AMY GREGORY

PSYCHOLOGY UGC NET NOTES

MODULE 1

1. Emergence of Psychology
A Psychological thought in some major Eastern Systems: Bhagavad Gita,
Buddhism, Sufism and Integral Yoga. Academic psychology in India: Pre-
independence era; post-independence era; 1970s: The move to addressing social
issues; 1980s: Indigenization; 1990s: Paradigmatic concerns, disciplinary identity
crisis; 2000s: Emergence of Indian psychology in academia. Issues: The colonial
encounter; Post colonialism and psychology; Lack of distinct disciplinary identity.

Western: Greek heritage, medieval period and modern period. Structuralism,

Functionalism, Psychoanalytical, Gestalt, Behaviorism, Humanistic- Existential,
Transpersonal, Cognitive revolution, Multiculturalism. Four founding paths of
academic psychology - Wundt, Freud, James, Dilthey. Issues: Crisis in psychology
due to strict adherence to experimental- analytical paradigm (logical empiricism).
Indic influences on modern psychology.

Essential aspects of knowledge paradigms: Ontology, epistemology, and

methodology. Paradigms of Western Psychology: Positivism, Post-Positivism,
Critical perspective, Social Constructionism, Existential Phenomenology, and Co-
operative Enquiry. Paradigmatic Controversies. Significant Indian paradigms on
psychological knowledge: Yoga, Bhagavad Gita, Buddhism, Sufism, and Integral
Yoga. Science and spirituality (avidya and vidya). The primacy of self-knowledge
in Indian psychology.

Emergence of Psychology Psychological thought in some major Eastern Systems:

Bhagavad Gita, Buddhism, Sufism and Integral Yoga.

Bhagavad Gita is the communication between Lord Krishna and Arjuna. The warrior
Arjuna seeks wisdom and Krishna gives advice to him. According to the Bhagavad Gita
human, face problems because of the lack in the integration of full integration of life.
Bhagavad Gita explains about the concept of consciousness, which is one of the important
subject matters of psychology. It is related to the concepts explained by Sigmund Freud. The
story and characters in the Bhagavad Gita clearly depict how the id, ego, and superego
work. Bhagavad Gita states that to understand consciousness knowledge about
experiences and intellectual ability is necessary. It also explains the state of
enlightenment. It also states that people have acquired the ability to interact with their
environment through one intellect (Buddhi). It is the intellectual ability that helps an
individual to behave appropriately according to the situation.
  The Bhagavad Gita, a sacred Hindu scripture, addresses various psychological themes
through its teachings on self-realization, duty (dharma), and inner conflict.
 It explores the nature of the mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), and ego (ahamkara),
emphasizing the importance of mastering one's mind and emotions.
 The Gita's teachings on yoga, particularly Karma Yoga (the yoga of selfless
action) and Bhakti Yoga (the yoga of devotion), provide practical insights into
managing desires and cultivating inner peace.

Buddhism is a religion which emphasises the human mind and analyzes emotion, cognition,
behaviour, and motivation. It also deals with psychological therapeutic methods. The aims
of Buddhist psychology in therapy are: The householder must lead a healthy and virtuous life.
Nirvana(Enlightment) is the aim of life, which means the complete cessation of
dissatisfaction and suffering. Erich Fromm is a psychotherapist who explains Buddhist
enlightenment experiences. Sutta peetika, one of the writings of Buddhism which is a part
of Tripitaka consists of psychological materials. Buddhism also explains theories of
perception and cognition. And also psychological cravings, manas (conceit) and ditthi
(dogmas) are explained in Buddhism. The three basic drives in Buddhism namely, Kama
tanha (craving for pleasure satisfaction0, Bava tanha (craving for existence) and bhava tanha
(craving for annihilation) are compared to Freud՚s drive theory. Buddhism explains
consciousness, self-development, and cognition. It also deals with mental illness.

 Buddhism offers profound insights into the nature of the mind and human suffering.
Central to Buddhist psychology is the concept of the Four Noble Truths, which
diagnose the root causes of suffering and offer a path to liberation.
 The practice of mindfulness (satipatthana) plays a crucial role in Buddhist
psychology. By observing the mind and body in the present moment without
judgment, individuals can develop insight (vipassana) into the impermanent and
interconnected nature of phenomena.
 Buddhist psychology also explores the workings of the mind through teachings such
as the Five Skandhas (aggregates) and the Twelve Nidanas (dependent origination),
which elucidate the processes of perception, cognition, and emotional response.
 The cultivation of virtues such as compassion, loving-kindness, and equanimity is
emphasized as essential for psychological well-being and spiritual development.
 Buddhism offers profound psychological insights into the nature of suffering (dukkha)
and the human mind.
 Meditation practices such as mindfulness (sati) and loving-kindness (metta) are
integral to Buddhist psychology, fostering self-awareness, emotional regulation, and
compassion.

Sufism consists of psychological concepts. The basic three concepts include Nafs, which
means self, ego, or psyche, the qalb which means heart and the ruh meaning spirit. Nafs
is the self or ego. According to Sufism, nafs at the lowest level are the negative trait of
humans and are related to negative tendencies, which are controlled by emotions and
desires. Sufic psychology explains about seven types of self. They are the tyrannical self,
regretful self, inspired self, serene self, pleased self, pleasing self and the pure self.
  Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam, offers a rich tradition of psychological insight
and spiritual practice. Central to Sufi psychology is the idea of the heart (qalb) as the
seat of spiritual consciousness.

 Sufi teachings emphasize the purification of the heart from negative qualities such as
greed, envy, and hatred, replacing them with virtues like love, humility, and
detachment.

 Practices such as dhikr (remembrance of God), meditation, and contemplation are

employed to quiet the mind and awaken spiritual awareness.

 Sufi poetry and literature often explore themes of longing, ecstasy, and the
transformative power of divine love, offering insights into the depths of the human
psyche and the quest for union with the Divine.

 Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, delves into the psychology of the soul and
the journey of self-discovery.

 Sufi teachings emphasize the purification of the heart (tazkiyah) and the attainment of
spiritual enlightenment through love (ishq) and devotion to the Divine.

 The concept of "annihilation in God" (fana) and "subsistence with God" (baqa)
reflects Sufi psychological processes of ego-transcendence and union with the Divine.

 Qalb is the spiritual heart. It includes deeper intelligence and wisdom. According to
Sufic psychology, qalb is the mediator between nafs and spirit. The self is
controlled by qalb.

 Ruh is related to divinity. It is the whole of the soul, mind and body. Ruh is the
concept related to ego psychology, cognitive psychology, behavioural psychology,
and transpersonal psychology

Integral yoga is also called Supramental yoga. It is developed based on the philosophy and
practice of Sri Aurobindo. It finds all life conscious or subconscious. It is also a methodized
effort towards the highest condition of victory. Integral yoga suggests that spirit manifests
itself in a process of involution. According to Sri Aurobindo, there are two extreme views
of life. They are as follows:

Mirra Alfassa, known to her followers as The Mother or La Mère, was a French-Indian
spiritual guru, occultist and yoga teacher, and a collaborator of Sri Aurobindo, who
considered her to be of equal yogic stature to him and called her by the name "The Mother"

The materialists: Sri Aurobindo argues that materialists believe only in matter or force.
They deny anything else and consider them as inert, illusions or hallucinations.
The ascetics: accept the belief in spirit. It is termed as the mechanical unintelligent
substance or energy, leading to believing reality to be an illusion of the senses.

Sri Aurobindo considers whole life as yoga which helps to be aware of the divine. According
to him, there are three types of being. They are:

Outer being which means being physical and aware of everyday consciousness and
experience.

The inner or subliminal being means the inner aspects of the mental being. They have a
larger and freer level of consciousness.

The psychic being is the personal evolving soul. It is the innermost being, which supports the
physical and mental principles.

 Integral Yoga, as developed by Sri Aurobindo, integrates Eastern and Western

psychological insights into a comprehensive system of spiritual evolution.

 Sri Aurobindo's Integral Psychology explores the various levels of consciousness,

from the physical to the spiritual, and the evolutionary journey of the soul.

 Integral Yoga emphasizes the transformation of the lower nature (ego, desires)
through practices such as concentration, meditation, and surrender to the Divine Will,
leading to the manifestation of higher spiritual potentials.

 Integral Yoga, developed by Sri Aurobindo and The Mother, integrates psychological
insights with spiritual practices aimed at the evolution of consciousness.

 Integral Yoga acknowledges the complexity of the human psyche and seeks to
harmonize the various dimensions of being—physical, vital, mental, and spiritual.

 It recognizes the importance of self-awareness, self-transformation, and the

integration of the conscious and unconscious aspects of the psyche.

 Practices such as concentration, meditation, self-inquiry, and surrender are employed

to facilitate psychological growth and spiritual awakening, leading to a more
integrated and harmonious life.

Academic psychology in India: Pre- independence era; post-independence era; 1970s:

The move to addressing social issues; 1980s: Indigenization; 1990s: Paradigmatic
concerns, disciplinary identity crisis; 2000s: Emergence of Indian psychology in
academia.

The first documented mention of psychology in India dates back to the 8th century when
Indian philosophers such as Patanjali and Charaka wrote about the mind and its functions.
1. Pre-Independence Era :
 During the pre-independence era, academic psychology in India was largely
influenced by Western psychological theories and methodologies.
 The focus was primarily on understanding human behavior and mental
processes through experimental and theoretical approaches imported from
Europe and the United States.
 Notable figures like Sir J.C. Bose and Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee contributed
to the early development of psychology in India, primarily in the areas of
experimental psychology and philosophical psychology.
2. Post-Independence Era:
 After gaining independence in 1947, there was a growing emphasis on
developing indigenous knowledge and addressing the socio-cultural realities
of the Indian context.
 The post-independence era saw the establishment of academic departments of
psychology in universities across the country, with an increased focus on
applied psychology, such as clinical psychology, educational psychology, and
industrial-organizational psychology.
 Psychologists like Durganand Sinha and A.K. Sarin played significant roles
in shaping the trajectory of Indian psychology during this period.
3. 1970s: The Move to Addressing Social Issues:
 In the 1970s, there was a notable shift in the focus of Indian psychology
towards addressing social issues and promoting social justice.
 Psychologists began to engage more actively in research and interventions
aimed at understanding and addressing socio-economic disparities, caste-based
discrimination, gender inequality, and other social issues prevalent in Indian
society.
 This period witnessed the emergence of community psychology and social
psychology as important subfields within Indian psychology.
4. 1980s: Indigenization:
 The 1980s saw a growing emphasis on the indigenization of psychology in
India, with efforts to integrate indigenous concepts, methods, and perspectives
into psychological research and practice.
 Psychologists like Sudhir Kakar and D.P. Singh advocated for the
incorporation of Indian philosophical and cultural insights into psychology,
leading to the development of indigenous models of personality, mental
health, and well-being.
 There was also an increasing recognition of the importance of cultural
sensitivity and contextual relevance in psychological research and practice.
5. 1990s: Paradigmatic Concerns, Disciplinary Identity Crisis:
 The 1990s were marked by debates and discussions regarding the disciplinary
identity of psychology in India and the need for a more inclusive and
interdisciplinary approach.
  Psychologists grappled with questions about the universality of psychological
theories and methods, and the relevance of Western-centric frameworks in the
Indian context.
 This period witnessed a growing interest in interdisciplinary research, with
collaborations between psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, and other
social scientists to address complex social and psychological issues.
6. 2000s: Emergence of Indian Psychology in Academia in Long:
 In the 2000s, there was a significant emergence of Indian psychology as a
distinct field within academia, with a renewed emphasis on reclaiming and
revitalizing indigenous knowledge systems.
 Psychologists like Anand C. Paranjpe and K. Ramakrishna Rao advocated
for a more culturally grounded and holistic approach to psychology, drawing
upon insights from Indian philosophy, spirituality, and traditional healing
practices.
 There was also a growing recognition of the need for greater diversity and
inclusivity within the field, with efforts to incorporate voices and perspectives
from marginalized communities and underrepresented groups.

 Academic psychology in India has a rich history dating back to the early 20th century.
He set up the first psychology laboratory at the University of Calcutta in 1915.
 late 19th-century colonial period when institutions such as the University of
Calcutta and the University of Madras were founded. These institutions introduced
psychology as a subject in their curriculum, and psychologists such as Brajendra
Nasir and Girindra Sekar Bose began to make significant contributions to the field.
 In 1916, the Indian Psychological Association (IPA) was established.
 Indian psychologists like H.C. Ganguly and Durganand Sinha have made
significant contributions to the field of cross-cultural psychology.
 In 1964, the Indian Council for Social Science Research (ICSSR) was established
to fund research in the social sciences, including psychology.
 Indigenization refers to the process of developing theories and approaches based on
the culture, history and traditions of a particular society.

Issues: The colonial encounter; Post colonialism and psychology; Lack of distinct
disciplinary identity.

1. The Colonial Encounter:

The colonial encounter refers to the historical period when European powers,
particularly the British, exerted political, economic, and cultural dominance over
India and other colonized regions. This encounter profoundly influenced various
aspects of Indian society, including education and knowledge systems, including
psychology.
  Imposition of Western Frameworks: During colonial rule, Western
psychological theories and methodologies were introduced into Indian
educational institutions. This led to the privileging of Western knowledge
systems over indigenous ones, creating a hierarchy where Western
perspectives were seen as superior.
 Marginalization of Indigenous Knowledge: Indigenous psychological
knowledge and practices were often marginalized or dismissed as primitive or
inferior by colonial authorities. This led to a loss of confidence in traditional
Indian ways of understanding human behavior and mental processes.
 Disconnect from Socio-Cultural Realities: The adoption of Western
psychological frameworks created a disconnect between psychology and the
socio-cultural realities of Indian society. Western theories often did not
adequately address the unique cultural, religious, and philosophical
dimensions of Indian life.
 Reinforcement of Power Imbalances: The colonial encounter perpetuated
power imbalances, with Western colonizers holding authority over the
dissemination of knowledge. This reinforced colonial hierarchies and limited
the agency of indigenous scholars and practitioners to develop their own
psychological theories and practices.
2. Post-Colonialism and Psychology:
Post-colonialism refers to the period following the end of colonial rule when formerly
colonized nations like India sought to assert their cultural identity and reclaim
autonomy. In psychology, post-colonial perspectives aim to critically examine and
challenge the legacy of colonialism within the discipline.
 Decolonization of Knowledge: Post-colonial psychology advocates for the
decolonization of knowledge by questioning the dominance of Western
psychological theories and methodologies. It seeks to deconstruct colonial
narratives and acknowledge the historical injustices perpetrated during the
colonial era.
 Inclusion of Indigenous Perspectives: Post-colonial psychology emphasizes
the importance of including indigenous knowledge systems, cultural
perspectives, and local voices in psychological research, teaching, and
practice. This involves recognizing the validity and relevance of indigenous
ways of understanding human behavior and mental processes.
 Empowerment of Marginalized Communities: Post-colonial psychology
aims to empower marginalized communities whose voices were historically
silenced or marginalized by colonialism. It seeks to promote social justice,
equity, and inclusivity within the discipline by centering the experiences and
perspectives of marginalized groups.
 Promotion of Contextually Relevant Psychology: Post-colonial psychology
advocates for the development of contextually relevant psychological theories
and practices that address the unique socio-cultural realities of post-colonial
societies. This involves adapting and integrating Western psychological
 frameworks with indigenous knowledge systems to create a more inclusive
and holistic approach to psychology.
3. Lack of Distinct Disciplinary Identity:
The lack of a distinct discip+linary identity refers to the challenge faced by
psychology in India in establishing its own unique theoretical frameworks,
methodologies, and practices that are grounded in the socio-cultural context of the
country.
 Overreliance on Western Frameworks: Psychology in India has historically
been heavily influenced by Western paradigms and theories, leading to an
overreliance on imported frameworks that may not fully capture the
complexity of Indian society and culture.
 Marginalization of Indigenous Perspectives: The lack of a distinct
disciplinary identity has resulted in the marginalization of indigenous
perspectives and knowledge systems within psychology. This perpetuates a
dependency on Western theories and methodologies, further eroding the
development of indigenous psychological theories and practices.
 Need for Indigenization: Addressing the lack of distinct disciplinary identity
requires efforts to indigenize psychology by integrating indigenous
perspectives, cultural insights, and traditional wisdom into psychological
research, teaching, and practice. This involves reclaiming and revitalizing
indigenous knowledge systems and adapting them to contemporary
psychological discourse.
 Promotion of Interdisciplinary Approaches: Developing a distinct
disciplinary identity for psychology in India also involves promoting
interdisciplinary approaches that draw from multiple disciplines, including
anthropology, sociology, philosophy, and indigenous knowledge systems. This
interdisciplinary approach can enrich the field of psychology by fostering a
more holistic understanding of human behavior and mental processes

Western: Greek heritage, medieval period and modern period. Structuralism,

Functionalism, Psychoanalytical, Gestalt, Behaviorism, Humanistic- Existential,
Transpersonal, Cognitive revolution, Multiculturalism.

1. Greek Heritage:
 The Greek heritage of psychology traces back to ancient philosophers such as
Plato and Aristotle. Plato explored the nature of the soul and its
immortality, while Aristotle delved into topics like perception, memory,
and emotions.
 Their ideas laid the groundwork for later psychological inquiry, particularly in
understanding the relationship between the mind, body, and behavior.
  Greek philosophers' emphasis on rationality and inquiry influenced the
development of empirical methods and philosophical approaches to
understanding human nature.
2. Medieval Period:
 During the medieval period, psychology was intertwined with theology and
philosophy. Scholars like St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas explored
questions about the nature of the soul, free will, and morality.
 Psychological concepts were often discussed in the context of religious
beliefs and theological frameworks, with an emphasis on the spiritual
aspects of human nature.
 The medieval period laid the groundwork for later philosophical discussions
about the mind-body problem and the nature of consciousness.
3. Modern Period:
 The modern period of Western psychology is characterized by the emergence
of scientific inquiry and the development of various schools of thought.
 Structuralism: Founded by Wilhelm Wundt, structuralism aimed to identify
the basic elements of consciousness through introspection. Wundt
established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879.
 Functionalism: William James expanded on the structuralist approach by
focusing on the adaptive functions of behavior and mental processes.
Functionalists sought to understand how the mind works in real-life situations
and environments.
 Psychoanalytic Theory: Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory
emphasized the role of unconscious processes, childhood experiences, and
internal conflicts in shaping behavior and personality. Freud's work
revolutionized our understanding of the unconscious mind and paved the way
for psychotherapy.
 Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt psychologists like Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang
Köhler, and Kurt Koffka emphasized the importance of perception as a
whole, rather than the sum of its parts. They studied how people organize
sensory information into meaningful patterns and structures.
 Behaviorism: Behaviorism, led by John B. Watson and later B.F. Skinner,
focused on observable behavior and the role of reinforcement in learning
and behavior. Behaviorists rejected the study of subjective experiences and
emphasized the importance of environmental influences.
 Humanistic-Existential Psychology: Humanistic psychology, founded by
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasized human potential, self-
actualization, and subjective experience. Existential psychology explored
themes of meaning, freedom, and responsibility in human existence.
 Transpersonal Psychology: Transpersonal psychology integrated spiritual
and transcendent experiences into psychological theory and practice.
Figures like Stanislav Grof and Abraham Maslow explored states of
 consciousness beyond the individual ego, including mystical experiences
and spiritual awakenings.
 Cognitive Revolution: The cognitive revolution, sparked by figures like Ulric
Neisser and George Miller, shifted the focus of psychology back to the
study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and reasoning.
Cognitive psychologists developed models of information processing and
studied topics like attention, language, and problem-solving.
 Multiculturalism: Multicultural psychology emerged as a response to the
recognition of diversity within human populations. It emphasized the
importance of considering cultural factors in understanding behavior and
mental health, challenging the universal applicability of psychological theories
developed within Western contexts.

Four founding paths of academic psychology - Wundt, Freud, James, Dilthey

1. Wilhelm Wundt:
 Path: Wundt is often regarded as the father of experimental psychology. He
established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in
Germany in 1879, marking the birth of psychology as a distinct scientific
discipline.
 Approach: Wundt's approach to psychology was heavily influenced by his
background in physiology and philosophy. He focused on studying conscious
experience through introspection, where trained observers would
systematically analyze their own thoughts, feelings, and sensations.
 Contributions: Wundt's work laid the foundation for structuralism, a school
of thought that aimed to identify the basic elements of consciousness. He
believed that by understanding these elements, psychologists could uncover
the fundamental laws of human behavior and mental processes.
2. Sigmund Freud:
 Path: Freud is best known for his development of psychoanalytic theory,
which revolutionized our understanding of the mind and laid the groundwork
for modern psychotherapy.
 Approach: Freud's approach to psychology was based on the belief that much
of human behavior is determined by unconscious processes, including
repressed desires, childhood experiences, and unresolved conflicts. He
developed techniques such as free association and dream analysis to explore
the contents of the unconscious mind.
 Contributions: Freud's work introduced concepts such as the unconscious,
repression, defense mechanisms, and the psychosexual stages of
development. His theories had a profound impact on psychology, psychiatry,
 and popular culture, shaping our understanding of personality,
psychopathology, and human sexuality.
3. William James:
 Path: James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who
made significant contributions to the field of psychology in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries.
 Approach: James rejected Wundt's structuralism and instead focused on
studying the functions of behavior and mental processes. He believed that
psychology should be concerned with understanding how the mind works in
real-life situations and environments.
 Contributions: James's approach, known as functionalism, emphasized the
adaptive functions of behavior and the importance of studying consciousness
as a continuous flow of experiences. His work laid the foundation for research
in areas such as emotion, consciousness, and pragmatism.
4. Wilhelm Dilthey:
 Path: Dilthey was a German philosopher, historian, and psychologist who
proposed a hermeneutic approach to understanding human experience.
 Approach: Dilthey emphasized the importance of interpreting subjective
meanings and intentions within their cultural and historical contexts. He
believed that human behavior and mental processes could only be understood
through empathetic interpretation, rather than scientific experimentation.
 Contributions: Dilthey's ideas influenced the development of interpretive
approaches in psychology and other social sciences. He emphasized the
significance of narrative, language, and culture in shaping individual
experiences and identities.

Crisis in Psychology due to Strict Adherence to Experimental-Analytical Paradigm

(Logical Empiricism):

1.
 Experimental-Analytical Paradigm: The experimental-analytical paradigm,
rooted in logical empiricism, emphasizes the use of controlled experiments
and quantitative methods to study observable behavior and mental
processes. This approach became dominant in psychology during the early to
mid-20th century.
 Limitations and Criticisms: While the experimental-analytical paradigm has
led to significant advancements in psychological science, it has also been
criticized for its narrow focus on observable phenomena and its neglect of
subjective experiences, cultural context, and individual differences.
 Crisis in Psychology: The strict adherence to the experimental-analytical
paradigm has led to a crisis in psychology characterized by several challenges:
  Reductionism: The focus on observable behavior and quantifiable data
has led to a reductionist view of human behavior and mental processes,
neglecting the complexity and richness of human experience.
 Neglect of Subjectivity: The experimental-analytical paradigm often
overlooks subjective experiences, emotions, and meanings, which are
central to understanding human psychology.
 Lack of Cultural Sensitivity: The paradigm's emphasis on universal
principles and generalizability has led to a neglect of cultural and
contextual factors in psychological research and practice.
 Ethical Concerns: The emphasis on experimentation and control has
raised ethical concerns, particularly regarding the treatment of human
participants and the potential harm caused by overly reductionist
approaches.
 Call for Change: In response to these challenges, there has been a growing
call for a more inclusive and holistic approach to psychology that integrates
multiple methods, perspectives, and disciplines. This includes embracing
qualitative methods, incorporating subjective experiences, recognizing cultural
diversity, and promoting interdisciplinary collaboration.
2. Indic Influences on Modern Psychology:
 Ancient Wisdom Traditions: India has a rich heritage of ancient wisdom
traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Yoga, which have
contributed to philosophical, spiritual, and psychological insights over
thousands of years.
 Mind-Body Connection: Indic thought emphasizes the interconnectedness of
the mind and body and the importance of holistic approaches to health and
well-being. Practices such as yoga, meditation, and Ayurveda (traditional
Indian medicine) emphasize the integration of physical, mental, and spiritual
aspects of life.
 Self-Inquiry and Self-Realization: Indian philosophies such as Vedanta and
Advaita Vedanta explore themes of self-inquiry, self-realization, and the
nature of consciousness. These ideas have influenced modern psychology's
understanding of self-awareness, personal growth, and transcendence.
 Mindfulness and Meditation: Practices such as mindfulness and meditation,
rooted in Buddhist and Hindu traditions, have gained widespread recognition
in modern psychology for their therapeutic benefits in reducing stress,
enhancing self-awareness, and promoting emotional well-being.
 Compassion and Nonviolence: Indian traditions emphasize values such as
compassion (karuna), loving-kindness (metta), and nonviolence (ahimsa),
which have relevance to psychology in promoting empathy, prosocial
behavior, and conflict resolution.
 Integration into Modern Psychology: In recent years, there has been a
growing interest in integrating Indic perspectives and practices into modern
psychology. This includes research on the therapeutic effects of mindfulness
 and meditation, the application of yoga in mental health treatment, and the
exploration of Indian philosophical concepts in psychotherapy and counseling.

Essential aspects of knowledge paradigms: Ontology, epistemology, and methodology

Ontology, epistemology, and methodology are essential aspects of knowledge paradigms in

psychology that underpin the discipline's theoretical frameworks, research methods, and
empirical findings. By critically engaging with these philosophical foundations, psychologists
can enhance their understanding of psychological phenomena and improve the rigor and
validity of their research endeavors.

1. Ontology:
 Definition: Ontology deals with questions about the nature of reality and
what exists. In psychology, ontological inquiries focus on determining the
fundamental entities and phenomena that make up the psychological
realm.
 Key Considerations: Psychologists explore ontological questions related to
the existence of mental states, such as thoughts, emotions, and consciousness,
and their relationship to physical processes in the brain. They also consider the
nature of psychological constructs, such as personality traits, intelligence, and
mental disorders.
 Example: One ontological debate in psychology revolves around the nature of
consciousness—is it purely a product of brain activity, or does it involve non-
physical aspects that cannot be fully explained by neuroscience alone?
2. Epistemology:
 Definition: Epistemology concerns itself with how knowledge is acquired,
justified, and validated. In psychology, epistemological inquiries focus on
understanding the nature of psychological knowledge and the methods used to
acquire it.
 Key Considerations: Psychologists examine epistemological questions
related to the reliability and validity of psychological research findings,
the criteria for determining the truth or accuracy of claims, and the role
of theory in guiding empirical inquiry.
 Example: An epistemological question in psychology might involve
considering the relative merits of quantitative and qualitative research methods
and their respective contributions to understanding psychological phenomena.
3. Methodology:
 Definition: Methodology refers to the systematic procedures and
techniques used to conduct research and generate knowledge. In
psychology, methodology encompasses a wide range of research methods,
study designs, data collection procedures, and statistical analyses.
 Key Considerations: Psychologists make methodological decisions based on
the nature of their research questions, the characteristics of their study
 participants, and the practical constraints of their research environments. They
also consider issues related to research ethics, measurement validity, and
statistical power.
 Example: A psychologist studying the effects of mindfulness meditation on
stress might employ a randomized controlled trial (RCT) methodology,
recruit participants from diverse backgrounds, use self-report measures to
assess stress levels, and analyze the data using statistical techniques such as
ANOVA or regression analysis.

Paradigms of Western Psychology: Positivism, Post-Positivism, Critical perspective,

Social Constructionism, Existential Phenomenology, and Co-operative Enquiry.

1. Positivism:
 Definition: Positivism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the use of
empirical observation and scientific methods to acquire knowledge about
the world. In psychology, positivism advocates for the objective study of
observable behavior and quantifiable mental processes.
 Key Characteristics: Positivism prioritizes objectivity, replicability, and
generalizability in psychological research. It relies on experimental
methods, quantitative data analysis, and the formulation of testable hypotheses
to uncover causal relationships between variables.
 Example: A positivist psychologist might conduct an experiment to
investigate the effects of environmental stressors on cognitive performance,
using standardized measures and statistical analyses to assess the relationship
between stress levels and task performance.
2. Post-Positivism:
 Definition: Post-positivism acknowledges the limitations of positivism and
recognizes the role of subjectivity, interpretation, and context in shaping
scientific knowledge. It advocates for a more nuanced and reflexive approach
to research that considers multiple perspectives and acknowledges the
influence of researchers' values and assumptions.
 Key Characteristics: Post-positivism emphasizes the importance of
reflexivity, skepticism, and critical thinking in psychological inquiry. It
encourages researchers to be transparent about their biases, to consider
alternative explanations for their findings, and to engage in dialogue with
diverse stakeholders.
 Example: A post-positivist psychologist might conduct a qualitative study
exploring the subjective experiences of individuals living with chronic illness,
using methods such as interviews or focus groups to capture the richness and
complexity of their lived experiences.
3. Critical Perspective:
 Definition: The critical perspective in psychology adopts a socio-political lens
to examine power dynamics, inequalities, and social injustices that shape
 individuals' experiences and identities. It seeks to uncover underlying
structures of oppression and advocate for social change.
 Key Characteristics: Critical psychologists challenge mainstream theories
and methodologies that perpetuate social inequalities and marginalize
marginalized groups. They use qualitative methods, participatory research
approaches, and action-oriented strategies to empower marginalized
communities and promote social justice.
 Example: A critical psychologist might conduct a participatory action
research project with a community organization to address systemic barriers to
mental health care access in underserved neighborhoods, working
collaboratively to develop and implement advocacy initiatives.
4. Social Constructionism:
 Definition: Social constructionism posits that reality is socially constructed
through language, discourse, and shared meanings. It focuses on how
individuals and groups collectively create and negotiate meanings, identities,
and social norms.
 Key Characteristics: Social constructionists explore how cultural, historical,
and institutional contexts shape individuals' perceptions and experiences. They
use qualitative methods such as discourse analysis and narrative inquiry to
deconstruct dominant narratives and uncover alternative perspectives.
 Example: A social constructionist psychologist might study how media
representations of mental illness contribute to stigma and discrimination,
analyzing how language and imagery influence public perceptions and
attitudes toward individuals with psychological disorders.
5. Existential Phenomenology:
 Definition: Existential phenomenology explores the subjective lived
experiences of individuals and the meaning-making processes through which
they interpret their existence. It emphasizes the importance of existential
themes such as freedom, authenticity, responsibility, and the search for
meaning.
 Key Characteristics: Existential phenomenologists adopt a qualitative,
idiographic approach to research, focusing on in-depth exploration of
individual experiences and existential concerns. They use methods such as
phenomenological interviews and existential-phenomenological analysis to
uncover the essence of lived experiences.
 Example: An existential phenomenologist might conduct a study exploring
the experience of existential anxiety among individuals facing life-threatening
illnesses, examining how they navigate questions of mortality, purpose, and
identity in the face of uncertainty.
6. Co-operative Enquiry:
 Definition: Co-operative enquiry, also known as participatory research or
collaborative inquiry, emphasizes collaboration and co-creation of
knowledge between researchers and participants. It seeks to democratize
 the research process by involving stakeholders in all stages of the research
process.
 Key Characteristics: Co-operative enquiry values the perspectives, expertise,
and lived experiences of all participants, including community members,
service users, and other stakeholders. It fosters a sense of shared ownership
and mutual respect, promoting empowerment, social inclusion, and capacity
building.
 Example: In a co-operative enquiry project, researchers might collaborate
with individuals with intellectual disabilities to explore their experiences of
social inclusion and barriers to participation in community life, using
participatory methods such as photovoice or participatory action mapping.

Paradigmatic Controversies. Significant Indian paradigms on psychological knowledge:

Yoga, Bhagavad Gita, Buddhism, Sufism, and Integral Yoga. Science and spirituality
(avidya and vidya).

Paradigmatic controversies in psychology refer to debates and conflicts surrounding

fundamental assumptions, theories, and methodologies within the discipline. These
controversies often reflect different philosophical, cultural, and ideological perspectives on
the nature of human psychology and the appropriate methods for studying it.

1Scientific vs. Humanistic/Transpersonal Paradigms:

 Scientific Paradigm: This paradigm emphasizes the use of empirical
observation, experimentation, and quantification to study human behavior and
mental processes. It prioritizes objectivity, replicability, and generalizability in
research.
 Humanistic/Transpersonal Paradigm: In contrast, the
humanistic/transpersonal paradigm emphasizes subjective experiences,
personal growth, and spirituality. It values qualitative methods, self-report
measures, and introspection as means of understanding the richness and
complexity of human existence.
2Reductionism vs. Holism:
 Reductionism: Reductionist approaches seek to explain complex phenomena
by breaking them down into simpler, more fundamental components. In
psychology, reductionism often involves explaining psychological phenomena
solely in terms of biological, cognitive, or environmental factors.
 Holism: Holistic approaches, on the other hand, emphasize the
interconnectedness and integration of various levels of human experience
—biological, psychological, social, and spiritual. They argue for a more
comprehensive understanding of individuals and their contexts.
3Positivism vs. Constructivism:
 Positivism: Positivist approaches emphasize the objective study of
observable phenomena and the search for universal laws and principles
 governing human behavior. They prioritize empirical evidence and
quantitative methods.
 Constructivism: Constructivist perspectives argue that reality is socially
constructed and subjective, shaped by individuals' interpretations, meanings,
and social contexts. They advocate for qualitative methods and emphasize the
importance of understanding diverse perspectives and experiences.
4Determinism vs. Free Will:
 Determinism: Deterministic perspectives posit that human behavior is fully
determined by internal or external factors, such as genetics, environment, or
unconscious processes. They suggest that individuals lack genuine freedom
and agency.
 Free Will: Conversely, perspectives emphasizing free will argue that
individuals possess the ability to make choices and exert control over their
actions, thoughts, and emotions. They emphasize personal responsibility and
autonomy.

In the context of Indian paradigms on psychological knowledge, several philosophical and

spiritual traditions offer alternative perspectives on human psychology and well-being:

1. Yoga:
 Yoga, originating from ancient Indian philosophy, offers a comprehensive
system for understanding the mind, body, and spirit. It emphasizes practices
such as meditation, breath control, and ethical living to promote mental and
physical health, self-awareness, and spiritual growth.
2. Bhagavad Gita:
 The Bhagavad Gita, a sacred Hindu scripture, addresses psychological themes
such as duty, morality, desire, and self-realization. It offers insights into
human nature, the nature of consciousness, and the pursuit of inner peace and
liberation.
3. Buddhism:
 Buddhist psychology explores the nature of suffering (dukkha), the causes of
suffering, and the path to liberation (nirvana). It emphasizes practices such as
mindfulness, compassion, and non-attachment to alleviate mental distress and
cultivate wisdom and inner peace.
4. Sufism:
 Sufism, a mystical tradition within Islam, focuses on the inner journey of the
soul toward union with the divine. It emphasizes practices such as devotion,
meditation, and self-examination to transcend the ego and experience spiritual
awakening and love.
5. Integral Yoga:
 Integral Yoga, developed by Sri Aurobindo and The Mother, integrates
spiritual, psychological, and evolutionary perspectives on human development
 and transformation. It emphasizes the evolution of consciousness, integral
health, and the realization of one's highest potential.
6. Science and Spirituality (Avidya and Vidya):
 In Indian philosophy, the concepts of avidya (ignorance) and vidya
(knowledge) reflect the complementary relationship between scientific
inquiry and spiritual wisdom. Avidya refers to ignorance of one's true nature
and the spiritual dimensions of existence, while vidya represents the pursuit of
self-awareness, self-realization, and transcendence.

In summary, paradigmatic controversies in psychology reflect fundamental debates about the

nature of human psychology, the methods of inquiry, and the goals of the discipline. Indian
paradigms offer alternative perspectives on psychological knowledge, integrating spiritual
insights, philosophical wisdom, and holistic approaches to well-being. By embracing diverse
perspectives and engaging in dialogue across cultural and disciplinary boundaries,
psychologists can enrich their understanding of human nature and promote greater harmony
and flourishing in society.

The primacy of self-knowledge in Indian psychology.

1. Historical Perspectives on Self-Knowledge

 Influence of ancient Indian philosophical traditions (e.g., Vedanta, Yoga, Buddhism)

on the concept of self-knowledge
 Exploration of self-awareness and self-realization in ancient texts (e.g., Upanishads,
Bhagavad Gita)
 Contributions of Indian scholars and sages to the understanding of the self

2. Theoretical Frameworks of Self-Knowledge

 Examination of different theoretical frameworks within Indian psychology (e.g.,

Advaita Vedanta, Samkhya, Jain philosophy)
 Concepts of Atman (the self) and Brahman (universal consciousness)
 Integration of self-knowledge with concepts of karma, dharma, and moksha

3. Psychological Implications of Self-Knowledge

 Relationship between self-knowledge and mental health in Indian psychology

 Importance of self-awareness in achieving psychological well-being
 Role of self-realization in personal growth and development

4. Methods and Practices for Self-Knowledge

  Exploration of contemplative practices (e.g., meditation, introspection, self-inquiry)
for cultivating self-awareness
 Importance of guru-disciple relationship in the transmission of self-knowledge
 Integration of traditional practices with modern psychological techniques (e.g.,
mindfulness, cognitive-behavioral therapy)

5. Applications of Self-Knowledge in Contemporary Psychology

 Relevance of Indian psychological insights to contemporary issues (e.g., stress

management, identity formation, existential concerns)
 Incorporation of self-knowledge into therapeutic approaches (e.g., Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy, mindfulness-based interventions)
 Potential contributions of Indian psychology to global psychology and well-being
MODULE 4

Biological basis of behavior

Sensory systems: General and specific sensations, receptors and processes

Neurons: Structure, functions, types, neural impulse, synaptic transmission.

Neurotransmitters.

The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems – Structure and functions.

Neuroplasticity.

Methods of Physiological Psychology: Invasive methods – Anatomical

methods, degeneration techniques, lesion techniques, chemical methods,

microelectrode studies. Non-invasive methods – EEG, Scanning methods.

Muscular and Glandular system: Types and functions

Biological basis of Motivation: Hunger, Thirst, Sleep and Sex.

Biological basis of emotion: The Limbic system, Hormonal regulation of

behavior.

Genetics and behavior: Chromosomal anomalies; Nature-Nurture

controversy [Twin studies and adoption studies.

Sensory systems: General and specific sensations, receptors and processes

SENSATION

Sense is the ability to perceive stimuli. The senses are the meansby which the brain receives
information about the environment and the body. Sensation is the process initiated by
stimulating sensory receptors and perception is the conscious awareness of those stimuli. The
brain constantly receives a wide variety of stimuli from both inside and outside the body, but
stimulation of sensory receptors does not immediately result in perception. Sensory
receptors respond to stimuli by generating action poten-tials that are propagated to the
spinal cord and brain. Perception results when action potentials reach the cerebral
cortex. Some other parts of the brain are also involved in perception. For example, the
thalamus plays a role in the perception of pain.

Historically, five senses were recognized: smell, taste, sight, hearing, and touch. Today we
recognize many more senses and divide them into two basic groups: general and special
senses . The general senses have receptors distributed over a large part of the body.
They are divided into two groups: the somatic senses and the visceral senses. The
somatic senses provide sensory information about the body and the environment. The
visceral senses provide information about various internal organs, primarily involving
pain and pressure.

Special senses are more specialized in structure and are local-ized to specific parts of the
body. The special senses are smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance.

SENSORY RECEPTORS

Sensory receptors are sensory nerve endings or specialized cellscapable of responding to

stimuli by developing action potentials. Several types of receptors are associated with both
the general and the special senses, and each responds to a different type of stimulus:

Mechanoreceptors (mek′ă-n̄ o-r̄ e-sep′tŏrz) respond to mechanical stimuli, such as the

bending or stretching of receptors.

Chemoreceptors (kem′ō-rē-sep′tŏrz) respond to chemicals,such as odor molecules.

Photoreceptors (fō′tō-rē-sep′tŏrz) respond to light.

Thermoreceptors (ther′mō-rē-sep′tŏrz) respond to temperature changes.

Nociceptors (nō′si-sep′tŏrs;noceo,to injure) respond to stimuli that result in the sensation of

pain

GENERAL SENSES

The general senses have sensory receptors that are widely distributed throughout the body.
The general senses include the senses of touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration,
itch, and proprioception (prō-prē-ō-sep′ shun), which is the sense of movement and position
of the body and limbs.

Many of the receptors for the general senses are associated with the skin (figure 9.2); others
are associated with deeper structures, such as tendons, ligaments, and muscles. Structurally,
the simplest and most common receptors are free nerve endings, which are relatively
unspecialized neuronal branches similar to dendrites. Free nerve endings are distributed
throughout almost all parts of the body. Some free nerve endings respond to painful stimuli,
some to temperature, some to itch, and some to movement. Receptors for temperature are
either cold receptors or warm receptors. Cold receptors respond to decreasing temperatures
but stop responding at temperatures below 12°C (54°F). Warm receptors respond to
increasing temperatures but stop responding at temperatures above 47°C (117°F). It is
sometimes difficult to distinguish very cold from very warm objects touching the skin
because only pain receptors are stimulated at temperatures below 12°C or above 47°C
Touch receptors are structurally more complex than free nerveendings, and many are
enclosed by capsules. There are several types of touch receptors.

 Merkel disks are small, superficial nerve endings involved in detecting light touch
and superficial pressure.
 Hair follicle receptors, associated with hairs, are also involved in detecting light
touch. Light touch receptors are very sensitive but not very discriminative, meaning
that the point being touched cannot be precisely located.
 Receptors for fine, discrimina-tive touch, called Meissner corpuscles, are located just
deep to the epidermis. These receptors are very specific in localizing tactile sensations
 Deeper tactile receptors, called Ruffini corpuscles, play an important role in
detecting continuous pressure in the skin.
 The deepest receptors are associated with tendons and joints and are called pacinian
corpuscles. These receptors relay information concerning deep pressure, vibration,
and position (proprioception).

Pain

Pain is characterized by a group of unpleasant perceptual and emotional experiences.

There are two types of pain sensation:(1) localized, sharp, pricking, or cutting pain
resulting from rapidly conducted action potentials, and (2) diffuse, burning, or
aching pain resulting from action potentials that are propagated more slowly.

 Superficial pain sensations in the skin are highly localized as a result of the
simultaneous stimulation of pain receptors and tactile receptors. Deep or visceral pain
sensations are not highly localized because of the absence of tactile receptors in the
deeper structures. Visceral pain stimuli are normally perceived as diffuse pain.
 Action potentials from pain receptors in local areas of the body can be suppressed
by local anesthesia, a treatment where chemical anesthetics are injected near a
sensory receptor or nerve, resulting in reduced pain sensation. Pain sensations can
also be suppressed if loss of consciousness is produced. This is usually accomplished
by general anesthesia, a treatment where chemical anesthetics that affect the
reticular formation are administered.
 Pain sensations can also be influenced by inherent control systems. Sensory axons
from tactile receptors in the skin have collateral branches that synapse with neurons in
the posterior horn of the spinal cord. Those neurons, in turn, synapse with and inhibit
neurons that give rise to the spinothalamic tract, a sensory pathway that relays pain
sensations to the brain (see table 8.4). For example, rubbing the skin in the area of an
injury stimulates the tactile receptors, which send action potentials along the sensory
axons to the spinal cord. According to the gate control theory, these action potentials
“close the gate” and inhibit action poten-tials carried to the brain by the spinothalamic
tract.
 The gate control theory may explain the physiological basis for several techniques
that have been used to reduce the intensity of pain. Action potentials carried by the
spinothalamic tract can be inhibited by action potentials carried by descending
neurons of the dorsal column system . These neurons are stimulated by mental or
physical activity, especially involving movement of the limbs. The descending
neurons synapse with and inhibit neurons in the posterior horn that give rise to the
spinothalamic tract. Vigorous mental or physical activity increases the rate of action
potentials in neurons of the dorsal column and can reduce the sensation of pain.
Exercise programs are important components in the clinical man-agement of chronic
pain. Acupuncture and acupressure procedures may also decrease the sensation of
pain by stimulating descending dorsal column neurons, which inhibit action potentials
in the spino-thalamic tract neurons. The gate control theory also explains why the
intensity of pain is decreased by diverting a person’s attention.

Referred Pain

 Referred pain is perceived to originate in a region of the body thatis not the source of
the pain stimulus. Most commonly, we sense referred pain when deeper structures,
such as internal organs, are damaged or inflamed . This occurs because sensory
neurons from the superficial area to which the pain is referred and the neurons from
the deeper, visceral area where the pain stimula-tion originates converge onto the
same ascending neurons in the spinal cord. The brain cannot distinguish between the
 two sources of pain stimuli, and the painful sensation is referred to the most
superficial structures innervated, such as the skin.
 Referred pain is clinically useful in diagnosing the actual cause of the painful
stimulus. For example, during a heart attack, pain receptors in the heart are stimulated
when blood flow is blocked to some of the heart muscle. Heart attack victims,
however, often may not feel the pain in the heart but instead perceive cutaneous pain
radiating from the left shoulder down the arm (figure 9.3).

SPECIAL SENSES

The senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance are associated with very specialized,
localized sensory receptors. The sensations of smell and taste are closely related, both
structurally and functionally, and both are initiated by the interaction of chemicals with
sensory receptors. The sense of vision is initiated by the interaction of light with sensory
receptors. Both hearing and balance function in response to the interaction of mechanical
stimuli with sensory receptors. Hearing occurs in response to sound waves, and balance
occurs in response to gravity or motion.

TASTE

The sensory structures that detect taste stimuli are the taste buds. Taste buds are oval
structures located on the surface of certain papillae (p̆ a-pil′̄e; nipples), which are
enlargements on the surface of the tongue (figure 9.5). Taste buds are also distributed
through-out other areas of the mouth and pharynx, such as on the palate, the root of the
tongue, and the epiglottis. Each taste bud consists of two types of cells. Specialized
epithelial cells form the exterior sup-porting capsule of each taste bud, and the interior
consists of about 40 taste cells. Each taste cell contains hairlike processes, called taste
hairs, that extend into a tiny opening in the surrounding strat-ified epithelium, called a taste
pore. Dissolved molecules or ions bind to receptors on the taste hairs and initiate action
potentials, which sensory neurons carry to the insula of the cerebral cortex. Taste sensations
are divided into five basic types: sour, salty, bitter, sweet, and umami (̄u -ma′ m̄ e ;
savory). Although all taste buds are able to detect all five of the basic taste sensations, each
taste bud is usually most sensitive to one class of taste stimuli. Presumably, our ability to
perceive many different tastes is achieved through various combinations of these five
types. Many taste sensations are strongly influenced by olfactory sensations. This influence
can be demonstrated by comparing the taste of some food before and after pinching your
nose. It is easy to detect that the sense of taste is reduced while the nose is pinched.

Neuronal Pathways for taste

Taste sensations are carried by three cranial nerves. The facial (VII) transmits taste
sensations from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, and the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
carries taste sensations from the posterior one-third. In addition, the vagus nerve (X) carries
some taste sensations from the root of the tongue. Axons from these three cranial nerves
synapse in the gustatory (taste) portion of brainstem nuclei. Axons of neurons in these
brainstem nuclei synapse in the thalamus, and axons from neurons in the thalamus project to
the taste area in the insula of the cerebrum .

VISION

A. List the accessory structures of the eye, and explain their functions.
B. Name the tunics of the eye, list the parts of each tunic, and describe the
functions of each part.
C. Explain the differences in function between rods and cones.
D. Describe the chambers of the eye and the fluids they contain.
E. Explain how images are focused on the retina.

The visual system includes the eyes, the accessory structures, and sensory neurons. The
eyes are housed within bony cavities called orbits. Action potentials convey visual
information from the eyes to the brain. We obtain much of our information about the world
through the visual system. For example, education is largely based on visual input and
depends on our ability to read words and numbers. Visual input includes information about
light and dark, movement and color.

Accessory Structures of the Eye

Accessory structures protect, lubricate, and move the eye. They include the eyebrows,
eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles (figures 9.7 and 9.8).

Eyebrows

The eyebrows protect the eyes by preventing perspiration from running down the forehead
and into the eyes, causing irritation. They also help shade the eyes from direct sunlight
(figure 9.7a).

Eyelids

The eyelids, with their associated lashes, protect the eyes from foreign objects (figure
9.7a,b). If an object suddenly approaches the eye, the eyelids protect the eye by closing and
then opening quite rapidly (blink reflex). Blinking, which normally occurs about 20 times per
minute, also helps keep the eyes lubricated by spreading tears over the surface.

Conjunctiva

The conjunctiva (kon-jŭ nk-t ı̄ ′ v̆ a ) is a thin, transparent mucous membrane covering the
inner surface of the eyelids and the ante-rior surface of the eye (figure 9.7b). The secretions
of the con-junctiva help lubricate the surface of the eye. Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of
the conjunctiva (see the Diseases and Disorders table).
Lacrimal Apparatus

The lacrimal (lak′ ri-mă l; tear) apparatus consists of a lacrimal gland situated in the superior
lateral corner of the orbit and a nasolacrimal duct and associated structures in the inferior
medial corner of the orbit (figure 9.7c). The lacrimal gland produces tears, which pass over
the anterior surface of the eye. Most of the fluid produced by the lacrimal glands
evaporates from the surface of the eye, but excess tears are collected in the medial angle of
the eyes by small ducts called lacrimal canaliculi (kan-̆a -lik′ ̄ u -l̄ı ; lit-tle canals). These
canaliculi open into a lacrimal sac, an enlarge-ment of the nasolacrimal (n̄ a -z̄o -lak′ ri-m̆ a
l) duct, which opens into the nasal cavity. Tears lubricate and cleanse the eye. They also
contain an enzyme that helps combat eye infections.

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Movement of each eyeball is accomplished by six skeletal muscles called the extrinsic eye
muscles (figure 9.8). Four of these muscles run more or less straight from their origins in the
posterior portion of the orbit to their insertion sites on the eye, to attach to the four quad-
rants of the eyeball. They are the superior, inferior, medial, and lat-eral rectus muscles. Two
muscles, the superior and inferiorobliquemuscles, are located at an angle to the long axis of
the eyeball.

Anatomy of the Eye

The eyeball is a hollow, fluid-filled sphere. The wall of the eye is composed of three tissue
layers, or tunics (figure 9.9). The outer, fibrous tunic consists of the sclera and cornea. The
middle, vascular tunicconsists of the choroid, ciliary body, and iris. The inner nervous
tunic consists of the retina.

Fibrous Tunic

The sclera (skl̄e r′ ̆a ; hard) is the firm, white, outer connective tis-sue layer of the posterior
five-sixths of the fibrous tunic. The sclera helps maintain the shape of the eye, protects the
internal structures, and provides attachment sites for the extrinsic eye muscles. A small
portion of the sclera can be seen as the “white of the eye.”

The cornea (k̄ o r′ n̄ e -̆a ) is the transparent anterior sixth of the eye, which permits light to
enter. As part of the focusing system of the fibrous tunic, the cornea also bends, or refracts,
the entering light.

Vascular Tunic

The middle tunic of the eye is called the vascular tunic because it contains most of the
blood vessels of the eye. The posterior por-tion of the vascular tunic, associated with the
sclera, is the choroid (k̄ o ′ royd). This very thin structure consists of a vascular network and
many melanin-containing pigment cells, causing it to appear black. The black color absorbs
light, so that it is not reflected inside the eye. If light were reflected inside the eye, the
reflection would interfere with vision. The interiors of cameras are black for the same
reason.

Anteriorly, the vascular tunic consists of the ciliary body and the iris. The ciliary (sil′ ē -ar-
ē ) body is continuous with the anterior margin of the choroid. The ciliary body contains
smooth muscles calledciliary muscles, which attach to the perimeter of the lens
by suspensory ligaments (figure 9.10). The lens is a flex-ible, biconvex, transparent disc (see
figure 9.9).

The iris is the colored part of the eye. It is attached to the anterior margin of the ciliary
body, anterior to the lens. The iris is a contractile structure consisting mainly of smooth
muscle surround-ing an opening called the pupil. Light passes through the pupil, and the iris
regulates the diameter of the pupil, which controls the amount of light entering the eye.
Parasympathetic stimulation from the oculomotor nerve (III) causes the circular smooth
muscles of the iris to contract, constricting the pupil, whereas sympathetic stimula-tion
causes radial smooth muscles of the iris to contract, dilating the pupil (figure 9.11). As light
intensity increases, the pupil constricts; as light intensity decreases, the pupil dilates.

Nervous Tunic

The nervous tunic is the innermost tunic and consists of the retina. The retina covers the
posterior five-sixths of the eye and iscomposed of two layers: an outer pigmented
retina and an inner sensory retina (figure 9.12a).

The pigmented retina, with thechoroid, keeps light from reflecting back into the eye. The
sen-sory retina contains photoreceptor cells, called rods and cones, which respond to light.
The sensory retina also contains numerous interneurons, some of which are named in figure
9.12. Over most of the retina, rods are 20 times more common than cones. Rods are very
sensitive to light and can function in dim light, but they do not provide color vision. Cones
require much more light, and they do provide color vision. There are three types of cones,
each sensitive to a different color: blue, green, or red.

The outer segments of rod and cone cells are modified by numer-ous foldings of the cell
membrane to form discs (figure 9.12c–e). Rod cells contain a photosensitive pigment
called rhodopsin (rō-dop′ sin; purple pigment). Rhodopsin consists of a protein opsin (op′
sin) loosely bound to a yellow pigment called retinal (ret′ i-năl) (figure 9.12f, figure 9.13,
step 1). When exposed to light, retinal changes shape, which then changes the activity of
the entire rhodop-sin molecule. This change in rhodopsin stimulates a response in the rod
cell, resulting in vision (figure 9.13, steps 2 and 3). Retinal then completely detaches from
opsin. Energy (ATP) is required to reat-tach retinal to opsin and return rhodopsin to the
form it had before it was stimulated by light (figure 9.13, steps 4–6).
 The manufacture of retinal in rod cells takes time and requires vitamin A. In bright light,
much of the rhodopsin in rod cells is dissociated (opsin and retinal are separated). For
example, suppose you go into a dark building on a bright day. It will take several seconds for
your eyes to adjust to the dark as opsin and retinal reassociate to form rhodopsin in the rod
cells, which can then react to the dim light. A person with a vitamin A deficiency may have a
condition called night blindness, characterized by difficulty seeing in dim light. Night
blindness can also result from retinal detachment, which is the separation of the sensory
retinafrom the pigmented retina. Retinal detachment affects the periph-ery of the retina,
where the rods are located, more than the center of the retina, where the cones are
located. Because the rods are more sensitive than the cones to light, retinal detachment
affects vision in low light to a greater extent than vision in bright light.

The photosensitive pigments in cone cells are slightly different from those in rod cells. The
pigments in cone cells are sensitive to colors. Each color results from stimulation by a
certain wavelength of light. Three major types of color-sensitive opsin exist; they are sensi-
tive to blue, red, or green. The many colors that we can see result from the stimulation of
combinations of these three types of cones.

The rod and cone cells synapse with bipolar cells of the sen-sory retina (see figure 9.12).
These and the horizontal cells of the retina modify the output of the rod and cone cells. For
example, this modification helps us perceive the borders between objects of contrasting
brightness. The bipolar and horizontal cells synapse with ganglion cells, whose axons
converge at the posterior of the eye to form the optic nerve(II; see figures 9.9 and 9.12a).

When the posterior region of the retina is examined with an ophthalmoscope (of-thal′ mō-
skōp), two major features can be observed: the macula and the optic disc (figure 9.14a).
The macula

(mak′ ū-lā) is a small spot near the center of the posterior retina. In the center of the macula
is a small pit, the fovea (fō′ vē-ă; pit) centralis. The fovea centralis is the part of the retina
where lightis most focused when the eye is looking directly at an object. The fovea centralis
contains only cone cells, and the cells are more tight-ly packed there than anywhere else in
the retina. Hence, the fovea centralis is the region with the greatest ability to discriminate
fine images, which explains why objects are best seen straight ahead.

The optic disc is a white spot just medial to the macula, through which a number of blood
vessels enter the eye and spread over the surface of the retina. This is also the spot at which
axons from the retina meet, pass through the two outer tunics, and exit the eye as the optic
nerve. The optic disc contains no photoreceptor cells and does not respond to light; it is
therefore called the blindspot of the eye. A small image projected onto the blind spot
cannotbe seen (figure 9.14b).

Chambers of the Eye

The interior of the eye is divided into the anterior chamber, the posterior chamber, and
the vitreous (vit′rē-ŭs; glassy) chamber(see figure 9.9). The anterior and posterior chambers
are located between the cornea and the lens. The iris separates the anterior and the
posterior chambers, which are continuous with each other through the pupil. The much
larger vitreous chamber is posterior to the lens.

The anterior and posterior chambers are filled with aqueoushumor (watery fluid), which
helps maintain pressure within the eye, refracts light, and provides nutrients to the inner
surface of the eye. Aqueous humor is produced by the ciliary body as a blood filtrate and is
returned to the circulation through a venous ring that surrounds the cornea. The presence
of aqueous humor keeps the eye inflated, much like the air in a basketball. If flow of the
aqueous humor from the eye through the venous ring is blocked, the pres-sure in the eye
increases, resulting in a condition called glaucoma (see the Diseases and Disorders table).
Glaucoma can eventually lead to blindness because the fluid com-presses the retina,
thereby restricting blood flow through it.

The vitreous chamber of the eye is filled with a transparent, jellylike substance
called vitreous humor. The vitreous humor helps maintain pressure within the eye and
holds the lens and the retina in place. It also refracts light. Unlike the aqueous humor, the
vitreous humor does not circulate.

Functions Of The Eye

The eye functions much like a camera. The iris allows light into the eye, which is focused by
the cornea, lens, and humors onto the retina. The light striking the retina produces action
potentials that are relayed to the brain.

Light Refraction

An important characteristic of light is that it can be refracted (bent). As light passes from air
to some other, denser transparent substance, the light rays are refracted. If the surface of a
lens is concave, the light rays are bent, so that they diverge as they pass

through the lens; if the surface is convex, they converge. As the light rays converge, they
finally reach a point at which they cross. The crossing point is called the focal point
(FP) (figure 9.15), and causing light to converge is called focusing. The focal point in the eye
occurs just anterior to the retina, and the tiny image that is focused on the retina is inverted
compared to the actual object.

Focusing Images on the Retina

The cornea is a convex structure, and as light rays pass from the air through the cornea,
they converge (figure 9.15). Additional convergence occurs as light passes through the
aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor. The greatest contrast in media density is
between the air and the cornea. The greatest amount of conver-gence therefore occurs at
that point. However, the shape of the cornea and its distance from the retina are fixed, so
the cornea cannot make any adjustment in focus. Fine adjustments in focus are
accomplished by changing the shape of the lens.

When the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the suspensory liga-ments of the ciliary body maintain
elastic pressure on the perimeter of the lens, keeping it relatively flat and allowing for
distant vision (figure 9.15a). When an object is brought closer than 20 feet (about 6½ m)
from the eye, the ciliary muscles contract as a result of parasympathetic stimulation, pulling
the ciliary body toward the lens. This reduces the tension on the suspensory ligaments of
the lens and allows the lens to assume a more spherical form because of its own internal
elastic nature (figure 9.15b). The spherical lens then has a more convex surface, causing
greater refraction of light. This process is called accommodation (ă -kom′ ō -dā ′ shŭ n), and
it enables the eye to focus on images closer than 20 feet from the eye.

When a person’s vision is tested, a chart is placed 20 feet from the eye, and the person is
asked to read a line of letters that has been standardized for normal vision. If the person can
read the line, he or she has 20/20 vision, which means that the person can see at 20 feet
what people with normal vision see at 20 feet. On the other hand, if the person can only
read at 20 feet the line that people with normal vision see at 40 feet, the person’s eyesight
is 20/40, and corrective lenses are probably needed.

Neuronal Pathways for Vision

Figure 9.16 shows the neuronal pathways that transmit signals generated by light from the
time light enters the eye until it reaches the area of the brain where vision is perceived.
The opticnerve leaves the eye and exits the orbit through the optic foramento enter the
cranial cavity. Just inside the cranial cavity, the two optic nerves connect to each other at
the optic chiasm (k ′ azm; crossing). Axons from the nasal (medial) part of each retina cross
through the optic chiasm and project to the opposite side of the brain. Axons from the
temporal (lateral) part of each retina pass through the optic nerves and project to the brain
on the same side of the body without crossing.

Beyond the optic chiasm, the route of the ganglionic axons is through the two optic
tracts (figure 9.16). Most of the optic tract axons terminate in the thalamus. Some axons do
not termi-nate in the thalamus but separate from the optic tracts to termi-nate in the
superior colliculi, the center for visual reflexes. An example of a visual reflex is turning the
head and eyes toward a stimulus, such as a sudden noise or flash of light. Neurons from the
thalamus form the fibers of the optic radiations, which project to the visual cortex in the
occipital lobe of the cerebrum(figure 9.16). The visual cortex is the area of the cerebrum
where vision is perceived.
 The image seen by each eye is the visual field of that eye (figure 9.16a). Depth perception
(three-dimensional, or binocular, vision) requires both eyes and occurs where the two visual
fields overlap (figure 9.16c). Each eye sees a slightly different (mon-ocular) view of the same
object. The brain then processes the two images into a three-dimensional view of the
object. If only one eye is functioning, the view of the object is flat, much like viewing a
photograph.

Accessory Structures of the Eye

Accessory structures protect, lubricate, and move the eye. They include the
eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles
(figures 9.7 and 9.8).
Eyebrows

The eyebrows protect the eyes by preventing perspiration from running down
the forehead and into the eyes, causing irritation. They also help shade the
eyes from direct sunlight (figure 9.7a).

Eyelids

The eyelids, with their associated lashes, protect the eyes from foreign objects
(figure 9.7a,b). If an object suddenly approaches the eye, the eyelids protect
the eye by closing and then opening quite rapidly (blink reflex). Blinking, which
normally occurs about 20 times per minute, also helps keep the eyes lubricated
by spreading tears over the surface.

Conjunctiva

The conjunctiva (kon-jŭ nk-t ı̄ ′ vă ) is a thin, transparent mucous membrane

covering the inner surface of the eyelids and the ante-rior surface of the eye
(figure 9.7b). The secretions of the con-junctiva help lubricate the surface of
the eye. Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the conjunctiva (see the Diseases
and Disorders table).

Lacrimal Apparatus

The lacrimal (lak′ ri-mă l; tear) apparatus consists of a lacrimal gland situated
in the superior lateral corner of the orbit and a nasolacrimal duct and
associated structures in the inferior medial corner of the orbit (figure 9.7c).
The lacrimal gland produces tears, which pass over the anterior surface of the
eye. Most of the fluid produced by the lacrimal glands evaporates from the
surface of the eye, but excess tears are collected in the medial angle of the
eyes by small ducts called lacrimal canaliculi (kan-̆a -lik′ ̄ u -l̄ı ; lit-tle canals).
These canaliculi open into a lacrimal sac, an enlarge-ment of
the nasolacrimal (n̄ a -z̄o -lak′ ri-m̆ a l) duct, which opens into the nasal cavity.
Tears lubricate and cleanse the eye. They also contain an enzyme that helps
combat eye infections.

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Movement of each eyeball is accomplished by six skeletal muscles called

the extrinsic eye muscles (figure 9.8). Four of these muscles run more or less
straight from their origins in the posterior portion of the orbit to their insertion
sites on the eye, to attach to the four quad-rants of the eyeball. They are the
superior, inferior, medial, and lat-eral rectus muscles. Two muscles, the
superior and inferior obliquemuscles,are located at an angle to the long axis of
the eyeball.
Functions of the Eye

The eye functions much like a camera. The iris allows light into the eye, which is focused by the
cornea, lens, and humors onto the retina.

Functions Of The Eye

The eye functions much like a camera. The iris allows light into the eye, which
is focused by the cornea, lens, and humors onto the retina. The light striking
the retina produces action potentials that are relayed to the brain.

Light Refraction

An important characteristic of light is that it can be refracted (bent). As light

passes from air to some other, denser transparent substance, the light rays are
refracted. If the surface of a lens is concave, the light rays are bent, so that
they diverge as they pass through the lens; if the surface is convex, they
converge.

As the light rays converge, they finally reach a point at which they cross. The
crossing point is called the focal point (FP) (figure 9.15), and causing light to
converge is called focusing. The focal point in the eye occurs just anterior to
the retina, and the tiny image that is focused on the retina is inverted
compared to the actual object.

Focusing Images on the Retina

The cornea is a convex structure, and as light rays pass from the air through
the cornea, they converge (figure 9.15). Additional convergence occurs as light
passes through the aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor. The greatest
contrast in media density is between the air and the cornea. The greatest
amount of conver-gence therefore occurs at that point. However, the shape of
the cornea and its distance from the retina are fixed, so the cornea cannot
make any adjustment in focus. Fine adjustments in focus are accomplished by
changing the shape of the lens.

When the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the suspensory liga-ments of the ciliary
body maintain elastic pressure on the perimeter of the lens, keeping it
relatively flat and allowing for distant vision (figure 9.15a). When an object is
brought closer than 20 feet (about 6½ m) from the eye, the ciliary muscles
contract as a result of parasympathetic stimulation, pulling the ciliary body
toward the lens. This reduces the tension on the suspensory ligaments of the
lens and allows the lens to assume a more spherical form because of its own
internal elastic nature (figure 9.15b). The spherical lens then has a more
convex surface, causing greater refraction of light. This process is
called accommodation (ă -kom′ ō -dā ′ shŭ n), and it enables the eye to focus on
images closer than 20 feet from the eye.

When a person’s vision is tested, a chart is placed 20 feet from the eye, and
the person is asked to read a line of letters that has been standardized for
normal vision. If the person can read the line, he or she has 20/20 vision, which
means that the person can see at 20 feet what people with normal vision see
at 20 feet. On the other hand, if the person can only read at 20 feet the line
that people with normal vision see at 40 feet, the person’s eyesight is 20/40,
and corrective lenses are probably neede

Neuronal Pathways for Vision

Figure 9.16 shows the neuronal pathways that transmit signals generated by
light from the time light enters the eye until it reaches the area of the brain
where vision is perceived. The opticnerve leaves the eye and exits the orbit
through the optic foramento enter the cranial cavity. Just inside the cranial
cavity, the two optic nerves connect to each other at the optic chiasm (k ′ azm;
crossing). Axons from the nasal (medial) part of each retina cross through the
optic chiasm and project to the opposite side of the brain. Axons from the
temporal (lateral) part of each retina pass through the optic nerves and project to
the brain on the same side of the body without crossing.
 Beyond the optic chiasm, the route of the ganglionic axons is through the
two optic tracts (figure 9.16). Most of the optic tract axons terminate in the
thalamus. Some axons do not termi-nate in the thalamus but separate from the
optic tracts to termi-nate in the superior colliculi, the center for visual reflexes.
An example of a visual reflex is turning the head and eyes toward a stimulus,
such as a sudden noise or flash of light. Neurons from the thalamus form the
fibers of the optic radiations, which project to the visual cortex in the occipital
lobe of the cerebrum(figure 9.16). The visual cortex is the area of the cerebrum
where vision is perceived.

The image seen by each eye is the visual field of that eye (figure 9.16a). Depth
perception (three-dimensional, or binocular, vision) requires both eyes and
occurs where the two visual fields overlap (figure 9.16c). Each eye sees a
slightly different (mon-ocular) view of the same object. The brain then
processes the two images into a three-dimensional view of the object. If only
one eye is functioning, the view of the object is flat, much like viewing a
photograph.

HEARING AND BALANCE

The organs of hearing and balance are apportioned into three areas: the
external, middle, and inner ears (figure 9.17). The exter-nal ear is the part
extending from the outside of the head to the tympanic membrane, which is
also called the eardrum. The middle ear is an air-filled chamber medial to the
tympanic membrane. The inner ear is a set of fluid-filled chambers medial to
the middle ear. The external and middle ears are involved in hearing only,
whereas the inner ear functions in both hearing and balance.
Anatomy and function of the Ear
External Ear

The auricle (aw′ ri-kl; ear) is the fleshy part of the external ear on the outside
of the head. The auricle opens into the external auditorycanal, a passageway
that leads to the eardrum. The auricle collectssound waves and directs them
toward the external auditory canal, which transmits them to the tympanic
membrane. The auditory canal is lined with hairs and ceruminous (sĕ-roo′ mi-
nŭs; cera, wax) glands, which produce cerumen (sĕ-roo′men), a modified
sebumcommonly called earwax. The hairs and cerumen help prevent for-eign
objects from reaching the delicate tympanic membrane.

The tympanic (tim-pan′ ik; drumlike) membrane, or eardrum, is a thin

membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear. It consists of a
thin layer of connective tissue sandwiched between two epithelial layers.
Sound waves reaching the tympanic membrane cause it to vibrate.

Middle Ear

Medial to the tympanic membrane is the air-filled cavity of the middle ear.
Two covered openings on the medial side of the middle ear, the oval
window and the round window, connect the middle ear with the inner ear.
The middle ear contains three auditoryossicles (os′i-klz; ear bones):
the malleus (mal′ē-ŭs; hammer), the incus (ing′kŭs; anvil), and the stapes (stā
′pēz; stirrup). These bonestransmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane to
the oval win-dow. The malleus is attached to the medial surface of the
tympanic membrane. The incus connects the malleus to the stapes. The base
of the stapes is seated in the oval window, surrounded by a flexible ligament.
As vibrations are transmitted from the malleus to the sta-pes, the force of the
vibrations is amplified about 20-fold because the area of the tympanic
membrane is about 20 times that of the oval window.

Two small muscles in the middle ear, one attached to the malleus and the
other to the stapes, help dampen vibrations caused by loud noises, thus
protecting the delicate inner ear structures.

There are two unblocked openings into the middle ear. One opens into the
mastoid air cells in the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The other, called
the auditory tube, or eustachian (ū-stā′ shŭn) tube,opens into the pharynx and
enables air pressure to be equalized between the outside air and the middle
ear cavity. Unequal pressure between the middle ear and the outside environ-
ment can distort the tympanic membrane, dampen its vibrations, and make
hearing difficult. Distortion of the tympanic membrane also stimulates pain
receptors associated with that structure. That distortion is why, as a person
changes altitude, sounds seem muffled and the tympanic membrane may
become painful. These symptoms can be relieved by opening the auditory tube
to allow air to enter or exit the middle ear, such as by swallowing, yawning,
chewing, or holding the nose and mouth shut while gently forcing air out of the
lungs.

Inner Ear

The inner ear consists of interconnecting tunnels and chambers within the
temporal bone, called the bony labyrinth (lab′ i-rinth; maze) (figure 9.18a).
Inside the bony labyrinth is a smaller set of membranous tunnels and
chambers called the membranouslabyrinth (figure 9.18b). The membranous
labyrinth is filledwith a clear fluid called endolymph (en′ dō-limf), and the
space between the membranous and bony labyrinths is filled with a fluid
called perilymph (per′ i-limf). The bony labyrinth can be divided into three
regions: the cochlea, the vestibule, and the semicircular canals. The cochlea is
involved in hearing. The vestibule and semi-circular canals are involved
primarily in balance.
 The cochlea (kok′ lē-ă; snail shell) is shaped like a snail shell (figure 9.18a) and
contains a bony core shaped like a screw. The threads of this screw are called
the spiral lamina. The cochlea is divided into three channels: the scala
vestibuli, the scala tympani, and the cochlear duct (figure 9.18b). The scala
vestibuli (skā′ lă ves-tib′ ū-l ı̄; scala, stairway) extends from the oval window to
the apex of the cochlea. The scala tympani (tim-pa′ nē) extends in parallel with
the scala vestibuli from the apex back to the round window. These two
channels are perilymph-filled spaces between the walls of the bony and
membranous labyrinths. The wall of the membra-nous labyrinth that lines the
scala vestibuli is called the vestibular (ves-tib′ ū-lār) membrane; the wall of the
membranous labyrinth that lines the scala tympani is the basilar
membrane. The cochlearduct is formed by the space between the vestibular
membrane andthe basilar membrane and is filled with endolymph.

Inside the cochlear duct is a specialized structure called the spiral

organ, ororgan of Corti(figure 9.18c). The spiral organcontains specialized
sensory cells called hair cells, which have hairlike microvilli, often referred to
as stereocilia, on their sur-faces (figure 9.18c,d,e). The microvilli are stiffened
by actin fila-ments. The hair tips are embedded within an acellular gelatinous
shelf called the tectorial (tek-tōr′ē-ăl; a covering) membrane, which is attached
to the spiral lamina (figure 9.18b,c).

Hair cells have no axons of their own, but each hair cell is asso-ciated with
axon terminals of sensory neurons, the cell bodies of which are located within
the cochlear ganglion, or spiral ganglion.

Axons of the sensory neurons join to form the cochlear nerve. This nerve joins
the vestibular nerve to become the vestibulocochlearnerve (VIII), which carries
action potentials to the brain.

Hearing
Vibrations create sound waves. Sound waves are collected by the auricle and
conducted through the external auditory canal toward the tympanic
membrane. Sound waves strike the tympanic mem-brane and cause it to
vibrate. This vibration causes vibration of the three ossicles of the middle ear,
and by this mechanical linkage, the force of vibration is amplified and
transferred to the oval win-dow (figure 9.19, steps 1–3).

Vibrations of the base of the stapes, seated in the oval window, produce
waves in the perilymph of the cochlea. The two scalae can be thought of as a
continuous, U-shaped tube, with the oval window at one end of the scala
vestibuli and the round window at the other end of the scala tympani. The
vibrations of the stapes in the oval window cause movement of the perilymph,
which pushes against the membrane covering the round window (figure 9.19
step 4). This phenomenon is similar to pushing against a rubber diaphragm on
one end of a fluid-filled glass tube. If the tube has a rubber dia-phragm on each
end, the fluid can move. If one end of the glass tube or of the cochlear tubes
were solid, no fluid movement would occur.
 The waves produced in the perilymph pass through the vestibu-lar membrane
and cause vibrations of the endolymph. Waves in the endolymph, within the
cochlear duct, cause displacement of the basilar membrane. As the basilar
membrane is displaced, the hair cells, seated on the basilar membrane, move
with the movements of the membrane. The microvilli of the hair cells are
embedded in the tectorial membrane, which is a rigid shelf that does not
move. Because one end of the microvilli moves with the hair cells and their
other ends are embedded in the nonmoving tectorial membrane, the microvilli
bend. The bending of the microvilli stimulates the hair cells, which induces
action potentials in the cochlear nerves (figure 9.19, steps 5–6).

The basilar membrane is not uniform throughout its length. The membrane is
narrower and denser near the oval window and wider and less dense near the
tip of the cochlea. The various regions of the membrane can be compared to
the strings in a piano (i.e., some are short and thick, and others are longer and
thinner). As a result of this organization, sounds with higher pitches cause
maximum distortion of the basilar membrane nearer the oval window,
whereas sounds with lower pitches cause maximum distortion nearer the apex
of the cochlea. In each case, different hair cells are stimulated, and because of
the differences in which hair cells are maximally stimulated, a person is able to
detect variations in pitch. Sound volume is a function of sound wave
amplitude, which causes the basilar membrane to distort more intensely and
the hair cells to be stimulated more strongly.

Hearing impairment can have many causes. In general, there are two
categories of hearing impairment: conduction deafness and sensorineural
hearing loss (see the Diseases and Disorders table). Conduction
deafness results from mechanical deficiencies—for example, destruction of the
ligament that holds the malleus and incus together. Sensorineural hearing
loss is caused by deficiencies in the spiral organ or nerves;for example, loud
sounds can damage the delicate microvilli of the hair cells, leading to
destruction of the spiral organ.

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

The senses of hearing and balance are both transmitted by the vestib-
ulocochlear nerve (VIII). This nerve functions as two separate nerves, carrying
information from two separate but closely related structures. The cochlear
nerve is the portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve involved in hearing; the
vestibular nerve is involved in balance. The cochlear nerve sends axons to
the cochlear nucleus in the brainstem. Neurons in the cochlear nucleus project
to other areas of the brain-stem and to the inferior colliculus in the midbrain.
Neurons from the inferior colliculus also project to the superior colliculus,
where reflexes that turn the head and eyes in response to loud sounds are
initiated. From the inferior colliculus, fibers project to the thalamus and from
there to the auditory cortex of the cerebrum (figure 9.20).

Balance
The sense of balance, or equilibrium, has two components: static equilibrium
and dynamic equilibrium. Static equilibrium is asso-ciated with the vestibule
and is involved in evaluating the position of the head relative to
gravity. Dynamic equilibrium is associated with the semicircular canals and is
involved in evaluating changes in the direction and rate of head movements.

The vestibule (ves′ ti-bool) of the inner ear can be divided into two chambers:
the utricle (ū′ tri-kl) and the saccule (sak′ ūl) (figure 9.21a). Each chamber
contains specialized patches of epithelium called themaculae (mak′ ū-lē),
which are surrounded by endolymph. The maculae, like the spiral organ,
contain hair cells. The tips of the microvilli of these cells are embedded in a
gelatinous mass, often called theotolithic membrane, weighted by otoliths (ō′
tō-liths; ear stones), particles composed of protein and calcium carbonate. The
weighted gelatinous mass moves in response to gravity, bending the hair cell
microvilli (figure 9.21c) and initiating action potentials in the associated
neurons. The action potentials from these neurons are carried by axons of the
vestibular portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) to the brain, where they
are interpreted as a change in the position of the head. For example, when a
person bends over, the maculae are displaced by gravity, and the resultant
action potentials provide information to the brain concerning the position of
the head (figure 9.22).
 Three semicircular canals are involved in dynamic equilib-rium. The canals are
placed at nearly right angles to one another, enabling a person to detect
movements in essentially any direc-tion. The base of each semicircular canal is
expanded into an ampulla (am-pul′ă) (figure 9.23a). Within each ampulla,
theepithelium is specialized to form a crista ampullaris (kris′ tă am-pūl′ ar′ is)
(figure 9.23b). Each crista consists of a ridge of epi-thelium with a curved,
gelatinous mass, the cupula (koo′ poo-lă; a tub), suspended over the crest. The
cupula is structurally and functionally very similar to the maculae, except that
it contains no otoliths. The hairlike microvilli of the crista hair cells (figure
9.23c) are embedded in the cupula. The cupula functions as a float that is
displaced by endolymph movement within the semicircular canals (figure
9.24). As the head begins to move in one direction, the endolymph tends to
remain stationary, while the cupula moves with the head. This difference
displaces the cupula in a direction opposite that of the movement of the head.
As movement contin-ues, the fluid “catches up.” When movement of the head
and the cupula stops, the fluid continues to move, displacing the cupula in the
direction of the movement. Movement of the cupula causes the hair cell
microvilli to bend, which initiates depolarization inthe hair cells. This
depolarization initiates action potentials in the vestibular nerves, which join
the cochlear nerves to form the ves-tibulocochlear nerves.
 Continuous stimulation of the semicircular canals—as occurs due to the
rocking motion of a boat—can cause motion sickness, characterized by nausea
and weakness. The brain compares sensory input from the semicircular canals,
eyes, and position receptors (proprioceptors) in the back and lower limbs.
Conflicting input from these sources can lead to motion sickness.

Neuronal Pathways for Balance

Axons forming the vestibular portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
project to the vestibular nucleus in the brainstem. Axons run from this nucleus
to numerous areas of the CNS, such as the cerebellum and cerebral cortex.

Balance is a complex sensation involving sensory input to the vestibular

nucleus not only from the inner ear but also from the limbs (proprioception)
and visual system as well. In sobriety tests, people are asked to close their eyes
while their balance is evaluated because alcohol affects the proprioceptive and
vestibular components of balance to a greater extent than the visual
component of balance.

Anatomy and function of the Ear

External Ear

The auricle (aw′ ri-kl; ear) is the fleshy part of the external ear on the outside
of the head. The auricle opens into the external auditorycanal, a passageway
that leads to the eardrum. The auricle collectssound waves and directs them
toward the external auditory canal, which transmits them to the tympanic
membrane. The auditory canal is lined with hairs and ceruminous (sĕ-roo′ mi-
nŭs; cera, wax) glands, which produce cerumen (sĕ-roo′men), a modified
sebumcommonly called earwax. The hairs and cerumen help prevent for-eign
objects from reaching the delicate tympanic membrane.

The tympanic (tim-pan′ ik; drumlike) membrane, or eardrum, is a thin

membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear. It consists of a
thin layer of connective tissue sandwiched between two epithelial layers.
Sound waves reaching the tympanic membrane cause it to vibrate.
Middle Ear

Medial to the tympanic membrane is the air-filled cavity of the middle ear.
Two covered openings on the medial side of the middle ear, the oval
window and the round window, connect the middle ear with the inner ear.
The middle ear contains three auditoryossicles (os′i-klz; ear bones):
the malleus (mal′ē-ŭs; hammer), the incus (ing′kŭs; anvil), and the stapes (stā
′pēz; stirrup). These bonestransmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane to
the oval win-dow. The malleus is attached to the medial surface of the
tympanic membrane. The incus connects the malleus to the stapes. The base
of the stapes is seated in the oval window, surrounded by a flexible ligament.
As vibrations are transmitted from the malleus to the sta-pes, the force of the
vibrations is amplified about 20-fold because the area of the tympanic
membrane is about 20 times that of the oval window.

Two small muscles in the middle ear, one attached to the malleus and the
other to the stapes, help dampen vibrations caused by loud noises, thus
protecting the delicate inner ear structures.

There are two unblocked openings into the middle ear. One opens into the
mastoid air cells in the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The other, called
the auditory tube, or eustachian (ū-stā′ shŭn) tube, opens into the pharynx and
enables air pressure to be equalized between the outside air and the middle
ear cavity. Unequal pressure between the middle ear and the outside environ-
ment can distort the tympanic membrane, dampen its vibrations, and make
hearing difficult. Distortion of the tympanic membrane also stimulates pain
receptors associated with that structure. That distortion is why, as a person
changes altitude, sounds seem muffled and the tympanic membrane may
become painful. These symptoms can be relieved by opening the auditory tube
to allow air to enter or exit the middle ear, such as by swallowing, yawning,
chewing, or holding the nose and mouth shut while gently forcing air out of the
lungs.

Inner Ear

The inner ear consists of interconnecting tunnels and chambers within the
temporal bone, called the bony labyrinth (lab′ i-rinth; maze) (figure 9.18a).
Inside the bony labyrinth is a smaller set of membranous tunnels and
chambers called the membranouslabyrinth (figure 9.18b). The membranous
labyrinth is filledwith a clear fluid called endolymph (en′ dō-limf), and the
space between the membranous and bony labyrinths is filled with a fluid
called perilymph (per′ i-limf). The bony labyrinth can be divided into three
regions: the cochlea, the vestibule, and the semicircular canals. The cochlea is
involved in hearing. The vestibule and semi-circular canals are involved
primarily in balance.
 The cochlea (kok′ lē-ă; snail shell) is shaped like a snail shell (figure 9.18a) and
contains a bony core shaped like a screw. The threads of this screw are called
the spiral lamina. The cochlea is divided into three channels: the scala
vestibuli, the scala tympani, and the cochlear duct (figure 9.18b). The scala
vestibuli (skā′ lă ves-tib′ ū-l ı̄; scala, stairway) extends from the oval window to
the apex of the cochlea. The scala tympani (tim-pa′ nē) extends in parallel with
the scala vestibuli from the apex back to the round window. These two
channels are perilymph-filled spaces between the walls of the bony and
membranous labyrinths. The wall of the membra-nous labyrinth that lines the
scala vestibuli is called the vestibular (ves-tib′ ū-lār) membrane; the wall of the
membranous labyrinth that lines the scala tympani is the basilar
membrane. The cochlearduct is formed by the space between the vestibular
membrane andthe basilar membrane and is filled with endolymph.

Inside the cochlear duct is a specialized structure called the spiral

organ, ororgan of Corti(figure 9.18c). The spiral organcontains specialized
sensory cells called hair cells, which have hairlike microvilli, often referred to
as stereocilia, on their sur-faces (figure 9.18c,d,e). The microvilli are stiffened
by actin fila-ments. The hair tips are embedded within an acellular gelatinous
shelf called the tectorial (tek-tōr′ ē-ăl; a covering) membrane, which is
attached to the spiral lamina (figure 9.18b,c).

Hair cells have no axons of their own, but each hair cell is asso-ciated with
axon terminals of sensory neurons, the cell bodies of which are located within
the cochlear ganglion, or spiral ganglion.

Axons of the sensory neurons join to form the cochlear nerve. This nerve joins
the vestibular nerve to become the vestibulocochlearnerve (VIII), which carries
action potentials to the brain.

Hearing
Vibrations create sound waves. Sound waves are collected by the auricle and
conducted through the external auditory canal toward the tympanic
membrane. Sound waves strike the tympanic mem-brane and cause it to
vibrate. This vibration causes vibration of the three ossicles of the middle ear,
and by this mechanical linkage, the force of vibration is amplified and
transferred to the oval win-dow (figure 9.19, steps 1–3).
 Vibrations of the base of the stapes, seated in the oval window, produce
waves in the perilymph of the cochlea. The two scalae can be thought of as a
continuous, U-shaped tube, with the oval window at one end of the scala
vestibuli and the round window at the other end of the scala tympani. The
vibrations of the stapes in the oval window cause movement of the perilymph,
which pushes against the membrane covering the round window (figure 9.19
step 4). This phenomenon is similar to pushing against a rubber diaphragm on
one end of a fluid-filled glass tube. If the tube has a rubber dia-phragm on each
end, the fluid can move. If one end of the glass tube or of the cochlear tubes
were solid, no fluid movement would occur.
 The waves produced in the perilymph pass through the vestibu-lar membrane
and cause vibrations of the endolymph. Waves in the endolymph, within the
cochlear duct, cause displacement of the basilar membrane. As the basilar
membrane is displaced, the hair cells, seated on the basilar membrane, move
with the movements of the membrane. The microvilli of the hair cells are
embedded in the tectorial membrane, which is a rigid shelf that does not
move. Because one end of the microvilli moves with the hair cells and their
other ends are embedded in the nonmoving tectorial membrane, the microvilli
bend. The bending of the microvilli stimulates the hair cells, which induces
action potentials in the cochlear nerves (figure 9.19, steps 5–6).

The basilar membrane is not uniform throughout its length. The membrane is
narrower and denser near the oval window and wider and less dense near the
tip of the cochlea. The various regions of the membrane can be compared to
the strings in a piano (i.e., some are short and thick, and others are longer and
thinner). As a result of this organization, sounds with higher pitches cause
maximum distortion of the basilar membrane nearer the oval window,
whereas sounds with lower pitches cause maximum distortion nearer the apex
of the cochlea. In each case, different hair cells are stimulated, and because of
the differences in which hair cells are maximally stimulated, a person is able to
detect variations in pitch. Sound volume is a function of sound wave
amplitude, which causes the basilar membrane to distort more intensely and
the hair cells to be stimulated more strongly.

Hearing impairment can have many causes. In general, there are two
categories of hearing impairment: conduction deafness and sensorineural
hearing loss (see the Diseases and Disorders table). Conduction
deafness results from mechanical deficiencies—for example, destruction of the
ligament that holds the malleus and incus together. Sensorineural hearing
loss is caused by deficiencies in the spiral organ or nerves;for example, loud
sounds can damage the delicate microvilli of the hair cells, leading to
destruction of the spiral organ.

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

The senses of hearing and balance are both transmitted by the vestib-ulocochlear nerve (VIII).

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

The senses of hearing and balance are both transmitted by the vestib-
ulocochlear nerve (VIII). This nerve functions as two separate nerves, carrying
information from two separate but closely related structures. The cochlear
nerve is the portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve involved in hearing; the
vestibular nerve is involved in balance. The cochlear nerve sends axons to
thecochlear nucleus in the brainstem. Neurons in the cochlear nucleus project
to other areas of the brain-stem and to the inferior colliculus in the midbrain.
Neurons from the inferior colliculus also project to the superior colliculus,
where reflexes that turn the head and eyes in response to loud sounds are
initiated. From the inferior colliculus, fibers project to the thalamus and from
there to the auditory cortex of the cerebrum (figure 9.20).

Hearing
Vibrations create sound waves. Sound waves are collected by the auricle and
conducted through the external auditory canal toward the tympanic
membrane. Sound waves strike the tympanic mem-brane and cause it to
vibrate. This vibration causes vibration of the three ossicles of the middle ear,
and by this mechanical linkage, the force of vibration is amplified and
transferred to the oval win-dow (figure 9.19, steps 1–3).

Vibrations of the base of the stapes, seated in the oval window, produce
waves in the perilymph of the cochlea. The two scalae can be thought of as a
continuous, U-shaped tube, with the oval window at one end of the scala
vestibuli and the round window at the other end of the scala tympani. The
vibrations of the stapes in the oval window cause movement of the perilymph,
which pushes against the membrane covering the round window (figure 9.19
step 4). This phenomenon is similar to pushing against a rubber diaphragm on
one end of a fluid-filled glass tube. If the tube has a rubber dia-phragm on each
end, the fluid can move. If one end of the glass tube or of the cochlear tubes
were solid, no fluid movement would occur.
 The waves produced in the perilymph pass through the vestibu-lar membrane
and cause vibrations of the endolymph. Waves in the endolymph, within the
cochlear duct, cause displacement of the basilar membrane. As the basilar
membrane is displaced, the hair cells, seated on the basilar membrane, move
with the movements of the membrane. The microvilli of the hair cells are
embedded in the tectorial membrane, which is a rigid shelf that does not
move. Because one end of the microvilli moves with the hair cells and their
other ends are embedded in the nonmoving tectorial membrane, the microvilli
bend. The bending of the microvilli stimulates the hair cells, which induces
action potentials in the cochlear nerves (figure 9.19, steps 5–6).
 The basilar membrane is not uniform throughout its length. The membrane is
narrower and denser near the oval window and wider and less dense near the
tip of the cochlea. The various regions of the membrane can be compared to
the strings in a piano (i.e., some are short and thick, and others are longer and
thinner). As a result of this organization, sounds with higher pitches cause
maximum distortion of the basilar membrane nearer the oval window,
whereas sounds with lower pitches cause maximum distortion nearer the apex
of the cochlea. In each case, different hair cells are stimulated, and because of
the differences in which hair cells are maximally stimulated, a person is able to
detect variations in pitch. Sound volume is a function of sound wave
amplitude, which causes the basilar membrane to distort more intensely and
the hair cells to be stimulated more strongly.

Hearing impairment can have many causes. In general, there are two
categories of hearing impairment: conduction deafness and sensorineural
hearing loss (see the Diseases and Disorders table). Conduction
deafness results from mechanical deficiencies—for example, destruction of the
ligament that holds the malleus and incus together. Sensorineural hearing
loss is caused by deficiencies in the spiral organ or nerves;for example, loud
sounds can damage the delicate microvilli of the hair cells, leading to
destruction of the spiral organ.

Balance
The sense of balance, or equilibrium, has two components: static equilibrium
and dynamic equilibrium. Static equilibrium is asso-ciated with the vestibule
and is involved in evaluating the position of the head relative to
gravity. Dynamic equilibrium is associated with the semicircular canals and is
involved in evaluating changes in the direction and rate of head movements.
 The vestibule (ves′ ti-bool) of the inner ear can be divided into two chambers:
the utricle (ū′ tri-kl) and the saccule (sak′ ūl) (figure 9.21a). Each chamber
contains specialized patches of epithelium called themaculae (mak′ ū-lē),
which are surrounded by endolymph. The maculae, like the spiral organ,
contain hair cells. The tips of the microvilli of these cells are embedded in a
gelatinous mass, often called theotolithic membrane, weighted by otoliths (ō′
tō-liths; ear stones), particles composed of protein and calcium carbonate. The
weighted gelatinous mass moves in response to gravity, bending the hair cell
microvilli (figure 9.21c) and initiating action potentials in the associated
neurons. The action potentials from these neurons are carried by axons of the
vestibular portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) to the brain, where they
are interpreted as a change in the position of the head. For example, when a
person bends over, the maculae are displaced by gravity, and the resultant
action potentials provide information to the brain concerning the position of
the head (figure 9.22).
 Three semicircular canals are involved in dynamic equilib-rium. The canals are
placed at nearly right angles to one another, enabling a person to detect
movements in essentially any direc-tion. The base of each semicircular canal is
expanded into an ampulla (am-pul′ă) (figure 9.23a). Within each ampulla,
theepithelium is specialized to form a crista ampullaris (kris′ tă am-pūl′ ar′ is)
(figure 9.23b). Each crista consists of a ridge of epi-thelium with a curved,
gelatinous mass, the cupula (koo′ poo-lă; a tub), suspended over the crest. The
cupula is structurally and functionally very similar to the maculae, except that
it contains no otoliths. The hairlike microvilli of the crista hair cells (figure
9.23c) are embedded in the cupula. The cupula functions as a float that is
displaced by endolymph movement within the semicircular canals (figure
9.24). As the head begins to move in one direction, the endolymph tends to
remain stationary, while the cupula moves with the head. This difference
displaces the cupula in a direction opposite that of the movement of the head.
As movement contin-ues, the fluid “catches up.” When movement of the head
and the cupula stops, the fluid continues to move, displacing the cupula in the
direction of the movement. Movement of the cupula causes the hair cell
microvilli to bend, which initiates depolarization inthe hair cells. This
depolarization initiates action potentials in the vestibular nerves, which join
the cochlear nerves to form the ves-tibulocochlear nerves.
 Continuous stimulation of the semicircular canals—as occurs due to the
rocking motion of a boat—can cause motion sickness, characterized by nausea
and weakness. The brain compares sensory input from the semicircular canals,
eyes, and position receptors (proprioceptors) in the back and lower limbs.
Conflicting input from these sources can lead to motion sickness.

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

The senses of hearing and balance are both transmitted by the vestib-ulocochlear nerve (VIII).
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing
The senses of hearing and balance are both transmitted by the vestib-
ulocochlear nerve (VIII). This nerve functions as two separate nerves, carrying
information from two separate but closely related structures. The cochlear
nerve is the portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve involved in hearing; the
vestibular nerve is involved in balance. The cochlear nerve sends axons to
thecochlear nucleus in the brainstem. Neurons in the cochlear nucleus project
to other areas of the brain-stem and to the inferior colliculus in the midbrain.
Neurons from the inferior colliculus also project to the superior colliculus,
where reflexes that turn the head and eyes in response to loud sounds are
initiated. From the inferior colliculus, fibers project to the thalamus and from
there to the auditory cortex of the cerebrum (figure 9.20).
Neuronal Pathways for Balance
Axons forming the vestibular portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
project to the vestibular nucleus in the brainstem. Axons run from this nucleus
to numerous areas of the CNS, such as the cerebellum and cerebral cortex.

Balance is a complex sensation involving sensory input to the vestibular

nucleus not only from the inner ear but also from the limbs (proprioception)
and visual system as well. In sobriety tests, people are asked to close their eyes
while their balance is evaluated because alcohol affects the proprioceptive and
vestibular components of balance to a greater extent than the visual
component of balance.
Effects of Aging on the Senses
Describe changes that occur in the senses with aging.

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE SENSES

As a person ages, both the general and the special sensory func-tions gradually
decline. Among the general senses, free nerve endings and hair follicle
receptors in the skin remain largely unchanged. However, the numbers of
Meissner corpuscles and pacinian corpuscles decrease with age, and those that
remain are often structurally distorted and less functional. As a result, elderly
people are less conscious of something touching or pressing the skin, which
increases the risk of skin injuries. The sense of two-point discrimination
decreases, and the elderlyhave a more difficult time identifying objects by
touch. A loss of pacinian corpuscles also decreases their awareness of limb and
joint positions, which can affect balance and coordination. The functions of
receptors for proprioception also decline with age, which decreases
information on the position, tension, and length of tendons and muscles. This
can further reduce coordination and control of movements.

Among the special senses, elderly people experience only a slight loss in the
ability to detect odors. However, their ability to correctly identify specific odors
decreases, especially in men over age 70.

In general, the sense of taste decreases as people age. The number of sensory
receptors decreases, and the brain’s ability to interpret taste sensations
declines.

The lenses of the eyes lose flexibility as a person ages because the connective
tissue of the lenses becomes more rigid. Consequently, the lenses’ ability to
change shape initially declines and eventually is lost. This condition,
called presbyopia, is the most common age-related change in the eyes. In
addition, the number of cones decreases, especially in the fovea centralis,
resulting in a gradual decline in visual acuity and color perception.
 The most common visual problem in older people requiring medical
treatment, such as surgery, is the development of cataracts. Following
cataracts in frequency are macular degeneration, glau-coma, and diabetic
retinopathy, in that order (see the Diseases and Disorders table earlier).

As people age, the number of hair cells in the cochlea decreases, resulting in
age-related sensorineural hearing loss, called presbya cusis. This decline
doesn’t occur equally in both ears. Therefore,because direction is determined
by comparing sounds coming into each ear, elderly people may experience a
decreased ability to local-ize the origin of certain sounds. This may lead to a
general sense of disorientation. In addition, CNS defects in the auditory
pathways can lead to difficulty understanding sounds when echoes or back-
ground noises are present. This deficit makes it difficult for elderly people to
understand rapid or broken speech.

With age, the number of hair cells in the saccule, utricle, and ampullae
decreases. The number of otoliths also declines. As a result, elderly people
experience a decreased sensitivity to gravity, acceleration, and rotation, which
may lead to disequilibrium (insta-bility) and vertigo (a feeling of spinning).
Some elderly people feel that they can’t maintain posture and are prone to fall.