1955/1988), the Buddha identified the essential factor of kamma as volition when he stated I declare, O Bhikkus [monks], that volition (cetan) is kamma. Having willed one acts by body, speech, and thought (p. 11). In Buddhism, although external conditions exert some influence (Wray, 1996), of the three poisons which substantially propel our kamma, the first Dalai Lama noted that delusion, is the greatest, because the grasping at an I, as well as aversion and attachment, all arise from delusion (Mullin, 1981). Buddhist theory proposes that the mind-body exists, but that the inferred individuality accorded to it does not. The I is a linguistic convenience only (Ramaswami & Sheikh, 1989). Tarthang Tulku (1979) explained the Buddhist view of mind as follows: Mind itself has no substance. It has no color and no shape. It has no form, no position, no characteristics, no beginning, no end. It is neither within nor without; it cannot be discovered as this or that thing; it is not mixed together with other things, yet it is not apart from them. . . . What we commonly believe to be mind, therefore is not really mind, but only the manifestation of various forms of consciousness. (pp. 42-43) In Buddhist teachings, letting go, or acceptance, is the antidote to attachment and resistance that arise out of craving (tanh or thirst). Craving takes three forms in Buddhism: (a) craving for sensuous experiences (kma-tanh), including wanting sustained or increased pleasure and resistance or restlessness in relation to the possible decrease or cessation of pleasure, (b) craving for self-existence and becoming (bhavatanh), and (c) craving for non-existence (vibhava-tanh) including self-annihilation (Rahula, 1974). From a Buddhist perspective, continued efforts at letting go, and acceptance, help develop the quality of equanimity (upekkh) that is considered to be both a mind-state to cultivate, and one of the benefits of a dedicated practice (e.g., Kyabgon, 2003). Emotion Within Buddhist psychology there is no direct translation of the term emotion as it is understood in the

West (Ekman, Davidson, Ricard, & Wallace, 2005). Instead, in Buddhism, there are two broad categories of skilful and unskilful mental states. Such a division is underpinned by the link between morality and spiritual development (Padmasiri de Silva, 2007). In addition to the three primary motivational poisons of aversion or hate (dosa), attachment or greed (lobha), and delusion or ignorance (moha), de Silva outlined different Buddhist understandings of fear, anger, guilt, and grief. The four sublime mind states (brahmavihara) in Buddhism are loving kindness (mett), karun (compassion), sympathetic joy (mudit), and equanimity (upekkh), and these are often viewed in Buddhism as antidotes to afflicted emotions (Padmasiri de Silva, 2007). The Dalai Lama noted that although a state such as compassion is, from a Buddhist viewpoint, still technically a disturbance, it is one with positive benefits (Goleman, 1997). Although key terms are interpreted variously, the different schools of Buddhist thought share a basic framework regarding what in Western psychology are termed problematic emotions (Fenner, 1995). According to Fenner, the four factors of influence in Buddhism are: (a) reactive mental states and moods (kilesa), (b) ontological blindness (avijja), (c) confusion (moha), and (d) a fixed view about who one is (sakkayaditthi).

The Third Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering The first and second noble truths of Buddhism outline the problems of suffering and its causes. The third noble truth asserts that it is possible to act positively in relation to experienced suffering, and reduce the causes of future suffering. Of the noble truths, the third appears the most optimistic, and suggests the potential for positive change. Curiously, it is generally given less attention in Buddhist literature as compared with the other noble truths. Below, I first consider some optimistic concepts within Buddhism: enlightenment and emptiness, and altruism. Next, I discuss two features in support of positive change in psychotherapy: the therapeutic relationship and supervision. Enlightenment and Emptiness The ultimate goal of Buddhist practice is to achieve enlightenment (nibbna, in Sanskrit nirvna), to recognise ones inherent Buddha nature (already discussed), and see things as they really are. Seeing things as they really are involves recognising egolessness (anatt) in order to cease the endless cycle of clinging and rebirth. The Fourth Noble Truth of the Eightfold Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering Traditionally, the noble eightfold path is divided into the three streams of ethics (sla), meditation (bhvan), and wisdom (pann). These three branches are each considered here in the context of psychotherapy as follows. First, I explore ethics in relation to ethics and values, authenticity and philosophies of life, and self-disclosure of spiritual influences. Second, I discuss Buddhist forms of meditation and mindfulness, their application to therapists and clients, and research. Finally, in the section concerning wisdom, I consider Buddhist ways of knowing, perceived limitations in Western

psychotherapy, and the place where psychotherapy ends and Buddhism begins. Ethics Ethics and values. Daisetz Suzuki (1972/1991) proposed that morality and intellection walk arm in arm (p. 13), and such is the case with Buddhist philosophy. Within Buddhism, an ethical foundation supports mind development while promoting positive active engagement with the world. On the Buddhist viewpoint of morality, the law of cause and effect cannot be put aside. As Croake and Rusk (1974) noted, in Buddhism one is punished by ones sins, not for them (p. 225). Buddhist ethics are not based on convention (Rawlinson, 1996). As Narada Maha Thera (1933/1975) explained, Buddhist morality (sla) is a means to an end, but not an end in itself (p. 17). Such explanations are best appreciated in the context of Saddhatissas (1970) statement, that enlightenment is beyond good and evil. Even so, an enlightened mind exhibits a natural and spontaneous virtue (Diskul, 1977, p. 17). From the Buddhist viewpoint, the three major streams of Buddhist training: morality, concentration, and wisdom are interdependent (Goleman, 1975). Because of this perspective, moral precepts have traditionally been viewed as essential preliminaries to Buddhist practice (Saddhatissa, 1970). Goleman (1980a) explained the justification as follows: Purity is the psychological base for concentration. The essence of concentration is nondistractedness; purification is the systematic pruning away of sources of distraction (p. 142). Depending upon their individual traditions, ordained Buddhist monks and nuns undertake a commitment to observe hundreds of rules of conduct governing every aspect of their lives. Ajahn Chah (1982) explained that the value of such rules lies not in the development of moral purity, but rather in the necessity for the development of vigilant Buddhism and Psychotherapy 79 mindfulness (a Buddhist tool of enlightenment explained in a later section) as the monitor of mental and bodily conduct. This position is underpinned by the reasoning that absolute observance of all the rules is unachievable in any case. Meditation Buddhist forms of meditation. The primary method of Buddhist practice is sitting meditation. Moreover, Buddhists consider that the awareness developing out of the practice of meditation allows them to live more fully. Moreover, Buddhists consider that the awareness developing out of the practice of meditation allows them to live more fully. Neither the tranquillity method nor the insight method involve suppressing or blocking out thoughts, as is often misinterpreted by beginner meditators (Hanh, 1992). In the development of tranquillity meditation (samatha-bhvan), a peaceful, undefiled state of mind is generated through concentration that is usually fixed upon a single object. Once the mind settles, the stages of one-pointedness (samdhi) and

absorption (jhna) occur in tandem with sensory withdrawal and increased tranquillity. Goleman (1976) noted that the bliss which often accompanies the concentration method should be viewed as incidental, because it makes no direct contribution to the development of the mind. In contrast to the concentration method, the task of insight meditation (vipassan-bhvan) is to observe phenomena (mental, physical, and external) as they Buddhism and Psychotherapy 86 occur. From the Buddhist viewpoint, such observation leads to intuitive insight or knowledge (nna) regarding the nature of phenomena, including the unsatisfactory, impermanent, and nonsubstantial quality of the self (Engler, 1983; Goleman, 1976). Mindfulness. In Buddhism, mindfulness (satipatthna; also known as meditative awareness, meditative attention, or bare attention), is the technique applied in insight (vipassana) meditation. People sometimes use the terms mindfulness and meditation interchangeably. Experientially, Buddhist mindfulness is the observation of the four objects that are: (a) body, (b) feeling, (c) consciousness, and (d) mental objects (Soma, 1975), while at the same time letting go of, rather than following, ones usual mental commentary (Khong, 2003). Mindfulness can also be understood as the repeated action of bringing the mind back into the present moment each time it is inevitably drawn into evaluations of the present, or thoughts about the past or the future. Various labelling techniques can be applied to assist in maintaining mindfulness, such as to note hearing only. Counting breaths is an example of another helpful strategy. Mindfulness of breathing (npna sati) can also constitute a complete meditation practice (see Buddhadasa, 1980). The Satipatthna Sutta (Discourse on the Arousing of Mindfulness) details meditation techniques and suitable subjects and objects of contemplation for the attainment of mindfulness leading to enlightenment (Soma, 1975). Venerable Phra Maha Vichitr Tissadatto (1975) outlined the benefits of such practice, including equanimity, knowledge, and, most importantly, insight. Together, impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), and egolessness (anatt) are known in Buddhism as the three characteristics of existence (ti-lakkhana), and their contemplation and investigation in daily life forms the basis from which students of Buddhism change their ways of knowing. Ponce suggested that the three Buddhist marks of existence (impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and egolessness) can provide a new paradigm for clients assumptions. In the first (umwelt), the nature of the world is now seen as impermanent (anicca). The futility of being attached, based on an understanding of the inevitability of unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), becomes the new way of relating to the world (mitwelt). The idea of a permanent self can no longer be supported (anatt) on the basis that all things are changing and are therefore not to be grasped at. So the third assumption about the nature of self (eigenwelt) is relaxed. In order to bring about such a shift in perspective, however, from the Buddhist viewpoint one would have to start at the point of becoming conscious of, and thoughtful about, ones experience, and how one views and relates to the world. Thus, one would

have to develop self-understanding, and from the Buddhist perspective, such understanding would begin with self-awareness. Bodhi, B., (Trans.). (1984). The great discourse on causation: The Mahanidana Sutta and its commentaries. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. Buddhadasa, B. (1980). Anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing) (B. Nagasena, Trans). Bangkok, Thailand: Sublime Life Mission. Chah, A. (1982). Bodhinyana. Ubon Rajathani, Thailand: Bung Wai Forest Monastery. Chodron, P. (1991). The wisdom of no escape and the path of loving-kindness. Boston: Shambhala. Daya, R. (2002). Buddhist moments in psychotherapy. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62 (12), 4071A. (UMI No. NQ64806) de Silva, Padmal. (1984). Buddhism and behaviour modification. Behaviour, Research and Therapy, 22, 661-678. de Silva, Padmal. (1985). Early Buddhist and modern behavioral strategies for the control of unwanted intrusive cognitions. The Psychological Record, 35, 437443. de Silva, Padmal. (1990a). Meditation and beyond: Buddhism and psychotherapy. In M. G. T. Kwee (Ed.), Psychotherapy, meditation and health: A cognitivebehavioural perspective (pp. 165-182). London: East-West. de Silva, Padmal. (1990b). Buddhist psychology: A review of theory and practice. Current Psychology, 9, 236-255. de Silva, Padmasiri. (1992). Buddhist and Freudian psychology (3rd ed.): Singapore University Press. de Silva, Padmasiri. (2000). An introduction to Buddhist psychology (3rd ed.). Basingstoke, England: Macmillan Press. de Silva, Padmasiri. (2007). The psychology of emotions in Buddhist perspective: Sir D. B. Jayatilleke commemoration lecture, Colombo, 1976. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/desilva-p/wheel237.html. Diskul, P. P. P. (1977). The relevance of Buddhism in the modern world. In Bodhi leaves Vol III Nos. 41-60 (pp. 15-23). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. Gyatso, T. (1987). The practices of bodhisattvas (J. Hopkins, Trans.). In D. S. Lopez Jr & S. C. Rockefeller (Eds.), The Christ and the bodhisattva (pp. 217-227). Albany: State University of New York Press. Gyatso, T. (2002). Public talk 23 May, Baytec Stadium, Geelong, Australia. Gyatso, T., (with Cutler, M. D). (1998). The art of happiness: A handbook for living. Rydalmere, Australia: Hodder. Hanh, T. N. (1992). Sunshine and green leaves. In J. Welwood (Ed.), Ordinary magic: Everyday life as spiritual life (pp. 9-23). Boston: Shambhala. Harvey, P. (2000). The mind and its development in Theravada Buddhism. Communication & Cognition, 33, 65-82. Ikeda, D. (1994). Unlocking the mysteries of birth and death: Buddhism in the contemporary world. London: Warner Books. Johansson, R. E. A. (1969). The psychology of nirvana: A comparative study of the natural goal of Buddhism and the aims of modern Western psychology. London: Allen & Unwin.

Kalupahana, D. (1992). The principles of Buddhist psychology. Delhi, India: Sri Satguru. Kawai, H. (1996). Buddhism and the art of psychotherapy. College Station: Texas A & M University Press. Lamotte, E. (1988). Assessment of textual interpretation in Buddhism. In D. S. Lopez Jr (Ed.), Buddhist hermeneutics (pp. 11-28). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Narada, M. T. (1975). Buddhism in a nutshell. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society (Original work published 1933) Narada, M. T. (1988). The Buddhist doctrine of kamma and rebirth. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Vajirarama. (Original work published 1955) Nyanaponika, T. (1998). Abhidhamma studies: Buddhist explorations of consciousness and time (4th ed.). (B. Bodhi, Ed.) Boston: Wisdom. Rahula, W. (1974). What the Buddha taught (2nd ed.). New York: Grove Weidenfeld. Saddhatissa, H. (1970). Buddhist ethics: Essence of Buddhism. London: Allen & Unwin. Buddha focus attention on psychological qualities ethical and spiritual concern. There is a reference to personality types in Aguttara ..Nikaya2 and the Sangiti-sutta of the Digha-Xikaya,3 and a more systematic analysis in the PuggaIa-Pauiatti (Human Types). The subject is also given stimulating discussion in the Visuddhimagga. Since the material in the suttas is dispersed, the other works may be consulted with a certain amount of caution.4 The What part does cognitive training play in the early Buddhist conception of mindfulness practice? How might the Buddhist approach to cognitive training further enrich our understanding of MBAs? Chapter Four: Mindfulness in Early Buddhist Thought Aims of Chapter Four This chapter investigates mindfulness in early Buddhist thought. In particular, it shows that mindfulness in that context was conceived as a method of cognitive training aimed at bringing about a change in the way in which the world is perceived. The chapter begins by investigating the issue of mental elaboration, that is central to Mindfulness-Based Approaches (MBAs), as it was considered in early Buddhism. It then goes on to examine the issue of present moment awareness in early Buddhist thought and practice, focusing in particular on the Buddhas discourse on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. In conclusion, it notes that the early Buddhist approach to mindfulness focuses to a considerable degree on the issue of cognitive training, especially by way of training ones apperceptions. The consequence, so far as early Buddhist thought is concerned, of training ones apperceptions in this way is that one can thereby come, in time, to see things as they really are.

Chapter Five: Conclusion Aims of Chapter Five This chapter sets out to provide a summary of the study and to bring the main argument to a conclusion. It considers the implications of this study for theory and practise and makes recommendations for theoretical development and suggests lines of further research.