Vol. XVIII No.9C (Methodology)

JOURNAL OF THE
MYANMAR ACADEMY OF
ARTS AND SCIENCE
Methodology
Vol. XVIII, No.9C, August, 2020
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science

Journal of the Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
Vol. XVIII, No.9C
Contents
Methodology
Sr.
Title Page
No.
1 Aye Su Myat, *An Assessment of the Concept Attainment Model in Middle 1
School Mathematics Teaching
2 Naw Eh Wah, A Study of the Awareness and Attitude of the Primary 21
Teachers Towards the New Primary Morals and Civics Curriculum
Implementation
3 Hninn Hninn Thet, An Investigation into the Effectiveness of Project Based 39
Learning on Students’ Academic Performance in Economics at the High
School Level
4 Aye Yu Mon, An Analytical Study of Cooperative Learning Model in the 53
Teaching of Myanmar Language Writing Skills
5 Cin Sian Huai, The Influence of Mathematical Terminology on Students’ 73
Achievement at the High School Level
6 Yu Yu Lwin, The Effect of Participatory Teaching Methods on Students’ 85
Achievement in Mathematics at the Middle School Level
7 Khin Mar Aung, Teachers' Understanding of Teaching-Learning Situation 99
and Instructional Practices in Chemistry Teaching
8 Yin Mon Aung, A Study of the Effects of Direct Instruction and Indirect 115
Instruction on Students’ Achievement in Geometry
9 Thin Thin Htike, A Study of Science Process Skills and Achievement of 135
Students in Science at the Middle School Level
10 Phyu Phyu Win, Factors Affecting the Student’s Interest in Mathematics at 149
the Middle School Level
11 Phyo Thiri Cho, A Study of Misconceptions about Geometry in Middle 165
School Learners
12 Hnin Oo Wai, An Investigation into the Difficulties of Students in Learning 183
Biology
13 Thet Htar Swe, Factors Influencing on Students’ Academic Achievement in 199
Learning Biology
14 Than Than Hsint, A Study of the Effects of Cooperative Learning on 215
Students' Achievement in Grade Nine Economics
15 Myint Kyaw Hein, A Case Study of Using Science Laboratory in Teaching 225
Science Subjects at the High School Level
16 Htet Htet Aung, The Effects of Instructional Aids on the Science 247
Achievement of Middle School Level Students
17 Su Hlaing Hnin, The Effects of Concept-Based Teaching on Students’ 261
Achievement in Science at the Middle School Level
Sr.
Title Page
No.
18 Than Zaw Hlaing, A Study of Middle School Students’ Mathematical 275
Proficiency in the Mathematics Classroom
Naing Naing Thein, University of Education Student Teachers’ Gender 287
19 Awareness and Attitude Towards Gender Equality
20 Yu Zar Ni Zaw, The Effect of Mastery Learning Strategy on Students’ 303
Mathematics Achievement at the Middle School Level
21 May Di San, The Effect of Van Hiele’s Instructional Model on Students’ 321
Achievementin Geometry
22 Thida Wai, An Investigation into the Effectiveness of Discovery Learning in 337
Teaching Lower Secondary Science
23 Swe Zin Thant, The Effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model on Students’ 353
Science Achievement at the Middle School Level
24 Phyo Khin Khin, A Study of the Relationship between Students’ Spatial 367
ability and their Geometrical Performance in Mathematics at the Middle
School Level
25 San San Myint, An Exploration of Influencing Factors on Teacher Training 385
Programmes in Education Colleges
26 Htay Lwin, A Study of the Influence of Classroom Environment on the 399
Academic Achievement of High School Students
27 San Aye, Integration of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) into 413
Middle School Science Teaching Through Lesson Study
28 Soe Soe Thein, A Study of the Academic Self-Concept of High School 427
Students and its Effects on their Achievement
29 Khin Thant Zin, A Study of the Perspective of Student Teachers on the 443
Teaching Practice
30 Bawi Kee, A Study of the Attitude of Pre-Service Teachers in Education 457
Colleges Towards their Teaching Profession
31 Thet Soe Htike, An Analytical Study of Grade Eleven Myanmar Textbooks 473
Focusing on their Objectives, Contents and Contributions to Myanmar
Literature
32 Hein Min Phyo Wai Thaw, A Study of the Relationship between School 489
Climate and Teachers’ Performance in High Schools
33 Htet Wai Aung, An Investigation into the Effects of the Use of Diagrams in 503
Teaching and Learning Biology at the High School Level
34 Kyaw Zin Oo, Developing the Reading Skill of EFL Students through 519
Cooperative Language Learning
35 Nilar Moe, A Study of Diploma in Teacher Education Program in Myanmar 533
36 Phuu Ei Kyaw, An Experimental Study of the Use of Communicative 549
Approach in Developing the Listening Skill of High School Students
37 Phyo Naung Naung, A Study of the Factors Influencing Students’ 565
Participation in Co-Curricular Activities at the Middle School Level
38 Win Win Maw, A Study of the Relationship between the Middle School 577
Students’ Mathematics-Related Belief Systems and their Problem Solving
Ability
Edition
2020, August, 600 Copies
Copyright
Ministry of Education
Published by
Dr Aung Min (00322) Chairman, Journal Publication Committee,
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186
LCCN 2003-323143
Printed by
U Win Aung (00171), Manager,
Universities Press, Yangon, Myanmar
J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No.9C
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL IN

MIDDLE SCHOOL MATHEMATICS TEACHING*
Aye Su Myat1
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to assess a concept attainment model in middle school
mathematics teaching. Both quantitative and qualitative research methods were used in this study.
Quantitative research method was used to analyze students’ mathematics achievement and
mathematics process skills. Qualitative research method was used to investigate attitudes of
teachers towards the attainment of mathematics concepts and the proposed concept attainment
model, and those of students towards mathematics learning through learning activities based on the
proposed concept attainment model. For quantitative research, an experimental study was
conducted. One of the quasi-experimental designs, viz., the nonequivalent control group design,
was used in this study. The subjects were randomly selected from Grade Seven in BEHS Phado,
BEHS (Branch) Quarter (2) Phado, BEHS (Branch) Myoe Chaung, BEHS Myoe Ma, BEHS
(Branch) Hnget Thike, and BEHS (Branch) La-Ka-Ya 3. There were (581) Grade Seven students
in the experiment. For qualitative research, the students who participated in the experimental
groups and the teachers who taught the experimental groups were randomly selected. The
instruments used in this study were pretest, posttest, questionnaire, and interview. Learning
materials for this study were selected from Grade Seven mathematics textbook, Volume 2.
According to the pilot testing, the internal consistency of pretest question was 0.782. The data
were analyzed by using independent samples t test and one-way analysis of covariance (One-Way
ANCOVA). According to results, differences in mathematics achievement and mathematics
process skills were significantly found between the two selected groups. The qualitative data also
supported the findings from the quantitative study. Finally, research findings proved that the
proposed concept attainment model has positive contribution to middle school mathematics
teaching.
Keywords: Models, Model of Teaching, Concept, Concept Attainment, Concept Attainment
Model
Introduction
Mathematics is an intricate subject where various parts of the content are so interrelated
to each other. In the field of mathematics, it can be found some different words: concept, skill,
theory, model, etc. Medin (2000, cited in Santrock, 2006) proposed that concepts are elements of
cognition that help to simplify and summarize information. If a student has a wrong concept
about one part, he will find the difficulty to make progress in others. Otherwise, the erroneous
procedure may develop into a habit. Therefore, it is sure that concept attainment is essential for
improving students’ mathematics learning and skills.
Objectives of the Research
The main objective of the research is to assess the concept attainment model in middle school
mathematics teaching.
Specific objectives are as follows.

1. To construct a new concept attainment model for middle school mathematics teaching
2. To create learning activities based on the proposed concept attainment model for middle
school mathematics teaching
1
Dr, Assistant Lecturer, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education
*
Best Paper Award Winning Paper in Methodology (2019)
2 J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No.9C
3. To assess the impact of concept attainment model and learning activities on students’
mathematics achievement and mathematics process skills
4. To make suggestions and recommendations for the improvement of mathematics teaching
Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses of this study are as follows.
H1: There is a significant difference between the mathematics achievement of students who are
taught with the proposed concept attainment model of teaching mathematics and the
mathematics achievement of those who are taught with formal instruction.
H2: There is a significant difference between the mathematics process skills of students who are
taught with the proposed concept attainment model of teaching mathematics and the
mathematics process skills of those who are taught with formal instruction.
H3: Students who are taught with learning activities based on the proposed concept attainment
model may have positive attitudes towards mathematics learning.
H4: Teachers who taught the experimental groups may have positive attitudes towards the
attainment of mathematics concepts and the proposed concept attainment model.
Scope of the Research
The following points indicate the scope of the study.
1. This study is geographically restricted to two regions: Bago and Mandalay.
2. Participants in this study are Grade Seven students from the selected schools in the (2017-
2018) Academic Year.
3. This study is confined to methodology of middle school mathematics teaching in Myanmar.
4. The content area covers five chapters from the prescribed mathematics textbooks Volume 2,
Geometry, for Grade Seven.
Definition of Key Terms
Definitions of key terms are presented as follows.
Models. Models are prescriptive teaching strategies designed to accomplish particular
instructional goals (Zubair, 2012).
Model of teaching. A model of teaching is a plan that can also be utilized to shape courses of
studies, to design instructional material, and to guide instruction (Zubair, 2012).
Concept. Concept represents a category of objects which share common properties (Archer,
1969, cited in Zubair, 2012).
Concept attainment. Concept attainment is the process of finding and defining attributes of a
given class, that is, identifying examples and non-examples of a category (Bruner, 1956, cited in
Prabhakaram, 1998).
Concept attainment model. Concept attainment model is a model of teaching, designed to help
students learn concepts for organizing information and to help students become more effective at
learning concepts (Bruner, 1956, cited in Zubair, 2012).
Statement of the Problem
One of the problems encounter in current mathematics classroom is that some teachers
still use teaching methods which stress mainly upon memorization with the primary focus placed
on test scores. They teach mathematics concepts just for examinations but not for understanding.
Another problem is that some teachers have fewer opportunities to create learning activities to
develop their students’ mathematics process skills such as problem-solving, reasoning and proof,
J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No.9C 3
communication, connection, and representation. Hence, mathematics teachers need to analyze

how to teach concepts.
Significance of the Research
Chauhan (1996) states that a concept is the basic unit of all types of learning. Concepts in
mathematics are the basic building blocks for thinking, particularly higher-level thinking. If
students attain concepts, they can classify objects and ideas, and then they can derive rules and
principles. It allows students to think and process abstractly. So, mathematics teachers need to
emphasize how to teach mathematics concept. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new
concept attainment model and to assess its effectiveness in middle school mathematics teaching.
This study will fulfil the needs of mathematics education in Myanmar and will meet the
objectives of teaching mathematics.
Review of Related Literature
Educational Philosophy
Educational philosophies related to this study are progressivism, cognitivism, and
constructivism.
Dewey, first an advocate of progressive education, placed great emphasis on actions and
experience (Hook, 1986, cited in Hessong & Weeks, 1991). Since, progressivism places more
emphasis on experience and experiment, they stress on learning by problem-solving or by
scientific inquiry instead of memorization.
Cognitivism considers learning as a change in cognitive thinking and focuses on internal
mental processes that change the way people conceptualize, realize, and understanding their
environment (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). In concept attainment, students observe, and identify
attributes of each until they develop a tentative hypothesis (definition) about the concept.
Constructivism equates learning with creating meaning from experience (Bednar, 1991,
cited in Ertmer & Newby, 2013). In constructivism, social communities have a strong impact on
constructed meaning. According to Vygotsky (n.d., cited in Sang, 2003), the idea of zone of
proximal development (ZPD) is the pupils’ performance, under the help of adults or cooperation
from their peers. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development is presented in Figure 1.
Pupils’ actual Zone of Proximal Potential

development Development development limit
(able to learn and (able to learn and perform (unable to learn and
perform task various tasks with help perform any task
individually.) from others.) even with help.)
Most difficult task Most difficult task

that can be learned that can be learned
or performed or performed with
Source: From Sang (2003), p. 195.
individually. helps from others.
Figure 1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Cognitive Teaching and Learning Theories

Cognitive theories mainly stress on the acquisition of knowledge and growth of the
mental structure and emphasize on the conceptualization of the students learning process.
According to Piaget’s cognitive development theory (Sang, 2003), concept learning is

closely related with the children’s age level: sensory-motor stage (0-2 years), pre-operational
stage (2-7 years), concrete operation (7-12 years), and formal operation (after 12 years). The
children’s cognitive development in each stage is an important factor that influences the
formation of concrete or abstract concepts.
Gagne (1977, cited in Sang, 2003) put forward eight types of learning based on the
learning process and arranged from simple to complex: signal learning, stimulus-response
learning, learning through chaining, learning through verbal association, learning through
multiple discrimination, concept learning, principle learning, and problem-solving. In order to be
mastered in concept learning, understanding of definitions or observations of objects related to
the concepts is crucial.
According to Bruner (1973, cited in Sang 2003), the most important function of concept
formation is to categorize information into general characteristics. It is closely related to
perception. The perception process begins from the external stimuli which have been perceived
by human sensory organ, and transmitted to the brain via the sensory nerves to interpret the
information received, followed by the classification into categories based on their special
characteristics. Figure 2 briefly illustrates the process of concept formation via the perception
process.
External stimuli Sensory organs Brain Concept
To analyze, Formation of
Things, events, To see, hear, explain, meaning, opinion,
phenomena, touch, smell, or interpret, perception,
objects, or figures feel classify, or thinking, or idea
summarize
Source: From Sang (2003), p. 89.
Figure 2 Process of Perception and Concept Formation
Landa’s theory specifies that students ought to be taught not only knowledge but the
algorithms and heuristics of experts as well. They also have to be taught how to discover
algorithms and heuristics on their own. The teacher or the pedagogue must first set up the
algorithm or algorithms of the activity he wishes to form and should introduce pupils to
algorithms and other intellectual activity applicable to a variety of scientific subjects and fields
(Khin Zaw, 2001).
Models of Teaching
In this research, Talyzina’s cognitive-cybernetic or neocybernetic model, Glaser’s basic
teaching model, and Bruner’s concept attainment model are taken into considered.
Talyzina’s cognitive-cybernetic or neocybernetic model bases on step-by-step approach
or stage-by-stage formation of intellectual activities. Talyzina’s cognitive-cybernetic or
neocybernetic model is composed of eight steps and it is illustrated in Figure 3.
Selection/Structuring
of Knowledge
Teaching Feedbac Regulatio

Objectives Input Acquisitional Steps
Algorithm k Phase n
s
Multi-Media
Presentation
Source: From Khin Zaw (2001), p. 42.
Figure 3 Professor Dr. Talyzina’s Cognitive-Cybernetic or Neocybernetic Model
Glaser’s basic teaching model was given by Robert Glaser (1962, cited in Singh, Sharma,
& Upadhya, 2009). It consists of four major components namely instructional objectives,
entering behaviour, instructional procedures, and performance assessment with feedback links.
Figure 4 illustrates Glaser’s basic teaching model of teaching.
A B C D
Instructional Entering Instructional Performance
Objectives Behaviour Procedure Assessment
Feedback Loops
Source: From Joyce and Weil (1972), p. 216.
Figure 4 Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model
Bruner, Goodnow, and Austine (1956, cited in Zubair, 2012) developed a concept
attainment model. Concept attainment model has three variations, namely: reception model,
selection model, and unorganized material model. The reception model is more direct in teaching
students the elements of a concept and their use in concept attainment. The selection model
permits students to apply this awareness of conceptual activity more actively by using their own
initiation and control. The third variation of this model transfers concept theory and attainment
activity to a real life setting using unorganized data (Joyce & Weil, 1980).
Mathematics process skills. Mathematics process skills are the skills that can be acquired
through the processes of problem-solving, reasoning and proof, communication, connection, and
representation (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000). In 2000, this
council proposed five process skills that should be incorporated into the mathematics curriculum
at every grade level. These skills are (a) problem-solving, (b) reasoning and proof,
(c) communication, (d) connection, and (e) representation. Mathematics teachers should try to
give learning opportunities for their students to acquire these mathematics process skills.
Strategies of Concept Attainment

The concept attainment strategies are divided into selection and reception strategies based
upon learning conditions.
In selection strategies, the teacher presents unlabelled examples of the concept and the
students inquire as to which of the presentations are examples and non-examples and attempt to
construct positive examples on their own. With reception strategies, the learner’s major area of
freedom is in the hypotheses he chooses to adopt. The teacher presents examples of the concept
that are labelled ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
Previous Related Research
Five related studies are presented to determine whether concept attainment model is more
effective than any other teaching method.
The first one, “Effectiveness of Concept Attainment Model on Achievement in Arabic
Grammar of Standard IX Students”, was a thesis conducted by Shamnad (2005). Its findings
revealed that concept attainment model was definitely better than the conventional method for
student achievement.
The second one was conducted by Anjum (2014), namely, “A Study of Effect of Concept
Attainment Model on Achievement of Geometric Concepts of VIII Standard Students of English
Medium Students of Aurangabard City”. This study revealed that there was a significant
difference between concept attainment model and traditional method on the achievement of
students in understanding of geometric concepts.
The next one, “Effect of Concept Attainment Model of Teaching on Achievement in
Physics at Secondary Stage”, was a research conducted by Kaur (2014). This study pointed out
that concept attainment model of teaching is superior and effective in terms of physics concept
understanding of students in comparison to conventional method.
Jones and Hilaire (2014) conducted “Concept Learning in the Undergraduate Classroom:
A Case Study in Religious Studies”. In this case study, Bruner’s concept attainment model was
explored in the undergraduate religion classroom. It suggested that by asking questions that force
learners to engage in higher-order thinking and place judgments on the concepts they are
learning, greater conceptual understanding will occur.
The last one, “To Study the Effectiveness of Concept Attainment Model of Teaching on
Achievement of Secondary School Students in Chemistry”, was a study conducted by Kaur
(2017). The results showed that students exposed to concept attainment model possessed higher
score than the students taught through traditional method.
Proposed Concept Attainment Model for Middle School Mathematics Teaching
In proposed concept attainment model, there are five main components (see Figure 5).
Detailed description is presented as follows.
Planning for concept attainment activities. Firstly, the teacher selects a concept. Then, the
teacher identifies specific objectives to develop the selected concept. And then, the teacher
selects exemplars and non-exemplars of the concept. After that, the teacher sequences them and
selects appropriate medium to present the selected concept.
Assessing prerequisite skills. The second step of this model is assessing prerequisite skills of
the students. If students’ prerequisite skill is not enough to go on to the next step, the teacher has
to fulfil and make their background knowledge strengthen. If their prerequisite skill is enough, it
is ready to implement concept attainment activities.
Implementing concept attainment activities. When the teacher orients reception activity, he
presents exemplars and non-exemplars of the concept one-by-one. At each encounter, the
learners analyze and compare their attributes in positive and negative instances. Then, students
list them. And then, students generate hypothesis with regard to the concept. Finally, students
state definition of the concept according to its attributes.
In selection oriented activity, the teacher presents an array of unlabelled exemplars. Students
may ask about their own exemplars in order to attain the concept. The students also control the
sequence of the exemplars by choosing the ones they want to inquire about. And then students
generate hypothesis.
Planning for Implementin
concept Assessing Testing Yes
prerequisit g concept Reflecting
attainment attainment of the
e skills attainment
activities concept
activities
Selecting a Presenting Analyzing

concept exemplars Giving strategies
and non- additional and
exemplars unlabelled No describing
Identifying exemplars thoughts
specific
objectives Analyzing
exemplars Identifying Discussing
and non- the hypothesis
Selecting exemplars attributes of and
exemplars additional attributes
and non- unlabelled
Listing
exemplars exemplars
attributes Confirming
hypothesis
Sequencing and restating
Developing definition
exemplars concept
and non- definition
exemplars (hypothesis)
Feedback
Figure 5 Proposed Concept Attainment Model
Testing attainment of the concept. The teacher gives additional unlabelled exemplars to test
attainment of the concept. After testing attainment of the concept, the teacher has to check
students’ answers. If the students’ answers are right, they can proceed to the next step, reflecting.
If not, the teacher will provide feedback.
Providing feedback or reflecting. Providing feedback is necessary for the students who do not
get the concept. If they attain the concept surely, they can move to reflecting. In reflecting, the
teacher asks the students to analyze the strategies. Students describe their thoughts and discuss
the hypothesis and attributes. Finally, the teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept, and
restates definition according to essential attributes.
Research Method
Both quantitative and qualitative research methods were used in this study.
Quantitative Research Method
Quantitative research method was used to analyze students’ mathematics achievement
and mathematics process skills. One of the quasi-experimental designs, viz., the nonequivalent
control group design was used.
Population and sample. Grade Seven students from the selected schools were selected as the
subjects. Table 1 shows population and sample of the quantitative study.
Table 1 Population and Sample
Selected Region No. of No. of
Name of School
and Township population Subject
Bago Region BEHS Phado 101 101
(Kyauktaga BEHS (Branch) Quarter 2 Phado 81 81

Township) BEHS (Branch) Myoe Chaung 112 112
Mandalay Region BEHS Myoe Ma 279 135

(Yemethin BEHS (Branch) Hnget Thike 65 65
Township) BEHS (Branch) La-Ka-Ya 3 87 87
Total 725 581
Instruments. Pretest and posttest were used as quantitative research instruments.
Pretest. The pretest question consists of (30) multiple choice items. Test items were constructed
based on Grade Six mathematics textbook (Volume 2). The total score for pretest is (30) marks.
Time duration is (45) minutes, (1) period.
Posttest. There are two main parts in the posttest question. The first part contains (30) multiple
choice items and the second contains (10) short questions. They were constructed from
prescribed mathematics textbooks (Volume 2) for Grade Seven. The total score for posttest is
(60) marks and time duration is one and a half hours.
Learning activities. To construct learning activities for concept attainment, (20) concepts were
selected from Grade Seven mathematics textbooks (Volume 2).
Procedure. Firstly, a pilot study was conducted and the internal consistency of pretest question
was 0.782. And then, full-scale study was conducted from July 2017 to January 2018. In full
scale study, only (16) periods were taken to give treatment in accordance with the monthly
course. A pretest was conducted before the experimental groups were given treatment. In full
scale study, (16) concepts were selected to give treatment. After that, posttest was administered
in the last week of January 2018.
Qualitative Research Method
Qualitative research method was used to investigate attitudes of teachers and students.
Population and sample. Students who participated in the experimental groups and teachers who
taught the experimental groups were selected as the subjects.
Instruments. Questionnaire and interview were used.

Questionnaire. Five-point Likert scale with ‘5’ stands for strongly agree and ‘1’ stands for
strongly disagree, was used to indicate the attitudes towards each item.
Interview. The first part of interview question is about the demographic information and the
second one is about the attitude of teachers towards the proposed concept model.
Procedure. The questionnaires were distributed to the participants in the last week of the
experiment. It took the students about (20) minutes and the teachers about (30) minutes. For
interview, a semi-structured interview form was created. The interview took about (15) minutes.
It is firstly audiotape recorded, and then transcribed.
Analysis of Data
The Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) Version 23 was used to analyze the
quantitative data. The data were analyzed by using the independent samples t test and
one-way analysis of covariance (One-Way ANCOVA).
Research Findings
Quantitative Research Findings for Pretest
Table 2 shows t values for pretest scores of Grade Seven students.
Table 2 t Values for Pretest Scores
Sig.
School Group N M SD MD t df
(2-tailed)
Experimental 50 10.54 4.55
S1 2.27 3.44 99 .001**
Control 51 8.27 5.56
S2 -0.24 -0.36 79 .722 (ns)
Control 41 10.29 2.84
S3 2.82 7.17 110 .000***
Control 56 9.89 1.37
S4 6.64 12.40 133 .000***
Control 69 10.06 2.18
S5 2.88 3.76 63 .000***
Control 33 9.18 3.27
S6 2.11 3.59 85 .001**
Control 44 10.77 2.00
Note. S1 = BEHS Phado; S2 = BEHS (Branch) Quarter 2 Phado; S3 = BEHS (Branch) Myoe Chaung;
S4 = BEHS Myoe Ma; S5 = BEHS (Branch) Hnget Thike; S6 = BEHS (Branch) La-Ka-Ya 3; ns = not
significant.
**p < .01. ***p < .001.
The results showed that there were significant differences between entry behaviour of the
two selected groups in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6. Therefore, their posttest scores will be analyzed
by using one-way analysis of covariance (One-Way ANCOVA). But in S2, there was no
significant difference between the pretest scores of the two groups. Therefore, its posttest score
will be analyzed by using the independent samples t test.
Quantitative Research Findings for Posttest
Table 3 presents t value for posttest scores of Grade Seven students in S2.
Table 3 t Value for Posttest Scores of Grade Seven Students in S2

Sig.
Group N M SD MD t df
(2-tailed)
EG 40 4.63 3.56
PS 1.12 1.48 79 .144 (ns)
CG 41 3.51 3.22
EG 40 4.08 4.40
RP 1.91 2.43 79 .018*
CG 41 2.17 2.32
EG 40 7.60 1.93
CM 0.82 1.89 79 .063 (ns)
CG 41 6.78 1.98
EG 40 5.08 1.61
CN 2.32 6.87 79 .000***
CG 41 2.76 1.43
EG 40 7.20 2.51
RE 2.00 3.39 79 .001**
CG 41 5.20 2.80
EG 40 28.58 10.88
MA 8.17 3.72 79 .000***
CG 41 20.41 8.76
Note: PS = Problem-Solving; RP = Reasoning and Proof; CM = Communication; CN = Connection;
RE = Representation; MA = Mathematics Achievement; ns = not significant.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
According to the results presented in Table 3, the mean scores of reasoning and proof,
connection skill, representation skill, and mathematics achievement of the experimental group
were significantly higher than those of the control group. It showed that the use of the proposed
concept attainment model had a significant influence on those skills. But there were no
significant differences between the problem-solving skill and the communication skill of the two
groups.
Table 4 shows summary of ANCOVA results for the problem-solving skill on posttest of
Grade Seven students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6.
Table 4 Summary of ANCOVA Results for Problem-Solving Skill on Posttest of Grade

Seven Students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6
Unadjusted Adjusted
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Mean Mean
School
Sig. Partial Eta
Source df F EG CG EG CG
(2-tailed) Squared
Pretest 1 0.23 .634 .002
S1 Group 1 10.01 .002** .093 8.66 7.35 8.63 7.39
Error 98
Pretest 1 0.02 .900 .00
S3 Group 1 19.58 .000*** .15 8.84 7.36 8.85 7.45
Error 109
Pretest 1 1.23 .270 .009
S4 Group 1 15.76 .000*** .107 8.09 6.42 8.30 6.22
Error 132
Pretest 1 0.28 .600 .004
S5 Group 1 70.29 .000*** .531 7.94 5.09 7.98 5.05
Error 62
Pretest 1 14.41 .000 .15
S6 Group 1 0.25 .620 .00 5.84 4.64 5.39 5.07
Error 84
Note. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
According to the results presented in Table 4, there were significant differences between
the problem-solving skill of the two groups in S1, S3, S4, and S5 according to F (1, 98) = 10.01,
p = .002, partial eta squared = .09; F (1, 109) = 19.58, p = .000, partial eta squared = .15;
F(1, 132) = 15.76, p = .000, partial eta squared = .11; and F (1, 62) = 70.29, p = .000, partial eta
squared = .53. But in S6, there was no significant difference according to F (1, 84) = 0.25,
p = .620, partial eta squared = .00.
Table 5 describes ANCOVA results for skill of reasoning and proof on posttest of Grade
Seven students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6.
Table 5 Summary of ANCOVA Results for Skill of Reasoning and Proof on Posttest of
Grade Seven Students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects Unadjusted Mean Adjusted Mean
School Sig. Partial Eta
(2-tailed) Squared
Pretest 1 0.02 .887 .000
S1 Group 1 30.57 .000*** .238 5.24 3.06 5.23 3.01
Error 98
Pretest 1 0.04 .846 .00
S3 Group 1 11.05 .001** .09 10.70 9.18 10.72 9.15
Error 109
Pretest 1 0.91 .341 .007
S4 Group 1 88.04 .000*** .400 7.73 3.78 7.88 3.63
Error 132
Pretest 1 0.04 .842 .001
S5 Group 1 63.05 .000*** .504 7.75 4.48 7.77 4.47
Error 62
S6 Pretest 1 10.52 .002 .11
Group 1 1.52 .221 .02 5.21 3.48 4.78 3.90
Error 84
Note. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Table 6 presents ANCOVA results for communication skill on posttest of Grade Seven
students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6.
the skill of reasoning and proof on posttest of the two groups in S1, S3, S4, and S5 according to
F (1, 98) = 30.57, p = .000, partial eta squared = .24; F (1, 109) = 11.05, p = .001, partial eta
squared = .09; F (1, 132) = 88.04, p = .000, partial eta squared = .40; and F (1, 62) = 63.05,
p = .000, partial eta squared = .50. But in S6, there was no significant difference according to
F (1, 84) = 1.52, p = .221, partial eta squared = .02.
Table 6 Summary of ANCOVA Results for Communication Skill on Posttest of Grade

(2-tailed) Squared
Pretest 1 0.35 .852 .000
S1 Group 1 30.88 .000*** .240 6.88 5.06 6.87 5.07
Error 98
Pretest 1 0.30 .587 .00
S3 Group 1 2.92 .090 .03 9.13 8.66 9.09 8.70
Error 109
Pretest 1 3.30 .072 .024
S4 Group 1 32.88 .000*** .199 7.85 5.87 8.14 5.59
Error 132
Pretest 1 0.22 .643 .003
S5 Group 1 22.22 .000*** .264 6.63 4.61 6.58 4.65
Error 62
Pretest 1 1.17 .283 .01
S6 Group 1 2.94 .090 .03 8.70 7.93 8.63 8.00
Error 84
Note: ***p < .001.
the communication skill of the two groups in S1, S4, and S5 according to F (1, 98) = 30.88,
p = .000, partial eta squared = .24; F (1, 132) = 32.88, p = .000, partial eta squared = .20; and
F (1, 62) = 22.22, p = .000, partial eta squared =.26. But in S3 and S6, there were no significant
differences according to F (1, 109) = 2.92, p = .090, partial eta squared = .03 and F (1, 84)
= 2.94, p = .090, partial eta squared =.03.
Table 7 shows ANCOVA results for connection skill on posttest of Grade Seven students
in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6.
the connection skill of the two groups in S1, S3, and S5 according to F (1, 98) = 80.70, p = .000,
partial eta squared =.45; F (1, 109) = 12.16, p = .001, partial eta squared = .10; and F (1, 62)
= 52.44, p = .000, partial eta squared = .46. But in S4 and S6, there were no significant
differences according to F (1, 132) = 0.77, p = .381, partial eta squared = .01; and F (1, 84) = .09,
Table 7 Summary of ANCOVA Results for Connection Skill on Posttest of Grade Seven
Students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6
Unadjusted Adjusted
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Mean Mean
School
Sig. Partial Eta
(2-tailed) Squared
Pretest 1 0.77 .381 .008
S1 Group 1 80.70 .000*** .452 7.36 4.43 7.31 4.48
Error 98
Pretest 1 1.81 .181 .02
S3 Group 1 12.16 .001** .10 9.21 8.64 9.16 8.69
Error 109
Pretest 1 0.46 .501 .003
S4 Group 1 0.77 .381 .006 6.09 5.58 6.00 5.67
Error 132
Pretest 1 0.14 .705 .002
S5 Group 1 52.44 .000*** .458 5.84 3.27 5.87 3.24
Error 62
Pretest 1 4.18 .044 .05
S6 Group 1 0.09 .765 .00 7.79 7.64 7.66 7.64
Error 84
Note: **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table 8 shows ANCOVA results for representation skill on posttest of Grade Seven
students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6.
Table 8 Summary of ANCOVA Results for Representation Skill on Posttest of Grade Seven
Students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6
(2-tailed) Squared
Pretest 1 0.00 .999 .000
S1 Group 1 38.81 .000*** .284 9.00 6.08 9.00 6.08
Error 98
Pretest 1 0.06 .812 .00
S3 Group 1 16.34 .000*** .13 8.96 7.73 8.97 7.71
Error 109
Pretest 1 0.13 .718 .001
S4 Group 1 36.13 .000*** .215 8.97 6.49 8.92 6.54
Error 132
Pretest 1 0.00 .966 .000
S5 Group 1 25.40 .000*** .291 9.59 6.97 9.56 6.97
Error 62
Pretest 1 6.96 .010 .08
S6 Group 1 0.19 .668 .00 10.09 6.08 10.06 9.82
Error 84
Note ***p < .001.
the representation skill of the two groups of S1, S3, S4, and S5 according to F (1, 98) = 38.81,
F (1, 132) = 36.13, p = .000, partial eta squared = .22; and F (1, 62) = 25.40, p = .000, partial eta
squared = .29. But in S6, there was no significant difference according to F (1, 84) = 0.19,
Table 9 shows ANCOVA results for the mathematics achievement on posttest of Grade
Seven students in S1, S3, S4, S5, and S6.
Table 9 Summary of ANCOVA Results for Mathematics Achievement on Posttest of Grade
(2-tailed) Squared
Pretest 1 0.29 .590 .00
S1 Group 1 104.12 .000*** .52 37.14 25.98 37.04 26.08
Error 98
Pretest 1 0.02 .892 .00
S3 Group 1 48.32 .000*** .31 46.84 41.68 46.81 41.71
Error 109
Pretest 1 1.68 .197 .01
Group 1 111.22 .000*** .46
38.73 28.14 39.24 27.65
S4
Error 132
Pretest 1 0.06 .815 .00
S5 Group 1 179.69 .000*** .74 37.75 24.42 37.80 24.83
Error 62
Pretest 1 14.88 .000 .15
S6 Group 1 0.61 .438 .01 37.63 33.48 36.28 34.80
Error 84
Note: ***p < .001.
the posttest scores of the two groups in S1, S3, S4, and S5 according to F (1, 98) = 104.12,
F (1,132) = 111.22, p = .000, partial eta squared = .46; and F (1, 62) = 179.69, p = .000, partial
eta squared = .74. But in S6, there was no significant difference according to F (1, 84) = 0.61,
Figure 6 shows comparison of mean scores of mathematics process skills and
mathematics achievement on posttest.
39.24
39.24
45
37.04
37.8
36.28
34.8
40
28.58
35
27.65
27.65
26.08
24.38
30
20.41
25
20
10.06
9.56
15
9.09
8.97
8.92
8.85
8.63
8.63
7.64 9.82
8.14
7.98
7.71
7.45
7.39
8.7
6.97
6.87
8.3
6.78
6.58
6.54
6.22
7.6
6.08
7.2
5.59
9
5.39
5.07
5.07
5.05
4.65
4.63
10
5.2
3.51
10.72
3.9 8
9.15
9.16
5.23
7.31
3.01
4.48
4.08
5.08
2.17
2.76
8.69
7.88
3.63
5.67
7.77
5.87
4.47
3.24
4.78
7.66
5
6
0
EG CG EG CG EG CG EG CG EG CG EG CG
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Problem-Solving Reasoning and Proof Communication
Connection Representation Mathematics Achievment
Figure 6 Comparison of Mean Scores of Mathematic Process Skills and Mathematics
Achievement on Posttest
Percentage of responses from questionnaire. According to the responses of the teachers and
the students, percentage of agreement and disagreement were calculated for all items in the
questionnaires.
Students’ attitudes towards learning activities based on the proposed concept attainment
model. In the questionnaire, items 1 to 4 dealt with developing students’ collaborative skills,
items 5 to 8 are about developing inquiry skills, items 9 to 12 dealt with developing self-
confidence, and the last items 13 to 16 dealt with developing mathematics process skills.
Responses of students and teachers on these items are expressed in the following Table 10.
Table 10 Attitudes of Students and Teachers towards Learning Activities based on

the Proposed Concept Attainment Model
Students Teachers
Percentage (%) Percentage (%)
Uncertain
Uncertain
Disagree
Disagree
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Strongly
Strongly
Strongly
No. Statement
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
N1 N2
1. Sharing thoughts, ideas, and opinions to 287 12.5 73 11.5 2.7 0.3 6 16.7 66.6 16.7 0 0
friends
2. Listening carefully to others’ thoughts, 287 24.5 61.3 12.5 0.7 1 6 33.3 50 16.7 0 0
ideas, and opinions
3. Collaborating with others 287 27.9 60.6 8.4 2.4 0.7 6 33.3 66.7 0 0 0
4. Helping others who do not have 287 28.6 60 6.6 4.5 0.3 6 33.3 66.7 0 0 0
the first idea of the lesson
5. Discovering various concerns 287 18.1 57.8 13.6 8.7 1.8 6 16.7 66.6 16.7 0 0
about a problem
6. Discovering the possible ways to solve 287 26.1 57.8 9.4 5.7 1 6 16.7 83.3 0 0 0
a problem
7. Inquiring to acquire new knowledge 287 30.3 56.4 10.8 1.8 0.7 6 16.7 66.6 16.7 0 0
8. Inquiring not only mathematics field 287 33.7 51.6 10.5 3.5 0.7 6 16.7 66.6 16.7 0 0
but also other fields
9. Contrasting the right and 287 13.6 61.7 23.3 1.4 0 6 16.7 83.3 0 0 0
the wrong of an idea
10. Solving difficult problems 287 13.9 65.9 17.4 2.8 0 6 16.7 66.6 16.7 0 0
11. Explaining clearly thoughts, ideas, and 287 18.5 62.7 15.3 3.5 0 6 33.3 66.7 0 0 0
opinions to friends
12. Developing confidence in discussing 287 19.9 48 25.8 5.6 0.7 6 33.3 66.7 0 0 0
the lesson with my teacher in the class
13. Developing connection skill and 287 15 59.2 21.6 3.5 0.7 6 16.7 83.3 0 0 0
the skill of reasoning and proof
14. Developing problem-solving skill 287 25.8 58.9 12.9 2.1 0.3 6 16.7 83.3 0 0 0
15. Developing communication skill 287 25.8 60.6 10.1 3.5 0 6 33.3 50 16.7 0 0
16. Developing representation skill 287 26.1 54.1 15.3 4.2 0.3 6 16.7 83.3 0 0 0
Note: N1 = number of students who participated in the experimental groups; N2 = number of teachers who taught
the experimental groups.
Grade Seven teachers’ attitudes towards the attainment of mathematics concepts. The attitudes
of the teachers who taught the experimental groups towards the attainment of mathematics
concepts are firstly presented in terms of ten items. Teachers’ responses on these items are
expressed in Table 11.
Table 11 Grade Seven Teachers’ Attitudes towards the Attainment of Mathematics

Concepts
Percentage (%)
Uncertain
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Agree
No. Statement N
1. Mathematics concepts are the most important things for 6 50 50 0 0 0

developing mathematics process skills.
2. Only when mathematics concepts are attained, one will 6 50 50 0 0 0
be able to keep on studying mathematics theorems,
corollaries, and properties.
3. Only when mathematics concepts are attained, one will 6 33.3 66.7 0 0 0
be able to keep on studying difficult lessons.
be able to solve mathematics problems successfully.
be able to prove mathematics problems.
be able to communicate clearly his thoughts and
opinions to others.
be able to connect the relationships among axioms,
postulates, theorems, corollaries, and properties.
8. Only when mathematics concepts are attained, one will 6 16.7 66.6 16.7 0 0
be able to read and understand the meanings of pictures,
graphs, and symbols.
9. Only when mathematics concepts are attained, one will 6 50 50 0 0 0
be able to study mathematics happily.
be able to value and appreciate mathematics.
Note: N = number of teachers who taught the experimental groups.
Findings from open-ended responses. At the end of attitude questionnaires for teachers, three
open-ended questions were added. The first one is about the contributions of the proposed model
towards the development of mathematics teaching. The second one is about the difficulties they
met while implementing learning activities through this model. The last one is to write down
their opinions and attitudes towards this model. According to their responses, all teachers
propounded that this model made provision for teaching of mathematics. Some students could
not participate along with the activities at the beginning and the common difficulty was time
limitation. In addition, prepared learning activities based on this model and teaching aids were
very excellent. And students were very interested in teaching through this model.
Findings from interview. Three teachers who taught the experimental groups in the selected
schools were interviewed. The first one is from School 1. BA (History) is her first degree and
total service is (14) years. Among (14) years, the service for mathematics teaching is (10) years.
The second one is from School 2. Her first degree is BA (History). Her total service is (25) years
and the service for mathematics teaching is above (10) years. She finished both primary teachers
training course and junior teachers training course. The last one is from School 4. Her first degree
is BSc (Chemistry). Her total service is (10) years and the service for mathematics teaching is
four years. They all finished primary teachers training course and junior teachers training course,
but the last teacher also finished first year of BEd corresponding course.
They said that some students could not analyze and compare the attributes of concepts at
the beginning. After three periods, they developed how to analyze, how to compare, and how to
develop a concept. They changed their learning styles and actively participated in teaching-
learning process. During this study, the students developed their collaborative skills, self-
confidence, inquiry skills and mathematics process skills. Based on their experiences of teaching
with the prepared learning activities, they made a precious suggestion that each teaching-learning
activity should take about (50) minutes. In conclusion, they propounded that it is very suitable
and valuable approach for teaching of mathematics.
Summary of Research Findings
Quantitative research findings and qualitative research findings from six selected schools
are summarized as follows.
Summary of quantitative research findings. Except from S6, differences in mathematics
achievement and mathematics process skills were significantly found between the experimental
groups and the control groups.
Summary of quantitative research findings from students’ questionnaires. Students’ responses
towards the learning activities expressed that the students in the experimental groups developed
positive attitudes towards their learning.
Summary of quantitative research findings from teachers’ questionnaires. Teachers’ responses
expressed that they had positive attitudes towards the attainment of mathematics concept and
towards the proposed concept attainment model.
Summary of qualitative research findings. According to interview responses, the teachers were
not in line with their major specializations. But they had many experiences in teaching and they
devoted their time and effort in implementing those activities. They said that all the prepared
learning activities and materials were very useful for teaching of mathematics. And they
propounded that the proposed model was very suitable and valuable approach for teaching of
mathematics.
Discussion
In terms of the statistical results, the students’ performance had significant difference on
the achievement of mathematics process skills and on overall mathematics achievement.
According to quantitative research findings, it can be concluded that students’ true attainment of
mathematics concept make them acquire mathematics process skills. According to the responses
of teachers and students, they had positive attitude towards the proposed model. These results of
qualitative study also supported the findings of the quantitative study which were consistent with
the findings of the five related studies.
Suggestions
To make students’ progress in developing mathematics achievement and mathematics
process skills, teachers should create effective classroom environment with many opportunities.
Skills and concepts once developed must be maintained through reapplication and not allowed to
deteriorate through disuse. Since students do not learn with equal facility or at equal rates, there
must be provision for individual differences. If the instruction is to attain a maximum of
usefulness, it must be carried on with the deliberate purpose of securing maximum of transfer.
This research study is not perfect and suitable for all situations. In this study sample
schools were randomly selected from Bago and Mandalay Regions. Further research should be
carried out for the rest states and regions for replication. It partially provides to improve middle
school mathematics teaching methodology to some extent, however the results of this study do
not represent to crowded classrooms. So, new mathematics teaching approach for large
classrooms should be developed. According to time limitations, this research was conducted for
only five units from mathematics Volume 2. Further research should be carried out for
mathematics Volume 1. In this study, the effectiveness of the proposed model was evaluated
through five mathematics process skills. It can also be evaluated according to Bloom’s taxonomy
of instructional objectives.
Conclusion
The results of quantitative study and qualitative study supported its major hypotheses.
According to the findings of the research, it is hoped that this proposed model can be useful to
some extent for mathematics teaching. Through the proposed model, the students will attain
mathematics concepts easily and happily. If they are taught through the process of concept
attainment, they can learn faster, maintain for a long time, and transfer it to new situations. It will
also be beneficial to teachers. This study will hopefully serve as a future reference for researchers
in other subject areas. Based on these findings, future researchers can conduct further researches
on the effectiveness of concept attainment model.
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to give my sincere thanks to respected Dr. Khin Zaw and Dr. Aye Aye Myint (Retired
Rectors, Yangon University of Education), Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing (Pro-Rectors, Yangon
University of Education). I also offer my deep thanks to Daw Khin Aye Myint (Retired Professor and Head,
Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education), Daw Aye Aye Kywe (Retired Associate Professor,
Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education), Dr. Soe Than (Retired Professor and Head,
Methodology Department, Sagaing University of Education), and Dr. Myo Win (Retired Professor and Head,
Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education) for their special guidance and suggestions for this
study. My special thanks also goes to Dr. Khin Mar Khine (Associate Professor and Head, Methodology
Department, Yangon University of Education) for her guidance and management. I express my special thanks to
Dr. Naing Naing Thein (Associate Professor, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education) and
Dr. Wai Wai Oo (Associate Professor and Head, Methodology Department, Sagaing University of Education) for
their expertise, valuable guidance, and suggestions. Finally, I wish to send my deepest love, gratitude, and warmest
appreciation to all who helped me.
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A STUDY OF THE AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE OF THE PRIMARY

TEACHERS TOWARDS THE NEW PRIMARY MORALS AND CIVICS
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
Naw Eh Wah1 and Khaing Zaw Oo2
Abstract
The aim of the study is to investigate the level of awareness and attitude of the primary teachers
towards the new morals and civics curriculum implementation. This focused on Grade One
teachers from East District of Yangon Region who were selected using simple random sampling
method. Descriptive survey method and quantitative approach were used in this study. As the
research instrument, the Trainee Teacher Attitude Questionnaire developed by The University of
Plymouth (2007) and Questionnaire on Consultation of Morals and National Education
Curriculum developed by Tovmasyan and Marcie Taylor Thoma (2008) were based and developed
to use in this study. There are (71) total items of 5-Likert scales and (12) open-ended questions.
Total of (329) Grade One teachers participated in this study. According to this study, the results
point out that the awareness and attitude of the Grade One primary teachers the (89.47%) of
school group is at the moderate level and (10.53%) of school group is at the high level in
implementing the new primary morals and civics curriculum. The results also point out that the
level of implementation of Grade One primary teachers from school group towards new primary
morals and civics subject is (42.10%). The implementation done by the private school group and
the monastic school group are higher than that of other school groups. According to the subscales,
the mean score of assessment session is lower than the mean score of awareness and attitude level
and implementation level. These results also show that the awareness and attitude of the Grade
One teachers impact on their daily teaching.
Introduction
Education is defined as the process of educating or teaching. In earlier times, education
was primarily a means for survival. Gradually, however, people came to use education for a
variety of purposes. Today, education may be used not only for purposes of survival but also for
better use of leisure time and refinements in social and cultural life. The fundamental purpose of
education is to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of students. The system of education at
all levels has changed, is changing and will continue to change as and when it is required. People
live in a time of extraordinary and accelerating change. Also, knowledge of moral practices and
ethical standards acceptable by society, ability to be a good citizen, attitude and skills for living,
ability to think creatively continue to emerge and evolve. In this changing world, those who
understand social studies and have moral values will have significantly enhanced opportunities,
options for shaping their futures. Moral values open doors to good citizens but the lack of moral
values keeps those doors closed. Moreover, it is regarded as one of the important subjects
because it shapes the mind and prepares students for social communication and critical thinking
skills to be good citizens.
In preparing for assuming roles of children as citizens of a democracy, children of today
will need to acquire some of the same skills as did preceding generations of students. They must
understand the basic principles and aspirations that undergird democracy, and they must
recognize the ties that bind and the issues that can separate as a pluralistic nation. Myanmar, is
1
Assistant Lecturer, Pha-an Education College, Kayin
2.
Lecturer, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education
22 J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No. .9C
leading to become a democratic country, morals and civics subject becomes one of the
independent subjects in new primary school curriculum.
As teacher is the person who prepares the students’ future, the role of the teacher is very
important in implementing the curriculum that leads to overcome the challenges to be good
citizens in the changing global society. Thus, it is important to investigate the awareness and
attitudes of primary teachers in new primary morals and civics curriculum implementation.
Purposes of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to study the awareness and attitude of primary teachers
towards new primary morals and civics curriculum implementation. The focus will be on Grade
One teachers who are implementing the current new primary morals and civics curriculum.
The research questions are as follows:
Q 1: Which level of knowledge on morals and civics subject is possessed by the primary
teachers?
Q 2: Which part is advantageous and which part is challenging in teaching new morals and
civics subject in daily teaching?
Q 3: What are primary teachers’ views and experiences on morals and civics subject
implementation in their daily teaching?
Q 4; Is there a relationship between teachers' awareness and attitudes and implementation
towards new morals and civics subject?
The Scope of the Study
This research has its own particular limitation. The first limitation is related to the fact
that the participants in the study are from only Yangon Region. All the participants are Grade
One teachers from the four selected townships of the East Yangon District (2017-2018 AY). The
selected townships are Thingangyun Township, South Dagon Township, North Dagon Township
and South Okkalapa Township. The second limitation deals with the area of the curriculum
implementation. The area is limited to study the new morals and civics subject. The third
limitation deals with the Grade. There are five Grades in primary education level. But in this
study, the implementation on Grade One new curriculum will be involved. There is no limitation
on gender and working service of the primary teachers. There is also no limitation on training
because all of the Grade One teachers had attended the workshop on new curriculum
implementation.
Awareness - Actions directed at people to improve understanding and skills, and influence
behavior (Rathus, 1998).
Attitude - Attitudes are beliefs and feeling about subjects, people and events that lead people
to behave in certain ways (Quattrone, 1982).
Morals - Morals can be defined what is “right” and “wrong” behavior within society,
providing a guide for individuals to follow. It is what many believe the main
underlying and unifying principle that allows for improvement in man and
civilization at large (Black, 2014).
J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No. .9C 23
Moral
Education - A moral education is one that is morally justified in social structure, curriculum
content, pedagogy, and approved human interactions (Noddings, 2008).
Civics - Civics is the study of the theoretical, political and practical aspects of citizenship,
as well as the rights and duties; the duties of citizens to each other as members of
a political body and to the government. (Wikipedia, n.d.).
Curriculum - Curriculum is a dynamic programme that is expected to address the changing
needs and aspiration of any society (Igwebuike, 2008).

Moral and Civics Education
Morals can be defined what is considered “right” and “wrong” behavior within society,
providing a guide for individuals to follow. It is what many believe the main underlying and
unifying principle that allows for improvement in man and civilization at large (Black, 2014).
While ones have developed their own ideas of what they accept as “right” and “wrong” once
they’ve become adults and can largely define these concepts in terms of specific behaviors. As
children, they must acquire this concept as they develop (Black, 2014). Civics education is the
foundation for global citizenship.
Nowadays, civic education programmes have become an increasingly important means
for countries to educate citizens about their rights and responsibilities. Morals and civics
education is prescribed in school curriculum in most of the countries in the world.
Moral and Civics Education in Myanmar
In Myanmar, moral education was started from the Pinya Era. During the time of King
Thihathu, the year 704 ME, minster, Saturingabala, selected a testament of moral from several
ones and translated it into Parli language. And then he divided it into seven units to be obeyed
and performed for people. This includes what is the wisdom, the man of good and bad character,
and friendship, and woman, and King and General. This can be assumed as the first moral
education in Myanmar.
The second era that moral education developed is Innwa. In this era, the two monks, Shin
Maharsilawuntha and Shin Maharrahttatharra, were populated as famous poets. They narrated
the rules and the things to be followed by the youths to become a good person. According to the
Shin Maharsilawuntha, concerning with the moral education, he described about the physical
behavior and his suggestions led to good habits of living, good speech or verbal communication
and eating manner, etc. His advice was practical and useful for everyone.
According to Shin Maharrahttatharra, he suggested his pupils not only to study the
academic knowledge but also to follow the good habits for their lives. Therefore, moral
education, in the period of Myanmar Kings, intended to be man of good characters in his life
(cited in ).
Prior to the introduction of civics subject in 1945, there was no subject in the curriculum
that aimed to develop civic and political knowledge, Myanmar tradition and Buddha’s discipline,
Myanmar literature and History.
Civic education was described as the core subject in primary and post primary level
according to the Similar Education Project in Pre Independence Era (1945-1947). And then,
general education framework developed in 1950. In (1950-1953), civic education was taught
from primary to high school level. In (1960-61), according to Pyi Taw Thar Education Project,
civic education was taught in middle school level. From (1961-62 to 1967 AY), Revolution
Council allowed to teach civic education in primary level. In high school level, civic education
was one of the core subjects. In 1967, civic education was not determined as a curriculum.
In the time of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, moral education was set as
separate subject and taught as the clinical development studies in primary school curriculum. The
new curriculum implemented from 1985-86 to 1988, moral education was prescribed as clinical
development studies in middle and high school level.
In 1988, according to the situation of the State, Myanmar education curriculum was re-
enacted. According to this re-enacted curriculum, morals and civics was taught as a branch of
general studies in lower primary level and social studies in upper- primary level. Today,
according to the education reform, in (2016-17AY), morals and civics education was taught in
KG as a part of curriculum. In (2017-18 AY), morality and civics subject was taught as a core
subject.
There are (16) units in Grade One morals and civics subject in new curriculum. The
learning values, objectives and teaching learning procedure according to the units are described
in the teachers' guide. In Unit-1, Po Po's Family, the learning area is related to self and the
learning value is to understand the value of respect to family members. The unit objective is to
be able to respect parents and family member. In Unit-2, Help Parents and Elders: The learning
area of this unit is related to self and the learning value is to help parents and elders. The unit
objective is to help parents and elders at home. In Unit-3, Good Manners at Home: The learning
area of this unit is related to self and the learning value is having good manners. The unit
objective is to keep good manners at home. In Unit-4, Never Tell Lies: The learning areas of this
unit is related to self and the learning value is saying good speech. The unit objective is to
understand everyone should say good speech. In Unit-5, Phyu Phyu's Regret: The learning area
of this unit is related to self and the learning value of this unit is recognizing rules and regulation.
The unit objective is to recognize rules and regulation that should be followed. In Unit-6, Being
Dutiful: The learning area of this unit is related to self. The learning value is “Appreciation and
respect to Duty”. The unit objective is to be able to take duties carefully. In Unit-7, Follow
Conducts by Little Brother: The learning area of this unit is related to self. The learning value is
“Deciding right and wrong”. The unit objective is to be able to decide the right and wrong. In
Unit-8, Honesty of Little Boy: The learning area of this unit is related to self. The learning value
is “to appreciate good practice for returning thing to its owner”. The unit objective is to get good
practice on valuing own things and other’s belongings. In Unit- 9, Have Polite Communication
with Others: The learning area of this unit is related to others. The learning value of this unit is
“Having polite communications with others”. The unit objective is to communicate politely with
others. In ,Unit-10 Someone to Trust: The learning area of this unit is related to others. The
learning value of this unit is “Having empathy each other”. The unit objective is to be able to
empathize each other. In Unit-11, A Person Who Sympathizes Others: The learning area of this
unit is related to others. The learning value of this unit “understands each other with sympathy”.
The unit objective is to have sympathy in communicating others. In Unit-12, Pue Su Finds
Fairness: The learning area of this unit is related to others. The learning value of this unit is
“Communicating fairness and empathy others”. The unit objective is to have relationship with
others by fairness. In Unit-13, Code of Conducts by Pupils: The learning area of this unit is
related to others. The learning value of this unit is “Respecting Teachers”. The unit objective is
to give respects to teachers. In Unit-14, Loving Myanmar: The learning area of this unit is related
to group/ society. The learning value of this unit is “To recognize native region, ethnic races who
live in the country”. The unit objective is to recognize native and its nation. In Unit-15, Good
Morning: The learning area of this unit is related to nature/ universe. The learning value of this
unit is “Valuing natural environment”. The unit objective is to be able to value natural
environment. In Unit-16, Keep Our Environment More Beautiful: The learning area of this unit
is related to nature/ universe. The learning value of this unit is “thanks to blessing of nature”.
The unit objective is to value the natural environment.
Curriculum Development and Implementation

To implement the current development, a leader must have a vision and a long-term plan
that outlines resources, professional development and sense of how to work with communities
and families. In designing the long-term plan, several things must be kept in mind. The goal of
the school must be accounted for; standards and guidelines according to State and local
regulation must be known; and the foresight to predict change that may happen in standards and
government regulations are all parts of the leader’s job in curriculum implementation. Having a
strategy and developing that strategy to foster leaders throughout the community should also be a
sound part of curriculum implementation.
Often times the community and families of students feel left out of the educational
planning process. Implementing the community and families into curriculum development makes
them feel included and a part of the educational process within their world. Everyone is
necessary in order to develop a successful curriculum. Teachers, policy makers, principles,
families, caregivers, and parents are all seeking the common goal of educating children to be
better community members and build a better world. Curriculum implementation requires
including everyone in the planning process of what our children need to learn in order to make
them successful (Bondi, 1979).
Awareness and Attitude of Primary Teachers
According to Wikipedia, “Awareness” is the quality or state of being aware: knowledge
and understanding that something is happening or exists. Another research also described
students’ awareness includes the understanding and knowledge about the certain thing.
Basic awareness of one's internal and external world depends on the brain stem. Bjorn
Merker, an independent neuroscientist in Stockholm, Sweden, argues that the brain stem
supports an elementary form of conscious thought in infants with Hydranencephaly. "Higher"
forms of awareness including self-awareness require cortical contributions, but "primary
consciousness" or "basic awareness" as an ability to integrate sensations from the environment
with one's immediate goals and feelings in order to guide behavior, springs from the brain stem
which human beings share with most of the vertebrates. Psychologist Carroll Izard emphasizes
that this form of primary consciousness consists of the capacity to generate emotions and
awareness of one's surroundings. People can become conscious of a feeling that they can't label
or describe a phenomenon that's especially common in pre-verbal infants.
Changes in awareness, the ability to consciously detect an image when presented at near-
threshold stimulus varies across presentations. One factor is "baseline shifts" due to top down
attention that modulates ongoing brain activity in sensory cortex areas that affects the neural
processing of subsequent perceptual judgments. (Wikipedia, n.d).
Attitudes are beliefs and feeling about objects, people and events that lead people to
behave in certain ways. A person's attitude about strangers, for example, can influence how that
person feels and behaves around. If a person believes that strangers are dangerous, that person is
likely to feel afraid around strangers and may try to avoid situations where he or she is likely to
meet new people.
Attitudes are a major aspect of social cognition. In fact, people attitudes may be the
primary motivator for how people behave and how people view the world. Attitudes are such an
important aspect of psychological lives because they foster strong emotions such as love or hate
(Shavitt, 1990; Snyder& De Bone, 1989, cited in Rathus, 1998). Attitude can also vary greatly.
Negative attitudes such as prejudice, can lead people to harm others. Positive attitudes, such as
attraction, can encourage people to help others.
Attitudes develop in a variety of ways. Conditioning, observational learning, cognitive
evaluation and the use of cognitive anchors all play roles in the development of attitudes.
Learning through conditioning plays an important role in acquiring attitudes. Most psychologists
agree that attitudes usually come first and then behavior follows (cited in Rathus, 1998).
The definition of attitudes suggests that people's behavior is always consistent with their
attitudes. People often behave in ways that contradict their attitudes. Attitudes are more likely to
guide behavior when people are aware of them, particularly, if the attitudes are put into words
and spoken (Fazio, 1990; Krosnick, 1989, cited in Rathus, 1998). People are also more likely to
be aware of attitudes that affect them emotionally (Wu & Shaffer, 1987).
Research Method
This study aims to study the awareness and attitude of primary teachers towards new
primary morals and civics curriculum implementation. The research design of the study is a
descriptive research design.
Procedure
After getting the approval of the Head of the Methodology Department, the District
Officer of East District Education, Yangon Region was met and reported. Then, for research
study, according to the help of the TEOs from selected townships, the survey study was carried
out to all of the Grade One teachers from the selected townships by the help of TEOs and DTEOs
of each township. The questionnaire with instructions were distributed to the (329) participants
from (4) townships and five major school groups; ( 1) Basic Education High Schools, (2) Basic
Education Middle Schools, (3) Basic Education Primary Schools, (4) Private Schools and
(5) Monastic Schools) . The questionnaires take approximately 45 minutes. Two weeks later, the
data were collected from townships with the help of TEOs. The data was analyzed by using
descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, and percentage) and inferential method. These
methods represent the research questions about the level of knowledge on new morals and civics
subject possessed by the primary teachers and the level of implementation on new morals and
civics curriculum. All of the participants' responses were gathered in accordance with survey
procedure.
Instrumentation
The questions on awareness and attitude of primary teachers towards new morals and
civics curriculum comprise five domains: Curriculum Framework of Morals and Civics Subject,
Areas of Morals and Civics Subjects, Contents of New Morals and Civics Subject, Textbook and
Resources of New Morals and Civics Subjects and Assessments. There are (46) items concerning
the Awareness and Attitude of Primary Teachers towards New Morals and Civics Curriculum. In
addition, one open-ended question for each domain is used to express the participants’ idea for
certain area.
Another instrument is the questionnaires Implementation of Primary Teachers on New
Morals and Civics Curriculum. This includes 25 items and eight open-ended items.
The items and open questions were translated into Myanmar. The validity of research
instruments was determined by five experts from Methodology Department, Yangon University
of Education, one expert from Educational Theory Department, Yangon University of Education,
one expert from Educational Psychology Department, Yangon University of Education, one
expert from History Department, Yangon University of Education, one expert from Department
of Myanmar Language, Yangon University of Education and each expert from (CDT)
Curriculum Development Team, and (CREATE, Curriculum Reform and Teacher Education for
Primary Level of Education Project) . According to their suggestion, test items were modified
again. Then, pilot study was done with fifteen Grade One teachers from Practicing Middle
School, Yankin Education College, Practicing Middle School, Thingangyun Education College
and Basic Primary Schools from East Dagon Township on January, 2018 in order to determine
the relevancy, appropriateness and clarity of the items included in the survey questionnaires. The
population and sample size were shown in the table 1.
Table 1 Population and Sample Size
Number of
Selected
School Group Grade 1
Township Total
Tteacher
Basic Education High Schools 7
Basic Education Middle Schools 11
Thingangyun Basic Education Primary Schools 52 83
(T) Private School 8
Monastic Schools 5
East Basic Education High Schools 8
Yangon Basic Education Middle Schools 34
District South Dagon Basic Education Primary Schools 61 129
(SD) Private School 7
Monastic Schools 19
Basic Education High Schools -
Basic Education Middle Schools 4
North Dagon Basic Education Primary Schools 49 59
(ND) Private School 4
Monastic Schools 2
Number of
Selected
School Group Grade 1
Township Total
Tteacher
Basic Education High Schools 6
South Basic Education Middle Schools 9
Okkalapa Basic Education Primary Schools 39 58
(SD) Private School 1
Monastic Schools 3
Total 329
According to the table, the number of participants in South Dagon township is much more
than that of other townships this is because this research emphasizes on the Grade One teachers.
Therefore, the number of participants in South Dagon Township is much more than that of other
townships.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, and
percentage) and independent samples "t" test. The independent samples "t" test was used to
compare the level of attitude and understanding on new morals and civics subject and the level of
their daily teaching.
Research Findings
This study is designed to find out the level of attitude and awareness of Grade -1 teachers
towards new primary morals and civics curriculum implementation and their practice or
implementation in their daily teaching experience from four selected townships of East Yangon
District.
200
150
165.00
164.20
160.00
159.00
158.44
156.75
155.63
153.86
153.53
152.88
152.71
152.21
152.00
151.80
151.03
151.18
Mean
149.89
149.50
149.00
100
50
0
0.00
0.00
School Group
Figure 1 Mean Scores of Grade One Primary Teachers’ Level of Awareness and Attitude
towards New Primary Morals and Civics Curriculum Implementation
According to the mean values of Grade One teachers’ attitude and awareness towards
new morals and civics curriculum implementation, the total average mean value is (153.54) and
the standard deviation is (9.855). The highest mean among school group is (165) and the lowest
mean value is (149). This result indicates that the attitude and awareness of the Grade One
teachers from Monastic school group in North Dagon Township is better than any other school
groups. At the other hand, the attitude and awareness of the Grade One teachers from High
school group from South Okkalapa township is not as good as the other school groups.
The attitude and awareness of teachers from monastic school group is at the moderate
level in implementing new primary morals and civics curriculum.
According to the open-ended questions from each domain, the Grade One teachers’
answers describe their awareness and attitude towards new morals and civics curriculum
implementation. In the first domain, concerning with the curriculum framework, the teachers
stated the following options as the effectiveness of teaching morals and civics subject to children.
 It is good affect for the children to get good character by listening to the story because the
children enjoy listening to it.
 By teaching morals and civics subject, students can get good ethics, good abilities for
good citizenship. Therefore, this subject can support to become a good citizen.
 Morals and civics subject can support to get good ethics, morals, attitude, physical and
mental development, relationship with other and good manners.
 By teaching morals and civics subject, students can get the good ethic, morals, and
relationships with each other and students’ need such as civics, principles, rules, rights
and responsibility.
All of those options represent the importance of morals and civics education.
Although the teachers were asked to give suggestion on awareness of morals and civics subject,
most of the teachers do not suggest because they accept the areas and contents described in new
morals and civics subject. One of the teachers described that she wished to add more lessons.
Another teacher described that more pages for questions and answer session should be added to
the textbook.
Another finding that is concerning the level of the Grade One teachers’ awareness and
attitude towards new primary morals and civics curriculum implementation for each sub domains
is described in the following figure.
The total mean values of domains are presented in the following figure.
Grand Means
4 4.34 4.33 4.41 4.27 4.06

3
CF SA CS TR A
CF= Curriculum Framework SA= Subject Areas, CS= Contents of Subject TR= Textbook
and Resources A= Assessment
Figure 2 Grand Mean Values of Grade One Primary Teachers’ Level of Awareness and Attitude
towards New Primary Morals and Civics Curriculum Implementation in terms of Sub-
domains
According to this figure, the Grade One teachers have more knowledge about the contents
of lessons. The awareness and attitude concerned with the assessment is lower than that of any
other sub-domains in implementing new morals and civics curriculum.
140
108.14
117.75
113.33
108.4
115
108.16
114
107
120
91.17
89.82
89.29
87.33
87.11
86.71
85.61
85.56
83.82
82.25
100
83
Means
80
60
40
20
0
School Group
Figure 3 Mean Scores of Grade One Primary Teachers’ Level of Implementation on New
Primary Morals and Civics Subject in Daily Teaching
The total average mean scores and standard deviation were (91.33) and (11.825)
respectively. If the mean scores of Grade One primary teachers’ implementation on new primary
morals and civics subject is higher than (103.155), it indicates that the level of implementation on
new primary morals and civics subject is high. If the mean scores of Grade One teachers’
implementation on new primary morals and civics subject teaching is lower than (79.505), it
indicates that the level of implementation is low. If the mean score is between (103.155) and
(79.505), this school group would be moderate level of implementation on new primary morals
and civics subject in daily teaching. There is no low school group in the level of implementation
on new primary morals and civics subject.
One of the question on implementation process describes the teaching learning materials
used in teaching morals and civics subject. Most of the teachers point out the pictures from the
textbook and some describe the natural environment. The others describe chart and real materials
as the teaching learning materials in their teaching.
The next question for implementation is related to advantages and disadvantages of
teaching morals and civics subject. Advantages described by the teacher are as follows: students
can get good manners and they can become ones who follow the discipline; students can become
more sympathetic than earlier; students are interested in teaching morals and civics because of
colorful pictures depicted in their textbook and come to understand very well; students can
become cleverer while teaching morals and civics subject, students can get good relationship
between them because of discussion and presentation during the teaching morals and civics
subject. Most of the teachers described that there is no disadvantages of teaching morals and
civics subject. Some described that by discussing during the teaching process, there may be waste
of time and some students cannot discuss because of the large class size.
The teachers described the challenges and difficulties of teaching morals and civics
subject. Some teachers did not identify any difficulty although they encountered it. Some of the
teachers described about the challenges that the students were not interested in teaching morals
and civics because of the large class size. Some teachers described the students’ diverse
intelligence and some described that the students talked very noisily during the learning. Some
teachers expressed that the students should be encouraged to be interested in subject matter. They
said, it is one of the challenges in teaching morals and civics subject. Some teachers said that
teaching the foundling students was also one of the challenges in teaching morals and civics
subject. Some of the teachers described that there is no textbook and they explained delay
delivery of textbook at the beginning of school year.
The last question of implementation session is about the assessment. The teachers are
asked how they assess their students in classroom during teaching morals and civics subject,. The
teachers described that they asked the students one by one and group by group while teaching.
Some teachers used rubric to assess the level of students’ knowledge. Some teachers used the
pictures and stories for assessment during their teaching. Some teachers coped the pictures from
the textbook and hang the pictures on the wall and explained about them once a week. Some
teachers said they assessed the students’ understanding and the behavior.
The level of implementation on new morals and civics subject is presented in the
following figure by showing five different domains on implementation.
Grand Means
6
4
3.83 4.5 4.63
2 3.04 2.24
0
CFP SAP CSP TRP AP
CFP= Curriculum Framework Practice, SAP= Subject Areas Practices, CSP= Contents of
Subject Practice, TRP= Textbook and Resources Practice, AP= Assessment Practice
Figure 4 Grand Mean Scores of Grade One Primary Teachers’ Level of Implementation on
New Primary Morals and Civics Subject in Daily Teaching in terms of Sub-domains
According to this figure, (Figure 4), Grade One teachers can implement well in the area
of subject matter and the use of textbook. This means that the Grade One teachers’
implementation towards new morals and civics subject is good and they effectively use the
textbook in daily teaching. But, the implementation concerning the assessment is lower than
other domains in new moral and civics curriculum implementation process. This means that
implementation on assessment, the assessment style and the use of assessment process is weak in
new morals and civics curriculum implementation.
The relationships between the level of Grade One teachers’ awareness and attitude
towards new primary morals and civics curriculum implementation and the level of
implementation in their daily teaching on new morals and civics subject can be learned in the
following table.
Table 2 Correlations between Awareness and Attitude and level of Implementation in

New Morals and Civics Curriculum Implementation
Variables CF SA CS TR A CFP SAP CSP TRP AP
total total total total total total total total total total
CF total 1 .601** .180** .430** .029** -.099 .224** .326** .295** -.097
SA total 1 .217** .589** .003 -.063 .270** .346** .263** -.046
CS total 1 .336** -.041 .087 .149** .151** .123* .045
TR total 1 .061 -.064 .280** .343** .259** -.110*
A total 1 -.176** -.048 -.049 .007 -.148**
CFP total 1 .439** -.061 -.125* .846**
SAP total 1 .397** .326** .431**
CSP total 1 .631** -.149**
TRP total 1 -.166**
AP total 1
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Note.
CFtotal = Total mean scores of Awareness and Attitude on curriculum framework
SAtotal = Total mean scores of Awareness and Attitude on curriculum areas
CStotal = Total mean scores of Awareness and Attitude on unit
TRtotal = Total mean scores of Awareness and Attitude on Textbook
Atotal = Total mean scores of Awareness and Attitude on assessment
CFPtotal = Total mean scores of implementation on curriculum framework
SAPtotal = Total mean scores of implementation on curriculum areas
CSPtotal = Total mean scores of implementation on Topic/Units
TRPtotal = Total mean scores of implementation on Textbook
TRPtotal = Total mean scores of implementation on Assessment
Table 2 reveals that the level of awareness and attitude of the Grade One teachers is
related to their implementation level towards new morals and civics subject. There is a
relationship between the awareness and attitude of the Grade One teachers and their
implementation process.
The awareness and attitude of curriculum framework is the highly correlated with the
awareness and attitude of curriculum area and the implementation on Topic/Units. The awareness
and attitude of Topic/Unit is highly correlated with the awareness and attitude on textbook and
the implementation on Topic/Units. The awareness and attitude on textbook is highly correlated
with the implementation on Topic/Units. The awareness and attitude on assessment is negatively
correlated with the implementation on curriculum. This means that although the level of
awareness and attitude on assessment is good, the implementation level is not good or although
the level of awareness and attitude on assessment is not good, the implementation level is good.
Therefore the level of awareness and attitude of the Grade One teacher is lower than other
domains in this research.
Research findings and interpretations from four selected townships are as follows:
1. The level of awareness and attitude towards new morals and civics curriculum
implementation by the Grade One teachers is high in most of the domains.
implementation by the Grade One teachers is moderate in the assessment domain.
3. The level of implementation on new morals and civics subject by the Grade One teachers
is high in most of the domains.
4. The level of implementation on new morals and civics subject by the Grade One teachers
is low in assessment domain.
implementation is related to the implementation level. The awareness and attitude on
textbook and resources is significantly correlated with the implementation on textbook in
their daily teaching.
6. The awareness and attitude on assessment is negatively correlated with the
implementation in daily teaching.
7. The level of implementation on new primary morals and civics subject by the Grade One
teachers of private and monastic school group from four selected townships is higher than
that of other school group teachers.
8. There are many advantages of teaching morals and civics subject, such as, students can
get good manners, ethic, morals and principles.
9. Teacher’s guide published by Ministry of Education can contribute to the effective
teaching morals and civics subject.
Discussion, Suggestions and Conclusion

Discussion
Awareness and attitude questionnaire is used to identify the Grade One teachers’ ideas
and perceptions on new primary morals and civics curriculum implementation. It consists of five
subscales: Curriculum Framework, Curriculum Areas, Contents involved in new curriculum,
Textbook and Teachers’ Guide published by the Ministry of Education and Assessment. After
collecting the data, the analysis of the study is carried out by using the descriptive statistics and
Pearson Correlation. In order to determine the level of awareness and attitude of the Grade One
teachers and the level of these teachers’ implementation on new primary morals and civics
curriculum, descriptive analysis is used. Basing on the descriptive analysis, the mean score of the
awareness and attitude of the Grade One teachers from monastic schools in North Dagon
Township is the highest. It can be said that the awareness and attitude of the Grade One teachers
is higher than that of other school groups. The school group that achieves the second highest
mean value of implementation on new primary morals and civics curriculum is monastic school
group.
In the previous research findings conducted by Win Yee Lo (2006) from Hong Kong, all
interviews argue that teachers are the key factor to facilitate morals and civics at the primary
school and they take the most profound role in pedagogy. According to the descriptive data, it is
found out that there are 120 (36.5% of the participants) Grade One teachers who have not trained
for teaching Grade One new morals and civics curriculum but most Grade One teachers who
teach morals and civics curriculum received the training provided by Ministry of Education.
According to the result of this study, Grade One teachers can implement well except the
assessment on morals and civics curriculum implementation. The correlation between the
awareness and attitude towards new primary morals and civics implementation and the level of
implementation on their daily teaching are negatively correlated in some sub-domains. This
means that if the level of implementation on teaching morals and civics subject is high, the level
of awareness and attitude towards new morals and civics can be low or if the level of
implementation on teaching morals and civics subject is low, the level of awareness and attitude
towards new morals and civics can be high in some domains. Teacher’s guide is fairy supported
for teachers who are implementing the new curriculum for effective teaching.
From this research finding, the assessment portion is a little difficult for the Grade One
teachers who are implementing the new curriculum. This is because; the assessment of morals is
more difficult than the assessment of civics and other core subjects such as Mathematics,
English. Although the behavior of the students can be assessed, the attitude of the students cannot
be assessed. Therefore, the assessment style, ways to assess and reasons for assessment are
needed in teaching morals and civics subject. There are required to discuss according to the
nation’s norm. This indicates it needs more research for knowing about the factors which
influence on implementation on primary morals and civics subject.
Suggestions
The main aim of education is helping students to acquire necessary abilities to reach the
knowledge instead of transferring knowledge to them. Furthermore, education aims to provide
individuals with cultural, social and personal developments, and to develop students’ abilities
such as asking questions, co-operation, and problem solving. The following points are suggested
with respect to this study.
 In order to implement new curriculum innovation, the teacher should have high level of
awareness and attitude towards new curriculum.
 Teacher should create an environment, which is favorable for the students’ development.
 Teachers need professional development in teaching certain subject
 Lesson planning, teaching and learning activities, should be planned depending on the
curriculum framework and learning objectives.
 Teachers should encourage students to study and think deeply by studying the textbook in
teaching morals and civics subject
 Teachers should cooperative with the parents for assessment such as helping parents at
home, taking responsibility in home activities such as cleaning the home or their room,
washing their dishes, good behavior /good manner at home, etc.
 Teachers should discuss with the parents about the lessons and how to facilitate and
support to get moral values that nurturing and training in school and then advice teachers
how to develop/ record their children manners, speed and behavior.
 All of the stakeholders should cooperate for planning and teaching for their daily teaching
to gain the subject objectives.
 All of the stakeholders should monitor about the teachers’ implementation
 Teacher educators should know the teachers’ needs who are implementing the new
curriculum.
 Supervisors from each school, township and district should know the condition of the
subject implementation.
In order to achieve the implementation of new primary curriculum, it is necessary to

develop teachers’ awareness and attitude. This study proves that the Grade One teachers who
possess the high level of awareness and attitude towards new curriculum implementation.
However, the results of this study do not represent other levels of Basic Education. Hence,
further research is quite necessary.
Conclusion
Education must prepare students for their living at present and in the future. In
education, effective teaching-learning process provides to achieve the educational goals.
Teachers are the main stakeholders who implement the new curriculum. Curriculum is a social
artefact.
Curriculum refers to the knowledge and practices in subject matter areas that teachers
teach and that students are supposed to learn. A curriculum generally consists of a scope, or
breadth of content, in a given subject area and of a sequence of concepts and activities for
learning. The teachers who implement the new curriculum should be aware of the scope, or
breadth of content, in a given subject area and of a sequence of concepts and activities for
learning to meet the aims of the curriculum. The teachers are situated at the major role of the
implementation process.
For building a democratic country, Myanmar needs civic-minded people who own civics
qualities and good morals. One of the aims of the primary education of the newly adopted
Myanmar National Curriculum Framework is to develop basic knowledge, skills, and attitudes,
aesthetic appreciation, and behavior which are assumed to be the basic characteristics of a good
citizen. Therefore, the teachers who implement the new curriculum need to know the curriculum
framework.
Curriculum change presents teachers, schools and boards of management with a unique
opportunity to engage in professional development, improving learning outcomes, and preparing
children for the challenges and opportunities of the future. The task of the curriculum
implementation is complex: it requires in-school management teams, principals and boards of
management to lead the implementation of change in the school as an organization. Curriculum
change takes place in the classroom and it involves teachers translating curriculum documents
into practice, embracing new teaching programs and methodologies, and providing a broader
range of learning experiences for their pupils (Eamon Stack, 2005 cited in an Evaluation of
Curriculum Implementation in Primary Schools). Therefore, all the stakeholders: the teachers,
teacher educators, principals, supervisors, education officers need to cooperate in implementing
new curriculum to meet the aims of the curriculum framework.
A significant minority of teachers are experiencing difficulties in their daily teaching.
Each teacher must have professional qualification to nurture good citizenship. The teachers have
to develop an in-depth knowledge of appropriate teaching methodologies and approaches. So,
they can become familiar with the objectives and values for not only the morals and civics
subject but also for the aims of the curriculum framework. The stakeholders and supervisors need
to engage more systematically in curriculum implementation and to support the teachers to be
qualified.
For these purposes, the main aim of the research is to study the awareness and attitude of
primary teachers towards new primary morals and civics curriculum implementation. The design
adopted in this study is a descriptive research. The instrument used in this study is attitude and
awareness questionnaire. The questionnaire is constructed basing on the Trainee Teacher Attitude
Questionnaire developed by The University of Plymouth (2007) and Consultation of Moral and
National Education Curriculum developed by Curriculum Development Institute (Yerevan,
2008). The validity of the questionnaire was determined by the expert judgments. After receiving
the validity of these instruments, a pilot testing was conducted. Basing on the result of the pilot
test, some items were modified. The major study was conducted in East District of Yangon
Region. The sample districts for the study are selected by using simple random sampling
technique. Four townships from East District were stratified and randomly selected. All the
participants in this sample were Grade-1, primary teachers.
According to the result of the study, it was found that the Grade One teachers from the
monastic school group have the highest mean value and the high school groups have lowest mean
value. It can be also said that most of the Grade One teachers from monastic school group
possess better awareness and attitude towards new primary morals and civics curriculum
implementation and most of the Grade One teachers from high school group possess weak
awareness and attitude towards new primary morals and civics curriculum implementation. It can
also be interpreted that the most of the Grade One teachers have moderate level of awareness and
attitude towards new primary curriculum implementation. From this research, the stakeholders,
supervisor, teacher educators and teachers need to be aware of good attitude to the curriculum
framework, text area, contents, new textbook and resources and assessment style for reaching the
effective curriculum implementation. Teachers are the main curriculum implementers, while at
the same time students, parents, school administrators can directly or indirectly involve in the
implementation process (Makewa, et al, 2015).
Teachers differ from their teaching according to the class and ability level of competency.
There is an additional guidance for schools on how to adapt the curriculum to meet the diverse
needs of individual pupils and groups of pupils, especially in multi- level classes. To get higher
order thinking skills, teachers need to support their students to express their own ideas.
The classroom size puts a little impact on classroom activities and the implementation on
new curriculum. Textbook exerts a dominant influence on teaching and learning. Discussion,
presentation and observing the pictures in the textbooks are the tasks provided for the pupils’
deep understanding.
References
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Black, D. (2014). The social structure of right and wrong. New York:Academic Press.
Curriculum Development Institute. (CDI), (2011). Curriculum Questionnaire:General Module to be completed by
all countries participating in TMSS and PIRL. Retrieved on October 6, 2017 from
https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2011/downloads/ P11_ CQ.pdf
Igwebuike, T. B. (2008). Curriculum planning and development: principles and practice. Warri: Johnny & Co.
Makewa, N. L. et al. , (2015). Handbook of Research on Enhancing Teacher Education with advanced Instructional
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California Press.
Quattrone, G. A. (1982). Over attribution and unit foundation: When behavior engulfs the person. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 593-607.
Rathus, S. A. (1998). Psychology: Principles in practice. United State of America: Holt, Rinehart and Winstone.
Tovmasyan, T., &Thoma, M. T., (2008). The impact of civic education on schools, students and communities.
Yerevan: Armenia.
The University of Plymouth. (2007). Trainee Teacher Attitude Questionnaire. Retrieved November 1, 2017, from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1015833.pdf.
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Wikipedia. (n.d.). Awarenwss. Retrieved October 30, 2017 from http://en.wikipedia .org/ wiki/Living systems.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROJECT

BASED LEARNING ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN
ECONOMICS AT THE HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL
Hninn Hninn Thet1, Than Than Hsint2
Abstract
The major purpose of this research was to study the effects of project based learning on economics
students’ academic performance at the high school level. This study was conducted with both
quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitatively, an experimental study was used to
compare the students' economics achievement between the control group and experimental group.
The posttest only control group design was used in this study. In this experimental study, the
subjects were Grade Ten students selected from No.(1) BEHS Thanlyin and No.(3) BEHS
Tharketa. For this study, (120) Grade Ten students were selected from both schools by random
sampling method. These students were divided into two groups: control and experimental. The
experimental group was treated with project based learning and the control group was taught as
formal instruction. Subsequently, a posttest was administered to two groups. Independent samples
t-test was used to test whether there was a significant difference between experimental group and
control group. Examination of the means and t-test at No.(1) BEHS Thanlyin (t=12.17, df= 58,
MD=5.10, p <.001) and No.(3) BEHS Tharketa (t=11.40, df=58, MD=4.80, p <.001). The results
indicated that there was a significant difference between the two groups. The qualitative data also
supported the findings from the experimentation. In this study, students from the experimental
group from two selected schools were given a questionnaire. It develops of (15) items five-point
likert-scale. The results showed that the students expressed their willingness to learn in project
based learning and they had positive attitudes towards this project based learning. Research
findings proved that project based learning has positive contribution to the economics teaching at
the high school level.
Keywords: Project Based Learning, Attitude, Economics, Achievement
Introduction
"Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It
is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his
environmental and fulfill his potentialities" (Dewey, 1916). That is why, Education is a fostering,
a nurturing and a cultivating process of the human life. It is absolutely necessary in today's
society. It is one of the most important things in life because without education, it cannot
contribute to the world better. It gives people a knowledge of the world around them and helps
them build opinions. It is the process of gaining information about the surrounding world while
knowledge is something very different.
Today, economics issues are drawing the attention of every citizen directly or indirectly.
It is, therefore, appropriate for economics to be included as a distinct area of study in the system
of school learning particularly. The aims of teaching economics are to enable students to acquire
knowledge in daily life, intellectual abilities, problem solving skills and interest in how to
manage of their earn and their household management in their life. To accomplish these aims,
teachers need the abilities to create some hands-on problem solving and activities based on
students' experience in the teaching learning situation. Teaching of economics can be achieved
1
Staff Officer, Curriculum Section, Department of Education Research Planning and Training, Yangon
2
Lecturer, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education
through the varieties of activities and avenues. Thus, learning becomes more flexible and
dynamic. Learning is a process of active engagement with experiences. To get such experiences,
students have to construct the contextual knowledge of the classroom and communicate with the
world outside. To be able to do so, learners must see the world in every single moment.
Project based learning is student-centered and driven by the need to create an end-
product. However, it is the route to achieving this end-product that makes project work so
worthwhile. The route to the end-product brings opportunities for students to develop their
confidence and independence and to work together in a real-world environment by collaborating
on a task. It draws together students of mixed abilities and creates opportunities for individuals to
contribute in ways which reflect their different talents and creativity (Fried-Booth, 2002). So, in
order to become successful teaching-learning situation, teachers need to apply project based
learning in the teaching of economics.
The main purpose of the study is to investigate the effectiveness of the project based
learning on the achievement of Grade Ten students in teaching economics. The specific purpose
of this study are as follows:
 To examine the effectiveness of project based learning in teaching economics,
 To compare the achievement of the students in economics between the students who
receive project based learning and those who do not receive it,
 To investigate students' attitudes towards project based learning, and
 To give suggestions for the improvement of teaching learning situation of students in
Grade Ten economics according to the results of the study.
Research Hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference between economics achievement of students who receive
instruction with project based learning and those who do not receive.
instruction with project based learning and those who do not receive, in performing
knowledge level questions.
comprehension level questions.
application level questions.
5. There is positively students' attitude towards project based learning in the experimental
group.
Definition of the Key Terms
 Project based learning -Project based learning (PBL) is a student-centered instructional
approach used to promote active and deep learning by involving students in investigating
real-world issues in a collaborative environment (Yam & Rossini, 2010).
 Attitude - Attitude defined as a disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an

object, person, institution, or event (Ernest, 1989, cited in Özdemir, 2006). Attitudes
related to liking, enjoying, and interest in project based learning.
 Economics-Economics is a science which studies human behaviour as a relationship
between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses (Lionel, 1932).
 Achievement -Achievement is the ability to demonstrate accomplishment of some
outcome for which learning experiences were designed (Özdemir, 2006).
Scope of the Study

 This study is geographically restricted to Yangon City Development Area.
 Participants in this study are (120) Grade Ten students from selected schools during the
Academic Year (2018-2019).
 This study is intended to investigate the effects of project based learning on the
achievement of Grade Ten students in teaching economics.
 The content area is limited from chapter (9)" Industrial Sectors of Myanmar" from Grade
Ten Economics textbook prescribed by the Basic Education Curriculum and Syllabus and
Textbook Committee, 2018-2019.
Theoretical Framework
Theoretical Framework of Project Based Learning
Project based learning is based on the sound theoretical foundation. There are multiple
theories that reside at the base of project based learning. Project based learning is in line with
pragmatism, a philosophy stressing the merits of learning from the real world and concentrate
things rather than abstractions constructivist framework. A theory of learning is a vision that
educators have to explain the complexity of human learning. Several theorists' perspectives on
learning as follows: William Heard Kilpatrick, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s social
learning theory and John Dewey’s pragmatic pedagogical creed played a major role in
development as well.
Origins of Project Based Learning
In the first half of the 20th century, the word" project" has its roots in American
philosophy. The term "project" occurs in pedagogical dictionaries and methodology books in
different combinations, e.g. Project Teaching, Project Method, Project Approach, Project based
Approach, Project centered Approach, Project based learning often abbreviated as PBL.
Although many variations have been occurred, project based learning aims to bring practically
designed experience into the classroom. The project gives students an opportunity to work in a
team environment and apply theory learned in the classroom.
Project based learning is the outcome of the pragmatic educational philosophy of John
Dewey, the well-known American philosopher and educationist. This method was developed and
applied practically by Dr. William Heard Kilpatrick of the Columbia University (Zubair, 2012).
One of the approaches suggested by such pragmatic educators as William Heard Kilpatrick is the
"project approach" to learning. This is a systematization of the general approach Dewey used at
the laboratory school. According to Kilpatrick, a project approach results in the student's
receiving a general education. Projects are decided by individual and group discussion, with the
teacher as moderator. Children cooperate in pursuing the goals of the project (Ozmon & Craver,
1986).
Project based learning is an authentic model or strategy in which students plan,
implement, and evaluate projects that have real-world applications beyond the classroom. It is an
instructional method centered on the learner. Students developed question and are guided through
research under the teacher's supervision. It is a comprehensive approach to classroom teaching
and learning that is designed to engage students in investigation of complex, authentic, problems
and carefully designed products and tasks. The use of project based learning in class is possible
after providing the information that is needed for the project. The classroom activities should be
student-centered, cooperative, and interactive (Moursund, 1999, cited in Bas, 2011). It engages
students in gaining knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around
complex, authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks. It enhances the quality
of learning and leads to higher-level cognitive development through the students' engagement
with complex and novel problems.
Nature of Project Based Learning

In the field of education, the word "project" has come to mean any unit of activity,
individual or group, involving the investigation and solution of problems that is planned and
carried to a conclusion by a pupil or pupils under the guidance from the teacher. Project based
learning defined as using authentic, real-world projects, based on highly motivating and engaging
question, task, or problem to teach students academic content in the context of working
cooperatively to solve the problem (Barell, 2007, 2010; Baron, 2011; Grant, 2010,cited in
Bender, 2012). Student inquiry is heavily integrated into project based learning, and because
students typically have some choice in selecting their group's project, and the methods they
would use to solve that project, they tend to be more highly motivated to work diligent toward a
solution to the problem (Drake & Long, 2009; Malon, 2010, cited in Bender, 2012).
Schneider (2005) described that project based learning is a teaching and learning model
that emphasizes student-centered instruction by assigning projects. It allows students to work
more autonomously to construct their own learning and culminates in realistic, student-generated
products.
In every project, a pupil is facing numerous questions or problems concentrating on the
same unifying idea. A project changes the school life (Chlup, 1939, cited in Rousova', 2008).
Project wok lends itself to many different approaches in a variety of teaching situations. The
collaborative process, relying as it does on the involvement and commitment of the individual
students, is the strength of a project (Fried-Booth, 2002).
Major Steps in Project Based Learning
Project based learning requires multiple stages of development to succeed Zubair (2012)
proposed six steps sequence of activities for developing meaningful project work in the
classroom. The functions of each proposed steps are as follows.
Step 1: Creating/ Providing the Situation

In this step, the students themselves should define, state and choose their problems. Of
course, the teacher's function would be to provide real and worthwhile situations. The teacher has
to discover the interests, needs taste and aptitudes of children according to their needs and
interests.
Step 2: Choosing and Purposing
The project based learning selected must be such as to satisfy a definite need or purpose.
The students themselves choose the project. The teacher should not be hurry in choosing project.
Many situations should be provided to children. Decision should always democratic. The teacher
should merely guide and not thrust his/her opinion. The children must feel that the project is of
their choice.
Step 3: Planning
The teacher should draw the attention of the students to the need of the planning before
undertaking the activity. The task of planning is quite difficult. Good planning leads to better
result. Different proposal should be discussed and alternatives considered. Students should be
tasked to write down the plan in their project diary.
Step 4: Executing the Plan
This step is the longest of all and requires a lot of work. The whole project is to be
executed through the co-operative efforts of all students. The various activities of the projects
should be divided according to the individual interest and abilities of the different children in the
class. The teacher should give sufficient guidance to students. Teachers should not dictate them.
Step 5: Judging
The work is to be reviewed when it is completed. Lessons must be learnt from the
mistakes that have been made in the various steps of a project. The students must learn to
criticize constructively their own work. Self-criticism is valuable form of training. The students
should find out what things they have learnt from the project.
Step 6: Recording
This is also an important step of the project because the work done should be recorded
also. The children maintain a complete record of the project work. While recording the project
some points like how the project was planned, what discussions were made, how duties were
assigned, how it was evaluated etc. should be kept in mind. These steps can be shown by the
following figure.
Providing a situation
Choosing and Purposing
Steps of project based learning Planning of the project
Executing the project
Judging or evaluating the project
Recording the project

Source: From Mishra (2009)
Figure 2.1 Steps of Project Based Learning
Research Methodology
Population and Sample size
Two Basic Education High Schools in Yangon Region were selected as the sample schools
for the experimental design by using simple random sampling method. These sample schools
were No (1) BEHS Thanlyin and No (3) BEHS Tharketa. All the participants in the sample were
Grade Ten students. In both schools, only 60 students were selected by random sampling method
from Grade Ten in the academic year 2018-2019.
Name of School No. of Population No. of Student
BEHS (Thanlyin) 379 60
BEHS (Tharketa) 371 60
Research Design
The design adopted in this study was one of the true experimental designs, namely, the
posttest only control group design (Gay, 2003).
Table 2 Experimental Design

No. of Students
Assignment Group BEHS BEHS Total Treatment Posttest
(Thanlyin) (Tharketa) (X) (O)
Project Based
Experimental 30 30 60
Random Learning
(R) Formal EA
Control 30 30 60
Instruction
Total 60 60 120
Note. EA = Economics Achievement
Instrument
The instrument used for this study was a posttest (Achievement test). The students had to
answer all questions and there was no choice. The test was constructed based on Grade Ten
Economics Textbook with the advice and guidance of the supervisor. In the question used for
posttest, (5) items were true or false items, (5) items were completion items, (5) items were
multiple choices items, and (5) items were short questions. The allocated time for posttest was
(45) minutes, and the given marks were (25) marks (see Appendix C). The test items were
constructed on the first three levels of Bloom's Taxonomic levels of cognitive domain, i.e,
knowledge, comprehension, and application. The posttest was validated with (5) experts in the
Department of Methodology. After that, the posttest items were modified again according to their
suggestions. The pilot test was administered with (64) Grade Ten students (economics
combination) at No.(1) BEHS, Dawpon. The allocated time for this test was (45) minutes. To
show the internal consistency of the test, the reliability coefficient, Cronbach's Alpha, was
computed and its value was (0.703).
To examine the students' attitude, students' attitude questionnaire towards project based
learning was constructed based on Chang*, Wong and Chang (2011). In this research, attitude
questionnaire towards project based learning was modified and constructed in Myanmar
language with advice and guidance of the supervisor. It consists of (15) positive items. After
preparing them, expert review was conducted by five experts who have special knowledge about
the questionnaires in the field of Methodology. It consists of (15) items five-point likert-scale.
The statements of these items were described by five responses: strongly disagreed, disagreed,
uncertainly, agreed and strongly agreed. To examine students’ attitudes, feelings, and
experiences, a questionnaire was constructed with advice and guidance of the supervisor. It
consists of (15) items five-point likert-scale. The statements of these items were described by
five responses: strongly disagreed, disagreed, uncertainly, agreed and strongly agreed. Arbitrary
scoring weights (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) were assigned for the responses.
Procedure
This study was to investigate into the effectiveness of Project Based Learning on students'
academic performance in economics achievement of Grade Ten students. Students were divided
into two groups in each school: the control group and the experimental group. There were
30 students in each group. For the control group, the teacher taught students as usual in the
classroom. The experimental group was provided a treatment by using Project Based Learning.
For the experimental group, the teacher used the phases in Project Based Learning. At the end of
the treatment period, all the selected students had to sit for the posttest in both schools. And then,
a follow up program was found out by a questionnaire to interpret students’ attitudes, feelings,
experiences and opinions about Project Based Learning.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using a descriptive statistics and independent samples “t” test.
The independent samples “t” test was used to compare the achievement of students who learned
by Project Based Learning and that of students who learned by formal instruction. In order to
determine the significant differences, the independent samples “t” test was used with Statistical
Package for Social Studies (SPSS) 22.0.
Findings
This section is concerned with findings of the selected students’ achievement on the posttest
questions, the summary of the findings and interpretations of the study. The data obtained from
the posttest were analyzed by using the independent samples t-test to compare the differences
between the experimental and the control groups. Following tables show the results of t- test, the
mean scores, standard deviations and mean differences of both groups.
Table 3 t Values for Posttest Economics Achievement Scores
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS Experimental 30 22.00 1.14
5.10 12.17 58 .000***
(Thanlyin) Control 30 16.90 1.98
4.80 11.40 58 .000***
(Tharketa) Control 30 16.57 1.81
Note: ***p < .001
The mean scores of the experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the
control groups in each school (see Table 3). It showed that there was a significant difference
between students who were taught by Project Based Learning and those who were taught with
formal instruction on the overall scores of science achievement in each school.
Table 4 t Values for Scores on Knowledge Level Questions

Sig.
(2-tailed)
1.55 7.13 58 .000***
1.00 3.75 58 .000***
Note: ***p < .001
Results of knowledge level questions showed that the mean scores of the experimental
groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in each school (see Table 4). It
showed that there was a significant difference between students who were taught by Project
Based Learning and those who were taught with formal instruction on the scores of knowledge
level questions in each selected school.
Table 5 t Values for Scores on Comprehension Level Questions

Sig.
(2-tailed)
2.50 9.89 58 .000***
2.24 6.94 58 .000***
Note: **p< .001
According to the scores on comprehension level questions, the mean scores of the
experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in each selected
school (see Table 5). It showed that there was a significance difference between students who
were taught by Project Based Learning and those who were taught with formal instruction on the
scores of the comprehension level questions in the selected schools.
Table 6 t Values for Scores on Application Level Questions
School Group N M SD MD t df Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS Experimental 30 1.67 0.76 58 .000***
1.07 4.86
BEHS Experimental 30 1.87 0.51 58 .000***
1.54 9.20
Note. ***p< .001
As regards with the scores on the application level questions, the mean scores of the
experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in each school (see
Table 6). It showed that there was a significant difference between students who were taught by
Project Based Learning and those who were taught with formal instruction on the scores of the
application level questions in each selected school.
Summary of Quantitative Research Findings of Experimental Study
The results of research findings from two selected schools were as follows:
(1) There was a significant difference between students who were taught by project based
learning and those who were taught as usual in all the selected schools on the scores of
overall economics achievement. It can be interpreted that the use of project based learning
has significant effect on overall economics achievement of the students.
learning and those who were taught as usual on the scores of knowledge level questions. It
can be interpreted that project based learning can improve students' memorization rate and
recall the information more easily.
(3)There was a significant difference between students who were taught by project based
learning and those who were taught as usual on the scores of comprehension level questions.
It can be interpreted that project based learning could bring about the improvement of
students' ability to understand cause and affect relationships. And project based learning can
also encourage students’ conceptual understanding.
learning and those who were taught as usual in all the selected schools on the scores of
application level questions. It can be interpreted that project based learning can bring about
the development of students' ability to apply their learning in new situation. Therefore,
project based learning has positive contribution to economics teaching at the high school
level.
Students’ Attitudes towards Project Based Learning
The attitudes, feelings, experiences and opinions of students were examined by a
questionnaire which consists of 15 items four point Likert-scale. For (15) items, strongly agreed,
agreed, disagreed and strongly disagreed percentage were shown in two selected schools such as
No (1) BEHS Thnlyin and No (3) BEHS Tharketa.
(1) The first item deals with the students selecting the topic in accordance with their interest.
In both schools, (46.7%) of the students strongly agreed and others over half of the
students (53.3%) agreed to this item.
(2) The second item deals with by Project based learning increases their interest in learning
Economics. In both schools, (70.0%) of the students strongly agreed, (28.3%) agreed, but
some others were uncertain about (1.7%) to this item.
(3) The third item deals with students who can easily ask their peer about what they do not
understand about project work. In both schools, (45%) of the students strongly agreed,
(48.3%) agreed and only (6.7%) uncertainly to this item.
(4) The fourth item deals with students who are easy to work collaboratively with other
students to finish project work successfully. In both schools, (35%) of the students
strongly agreed and some others were (65%) agreed to this item.
(5) The fifth item deals with students who exchange ideas with their peers during the project
work procedure. In both schools, (46.7%) of the students strongly agreed and over half of
the students were (53.3%) agreed to this item.
(6) The sixth item deals with students who like working on projects in a group. In both
schools, (55%) of the students strongly agreed, (41.7%) agreed and others (3.3%)
uncertainly to this item.
(7) The seventh item deals with by Project Based Learning helps them to transfer what they
learnt in the classroom to outside the classroom. In both schools, over half of the students
were (61.7%) strongly agreed, but some others were (36.7%) agreed and only (1.6%)
uncertainly to this item.
(8) The eighth item deals with students who think project based learning can improve their
information searching skills. In both schools, most of the students (60.0%) strongly
agreed but some others were agreed (40.0%) to this item.
(9) The ninth item deals with students who think project based learning can facilitate their
active learning. In both schools, (65.0%) of the students strongly agreed, (35.0%) agreed
to this item.
(10) The tenth item deals with students who think project based learning can promote their
learning motivation. In both schools, (55.0%) of the students strongly agreed, (43.3%)
agreed and (1.7%) uncertainly to this item.
(11) The eleventh item deals with students who think project based learning can foster their
problem solving skills. In both schools, most of the students (66.7%) strongly agreed and
almost one-third of the students (31.7%) agreed and only (1.7%) uncertainly to this item.
(12) The twelfth item deals with students who think project based learning can help them to
learn the important subject knowledge. In both schools, (45.0%) of the students agreed,
(45.0%) agreed and (10.0%) uncertainly to this item.
(13) The thirteenth item deals with students who think project based learning can promote
their interpersonal skill. In both schools, (63.3%) of the students strongly agreed,
(35.0%) agreed and (1.6%) uncertainly to this item.
(14) The fourteenth item deals with students who think project based learning can enhance
their future learning..In both schools, (58.3%) of the students strongly agreed, (35%)
agreed and (6.7%) uncertainly to this item.
(15) The fifteenth item deal with students who will suggest that the course could continue to
use the project based learning in the future. In both schools, (70.0%) of the students
strongly agreed but (23.3%) of them agreed and only (6.7%) uncertainly to this item.
According to the results of (15) items five-point likert-scale, the attitude of students have
positive attitudes towards project based learning in both selected schools.
Summary of Qualitative Research Findings
In this research, the qualitative study for students from the experimental group of two
selected schools was carried out with a questionnaire. It consists of (15) items five-point likert-
scale. In this study, it was found that learning by doing increased students’ conceptual
understanding. Moreover, this learning also developed students’ self-reliance and self-
confidence. Most of students expressed that they were very happy by using hands-on activities.
They gained the habit of cooperation with others. By relating previous experiences with the new
experiences, it can promote their logical thinking skills. Moreover, students learned economics
concepts with extra activities that were related to the lesson. Therefore, they had mastered their
learning. Moreover, students expressed that their knowledge was increased and they had
willingness to learn more from experience than as usual. Therefore, project based learning has
positive contribution to the economics teaching and learning at the high school level.
Discussion
According to the results, there were significant differences between the experimental and
control groups according to the comparison of the mean scores on knowledge, comprehension
and application level questions for two selected schools. The mean scores of economics students
who were taught by project based learning were significantly higher than that of students who
were taught with formal instruction in each achievement level. It can be concluded that students
who were taught by project based learning improve knowledge retention, interest in inquiry and
conceptual understanding. All the students in the project based learning group performed in
solving the problems which are presented in the classroom and give the benefit of all members of
the group. When learners are confronted with problems which they must solve, they are forced to
reason and think critically in order to solve the problems. The activities of project based learning
were very active, interesting, and enjoyable for the students.
In addition, the students' ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations to
answer correctly. The students need to be able to apply the rules, methods, concepts, and
principles in new situation. This could be achieved because the students who got the treatment by
the teacher using the project based learning helped to easily resolving dissensions that arise
during their learning process. As a result, they had to think in an active manner in order to blend
their thoughts in answering the comprehension and application level questions.
Project based learning activities should play significance, beneficial role in any
economics classroom. Moreover, observation skills can improve. Social skills can also develop
as the students share perceptions and knowledge with others. Students may begin to look forward
to classes and connect previous knowledge and experiences with the new concepts. In this
research, as shown above project based learning has significant effect on the economics
achievement of the students. They can apply the knowledge and skills to their everyday life. The
findings point out that the means of students who were taught by project based learning was
significantly higher than those who were taught as usual.
To know students’ attitudes, feelings, and experiences about project based learning, (15)
items five-point likert-scale were used. They felt that they were very happy by using project
based learning. They gained the habit of collaboration with others. They also developed self-
confidence and self-esteem. Moreover, they actually introduce economics concepts not only
memorization but also promote their interpersonal skills. By using project based learning,
students’ learning rate and their attitudes toward learning economics were promoted. Students
become more interested in economics learning. According to these students’ attitudes, feelings,
and experiences, it is significant that project based learning has positive effect on economics
learning.
Suggestions
Today, economics education demands experience that lead towards the intellectual,
psychological and social growth of high school level students. Learning from experience or step
by steps learning as project based learning can achieve these growths. This project based learning
focuses on learning by doing. Students must be involved in hands-on activities to improve their
knowledge and experiences. In Myanmar schools, teacher should endeavor to provide a variety
of experiences and activities for students.
Project based learning engages students as active learners, fostering a high degree of
participation and relevant student’s contribution to class discussion. It encourages students to
improve 21st century skills. In order to achieve this learning successfully, small class size is
required. Small classes can help students engage in their activities more widely and teachers can
facilitate those classes more easily. Thus, decreasing the number of students in the classroom
enables the teacher to implement modern methods of teaching, especially project based learning.
Conclusion
Project based learning promotes critical thinking, and decision making skills. Nowadays,
many educators have suggested that many benefits mount up from engaging students in project
based learning. The project based learning is the strategic use of challenging outdoor and indoor
experiences to stimulate insight and interest. This learning makes learners to be active in the
classroom, self-explorative, gain insight into situation, acquire problem solving skills and have
self-understanding of the environment. Students can get better chances for learning to interact
with real life experiences.
To improve economics education, teaching learning situations and learning approaches
are very important. Students’ engagements are central role to improve economics education. The
project based learning is not only the bridge between theory and practices but also connect
between the classrooms and outside the classrooms. Students can apply theory in their real life
situations. This learning promotes deeper understanding of economics concepts. Moreover, this
project based learning is applicable to all students who have different learning styles. Thus, it is
an applicable and useful for the development of economics teaching. Furthermore, many
economics teachers to reach their teaching learning situation more effectively by using project
based learning. The effective use of the project based learning has significant effect on the
overall economics achievement of the students. Therefore, project based learning surely has
positive contribution to the economics teaching at the high school.
Acknowledgements
First of all, we would like to express our respectful gratitude to Dr. Khin Mar Khine, Associates Professor
and Head, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education for his invaluable guidance and
suggestions throughout M.Ed program. We also want to express our thanks to all participants in our study. We are
indebted to all those who provided us with insightful suggestions. Finally, we are grateful to our beloved parents
who give us opportunities to learn the valuable education.
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AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING MODEL IN

THE TEACHING OF MYANMAR LANGUAGE WRITING SKILLS
Aye Yu Mon1 and MyoWin2
Abstract
The main purpose of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of Cooperative Learning
Model in Myanmar Language teaching and learning of Grade Eight students in Myanmar.
Instruments of quantitative research were based on the new instructional model of Cooperative
Learning. Ten sample lesson plans were constructed. The target population is Grade Eight students
in Yangon Region. Stratified random sampling method was used. Four sample schools were
selected by using random sampling method. In each school, students were randomly selected and
assigned to two groups. Quasi-experimental designs were applied in the experimental research and
it took about ten weeks. Descriptive statistics was used to calculate students’ mean score, standard
deviation in narrative and descriptive writing skill of students. Also the percentage of students’
attitude questionnaires were descriptive in data analysis. Furthermore, independent samples t- test
and ANCOVA were used to test the significant level. Moreover, Pearson correlation was applied
to analyze the correlation of the variables. And, questionnaires for students and teachers were
conducted to find out teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards Cooperative Learning Model. The
qualitative research was conducted with students’ and teachers’ interview questions for teachers
and students. The result of this study shows that there was a significant difference in the writing
skill of students between those who are taught by Cooperative Learning Model and those who are
not. There also was relationship between students’ narrative writing skill and descriptive writing
skill. An overall analysis of these findings seems strongly indicate the presence of Cooperative
Learning Model’s positive pedagogic impact on teaching of Myanmar language writing skill.
Keywords: Cooperative Learning, Model, Learning
Introduction
Teaching is the profession where the success of the teachers depends on the ability of the
students but there have been such teachers who have made even the worst of students the best of
learners. The dynamics of teaching is a crucial factor in how much students learn (Herr, 2008). It
is evident that understanding of a subject taught by a teacher depends on the methods of teaching
adopted by that teacher. Methods make the material easier to comprehend and assimilate. A
teacher would only pay attention towards his methods only when he is completely dedicated
towards his profession and if his profession is his passion. Learning is the acquisition of new
behavior that strengthening or weakening of old behavior as the result of experience. Students
benefit from effective teaching and learning strategies inside and outside the classroom. Learning
often takes place best when students have opportunities to express ideas and get feedback from
their peers. Students take action and interact with others to construct the contextual knowledge of
the classroom.
At present time, there is very little emphasis on writing in the language class. Writing is
more careful, prestigious and permanent than speech. Language is the vehicle of thoughts. Man
uses language as a means of communication. Burmese is the language people use in their day-to-
day life for expressing ideas, for communication, for making transaction and for doing
calculations. To learn a language, it is necessary to achieve four skills: listening, speaking,
reading and writing. For achieving skills in Myanmar language as well, it is necessary to achieve
these four skills.
1
Dr, Assistant Lecturer, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education
Unlike speaking, writing provides ones with a way not only to generate ideas before
presenting them to an audience, but also to scrutinize the ideas and language they produce; this
revision, this seeing again, lets them receive feedback from themselves and others and make
changes and corrections. If teachers simply ask students to analyze, manipulate, and imitate given
texts, they are not allowing them to grapple for that fit between content and form that all students
need to grapple with. Writing consists of many constituent parts and teachers need to consider
which ones will be the most important for a course: content, organization, originality, style,
fluency, accuracy, or using appropriate rhetorical forms of discourse (Richards & Renandya,
2002).
Traditional approaches to language teaching gave priority to grammatical competence as
the basis of language proficiency. They were based on the belief that grammar could be learned
through direct instruction and through a methodology that made much use of repetitive practice
and drilling. The approach to the teaching of grammar was a deductive one: students are
presented with grammar rules and then given opportunities to practice using them, as opposed to
an inductive approach in which students are given examples of sentences containing a grammar
rule and asked to work out the rule for themselves. It was assumed that language learning meant
building up a large repertoire of sentences and grammatical patterns and learning to produce
these accurately and quickly in the appropriate situation (Richards, 2006).
Today people place little emphasis on the importance of writing. It is very important to
practice writing because it is one of the objectives of teaching Myanmar language in schools.
However, it is a problem that most students learn by heart summaries of the Zataka written by
teachers in Grade Eight. Although students may like to write summaries of the Zataka by
themselves, they do not have confidence to present their own writing. They are afraid of reducing
their scores if they did not write the same as the summaries given by teachers. As a result, many
students find it difficult to write summaries of the Zataka themselves. Therefore, they just learn
by heart summaries of the Zataka given by teachers and try to reproduce them accurately. Later,
students cannot express their own thoughts and ideas in their own words effectively and
efficiently. Unfortunately, this problem still remain unsolved completely till now.
Once a basic command of the language was established through oral drilling and
controlled practice, the four skills were introduced, usually in the sequence of listening, speaking,
reading and writing. Techniques that were often employed included memorization of dialogues,
question-and-answer practice and substitution drills. One central belief of current pedagogy is
that learners differ from one another in important ways (Robinson, 2002, cited in Bootzin,
Bower, Zajonic & Hall, 1986). One area of difference lies in the tendency of some learners to
prefer to learn in social settings. All learners need to know how to succeed in such settings, and
cooperative learning provides opportunities for students to develop and practice the strategies
they need to work with others.
Sharing knowledge can support each other and hence, it leads to better understanding.
Cooperative learning strategies are the teacher’s approaches to using information, selecting
resources, and defining the role of the students, including specific practices used to accomplish a
teaching objective (Borich, 2007). Therefore, educators believe that cooperative learning
strategies are one of the most effective learning strategies in teaching Myanmar. Now in
Myanmar language teaching, a systematic approach to teaching writing is needed to enhance
students’ writing skills and to help teachers to overcome their difficulties in teaching writing.
Therefore, the main problem this study investigated is if teaching model which is based on
cooperative learning strategies will actually bring out better achievement of the students in
teaching Myanmar.
Objectives of the Research
The major objectives of the study can be briefly described as follows.
1. To develop a new teaching model which is based on cooperative learning for Myanmar
Language teaching for middle school students
2. To analyze the applicability of the model in middle school Myanmar Language Teaching
3. To compare students’ achievement between two groups: experimental group and control
group
4. To explore the interrelationships between Grade Eight students' narrative and descriptive
writing skills
5. To investigate students’ attitude towards cooperative learning model
6. To give suggestions for improving middle school Myanmar Language teaching based on
the data obtained from the study
Research Hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference between the Myanmar achievement of the students who
are taught by cooperative learning model and those who are not.
are taught by cooperative learning model and those who are not in performing narrative
writing.
are taught by cooperative learning model and those who are not in performing
descriptive writing.
4. There are interrelationships between the Grade Eight students' narrative and descriptive
writing skills.
5. There is a positive attitude towards cooperative learning model among the students in the
experimental group.
Definitions of the Key Terms
 Cooperative Learning - Cooperative learning is the term used to describe instructional
procedures whereby learners work together in small groups and are rewarded for their
collective accomplishments (Johnson & Johnson, 1998).
 Model - a model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curricula, to
design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings
(Siddiqui & Khan, 2009).
 Learning - Learning is the acquisition of new behavior the strengthening or weakening of
old behavior as the result of experience (Smith, 1962, cited in Schunk, 2004).
Scope of the Study
The research has its own particular limitations. The first limitation is the geographical
area. This study is geographically restricted to Yangon Region. The second limitation is related
to the participants of the study. Participants are Grade Eight students from the selected schools
during the period 2017-2018 Academic Year. The third limitation is the content areas of the
subject. The content area is limited to Zataka.
Significance of the Study

This study is expected to help students perform better in Myanmar language writing by
cooperating in the class. In order to promote students’ writing skills and to help teachers to
overcome their difficulties in teaching writing, a cooperative approach to teaching writing is
needed in Myanmar language teaching. The contribution of this study will demonstrate that the
cooperative learning model to teaching and the learning materials really work. Students will
develop both writing skills and their social skills will develop through cooperative learning.
Mg Khin Min (2013) also points out that writing essay is not in its right place, training
ground for students’ writing skills because many students read others’ readily written essays by
heart. This issue is not a new one. It was also discussed in the meeting held by Basic Education
Curriculum Syllabus and Textbook Committee, and Myanmar Language Commission in
November, 1975. In this meeting, senior and junior assistant teachers who teach Myanmar stated
that students read essays by heart for exam and some teachers also asked students to do so. As a
result, students found it difficult to write even a page of essay themselves. If students try to write
essay in cooperation with other students, they will get a lot of ideas for writing essays. In this
way, students will develop not only their writing skills but also their social skills and cooperation
with other students. So, this study would be beneficial not only middle but also high schools
Myanmar language teachers and students as this study would provide necessary information on
how to teach writing and how to write effectively through cooperation with others in class.
Perspectives of Cooperative Learning
Basically cooperative learning is a model of learning where the student can work in
group. It is very essential to be done because the student needs other people to do something as
the social creature. They also need another student to help them to solve something. Sharan (n.d.,
cited in Huda, 2011) agreed with other researcher who said student’s performance is more
effective when they work in small groups than they work in traditional classroom. By working in
group, it can increase students’ achievement and socialization and also repair their perception and
attitude about the important of learning and socialization. There are several theoretical
perspectives that support cooperative learning model. They are:
(1) Motivational perspective

This perspective assumed that cooperative learning must be based on group reward and
goal structure. If cooperative learning activities is implemented correctly, it can create a
condition where they can succeed to get group goals if the other group member is successful too
to get the goals. They can support the other friends to give maximal efforts to get goals.
(2) Social cohesion perspective

This perspective said that cooperative learning will influence to student achievement if
they can make cohesively (help each other) in each group member. Student help the other group
member overall because they feel care to success of group.
(3) Cognitive perspective

This perspective said that interaction between students will increase student achievement
if they can process information mentally than motivationally.
(4) Developmental perspective
It comes from Jean Piaget and Lev Vyogotsky. The Piagetian perspective said that when
student work together, socio - cognitive will be appear and produce cognitive disequilibrium. It can
increase student ability to think, reason, and talk. Vyogotsky perspectives state that knowledge is
a social product.
(5) Cognitive elaboration perspective

This perspective said that elaboration can be a cognitive exercise to increase student
learning. The most effective technique of elaboration is explaining the topic to other. In some
research shown that student can learn more by giving explanation to other.
Cooperative Learning Effects. There are three effects of cooperative learning according
to Arends et. al (2007). Those effects are:
(1) Effects on Academic Achievement

Cooperative learning strategies have positive effects on academic achievement for all
students, but particularly for students with poor academic histories. Students of higher ability are
benefited more when working in cooperative groups as compared to individualistic or
competitive classrooms. Slavin reported significantly higher levels of achievement in language
arts and mathematics when they compared students in an elementary school that used cooperative
learning with their peers in a traditional elementary school.
(2) Effects on Cooperative Behavior

Studies conducted by Sharan and his colleagues showed clearly that instructional methods
(whole group teaching versus cooperative learning) influenced students’ cooperative and
competitive behaviors. Cooperative learning generated more collaborative behavior than did
whole-class teaching. Students from cooperative learning classrooms displayed less competitive
behavior and more cross-ethnic cooperation. Johnson and Johnson also reported considerable
positive effects on social learning and personal esteem when comparisons were made between
cooperative and individualistic classroom organizations. Dozens of studies have demonstrated
that, when students are allowed to work together, they experience an increase in a variety of
social skills; they become more capable of solving problems, better able to take the role of the
other, and are generally more cooperative and willing to help and reward others.
(3) Effects on Acceptance of and Tolerance for Diversity
The use of cooperative learning strategies has also been shown to result in better
intergroup relations. Sharing responsibility and interaction produces more positive feelings
towards tasks and others. Slavin also reported that heterogeneous groups learn more, form more
positive attitudes toward the learning tasks, and become more positive toward individuals who
are different.
Model of Cooperative Learning. Researcher would like to investigate the effective-ness of

Slavin’s model of cooperative learning. Slavin’s (1996) model of cooperative learning is
foundational to promote social interaction and learning.
Source: From Smith & Ragan. (1999)

Figure 1 Slavin’s Integrated Model of Cooperative Learning
Social cohesion seemed to be the component of Slavin’s model with the most significant
effect on the student experience, a finding supported by both the quantitative and qualitative
analyses. Slavin proposes three different motivational factors at work in cooperative learning
environments: motivation to learn, motivation to encourage group-mates to learn, and motivation
to help group-mates to learn. Of these three factors, the activity appeared to provide participants
with motivation to learn as well as motivation to help group-mates to learn. The activity also
provided motivation for participants to encourage group-mates to learn.
Basic Types of Cooperative Learning Group
There are three basic types of cooperative learning groups – formal cooperative learning
groups, informal cooperative learning groups and base groups.
(1) Formal Cooperative Learning Groups
These groups may last from several minutes to several class sessions to complete a
specific task or assignment (such as doing a set of problems, completing a unit of work, writing a
report, conducting an experiment, or reading and comprehending a story, play, chapter or book).
The members are carefully chosen for heterogeneity to maximize learning and minimize ‘group
think’.
(2) Informal Cooperative Learning Groups
These groups are temporary, ad hoc groups that last for a few minutes, one discussion or
class period. The members are often chosen randomly and will rotate on a regular basis. Their
purposes are to focus learner attention on the material to be learned, create an expectation set and
mood conducive to learning, as well as help organize in advance the material to be covered in a
class session. They can ensure that learners cognitively process the material being taught and
provide closure to an instructional session. They may be used at any time but they are especially
useful during a lecture or direct reading. The length of time that most learners can attend to a
lecture before they begin to drift away is around (20) to (25) minutes. These groups help break up
the lecture and allow learners to process the content as they take part in class.
(3) Base or Home Groups

Base groups are long-term cooperative learning groups with stable membership. Learners
are chosen for base groups in a manner that will guarantee a good mix of academic levels in the
group. These groups are set up to so that members provide support to each other so that all can
succeed academically. For example, they may pick up handouts for each other if one of the group
members is absent, and they will coach each other to prepare for individual tests. The use of base
groups tends to personalize the classroom, improve attendance and also improve the quality and
quantity of learning.
Research Method
As the objectives were set at the beginning of the study, teaching writing materials and
activities, model and lesson plans were developed based on cooperative learning model for
teaching writing. They were aimed at improving middle school students’ writing skills in
Myanmar language. To test them to see if they are effective or not, a quantitative study, an
experiment, was performed. A questionnire survey, was conducted to find out the attitudes of
students and teachers towards the new teaching model. A qualitative study, interviews were also
conducted to find out the attitudes of students and teachers towards cooperative learning model.
Sample Size in the Research
The research was carried out in Yangon Region. In Yangon Region, there are four
districts: East, West, South and North. One township from each district was selected by random
sampling method. And then, one school from each township was chosen by using simple random
sampling method. For the experiment, (98) students from B.E.H.S (4) Hlaing, (120) students
from B.E.M.S (2) Shwepyithar, (99) students from Yankin Practising Middle School and (98)
students from B.E.H.S (2) Kyauktan were selected.
Research Design
The research design applied in the quantitative study is the nonequivalent control group
design which is one of the quasi-experimental designs. According to L. R. Gay (1987), this
design is used if it is not possible to randomly assign subjects to groups. But an advantage of this
design is that possible effects from reactive arrangements are minimized since classes are used as
it is. Subjects may not be aware that they are involved in a study. So, the experiment was
conducted by using existing classrooms. From each selected school, two classrooms were chosen
and each two were randomly assigned to two groups: experimental group and control group.
Instrumentation
Since the study is aimed at investigating the impact of cooperative learning model to
teaching writing in Myanmar language at the middle school level, the researcher developed a
pretest and a posttest, and the marking schemes for them. Pretest consists of (6) items to measure
basic writing skills. The total score of pretest is (50) and the time allowed for the test is 1:30
hours. Posttest consists of (5) items to measure narrative and descriptive writing skills. The total
score of posttest is (100) and the time allowed for the test is 2:30 hours. To examine the students’
and teachers’ attitude towards the developed cooperative learning model for teaching writing,
questionnaires were constructed under the guidance of supervisor and co-supervisor. Five-point
Likert scale with (5) items from strongly agree to strongly disagree, was used to indicate the
attitude towards cooperative learning model. They were developed under the guidance of
supervisor and co-supervisor. In order to establish validity, they were presented to teacher
educators and academicians. According to their valuable suggestions, necessary modification in

pretest and posttest were made.
Learning Materials
Learning materials consist of (6) Zataka stories from the prescribed textbook. In addition,
story, event, field trip and biography were added for narrative writing. For descriptive writing,
definite description and aesthetic description were added. It is assumed that these learning
materials can cover the narrative writing and descriptive writing skills at the middle school level.
These learning materials and activities were written under the constant supervision of supervisor
and co-supervisor. They all were examined by five expert teachers in both methodology and
academic fields. They made valuable suggestions and recommendations from their different
points of view for the improvement of the learning materials and activities. Their critical
comments and suggestions regarding style, format, appropriateness and wording were very
helpful. At their valuable suggestions, necessary modifications in learning materials were made.
Some words are replaced by more understandable words.
Key Variables
The independent variables in this study were the different instructions of teaching writing.
Therefore, the independent variable for the experimental group was instruction, using
cooperative learning and for control group was instruction, without using it. The dependent
variable was students’ score on the posttest.
Procedure
Before cooperative learning model was used in teaching, lesson plans were developed. In
order to evaluate the feasibility of the instruments for full-scale study, pilot experiment was
conducted at Basic Education Middle School, Hlaing Township from 12th June to 10th July 2017.
The time taken for teaching including testing before and after was (20) periods which last (45)
minutes each. According to the experiences of pilot study, necessary changes in testing and
planning for experimental study were made. After pilot study, some wordings in tests were
changed. Pilot teaching also gave better ideas for the preparation of handouts and teaching aids
for experimental study. In the light of pilot study, necessary changes were also made in lesson
plans.
Conducting full-scale experimental study was started in all four selected schools in July,
2017. At the beginning of the study, all participants in both groups were pretested to check the
equivalence of the two groups. It took (1:30) hours, (2) periods. Then the experimental groups
were treated with the developed cooperative learning model for teaching writing while the
control groups were taught as usual. The two experimental groups in B.E.H.S (4) Hlaing and
B.E.M.S (2) Shwepyithar were taught by the researcher. And the rest in B.E.H.S (2) Kyauktan
and Yankin Practising Middle School were given treatment by other two Myanmar language
teachers from these schools. They were given learning materials to study in advance. They had
been advised how to teach writing according to cooperative learning model for teaching writing
and lesson plans. The total time taken for treatment was (40) periods. After the treatment periods,
posttest was administered to all students in experimental groups and control groups to measure
their writing skill achievement. The experimental study finished in October, 2017. After teaching
them, the researcher developed posttests in order to investigate whether cooperative learning was
really effective in students’ writing skills. There are two main components in the posttest:
narrative writing and descriptive writing.
To examine the attitude of students and teachers towards the developed cooperative
learning model for teaching writing, questionnaires were developed under the guidance of
supervisor and co-supervisor. Five-point Likert scale with (1) stands for strongly disagree and (5)
assigned to strongly agree, was used to indicate the attitude towards cooperative learning model.
The questionnaire was sent to all students who participated in experimental groups in all four
selected schools. The teachers helped to distribute the questionnaires and collect the
questionnaires in their schools. It took about (20) minutes to complete the questionnaire. It was
completed at the last week of teaching experiment.
Analysis of Data
The Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version (24) was used to analyze
the quantitative data. The data were analyzed by the independent samples t-test and ANCOVA to
compare the differences between the experimental groups and control groups. Moreover, Pearson
correlation was calculated to find out the relationships between students’ narrative writing skill
and descriptive writing skill. Percentage of responses was used to know the attitudes of the
students involved in experiment towards the new teaching approach after the instruction.
Interview was used for the qualitative study.
Research Findings
This study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of cooperative learning model
in the teaching of Myanmar language writing skills. Both quantitative and qualitative research
methodologies were used in this research as a mix method: the QUAN-Qual Model. Therefore,
the findings of the research, both quantitative and qualitative study, were discussed. The data
analysis was carried out, using the Statistical Package of the Social Science (SPSS) version 24.
Quantitative Research Findings
Quantitative research findings include the data analysis of pretest scores, overall posttest
scores and individual scores in two parts of the posttest: test on narrative writing skill and test on
descriptive writing skill.
Analysis of Pretest Scores. The data obtained from pretest were recorded system-atically and
analyzed by using the independent samples t-test to determine whether there is a significant
difference between the experimental groups and the control groups. The results are shown in the
following table.
Table 1 t Values for Pretest Scores in Overall Writing Skill Achievement
School Group N M SD MD t df Sig. (2-tailed)
S1 Experimental 50 38.24 3.836 0.24 .337 96 .737
Control 48 38.00 3.176 (ns)
S2 Experimental 60 39.72 1.914 0.45 -1.338 118 .184
Control 60 40.17 1.768 (ns)
S3 Experimental 51 42.37 1.697 1.53 4.369 107 .000***
Control 48 40.84 1.954
S4 Experimental 51 41.75 1.598 1.02 -3.112 96 .002**
Control 47 42.77 1.645
Note: ns = not significant S1= B.E.H.S (4) Hlaing
**p <. 01 S2= B.E.M.S (2) Shwepyithar
***p <. 001 S3= Yankin Practising Middle School
S4= B.E.M.S (2) Thanlyin
In school 1 and school 2, the results show that there was no significant difference between
the experimental groups and the control groups for scores on pretest (p > .05) because the mean
scores of the experimental groups and the control groups were nearly the same in these two
schools. This means that the two groups in two schools were equivalent. Therefore, their scores
on posttest will be analyzed by using the independent samples t-test.
In school 3 and school 4, the results show that there was a significant difference between
the experimental groups and the control groups for scores on pretest (p < .05) because the mean
scores of the experimental groups and the control groups were different in two schools. This
means that the two groups in two schools were not equivalent. Therefore, their scores on posttest
will be analyzed by using the analysis of covariance.
Table 2 t Values for Posttest Scores in Overall Writing Skill Achievement for School 1
School Group N M SD MD t df Sig. (2- tailed)
Narrative Experimental 50 34.54 6.55
Writing 11.62 7.519 96 .000***
Skill Control 48 22.92 8.65
Descriptive Experimental 50 12.82 6.47
Writing 7.28 5.690 96 .000***
Overall Experimental 50 47.36 11.15
Writing 18.90 7.541 96 .000***
Note : *** p < .001
Table (2) shows mean scores of the posttest on narrative writing skill, descriptive writing
skill and the overall posttest mean scores of control and experimental groups in school 1.
According to the results, there was a significant difference between control and experimental
groups in school 1 since the posttest mean scores on narrative writing skill, descriptive writing
skill and the overall posttest mean scores of experimental groups were significantly higher than
those of control group (p < .001). It means that experimental group could perform better than
control group in overall writing skill achievement for school 1.
Table 3 t Values for Posttest Scores in Overall Writing Skill Achievement for School 2
School Group N M SD MD t df Sig. (2- tailed)

Narrative Experimental 60 36.85 3.89 13.35 15.020 118 .000***
Writing
Descriptive Experimental 60 23.32 4.14 15.07 16.629 118 .000***
Writing Control 60 8.25 5.67
Skill
Overall Experimental 60 60.17 6.59 28.42 19.438 118 .000***
Writing Control 60 31.75 9.21
Skill
Note: *** p < .001

Table 3 shows the mean scores of the posttest on narrative writing skill, descriptive
writing skill and the overall posttest mean scores of control and experimental groups in school 2.
According to the results, there was a significant difference between control and experimental
groups in school 2 since the posttest mean scores on narrative writing skill, descriptive writing
skill and the overall posttest mean scores of experimental groups were significantly higher than
those of control group (p < .001). It means that experimental group could perform better than
control group in overall writing skill achievement for school 2.
Table 4 Means and Standard Deviation for Posttest Scores in Writing Skill Achievement
for School 3
Skill Group N M SD MD
Narrative Writing Skill 2.05
Control 48 32.28 6.735
Descriptive Writing Experimental 51 13.90 3.557
4.95
Overall Writing Skill 7.02
Control 48 41.22 9.546
According to the scores of the questions for students’ writing skill achievement on
narrative writing skill, descriptive writing skill and overall posttest mean scores, the mean of
experimental group was significantly higher than that of control group on descriptive and overall
writing skill but there was no significance on narrative writing skill in school 3. The mean scores
of experimental groups were significantly higher than those of control group (p < .001). It means
that experimental group could perform better than control group in overall writing skill
achievement for school 3 (See Table 4).
Table 5 Means and Standard Deviation for Posttest Scores in Writing Skill Achievement
for School 4
Skill Group N M SD MD
Narrative Writing Skill 4.41
Control 47 41.45 2.09
Descriptive Writing Experimental 51 20.90 3.57
4.50
Overall Writing Skill 8.91
Control 47 57.85 3.24
According to the scores of the questions for students’ writing skill achievement on
narrative writing skill, descriptive writing skill and overall posttest mean scores, the mean of
experimental group was significantly higher than that of control group in School 4. According to
the results, there was a significant difference between control and experimental group in School 4
since the posttest mean scores on narrative writing skill, descriptive writing skill and overall
posttest mean scores of experimental groups were significantly higher than those of control group
(p < .001). It means that experimental group could perform better than control group in overall
writing skill achievement for school 4 (See Table 5).
Summary of Findings
The results of the experimental study can be summarized as follows.
1. There were significant differences between experimental groups and control groups on
the scores of the overall writing achievement in all four selected schools.
the scores in narrative writing skill achievement in all four selected schools.
the scores in descriptive writing skill achievement in all four selected schools.
4. Most of the students had a positive attitude towards the cooperative learning model and
learning materials.
The cooperative learning model to teaching writing has positive effect on the students’
narrative and descriptive writing skills. Moreover, the study explored the relationship between
students’ narrative writing and descriptive writing skills by using the Pearson Correlation
Coefficient. As the Pearson Correlation Coefficient between students’ narrative writing skill and
descriptive writing skill is (.697) in School 1, (.783) in School 2, (.278) in School 3, (.539) in
school 4, it can be concluded that the relationship between the students’ narrative writing skill
and descriptive writing skills had positive relationship in all the selected schools, except school 3.
Discussion
The main objective of this research is to develop a cooperative learning model for
teaching writing and to investigate the impact of this model on students’ writing skills. After the
cooperative learning model has been developed, lesson plans were developed. They were first
taught to the pilot group for (12) periods. Then, the exercises were taught to the experimental
groups in four schools from July to October in 2017. After teaching them for about three months,
the researcher developed posttests in order to know whether cooperative learning was really
effective in students’ writing skills or not. There are two main components in the posttest-
narrative writing and descriptive writing. Finally, the qualitative research findings were carried
out with the help of interviews.
Results of the study pointed out that the use of cooperative learning techniques in
teaching writing can improve students' writing skills. The posttest scores of the selected schools
(School 1 and School 2) were analyzed by using t-test for independent samples and the posttest
scores of (School 3 and School 4) were analyzed by using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).
The mean scores of all the experimental groups in the selected schools were higher than those of
the control groups. The results showed that students’ writing skills were significant at p < .001
level in all schools. So, these results supported hypothesis (1): There is a significant difference
between achievement of Myanmar by the students who are taught by cooperative learning model
and those who are not.
In comparing the mean scores of narrative writing skill between experimental groups and
control groups, there were significant differences between these groups. Students’ narrative
writing skills were significant at p < .001 level for narrative writing skill in schools 1, 2 and 4
and p < .01 level in school 3. So, these results supported hypothesis (2): There is a significant
difference between the achievement of Myanmar by the students who are taught by cooperative
learning model and those who are not in performing narrative writing. In descriptive writing skill,
students’ writing skills were significant at p < .001 level. All the experimental groups in all the
selected schools did better than the control groups. These findings supported hypothesis (3):
There is a significant difference between the achievement of Myanmar by the students who are
taught by cooperative learning model and those who are not in performing descriptive writing.
In general, the results of analyzing data showed that all the experimental groups did better
in writing than the control groups. According to the statistical data of the posttest scores, it was
concluded that the performance of the experimental groups in all selected schools were better in
writing than that of the control groups.
Finally, the relationship between students’ narrative writing skill and descriptive writing
skill showed that there was a relationship in all schools. The direction of coefficient in all schools
was positive. This means that if students’ narrative writing skill is good, their descriptive writing
skill is also likely to be good or vice versa. Therefore, this finding reveals that there is a
relationship between the students’ proficiency of narrative writing skill and that of descriptive
writing skill. Moreover, findings from the questionnaire and interview prove that students have
positive attitude towards the cooperative learning model. To sum up the findings mentioned
above, it is found that the cooperative learning model has positive impact on students’ writing
skills. In other words, cooperative learning model can improve the students’ writing skills.
During this study, it was found that the use of the cooperative learning model in teaching
writing had several advantages. The students were more interested in learning Myanmar
language and enjoyed writing. Moreover, the students in cooperated group felt comfortable and
enhanced their writing skills by sharing and discussing their background knowledge. It can be
generalized that the students with lesser abilities learn more by working alongside those who
have greater abilities. To sum up, the students should be encouraged to participate in the
cooperative tasks in language learning.
Cooperative learning is now widely recognized as one of the most promising practices in
the field of education. Moreover, a synthesis of research on cooperative learning strategies found
out that these strategies improve the achievement of students and their interpersonal
relationships. Many researches showed the benefits of cooperative learning. But in Myanmar, it
is still necessary to do more researches on cooperative learning to investigate its effects on
Myanmar students as they are used to be traditional teaching method.
Suggestions
According to the findings, it can be interpreted that cooperative learning model operates
significant support for the students’ writing skills. Many researches showed the benefits of
cooperative learning. In Myanmar, more researches on cooperative learning should be carried out
to investigate its effects on Myanmar students as teachers are still used to be teacher-centered
instruction.
According to the results of this research, the use of cooperative learning model in
teaching writing can enhance students’ writing skill. This study indicated that giving students
opportunities to write the summary of Zataka cooperatively in the classroom can enhance
students’ writing skill. Students had the opportunity to work together and from each other in
groups. Stronger students helped the weaker ones. The results of the study are in line with the
suggestions of Kessler’s (1992) who stated that students can understand better the text and take
valuable feedback from each other, working in pairs or groups. Students in cooperated groups
developed considerable commitment and became less dependent on the teacher. They did not
passively sit in and take in what the teacher said. They participated actively in their writing
activities. Thus, it is suggested that cooperation and active participation of the students should be
taken into account for the development of students’ writing skills.
The second suggestion is that some awareness should be taken into consideration when
implementing cooperative learning in language teaching although most research results offer
positive perspectives of cooperative learning. One weakness of using cooperative learning is that
it is time consuming for students to learn materials in a cooperative way and to work together in
groups. The allocated time for each Zataka is generally four periods and each period takes (45)
minutes. Within this allocated time, all language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and
writing have to be taught to the students. The existing time allotment may not be adequate to
teach all language skills with cooperative learning model. In this study, cooperative learning
model is used only in teaching writing. If teachers get sufficient time, all language skills should
be taught, using cooperative learning model. Moreover, teachers should be aware of time
limitation in order to make group more meaningful.
The third suggestion is that the class-size should be small enough to carry out cooperative
learning environment. The ratio of teachers and students is one of the problems in implementing
cooperative learning environment. There are about fifty to sixty students in most classes.
Students had to sit in tight. During the study, it was found that it was difficult to arrange the
classrooms to be comfortable in cooperative structure. Because of the insufficient number of
teachers, classrooms, buildings and furniture, there are about fifty to sixty students in each
classroom of some schools in Myanmar.
The next suggestion is that teachers should emphasize the rules and duties for cooperative
learning in class and remind group members to precisely rate the contribution of each group
member. One of the greatest challenges of cooperative learning is its reliance on a positive group
dynamic to function as its highest efficiency. Conflict between individuals can diminish a
group’s ability to work together. If a student does not want to work in a group, the teacher should
discuss the advantages that students can derive from learning in groups and overcome resistance
to group activities. When students work in groups, they should do their best to make sure
everyone is involved. Moreover, the class activities should be well planned in advance to ensure
the learning process is really based on cooperative learning.
According to the results of the research, it was found that students’ narrative writing skill
and descriptive writing skill are positively correlated. Therefore, teachers and curriculum
developers need to develop plans to support not only students’ narrative writing skill but also
descriptive writing skill. By relating the narrative and descriptive writing skills, the students’
language learning will be supported to a great extent. So, it is suggested that to be able to
improve students’ narrative and descriptive writing skills, teachers should use cooperative
learning model.
Recommendations
1. In the study, the sample schools were randomly selected only from Yangon Region.
Further research should be carried out in the other states and regions so that the results
will be more generalized.
2. The study was mainly based on cooperative learning model to investigate its impact on
students' writing skills. Further research should focus on comparison between different
techniques of cooperative learning in order to determine if other cooperative learning

techniques are equally effective in producing desired learning outcomes.
3. Cooperative learning techniques were used in teaching Myanmar writing at Grade Eight.
Another research should be made in teaching other language skills and the other content
areas at the Middle and High School levels for more representative results.
4. A quasi-experimental design had to be used because there was no chance to assign
subjects randomly to group. Further research should be carried out in other states and
regions and conducted by using true-experimental design to get more valid results and to
be more reliable than the present results.
Conclusion
The purpose of the study is to investigate the influence of cooperative learning model on
teaching writing. The sample schools were selected from Yangon Region by using stratified
random sampling method. One school from each stratum was randomly chosen and a quasi-
experimental design was used in this study. As there had no right and chance to assign subjects
randomly to group, the experiment was conducted by using the intact groups existing in the
schools (two classrooms from each school were chosen randomly). The experimental groups
from the selected schools were taught writing by using cooperative learning technique. The
control groups were taught writing by using existing teaching methods used by most schools.
According to the statistical data of the posttest scores, it was concluded that the performance of
the experimental groups in all of the selected schools were better in writing skills than that of the
control groups.
The results of qualitative study also support the results of quantitative study. According to
the findings of qualitative study, it was found that most of the students had a positive attitude
towards the cooperative learning model to teaching writing. The most important fact is that both
teachers and students who participated in the research accepted the fact that this model
contributes to the improvement of students’ Myanmar language writing skill.
Acknowledgements
First of all, we would like to express our respectful gratitude to Dr. Khin Mar Khine, Associate Professor
and Head, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education and Dr. Myo Win, Retired Professor,
Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education for their invaluable guidance and suggestions
throughout PhD program. We also want to express our thanks to all participants in our study. We are indebted to all
those who provided us with insightful suggestions. Finally, we are grateful to our beloved parents who give us
opportunities to learn the valuable education.
References
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Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1998). Learning together and alone: cooperative, competitive, and individualistic
learning (5th ed.). Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.
Richards, C. J, & Renandya W. A. (Eds.), (2002). Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current
practices. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schunk, D. H., (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.). New Jersey: Prentic Hall.
Sharan, S. (1999). Handbook of cooperartive learning methods. Retrieved December 15, 2015, from
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Siddiqui, M. H., & Khan, M. S., (2009). Models of teaching- theory and research, New Dalhi APH Publishing
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APPENDIX A
Proposed Model of Cooperative Learning for Teaching Writing
Slavin (1995) Cooperative Learning Model, Robert
Glaser Basic Teaching Model Gerlach and Ely Model
Figure 1 Proposed Model of Cooperative Learning for Teaching Writing

71
THE INFLUENCE OF MATHEMATICAL TERMINOLOGY ON

STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AT THE HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL
Cin Sian Huai1 and Wai Wai Oo2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of mathematical terminology
on students' achievement at the high school level. Descriptive research study was used for
this research. Twelve high schools were randomly selected from four selected townships of
four districts from Yangon Region. The target population was (600) Grade Ten students.
As instruments, a mathematical terminology test and a mathematics achievement test were
used. The mathematical terminology test was used to investigate Grade Ten students'
understanding of mathematical terminology concerned with mathematical terms, mathematical
symbols, and mathematical structures. It included (15) items for each dimension. The
mathematics achievement test was used to explore Grade Ten students' mathematics
achievement. It involved three sections: (11) multiple choice items, (3) short questions and
(6) long questions. For obtaining reliability, the pilot test was administered. The internal
consistency of the instruments were (.780) and (.805) by using Cronbach's Alpha. In order
to know the correlation between students' understanding of mathematical terminology and
their mathematics achievement, Pearson product-moment correlation was used. The
correlation coefficient between students' understanding of mathematical terminology and
their mathematics achievement was (.682). This result shows that students' understanding of
mathematical terminology is positively related with their mathematics achievement. It means
that if students' understanding of mathematical terminology is low, their mathematics
achievement will be low. On the other hand, if students' understanding of mathematical
terminology is high, their mathematics achievement will be high. To sum up, mathematical
terminology influence on students' mathematics achievement at the high school level.
Keywords: mathematics, terminology, mathematical terminology, mathematical term,
mathematical symbol, mathematical structure.
Introduction
Education is as a basic human need, integral part of the quality of life, a support
for moral and social values, and an instrument for economic productivity. Human beings
create their society by using education as a tool. Education can only enhance the status
of an era, a country, a nation, and a life. It is more noticeable in 21st century because a
person needs to be educated to handle with the demands of the century including science
and technology. It is hard to imagine today without using some form of technology. The
origin of this interesting technology comes from mathematics. Mathematics is the necessity of
technology and science. So it can be said that mathematics is at the heart of many
successful careers and successful lives for societal development, particularly in the
extraordinary and accelerating change circumstances. Human cannot live far away from
mathematics. Since mathematics is finding the solution or solving problems, it trains a
student to be successful in 21st century that demands critical thinking and problem
solving.
Mathematics is a language itself. It has its own terminology. Mbugua (2012) stated that
mathematical terminology is a system of communication with its own set of symbols,
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, B.E.H.S(Branch) Suetut, Taungoo Township, Bago Region
2
Dr, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
convections or special words. Mathematics concepts are present by mathematical structures.

The language of mathematics consists not only of words and texts but also of symbols
and diagrams; explicit instruction can help build the connections between the elements of
mathematical language (Walle, 2001, cited in Lee, 2006 ). Bloom ( 1956, cited in Owens,
2008 ) asserted that the most type of knowledge in any particular field is its terminology.
The understanding of terminology is the foundation of the whole mathematical
knowledge and process.
If education is said as a hero, mathematics will be his gun and then the
mathematical terminology might be the bullet. The hero counts on his gun and the gun
can be nothing without having any bullets. Mathematical terminology is influent upon the
power of mathematics. It plays a vital role in teaching and learning of mathematics and
even the whole process of education. So, it is necessary to study the influence of
mathematical terminology on students ' achievements at the high school level.
Purposes
The main purpose of the study is to study the influence of mathematical
terminology on students' achievements at high school level. The specific objectives are as
follows:
1. To investigate Grade Ten students' understanding of mathematical terminology
including terms, symbols, and structures
2. To explore Grade Ten students' mathematics achievement
3. To find the relationship between students' understanding of mathematical
terminology and their mathematics achievement
4. To give suggestions for improving the understanding of terminologies in students'
learning mathematics.
Research Questions
Q1: To what extent do Grade Ten students understand mathematical terminology?
Q2: To what extent can mathematics be achieved by Grade Ten students?
Q3: Is there any relationship between students' understanding of mathematical
terminology and their mathematics achievement?
Scope of the Study
1. This study was geographically restricted to Yangon Region.
2. Participants in this study were Grade Ten students from selected schools within
2018-2019 academic year.
3. This study was limited to mathematical terminology concerned with terms, symbols,
and structures including in Grade Ten mathematics textbook.
Mathematics: Mathematics is the study of numbers, quantities, shapes, and space using
mathematical processes, rules, and symbols ( Barker, 1964 ).
Terminology: A structured set of concepts and their designations ( graphical symbols,
terms, phraseological units, etc. ) in a specific subject field ( University of Surrey, 2018 ).
Mathematical terminology: Mathematical terminology is a system of communication with

its own set of terms, symbols and or structures ( Mbugua, 2012 ).
Mathematical term: Mathematical term refers to a word that labels mathematical
concepts e.g. quotient, chord, power, area among others ( Wanjiru, 2015 ).
Mathematical symbol: Mathematical symbol is a concise way of giving lengthy
instructions related to numbers and logic ( Cobb, 2009 ).
Mathematical structure: A mathematical structure is a set or sometimes several sets with
various associated mathematical objects such as subsets, operations and relations, all of
which must satisfy various requirements. The collection of associated mathematical objects
is called the mathematical structure ( Wells, 2017 ).

Mathematics as a Language
Mathematics is the essential tool to empower people with the knowledge,
competencies and attitudes which are precursors for the dynamic world. Learning
mathematics is like learning a new language. All languages have their own terminology, and
mathematics is no exception. Unlike common English, which students hear, see, and use
daily in reading, watching television, and conversing, the language of mathematics is
limited largely to school ( Thompson & Rubenstein 2000, cited Lee, 2006 ). It is the study
of abstract system built of abstracts. It is a systematized, organized and exact branch of science.
Mathematics is the language of physical science. It has its own terminology - terms, symbols,
structures. Mathematics ideas can be understood by making connections between terms,
symbols, structures and real - life situations ( Lee, 2006 ). Terminology is a pivotal
component of mathematics success (Seethaler, Fuchs, Star, & Bryant, 2011, cited in Wanjiru,
2015), and a student's general knowledge of mathematical terminology can predict mathematical
performance (Walt, 2009, cited in Wanjiru, 2015).
Mathematical Terminology
Phyllis and Whitin (2000, cited in Lee, 2006) reminded that mathematics is
language too. Since each language has its own terminology, mathematics has its unique
mathematical terminology. Undoubtedly, the many difficulties that students face when
learning the terminology of mathematics are complex and can negatively impact their
language development. Students have to learn and use the terminology of mathematics to
understand the many difficulties that it presents students. Mathematical terminology is a
system of communication with its own set of terms, symbols and or structures ( Mbugua,
2012 ).
Mathematical Terms
Mathematics learning can generally be divided into three periods. In the first period,
mathematics can be taught without knowing the mathematical terms. It just needs to read
and write the numbers, for example: 1, 2, 3, …. In the second period, mathematics learning
depends on the term of mathematics. In this period, there are two kinds of mathematics. The
initial one needs to understand the mathematical language and another one does not. After
this period, most of mathematics learning depends on the terms of mathematics. Definition
of mathematical terms may be regarded as the most importance of mathematics learning.

Mathematical terms refers to words that label mathematical concepts :quotient, chord, power,
are a among others( Wanjiru, 2015 ).
According to the research of Rubenstein and Thompson (2002, cited in Owens,
2008 ), there are at least (11) categories of difficulties associated with meaning of mathematical
terms. The categories are defined in the following manner: (a) meanings are context dependent,
for example: foot as in (12) inches vs. the foot of the bed, (b) mathematical meanings are more
precise, for example: product as the solution to a multiplication problem vs. the product
of a company, (c) terms specific to mathematical contexts, for example: polygon, parallelogram,
imaginary number, (d) multiple meanings, for example: side of a triangle vs. side of a cube,
(e) discipline-specific technical meanings, for example: cone as in the shape vs. cone as in
what one eats, (f) homonyms with everyday words, for example: pi vs. pie, (g) related but
different words, for example: circumference vs. perimeter, (h) specific challenges with translated
words, for example: mesa vs.table, (i) irregularities in spelling, for example: obelus vs. obeli,
(j) concepts may be verbalized in more than one way, for example: (15) minutes past vs.
quarter after, and (k) students and teachers adopt informal terms instead of mathematical
terms , for example diamond vs. rhombus. These categories of difficulties associated with
meaning of mathematical terms are leading to misunderstanding in learning mathematics.
In other words, mastery in mathematical term may lead success in learning mathematics.
Mathematical Symbols
The terminology of mathematics consists not only of words or terms but also of
symbols and diagrams; explicit instruction can help build the connections between these
elements of mathematical terminology ( Walle, 2001, cited in Owens, 2008). Symbols are a
communication tool. Mathematical symbols can put the lengthy statements, accurately and
in exact form, in a brief description. For example if someone wish to say that the sum
of the squares of two sides of a right triangle is equal to the square of the hypotenuse,
then it can be written in symbolic form as c2 = a2 + b2. For the ancient Greeks, a symbol
was a “token, sign, mark” or anything that would be comparable to the real thing whose
place it took. In mathematics a symbol is a sign that stands for a quantity, an operation,
or a relation. Symbols are used to eliminate the need to write long, plain language instructions
to describe calculations and other processes. The literature on the symbols of mathematics,
such as constants and variables is enormous. Symbols in mathematics are generally used in
two forms. The first is the process of what can be called alphabetization in mathematical
discourse. The second is the process of meaning that accrues to symbols through the
processes of `pattern recognition' and the privileging of formal similarity in symbolic, graphic
forms.
Mathematical Structures
Mathematics can be described as the art of creating and exploring mathematical
structures. A structure in the everyday sense might think of buildings, houses, and bridges.
It may also be said as a more abstract object involving some form of complex organization.
The plot of a movie, a musical composition, and government bureaucracies all are structures
in some sense. All of these are instances in which small sub – structures are organized in
ways to create larger, more complicated patterns. A building is nothing but the complicated
organization of smaller sub – structures such as bricks, cement, wood, and iron. Mathematics
is no different as the construction of a building. A mathematical structure is nothing but a

(more or less) complicated organization of smaller, more fundamental mathematical
substructures. Numbers are one kind of structure, and they can be used to build bigger
structures like vectors, matrices and calculus. A structure consists of a set together with
one or more binary operations, which are required to satisfy certain axioms. The binary
operation in this definition may be any operation at all, such as addition, multiplication,
or composition of functions.
The mathematical structures of a lesson differ from one lesson to the next.
Studying mathematics is like building a castle in one's head. When building a castle, it needs
first to learn to build a brick, and once that is mastered, then it can be used to build a
wall. Stronger bricks allow for higher walls and bigger towers. The beauty of a mathematical
structure comes from its ability to have larger structures built from it. Certain mathematical
concepts allow for faster building than others. Mathematical structure means the identification
of general properties which are instantiated in particular situations as relationships between
elements. These elements can be mathematical objects like numbers and triangles, sets with
functions between them, relations on sets, even relations between relations in an ongoing
hierarchy.
Research Method
Research Design and Sample Size
The research design for this study is a descriptive survey research design which
seeks to determine whether, and to what extent, a relationship exists between mathematical
terminology such as mathematical terms, mathematical symbols, and mathematical structures
and students' achievement at the high school level. In this study, data were collected through
a quantitative method. All participants were Grade Ten students from Yangon Region. The
sample schools were selected by using stratified random sampling method. Three high schools
were selected from a township in each district. Therefore, twelve high schools were included
and (600) Grade Ten students participated in this study.
Instruments
A mathematical terminology test for students' understanding of mathematical terminology
and a mathematics achievement test were used as the instruments. The mathematical
terminology test consisted of (15) mathematical terms, (15) mathematical symbols, and (15)
mathematical structures. To investigate Grade Ten students' achievement, a mathematics
achievement test was constructed. The instruments were based on the content area of Grade
Ten mathematics textbooks prescribed by the Department of Basic Education Curriculum,
Syllabus and Textbook Committee.
Research Findings
Based on the scores in mathematical terminology test, understanding of
mathematical terminology was divided into three levels: low, moderate, and high.
Table 1 Level of Students' Understanding of Mathematical Terminology

Level Score (x) Number of Students Percentage (%)
Low x ≤19.27 108 18
Moderate 19.27 < x <35.23 396 66
High x ≥ 35.23 96 16
Total 600 100
Table 1 showed that students whose scores were below and inclusive (19.27) were
included in low level of understanding mathematical terminology, students whose scores
were between (19.27) and (35.23) were in moderate level, and students whose scores
were above and inclusive (35.23) were included in high level. Then, 18% of students
(108) were low in understanding of mathematical terminology, 66% of students (396)
were moderate in understanding of mathematical terminology, and 16% of students (96)
were high in understanding of mathematical terminology.
Based on the results of the mathematics achievement test, students’ achievement of
mathematics was divided into three levels: low, moderate, and high.
Table 2 Level of Students’ Achievement in Mathematics
Level Score (x) Number of Students Percentage (%)
Low x ≤ 8.59 93 15.5
Moderate 8.59 < x < 31.95 399 66.5
High x ≥ 31.95 108 18
Total 600 100
Table 2 showed that students whose scores were below and inclusive (8.59) were
included in low level of achievement in mathematics, students whose scores were
between (8.59) and (31.95) were in moderate level, and students whose scores were above
and inclusive (31.95) were included in high level. Then, 15.5% of students (93 students)
were low in mathematics achievement, 66.5% of students (399 students) were moderate in
mathematics achievement, and 18% of students (108 students) were high in mathematics
achievement.
For the relationship between students' understanding of mathematical terminology
and their mathematics achievement, the results are summarized in Figure 1.
Understanding of
Mathematical
Terminology
Understanding of Understanding of Understanding of r = .682

Mathematical Terms Mathematical Mathematical
Symbols Structures
r = .522
r = .626 r = .614
Mathematics
Achievement
Figure 1 Correlation between Students' Understanding of Mathematical Terminology and

their Mathematics Achievement
According to Figure 1, students' understanding of mathematical terms is positively
correlated with their mathematics achievement (r = .626, p<.01). Students' understanding of
mathematical symbols is positively correlated with mathematics achievement (r = .522, p<.01).
Students' understanding of mathematical structures is positively correlated with mathematics
achievement (r = .614, p<.01). Students' understanding of mathematical terminology is
positively correlated with mathematics achievement (r = .682, p<.01).
Conclusion
Discussion
In the information age, science and technology make a huge revolution to the
earth. The earth is like a village with a rapid transfer of information from pole to pole.
Mathematics is a tool of information age. Mathematics is the origin of science and technology.
As knowledge of mathematics is essential for any vocation, mathematical terminology
is vital in the process of understanding mathematical knowledge. Mathematical terminology
is divided into three portions: mathematical terms, mathematical symbols, and mathematical
structures in the study. Like anyone who wants to be top must trace the first step, students
must learn first terms, symbols, and structures concerned with the topics of mathematics
learning such as algebra, geometry and trigonometry to be proficient in mathematics.
Table 1 showed that the result responses the research question (Q1): To what
extent do Grade Ten students understand mathematical terminology? By the response, 18%
of students (108) were low in understanding of mathematical terminology, 66% of
students (396) were moderate in understanding of mathematical terminology, and 16% of
students (96) were high in understanding of mathematical terminology. It can be said that
most students are in moderate level of understanding the mathematical terminology.
Table 2 replied the research question (Q2): To what extent can mathematics achievement
test be performed by Grade Ten students? From the response, 15.5% of students (93) were
low in mathematics achievement, 66.5% of students (399) were moderate in mathematics
achievement, and 18% of students (108) were high in mathematics achievement. It can be
said that most students are in moderate level of achievement in mathematics.
Based on the obtained data, the correlation between students' understanding of
mathematical terminology and their mathematics achievement was found that r = .682,
p <.01. It is strongly correlated as the size of the correlation coefficient is between 0.65
and 1 (Mills & Gay, 2016). Therefore, students' understanding of mathematical terminology
is strongly correlated with their achievement in mathematics. This result showed that the
direction of the correlation was positive and it pointed out that students' understanding of
mathematical terminology is high, and then their mathematics achievement will be high.
But if students' understanding of mathematical terminology is low, their mathematics
achievement will be low. So, this finding answered to the research question (Q3): Is there
any relationship between students' mathematics achievement and their understanding of
mathematical terminology? This result supports the finding of Mbugua (2012): the
understanding in mathematical terminology is also poor as achievement in the subject. The
result also supports that knowledge of terminology influences achievement in mathematics
(Sepeng & Madzoreras, 2014).
To sum up, mathematical terminology plays a critical role in mathematics
achievement in High School level of mathematics education. To be high in understanding
of mathematical terminology, some suggestions are presented as follows.
Suggestions
Mathematics is a compulsory component for human life. Mathematical knowledge is
helpful in character and personality development. Mathematical instruction in basic education
is the most fundamental process to be sound in mathematical knowledge . Mathematics
instruction that encourages appropriate teacher and student communication provides
contexts for learning the terminology of mathematics (NCTM, 1990). Pimm (1981, cited in
Sepang & Madzorera, 2014) also expressed that mathematical terminology poses numerous
challenges to learners' comprehension in solving related tasks, especially those involving
word problems. Mathematical terminology used in mathematics problems appears to be an
academic obstacle to learner' success in problem solving.
Therefore, students should be taught mathematical terminology concerned with
mathematical terms, mathematical symbols, and mathematical structures in detail before
problem solving. Developing and then using a systematic plan for teaching terminology
will maximize and facilitate improved students' performance in mathematics. It is
important that teachers to apply general language instructional techniques to mathematical
language on a regular basis.
According to Moore and Readence (1984), the graphic organizer may be one of
general language instructional techniques. A graphic organizer represents concepts and their
relationships visually. It helps students to understand a concept and recognize similarities
and differences between that concept and other concepts. So, teachers should teach with
graphic organizer, representing the concept word, its definition, characteristics word, the
examples and non-examples of concept word. As an example, in teaching the word

"rectangle", the teacher should explain its concept with its definition as well as examples
of rectangle such as blackboard, textbooks, and non-examples of rectangle such as chalk,
ball.
To maximize students' learning of terminology in achieving positive academic
outcomes across content areas, teachers should begin terminology instruction by providing
students with an informal description, explanation, or example of the new terminology either
directly or through indirect means. This will help students begin the process of connecting the
new meaning to their prior knowledge. It is important to provide students with opportunities
to restate the teacher-provided descriptions, explanation, or examples in their own words.
This opportunity reinforces the connections to their prior knowledge. Teachers should also help
to strengthen the linkage to prior knowledge, students are asked to construct a picture,
symbol, or graphic representation of the term or phrase, and provide students with periodic
opportunities to reengage in a variety of activities to help them further develop and enrich their
knowledge. Students often only develop surface-level understanding of the material, and
educators should give opportunities for further engagement students will gain the desired deep
understanding necessary for mathematical reasoning and communication.
Moreover, students should be involved in small-group and or peer-to-peer discussions
on specific terminology further develop a deeper understanding. Teachers should reduce
misconceptions that may have formed in students when some mathematical terms have double
meanings such as the word "square" that means double multiplication and a rectangle with all
sides are equal. Moreover, some mathematical symbols do not like their abbreviation such as
the symbol of slope is “ m” while the symbol of mean is “μ”. At that time, students used to be
ambiguous between the term and symbol and then it leaded to choose uncertain structures
for a problem. So teachers should give the clear instruction between mathematical terminologies
to lessen students' hazy memories concerned with them.
Furthermore, medium of instruction starts with English, second language, from Grade
Ten of Basic Education in Myanmar. Students face several difficulties in learning subjects
due to changing the medium of instruction. According to Gueudet (2016), any change or
transition process can be either continuous or discontinuous, with identified ruptures or
gaps. This change could become apparent as an epistemological obstacle, as a cognitive
discontinuity or as a didactical gap. A transition would be identified as a necessity for
entering into a different type of discourse (in terms of the language, symbols, tools and
representations involved). So, mathematics teachers should help students to transmit this
transition period well. If students do not understand what the meanings of mathematical
terminology, they will not be interested to solve problem. If they cannot solve the problem,
they will have mathematics phobia. To sum up, the mathematics teachers should teach
students the mathematical terminology before problem solving in mathematics, and schools
should also support additional textbooks, workbooks, and real objects if it can be such as
coins, dice, and charts to facilitate in understanding of mathematical terminology. Hence,
high understanding of mathematical terminology may lead to high achievement in mathematics.
In addition, this study dealt with the influence of mathematical terminology concerned
with mathematical terms, mathematical symbols, and mathematical structures, on students'
achievement at the high school level. Since mathematics is a compulsory subject for all levels of
basic education, further studies should be conducted for other levels such as primary level
and middle level concerned with notations, representations, sign and so on. Sound foundation
of mathematical terminology from primary level would mold perfect performance in
mathematics towards middle level and high level of mathematics education.
Conclusion
Mathematics is an integral part of daily life. A day begins with mathematics and ends
with mathematics. Everything on the world can be expressed as mathematics such as the
earth is round like a circle, a day has 24 hours, and a rectangular playground has an area
of 50 square-meters. Mathematics is concerned with physics, chemistry, biology, history,
geography, and so on. If English is an international language, Mathematics will be a universal
language. Each language has its own terminology: terms, symbols, structures, notations,
representations and so on. Mathematics has its own terminology. Mathematical terminology
was defined a system of language with mathematical terms, mathematical symbols, and
mathematical structures in the study.
Many educators admitted that understanding of mathematical terminology is essential
in the whole process of mathematics teaching and learning. It communicates the concepts of
mathematics and problem solving. It leads factual understanding to the conceptual understanding
of mathematics. So, it is necessary to understand the importance of mathematical terminology
in mathematics.
According to the above results, generalization can be drawn that if students'
understanding of mathematical terminology is high, achievement in mathematics will be high. It
can also be summarized that if students' understanding of mathematical terminology is low,
their mathematics achievement will be low. So, the role of mathematical terminology is critical
in mathematics achievement. Therefore, mathematics teachers should focus on students'
understanding of mathematical terminology in mathematics education. The study will help
mathematics teachers to understand the importance of mathematical terminology in teaching
mathematics. Moreover, this study will offer a teaching aid for mathematics teachers in
teaching mathematics. It will also support in constructing curriculum of mathematics for
high school level.
Acknowledgements
We would like to offer respectful thanks to Dr. Aye Aye Myint, Retired Rector, Yangon University
of Education, Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung, Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing,
Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education who give us permission to fulfill our dream of doing this
thesis. We wish to express our deepest gratitude to our teacher, Dr Soe Than, Professor and head of Department,
Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education for his intellectual resources.
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THE EFFECT OF PARTICIPATORY TEACHING METHODS ON

STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL
Yu Yu Lwin1 and Wai Wai Oo2
Abstract
The main purpose of the present research is to study the effect of participatory teaching methods
on students’ achievement in mathematics at the middle school level. This study was conducted
with both quantitative and qualitative research methods. For quantitative research, an experimental
study was used to study the effect of participatory teaching methods. The experimental design
adopted in this study was a true experimental design, namely, posttest only control group design.
For this study, (120) Grade Six students were selected from schools such as BEHS (4),
Pazundaung and BEHS (1), Latha by simple random sampling method. These students were
divided into two groups: control and experimental. Experimental group was treated with
participatory teaching methods and control group was taught with formal instruction. After that, a
posttest was administered to two groups. Independent samples t-test was used to test whether there
was significant difference between these two groups. Examination of the means and t-test at
BEHS (4), Pazundaung (t = 9.036, p < .001) and BEHS (1), Latha (t = 17.428, p < .001) indicated
that students who were taught by using participatory teaching methods demonstrated significantly
better than those who were taught with formal instruction. For qualitative research, students from
the experimental group from two selected schools were given a questionnaire. It consists of (15)
items five-point Likert-scale. The results showed that students expressed their willingness to learn
in participatory teaching methods and they had positive attitude towards participatory teaching
methods. Research findings proved that participatory teaching methods have positive contribution
to the mathematics teaching at the middle school level.
Keywords: participatory teaching methods, achievement, mathematics
Introduction
Today, the whole world is changing fast and on the way of progress. One of the basics of
a country’s development depends on the education system. With education, individuals are able
to increase their knowledge and skills, accept new manners and be able to survive in the society.
A person cannot contribute to one’s society without education, especially the knowledge of
mathematics. The general aim of teaching mathematics is to enable students to develop in
fundamental skills and solve mathematical problems in their daily lives.
As a mathematics teacher in this modern age, it is important to provide more
opportunities for students to participate in teaching/learning process. Hence, students need more
time to think, work independently, participate or exchange ideas with others. Also, there is a need
for more engaging methods of instruction to boost students’ participation and achievement in
mathematics. Therefore, this paper aims to study the effect of participatory teaching methods on
students’ achievement in mathematics at the middle school level.
According to Khin Zaw (2001), the aims of education can be summarized into three
aspects. The first aim is to help the child to develop his personality. Secondly, it is to help the
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, No.(3), BEHS, Pabedan,Yangon
2
Dr, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
86 J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No. 9C
child to relate himself to the society in which he lives. Thirdly, it is to help those who are
growing up to be active and creative forces in society. However, in current situation in Myanmar,
the focus of standardized testing is grounded on achieving high scores. Teachers directly explain
the facts and things in the textbook and only use formal instruction. Lack of students’
participation in learning process actively is one of the problems of current mathematics
classroom in Myanmar.
The main purpose of this paper is to study the effect of participatory teaching methods on
students’ achievement in mathematics at the middle school level. The specific purposes are as
follows:
 To compare mathematics achievement between students who are taught by using
participatory teaching methods and those who are not taught,
 To study students’ attitude towards participatory teaching methods, and
 To make suggestions for the improvement of mathematics teaching and learning at the
middle school level.
Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses of this study are as follows:
 There is a significant difference in mathematics achievement between Grade Six students
who receive participatory teaching methods and who do not receive.
 There is a significant difference in mathematics achievement between experimental group
and control group in performing knowledge level questions.
and control group in performing comprehension level questions.
and control group in performing application level questions.
 Students who are taught with participatory teaching methods will have positive attitude
towards participatory teaching methods.
Scope of the Study
 This study is geographically restricted to Yangon Region.
 Participants in this study are (120) Grade Six students from the selected schools of the two
Districts: No. (4), Basic Education High School, Pazundaung and No. (1), Basic Education
High School, Latha within academic year (2018-2019).
 This study is limited content areas from Grade Six mathematics textbook volume I and II
prescribed by Basic Education Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbook Committee (2018-
2019).
 There are many methods in participatory teaching methods. This study is limited to three
methods: group discussion, project method and discovery learning.
J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No. 9C 87

Participatory Teaching Methods
Participatory teaching methods are those which draw the students into the classroom
learning process (Jones, 1987).
Achievement
Accomplishment of proficiency of performance in a given skills or body of knowledge
(Good, 1959).
Mathematics
The gateway and key to all sciences (Bacon, n. d., cited in Zubair, 2012).
People have to know about the 21st century skills and need to improve them in today’s
children. Without these skills, children will not be able to successfully participate in the global
economy. Teaching styles need to shift from teacher-centered teaching approach to child-
centered approach. The roles of students who receive teacher-directed instruction are to listen,
wait, take tests and do seatwork. The needs of students will not be filled. Unlike this, children are
needed to be active and interested in learning process which allows them to participate freely.
To meet the challenges of the 21st century, teachers should provide the classrooms which
welcome students to participate more than the past in the education process. Similarly,
mathematics is essential for the development of education system because it relies on logic.
Certain qualities are nurtured by mathematical thinking skills such as reasoning and critical
thinking skills. Thus, mathematics, a valuable and essential subject, should not be taught with
formal teaching styles. It should be taught with effective teaching methods which can promote
students’ attitude towards mathematics and mathematical skills. Hence, the paper will seek to
reveal the effect of participatory teaching methods on students’ achievement in mathematics at
the middle school level.

Participatory Teaching Methods
The essence of participatory teaching methods is to let students participate in classroom
tasks instead of acting as a passive bystander role and to allow students to truly experience. Due
to Suffolk (2004), effective teaching can be achieved only when participatory teaching methods
are applied in the classroom. Participatory teaching methods compel teachers to create learning
environments which give a room for students to discover by themselves instead of being spoon
fed. The assumption behind these methods is that students are given an opportunity to actively
construct meaning and understanding during the learning process. These methods discourage
passive assimilation of knowledge and support acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes by
solving problems in life.
There are many methods in participatory teaching methods or learner-centered methods.
Among them, group discussion, project method and discovery learning are used as a treatment
for experimental group in this paper.
Group Discussion
Group discussion is a primary teaching method which allows students to stimulate critical
thinking. When using group discussion, the teacher can challenge them to think more deeply and
to articulate their ideas more clearly. Learning within groups is more effective in terms of
academic success comparison to competitive and individualized learning systems.
Steps in Group Discussion
(1) Assign small groups
(2) Assign a leader
(3) Write problem
(4) Attack problem
(5) Record all solutions and draw conclusions (Dhand, 2010)
Project Method
Project method provides a practical approach to learning. This method leads to
understanding and develops the ability to apply knowledge. The teacher has to work as a careful
guide during the execution of the project. Students can perform constructivist activities in natural
condition. Students are provided with various opportunities that can satisfy their interest and
desires towards mathematics. Project method helps in promoting social interaction among
students because they have to work in a group and have to interact with others to get information.
As students gain knowledge directly through their own effort, they acquire permanent kind of
information.
Steps in Project Method
(1) Provide a situation
(2) Choose and purpose
(3) Plan the project
(4) Execute the project
(5) Judge the project
(6) Record (Mishra, 2009)
Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is an active style of learning, originated by Jerome Bruner in the
1960s. Bruner emphasized “learning by doing.” With this, students actively participate instead of
passively receiving knowledge and interact with their environment by exploring objects and
thinking about questions. They are encouraged to think, ask questions, hypothesize, speculate,
cooperate and collaborate with others. Discovery learning takes into consideration that all
students have some background knowledge that they may be able to apply to mathematics at
hand.
Steps in Discovery Learning
(1) Select generalization
(2) Set up a problem situation
(3) Set up experiences that will bring out the essential elements
(4) Set up experiences that will bring out contrasting elements
(5) Draw generalization
(6) Apply generalization (Callahan & Clark, 1988)
Research Method
Research Design and Procedure
The design adopted in this study was one of the true experimental designs, via, the
posttest only control group design. At the start of the research experiment, students were
randomly divided into two groups as experimental group and control group according to the
scores of October test. In each school, the experimental group was given a treatment by using
participatory teaching methods such as group discussion, project method and discovery learning.
In each school, the control group was given a treatment by using formal instruction. At the end of
the treatment period, all selected students had to sit for posttest and a questionnaire for students’
attitude towards participatory teaching methods.
Instruments
A posttest was constructed to measure the mathematics achievement of the students. It
consisted of two sections. Section (A) contained (10) multiple choice items and section (B)
contained (8) five-mark items. Test items were constructed based on the content areas of
Chapters (7) and (8) from mathematics textbook volume I and Chapters (7) and (8) from
mathematics textbook volume II. This test was also constructed based on Bloom’s taxonomy of
educational objectives (knowledge, comprehension, application). The students had to answer all
questions.
Table1 Table of Specifications for Posttest
Mathematics Mathematics
Question Textbook Volume I Textbook Volume II
Section Total
Level Chapter Chapter
(7) (8) (7) (8)
(A) Knowledge - 1 3 1 10
1 mark Comprehension 1 - - 3 1 mark × 10
Application 1 - - - (10 marks)
(B) Knowledge - - - - 8
5 marks Comprehension - 2 - 2 5 marks × 8
Application 2 - 2 - (40 marks)
Questionnaire for students’ attitude towards participatory teaching methods was
developed based on the literature by Muhangwa, G. M. (2011), advantages of participatory
teaching methods. This questionnaire consisted of (15) items on a five-point Likert scale of (1) to
(5). It contained five dimensions. Each dimension contained three items.
Research Findings
Quantitative and qualitative studies are made in this research.
Table 2 t-Values for Posttest Mathematics Achievement Scores
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS (4), Experimental 30 27.27 5.05
11.04 9.036 58 .000***
Pazundaung Control 30 16.23 4.38
BEHS (1), Latha 18.70 17.428 58 .000***
Control 30 13.47 3.27
Note: ***p < .001
The result showed that there was a significant difference between the students who were
taught by using participatory teaching methods and those who were taught with formal
instruction on the overall scores of mathematics achievement in the selected.
Table 3 t-Values for Scores on Knowledge Level Questions
Sig.
(2-tailed)
0.87 3.591 58 .001**
BEHS (1), Latha 1.10 4.151 58 .000***
Control 30 2.20 0.99
Note: **p < .01, ***p < 0.001
Table 3 shows that there was a significant difference between the students who were
instruction in performing on knowledge level questions in the selected schools.
The comparison of means for knowledge level questions revealed that experimental
groups who received participatory teaching methods did better in their knowledge level questions
of mathematics achievement than control groups who did not receive them. Thus, teaching with
participatory teaching methods could bring about the improvement of the students’ ability to
remember previously learned materials and recall ideas and specific facts schools (see Figure 1
& 2).
Table 4 t-Values for Scores on Comprehension Level Questions
Sig.
(2-tailed)
8.10 8.628 58 .000***
BEHS (1), Latha 12.06 18.236 58 .000***
Control 30 9.47 2.30
Note: ***p < .001
instruction in performing on comprehension level questions in the selected schools.
It revealed that experimental groups who received participatory teaching methods did
better in their comprehension level questions of mathematics achievement than control groups
who did not receive them. Thus, teaching with participatory teaching methods could bring about
the improvement of the students’ ability to understand the meanings of learned materials,
concepts and facts schools (see Figure 1& 2).
Table 5 t-Values for Scores on Application Level Questions
Sig.
(2-tailed)
2.10 4.358 58 .000***
BEHS (1), Latha 5.53 10.211 58 .000***
Control 30 1.80 1.44
Note: ***p < .001
instruction in performing on application level questions in the selected schools.
The comparison of means for application level questions revealed that experimental
groups who received participatory teaching methods did better in their application level questions
of mathematics achievement than control groups who did not receive them. Thus, teaching with
participatory teaching methods could bring about the improvement of the students’ ability to
apply knowledge and facts that they have learned in the new situations, use general ideas and
generalize methods schools (see Figure 1& 2).
BEHS (4), Pazundaung

30 27.27
25
19.03
20
16.23
Mean
15
10.93 Experimental
10 Control
4.77
5 3.47 2.60 2.67
0
Knowledge Comprehension Application Total
Level of Question
Figure 1 Comparison of Posttest Means of BEHS (4), Pazundaung

BEHS (1), Latha

35 32.17
30
25 21.53
20
Mean
15 13.47 Experimental
9.47 Control
10 7.33
5 3.30 2.20
1.80
0
Knowledge Comprehension Application Total
Level of Question
Figure 2 Comparison of Posttest Means of BEHS (1), Latha

Qualitative Research Findings
Students’ Attitude
12.1%
2.4%
[VALUE]
Students who had positive attitude Students who did not have positive attitude
Students who had neutral attitude
Figure 3 Percentage of Students’ Attitude towards Participatory Teaching Methods
In this research, 85.5% of students of experimental groups have positive attitude towards
participatory teaching methods. It can be interpreted that participatory teaching methods increase
the students’ interest, self-confidence, thinking, communication skill and problem solving skill.
Thus, it can be summarized that the students’ attitude towards participatory teaching methods is
positive in both selected schools.
Conclusion
Discussion
According to the findings, the means of experimental groups were significantly higher
than that of control groups in the selected sample schools. It showed that the use of participatory
teaching methods had significant effect on mathematics achievement of the students. Thus, this
finding supports the first hypothesis: There is a significant difference in mathematics
achievement between Grade Six students who receive participatory teaching methods and who do
not receive. It can be inferred that participatory teaching methods can achieve success in
mathematics teaching and learning at the middle school level.
According to the comparison of means on each level questions for both selected schools,
the findings showed the achievement of experimental groups was significantly higher than that of
control groups. This finding supports the second, third, fourth hypotheses. There is a significant
difference in mathematics achievement between experimental group and control group in
performing knowledge, comprehension and application level questions. It can be interpreted that
the students of experimental groups are more able to recognize the learned materials or
information, to improve the ability to grasp the meaning of learned materials and to be more
skillful in the use of ideas in particular situations than those of control groups.
One of the specific purposes of this research is to study students’ attitude towards
participatory teaching methods. According to the findings, 85.5% of students who had positive
attitude on overall items of attitude questionnaire, 12.1% of those who had neutral attitude and
2.4% of those who did not have positive attitude on them. Thus, it can be summarized that
students’ attitude towards participatory teaching methods is positive in both selected schools. The
finding supports the fifth hypothesis: The students who are taught with participatory teaching
methods will have positive attitude towards participatory teaching methods. It can also be
interpreted that participatory teaching methods increase the students’ interest, self-confidence,
thinking, communication skill and problem solving skill.
In this study, most of the students of experimental groups were alive, interested in their
learning process and solved problems by themselves. Thus, this finding is consistent with
Muhangwa (2011) who stated that participatory teaching methods make the students become
more actively engaged in the learning process, solve problems, think critically, pose challenges
and collaboratively construct knowledge. The situations in the class are contrary for teachers who
were using traditional teaching.
Next, the students with group discussion were more active than those who received
formal instruction. Group discussion increased the students’ understanding of a lesson, supported
in generating more ideas about a topic and helped the students to build confidence. Group
discussion could lead to cognitive benefits by engaging the students in thinking of their ideas. By
exchanging ideas and considering others’ perspectives, the students were prompted to remember
their existing ideas more as well as to integrate new ideas into their existing knowledge.
Then, although project method took time, it helped in growing knowledge and increased
social participation. It encouraged the students’ investigation and creativity. The students were
motivated for further study. In this study, the students could make self-study activities, developed
cooperation and showed their competence.
In discovery learning, the students participated more actively in learning process than the
students who received formal instruction and fostered an attitude of inquiry. The result of this
study revealed that discovery learning had an influence on the mastery of the students’
mathematical concepts. The students involved actively in the learning process such as thinking
by themselves, finding out contrasting elements and generalization of concepts.
In this study, the students of control groups were taught learning materials with formal
instruction. The teacher directly explained the problems and the students listened passively at the
same time. As the teacher rarely used group work in this classroom, the students were not able to
discuss with their peers, work together and discover the solution by themselves. On the other
hand, the students of experimental groups were actively involved in their learning process by
discussing among groups, working out projects and discovering the solutions in hand-on
activities.
To sum up, the findings mentioned above pointed out that participatory teaching methods
have positive contribution to the achievement of students in mathematics. The students were
interested in teaching with them and they participated willingly in the teaching/learning process
in this study. Through participatory teaching methods, the students can receive opportunities to
learn mathematics through various activities under the facilitation of the teacher. Participatory
teaching methods can be applied for teaching mathematics at all levels of basic education to help
the students for attaining academic achievement. Thus, participatory teaching methods if
employed in mathematics classroom would bring about higher achievement of the students.
Suggestions
Although group discussion has a few disadvantages such as difficulties in group position,
teacher can overcome this problem with careful preparation. In the ways of accepting students’
ideas, reinforcing their discussions and providing feedback at the necessary time, teacher can use
group discussion without getting any constraints. Therefore, mathematics teaching and learning
will be effective by utilizing group discussion.
One of the disadvantages of using project method is time-consuming. However, it
depends on teacher’s work and management. If teacher observes simultaneously and gives
guidance at the specific time, using project method can make students active and successful in
academic achievement. It cannot be denied that students participate actively in learning process,
develop social communication and improve the skill of cooperation by using group project.
Every method has both advantages and disadvantages. So, discovery learning has a small
number of disadvantages. But, it can make students develop feeling of autonomy, critical
thinking skills and habit of searching information. Moreover, discovery learning can be used not
only for groups but also for individuals. To sum up, participatory teaching methods such as group
discussion, project method and discovery learning should be used for promoting communication
skill among the students, participation in teaching/learning process, thinking skills and
cooperation between teacher and students or among students.
Based on the research findings and interpretations, participatory teaching methods should
be used in classroom teaching but this study is not perfect because there are some limitations in
this study such as time duration and content areas. With respect to the research findings, the
following points are suggested.
 The teacher should explain clearly to the students about the steps in the method used and
allow them to participate in the teaching/learning process and the teacher should give the
students guidance and help what they need.
 The teacher should manage carefully classroom conditions to reduce time constraints.
 The teacher should encourage and pay attention for their students to learn and participate
enthusiastically in learning activities.
 The teacher should provide opportunities for the students to be able to apply their
knowledge in real life.
 The teacher needs to relate the learned materials with real situation so that the students will
be more interested in their learning.
 The teacher should allow the students to think critically, make hand-on activities and solve
problems by themselves instead of memorizing facts and repetition of solving problems
without reasoning skills.
 The teacher should make valuable opportunities to provide the students with a clear
understanding of concepts by using teaching aids.
 The teacher should impart information by using questions or hints so that the students can
get high retention in applying these methods.
 This study is specifically contributed to mathematics teaching at the middle school level.
Although this research was concerned with mathematics teaching, it can also be applied in
other subjects and various school levels including primary school level and high school
level.
 There are many methods in participatory teaching methods. However, group discussion,
project method and discovery learning were used. Thus, other methods involved in
participatory teaching methods can be applied in further studies.
 This study was done in the Yangon Region. Therefore, further researches should be carried
out in other States and Regions.
Conclusion
There are many sectors for the development of a country such as economics, politics and
education. Thus, educated people are important resources to develop a country. At the basic
education level, education is mostly dependent on the students’ achievement in their academic
subjects. Among many academic subjects, mathematics is one which dominates people’s lives.
Thus, in teaching mathematics, the teachers should not only teach facts, information and how to
calculate problems, but also allow the students to think critically, participate in the learning
process and study themselves to be more clear. That is why, the implications of participatory
teaching methods may lead the students to be good in learning process and using mathematics in
their daily life.
The main purpose of the present study is to study the effect of participatory teaching
methods on students’ achievement in mathematics at the middle school level. The students of
experimental groups who received participatory teaching methods had higher achievement in
mathematics than those of the control groups who received formal instruction. Statistical results
verified that participatory teaching methods were superior in improving the students’
mathematics achievement.
This may be because the exposure to participatory teaching methods allows the students
to think critically and actively participate in the learning process. Another result was that the
students of experimental groups could perform better in answering posttest at knowledge,
comprehension and application levels than those of control groups. Therefore, it can concluded
that participatory teaching methods improve the students’ ability to recall learned materials,
remember information, comprehend learning materials and apply knowledge in new situation or
problems.
Secondly, a qualitative study was done to study the students’ attitude towards
participatory teaching methods. According to this research, it can be interpreted that the attitude
of the students towards participatory teaching methods was positive. Therefore, participatory
teaching methods are useful methods in the classroom environment.
This study is conducted to study the effect of participatory teaching methods on students’
achievement in mathematics at the middle school level. No study is perfect in one’s effort. This
study had to be carried out in four weeks duration for each group because of their December test,
the time was short for conducting research in schools.
National Research Council (2009) illustrated that students who acquired hands-on,
authentic activities may develop curiosity, interest and desire to learn more. Social skills can also
develop as the students share perceptions and knowledge with other in discussion among groups.
Mathematics teachers should make the students to participate in numerous activities and help
them to understand more. The students should participate in learning that brings in real life
situations.
Even though there are advantages and disadvantages in using participatory teaching
methods, many researchers advocated the use of participatory teaching methods in classroom. It
is known that one of the goals of education is to nurture students to participate actively in
learning process and become lifelong learners. Participatory teaching methods encourage
interaction between teachers, students, the content and environment in which learning occurs
(Wolhuter, 2014). Participatory teaching methods are important teaching methods to achieve the
aims of education and also contribute to teaching and learning mathematics.
To review, the study of the effect of participatory teaching methods is consistent with
purposes and cover hypotheses of the research. Moreover, this study showed that the students’
learning with active participation was more effective than learning with formal instruction. It
improves not only the students’ learning rate but also promotes their thinking ability. Besides,
this result recommends many mathematics teachers to achieve their teaching/learning situation.
The effective use of the participatory teaching methods has significant effect on the overall
mathematics achievement of the students. Therefore, participatory teaching methods surely have
positive contribution to the improvement of mathematics teaching at the middle school level and
lead students to be keen on participating and learning and have a positive effect on students’
academic achievement.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Aye Aye Myint, Rector, Yangon University of Education and
Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing, Pro-Rectors, Yangon University of Education for their
administrative support. We would like to record our gratitude to Dr Khin Mar Khine, Associate Professor and Head
of Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education, for her critical remarks on this paper. Special thanks
go to headmasters, teachers and students from two selected high schools for their willingness to cooperate in
carrying out this study.
References
Callahan, J. F., & Clark, L. H. (1988). Teaching in the middle and secondary schools: Planning for competence
(3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Dhand, H. (2010). Techniques of teaching. New Delhi: A P H Publishing Corporation.
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Khin Zaw (2001).Ph.D. course materials: Advanced educational psychology. Yangon University of Education.
Mishra, L. (2009). Teaching of mathematics. New Delhi: A P H Publishing corporation.
Muhangwa, G. M. (2011). The effects of participatory teaching methods on the students’ learning outcomes in
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National Research Council (2009). Learning science in informal environment: People, place and pursuits.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Suffolk, J. (2004). Teaching primary mathematics. New York: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Wolhuter, C. (2014). Education in east and central Africa. London: Bloomsburry Publishing Plc.
Zubair, P. P. (2012). Teaching of mathematics. New Delhi: A P H Publishing Corporation.
TEACHERS' UNDERSTANDING OF TEACHING-LEARNING

SITUATION AND INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES IN CHEMISTRY
TEACHING
Khin Mar Aung1 and Khin Mu Mu Han2
Abstract
The main aim of this study is to investigate understanding of high school chemistry teachers and
their instructional practices in chemistry teaching. In this paper, questionnaire survey method, one
of the descriptive methods, was used. Forty-eight high schools were selected with the adoption of
stratified random sampling technique from Yangon Region. The participants of the sample were
high school chemistry teachers. In order to get the required data, the questionnaire having sixty
items with five point Likert-type scales and demographic data were developed. The questionnaire
was based on five dimensions for teachers’ understanding: teaching profession, curricular context,
instructional strategies, students’ learning needs and assessment. The questionnaire for
instructional practices was based on three dimensions: structured practices, student-oriented
practices and enhanced activities. The internal consistency of the pilot test was 0.837 and 0.8. The
collected data of this study were systematically analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS) software version as it is widely used in quantitative research. The descriptive
analysis techniques were used to tabulate percentages, means and standard deviations. The results
showed that the percentages of moderate level of chemistry teachers’ understanding were more
than high and low level of understanding teaching and learning aspects. According to Pearson
product moment correlation result, it was found that there was a positive, moderate relationship
between chemistry teachers’ understanding of teaching-learning situation and instructional
practices, (r=.391).It can be interpreted that teachers’ understanding conveyed the associated ideas
in chemistry teaching.
Keywords: understanding, instructional practices, teaching, learning
Introduction
Education is one of the essential tools for national development. The level of socio-
economic development in the country is strongly connected to education. It is generally accepted
that the quality education leads to economic growth hence reduced poverty, improve health and
generate creative citizens. Myanmar is striving for quality education by advocating for quality
teaching method that can make positive impact on learners through pre-service and in-service
teacher education at all levels, to reach the ultimate goal of creating scientifically literate citizens.
And thus, teachers’ understanding in the meaning, functions and objectives of education are very
crucial as a role in implementing the goals of education. Sullivan (1996, cited in Loughran et al,
2012) said that one of the pre-requisite to be good teacher is to understand the teaching and
learning process in more depth. And this will facilitate better appreciation of the teaching
profession as well as the process of imparting education.
Teaching is an art depending on the individual teacher’ skills in using various teaching
methods to suit the subject, topic and the students. The most changes that are impinging in
education are science and its application. Chemistry education is also necessary because of its
value in the students’ individual life as well as in society. And thus, there is a need for a shift of
emphasis in the teaching of chemistry.
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, BEHS (Mawteik), Indaw Township
2
Dr, Lecturer, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education

The main purposes of the study are
(1) to inquire teachers’ understanding of teaching-learning situation in chemistry teaching
(2) to investigate the relationship between chemistry teachers’ understanding of teaching-
learning situations and their instructional practices
(3) to give suggestions for improving chemistry teaching and professional development of
chemistry teachers
Research Questions
According to the above research purpose, the following research questions were posed;
(RQ 1) To what extent do chemistry teachers understand teaching and learning ideas?
(RQ 2) To what extent are teachers’ understanding conveyed during chemistry teachers’
instructional practices?
(RQ 3) What is the relationship between science teachers’ understanding of teaching
learning situations and their instructional practices?
These questions explore what and how explicit teaching and learning ideas are conveyed during
regular chemistry instruction, and what relationship exists betweenteachers’ understanding and
teaching of chemistry.
Scope of the Study
(1) This study is geographically restricted to Yangon Region.
(2) Participants in this study are chemistry teachers from the selected schools within the
school year (2018-2019).
(3) Forty-eight high schools are selected for this study.
(4) Grade ten and grade eleven chemistry teachers are chosen for this study.
(5) Among Stephen Marble, Sandy Finley, and Chris Ferguson, 2000, five components of
teacher's understanding on teaching and learning (curriculum context, instructional
strategies, assessments and student’s data use and vision of teaching) are used. Three
dimensions (structured practices, student-oriented practices, enhanced activities)
developed by OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2009)
are used for instructional practices.

Understanding: Understanding involves obtaining a mental grasp of events, that is, a framework
of knowledge that spins off into practical suggestions, theoretical considerations, estimates of
worth (Scriven, 1976, cited in Loughran, 2012).
Instructional practice: Those actions exhibited by teachers in class intended to bring about a
change in behavior in the students (Beccles, 2012, cited in Alam, 2014).
Teaching: Teaching is best described as guiding and directing the learning process such that
learners acquire new knowledge, skills, or attitudes, increase their enthusiasm for learning, and
develop further their skill as learners (Newcomb et al, 1986, cited in Alam, 2014).
Learning: Learning is the process of acquiring, altering, and abandoning conceptions or

understandings (Murphy & Mason, 2000).
Background of the Study

Chemistry in school is part of the total education provision and the chemistry content is
gained so as to enhance learning in the cognitive, personal and social domains. The teaching of a
sequence of chemistry lessons begins from a relevant socio-scientific context. The teaching
progresses from the societal (the familiar) to the chemistry concepts (the unknown) which are
needed to better appreciate the issues, or concerns, and then proceeds to the socio-scientific
decision making needed (the purposeful learning involving all educational domains). Teaching
geared to the goals of education covers a wide range of intended targets in the intellectual,
personal and social domains. Conceptual learning within the subject needs to be approached in a
relevant manner, but also the teaching must not lose sight of the fact that the attitudes,
communication abilities and personal attributes (such as creativity, initiative, safe working) need
to be developed. Teachers need to recognize that curricula promoting chemistry fundamentals,
grouping chemistry concepts for scientific convenience.
Chemistry is a difficult subject to teach and to learn at both secondary and tertiary levels.
Major learning difficulties are due to the particular views of chemistry phenomena that in many
ways contradict intuitive and everyday views of the learners. As a result, major
misunderstandings occur when students try to comprehend chemical explanations within the
framework of their pre-instructional conceptions in the domain of chemistry and on attempts to
guide students from their conceptions to the core ideas of chemistry. Understanding and learning
core science concepts and principles, including those in chemistry, are difficult.
Teachers need in the continuous development of understanding about the current trends of
chemistry teaching and learning to include both the content and pedagogy of chemistry learning
and teaching. Effective teachers exhibit a breadth of knowledge, bring information together from
a variety of sources, analyze concepts effectively, and stay up to date in their specialty. The
predispositions and understandings that teachers hold are both consciously and unconsciously
replicated in their own classrooms during teaching.
Teachers’ conceptions of teaching and learning, and of how these are related to students’
approaches to learning, seem to be paramount in enhancing the quality of learning. Effective
pedagogy requires learning to be scaffolded. A major contribution to such scaffolding derives
from teachers’ understanding of both curricular knowledge and of how children and young
people learn. The teacher must know when learning is correct or incorrect, learn when to
experiment and learn from the experience, learn to monitor, seek and give feedback, and know to
try alternative learning strategies when others do not work. In a framework of continuous
learning, it is necessary for a teacher to be well conversant with the latest pedagogical know-
how. New pedagogical approaches such as cooperative learning, reciprocal learning, inquiry
based learning, project based learning on learner-centered should be adopted by 21st century
teachers.
The 21st century world has become increasingly complex. For example, the way people
communicate with one another has been unequivocally altered by communication technologies
that connect individuals in multiple networks. In education, the approach to reforming school
systems requires appreciating the complexity of teaching and learning that exist among and
between students, schools, and larger communities.
Chemistry students are unable to perceive relationships among components of chemistry
subjects. The aim of any school chemistry curriculum is not only to educate in chemistry but also
to educate through chemistry. The aim has to generate a population that is informed about
chemistry and its importance in modern day society, a population who are positively disposed to
chemistry and its impact in society. Teachers need awareness of students’ limited understanding
of complex ideas in chemistry and to be able to inspire good attitudes toward learning chemistry.
The achievement of chemistry outcomes largely depends on teachers’ interpretation and use of
teaching strategies according to the students’ needs.
Only if teachers understand teaching and learning situations, their efforts seem well in
shaping the track of students’ interests to chemistry subject. Active learning is promoted by
learning outcomes related to chemistry process skills. At present times, it is found that students
do not achieve chemistry process skills and they face difficulties in higher academic courses.
Therefore, teachers must be well-versed with chemistry teaching and learning to fulfill the needs
of the students. If not they understand the teaching and learning process well, they cannot
interpret the components of chemistry effectively. Teachers must have understanding of learning
needs and desire to fill these needs with the understanding of the connections of curriculum,
instruction and assessment. As teachers develop a reliance on their understanding of and focus on
student learning, they also begin to feel that they have a significant impact on the learning that
goes on in their classroom. Collectively, these studies indicate that teachers’ limited
understanding of teaching and learning systems remains an educational problem.

Theoretical Framework of Pedagogy
Teachers’ use of communicative strategies encourages pedagogic practices that are
interactive in nature, and is more likely to impact on student learning outcomes and hence be
effective. Pedagogic practice is developed through interaction between teachers’ thinking or
attitudes, what they do in the classroom and what they see as the outcome of their practice. These
attitudes were teachers’ positive attitudes towards their training and their students, which
positioned them in the best frame of mind to construct the teaching and learning process as an
interactive, communicative process in which teaching involved provoking a visible response in
their students that indicated that learning was taking place. Six specific strategies that promoted
this interactive pedagogy were identified in the Education Rigorous Literature Review (2013,
cited in Westbrook et al, 2013) include the following factors;
 feedback, sustained attention and inclusion;
 creating a safe environment in which students are supported in their learning;
 drawing on students’ backgrounds and experiences.
 flexible use of whole-class, group and pair work where students discuss a shared task;
 frequent and relevant use of learning materials beyond the textbook;
 open and closed questioning, expanding responses, encouraging student questioning;
 demonstration and explanation, drawing on sound pedagogical content knowledge;
 use of local languages and code switching;

 planning and varying lesson sequences.
Understanding Teaching and Learning

Today, teaching is often viewed as a routine function, tacked on, something almost
anyone can do. Great teachers create a common ground of intellectual commitment. They
stimulate active, not passive, learning and encourage students to be critical, creative thinkers,
with the capacity to go on learning. Indeed, as Aristotle said teaching is the highest form of
understanding. Marton and Booth (1997) said that teaching as a scholarship enterprise involving
the development of a knowledge of practice through building of bridges between teacher’s
understandings and students’ learning. And also Entwistle (1998) said that it includes teachers’
understanding research on student learning and deploying this knowledge in their approaches to
teaching. (Marton & Booth, 1997, Entwistle, 1998, cited in Fry et al, 1999)
Teachers’ perspectives on curriculum, assessment, instruction and their profession are
important for the students in receiving a coherent message about what is important to learn and
are assessed in a manner consistent with instruction. Ball and Cohen (1999) discussed teachers’
learning, saying
“The knowledge of the subject matter, learning, learners, and pedagogy is essential
territory of teacher’s work if they are to work as reformers imagine, but such knowledge does not
offer clear guidance, for teaching of the sort that reformers advocate requires that teachers
respond to students’ effort is to make of material. To do so, teachers additionally need to learn
how to investigate what students are doing and thinking, and how instruction has been
understood, the best way to improve both teaching and teacher learning would be to create the
capacity for much better learning about teaching as a part of teaching” (Ball and Cohen, 1999,
cited in Stephen et al, 2000).
Understanding on Students’ Learning

A typical classroom activity focuses on a segment of a curriculum topic such as a
significant concept, understanding, principle or skill (Wells, 2002b, cited in Kaur, 2012). Several
different patterns of classroom organization might be involved. The parts of an activity (such as a
whole-class discussion, completing a worksheet, conducting an experiment) are themselves
activities that have their own expected components and make a specific contribution to the larger
activity. Further, students tend to interweave elements of the smaller activities so that it is
impossible to identify when one ends and the next one begins.
The processes of understanding, knowledge acquisition, internalization and memory are
closely linked and related to individual differences in what is learned and remembered. If the
concept of an activity is to provide a useful unit of analysis for understanding the conditions
under which higher mental processes are acquired, then its theoretical basis needs to be expanded
to incorporate the cognitive representations of activities (scripts and schemas) that have proved
useful in explaining memory processes. Sheull (1993) said that it is important to remember that
what the student does is actually more important in determining what is learned than what the
teacher does. This statement is congruent with a constructivist view and reminds teachers that
students in higher education must engage with and take some responsibility for their learning.
According to Vygotsky (1978), and other sociocultural theorists (Arievitch & Van Der
Veer, 1995), the higher mental processes (involved in learning from experience) are generated
through the internalization of culturally structured social activities (Sheull, 1993, cited in Kaur,
2012). Children acquire cognitive processes as part of acquiring the culture of the society in
which they live, progressively, through constant guided participation in the activities and rituals
that make up daily life. Through participation, they internalize the goals and purposes, the
behaviors, and the knowledge and thinking processes involved in the activities.
The basis of a series of cross-cultural studies of children’s development, that school,
unlike other social institutions, requires the systematic and managed use of cognitive activities.
What is unknown is how participation in school activities shape the way the child interprets,
thinks about and uses experience (Nuthall, 2000, cited in Kaur, 2012). The process by which
social activities become mental processes is referred to as internalization (Lawrence & Valsiner,
1998, cited in Kaur, 2012).
Chemistry in Science Education

Chemistry is the science of matter and its transformations. Investigation should be
prominent in any science curriculum. Most of the big ideas in chemistry and other sciences were
developed over many years of investigation. Experiments should be performed in the high school
chemistry teaching.
Students should be exposed to the wonderful nature of science in general, and how
chemistry relates to other sciences and other subjects in the high school curriculum. Frazer, 1975,
claimed the general aim of chemistry should be like
 to prepare students for professional career in science especially in chemistry
 to contribute to general education using chemistry as an instrument and
 to inform future citizens of the country of the nature and the role which chemistry plays in
everyday life (Frazer, 1975, cited in Matthews, n.d.)
High school chemistry teachers should strive to model and emphasize the inquiry,
scrutiny, and information-sharing that is fundamental to the practice of science. Scientifically
literate chemistry students should be able to describe the concepts and how the value could be
investigated, verified, or applied. Students should be able to carry out such an investigation.
Advance planning is crucial for active student engagement in learning. Chemistry teachers
should first decide on the conceptual leaning goals for their students, focusing on broad concepts
within the big ideas in chemistry. Spiraling the curriculum, building on and making connections
to what students already know, will encourage student participation and understanding.
Method and Procedure

Research Design
The research design for this study was a descriptive research design, in which it is used to
determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists between two quantifiable variables.
In this study, data were collected through a quantitative method. Quantitative method is research
technique that is used to gather quantitative data-information dealing with numbers and anything
that is measurable (Gay & Airasian, 2003).
Instruments
In this study, two instruments were used for data collection. Both instruments, teachers’
understanding inventory and instructional practices index. Teachers’ understanding was
developed by Stephen Marble, Sandy Finley, and Chris Ferguson, 2000 and instructional
practices was developed by OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and development),
2009. To investigate the teachers’ understanding and instructional practices both instruments
were modified into Myanmar version and used.
Teachers’ understanding inventory was constructed with total 40 items consisting five
dimensions of curricular context (8 items), assessment (8 items), students’ learning needs
(8 items), instructional strategies (8 items) and teaching profession (8 items). It is a five point
Likert scale ranging from (1), ‘strongly disagree’, (2) ‘moderately agree’, (3) ‘undecided’ (4),
‘agree’, and (5) ‘strongly agree’.
Instructional practices inventory included 20 items that represented three dimensions
structured practices (10 items), student-oriented practices (6 items), and enhanced activities (4
items). The response type for each item is a five point Likert scale: ‘never’ (1), ‘seldom’ (2),
‘sometimes’ (3), ‘often’ (4) and ‘always’ (5).
Table 4.1 Level of Chemistry Teachers’ Understanding Teaching and Learning Aspects
Understanding Teaching Level of
Frequency Percent
and Learning Aspects Understanding
Understanding Teaching High 17 11.8
Profession Moderate 100 69.4
Low 27 18.8
Total 144 100
Understanding Curricular High 26 18.1
Context Moderate 93 64.6
Low 25 17.4
Total 144 100
Understanding Instructional High 20 13.9
Strategies Moderate 101 70.1
Low 23 15.9
Total 144 100
Understanding Students’ High 33 22.9
Learning Needs Moderate 101 70.1
Low 10 6.5
Total 144 100
Understanding Assessment High 23 15.9
Moderate 108 75
Low 13 9.0
Total 144 100
80 75
69.4 70.1
70 64.6
70.1
60
Percentages
50
40
30
18.1 22.9 18.8 17.4
20 15.9
11.8 13.9 15.9
10 6.5 9
0
High Moderate Low
Level of Understanding
Figure 4.1 Level of Chemistry Teachers’ Understanding of Teaching-Learning Aspects
Table 4.1 and figure 4.1 showed the percentages of chemistry teachers categorized into
five dimensions of understanding teaching and learning aspects. According to the tale and figure,
11.8% of the chemistry teachers were identified as high-level group in understanding teaching
profession, 18.1% of the teachers in understanding the curricular context, 13.9% of the teachers
in understanding instructional strategies, 22.9% of the teachers in understanding students’
learning needs and 15.9% of the teachers in understanding the assessment. 69% of the chemistry
teachers were moderate in understanding teaching profession, nearly 65% of the teachers in
understanding curricular context, 70% of the teachers in understanding instructional strategies,
70% of the teachers in understanding the learning needs and 75% of the teachers in
understanding the assessment. Then, nearly 19% of the teachers were low in understanding
teaching profession, 17.4% of the teachers in understanding the curricular context, 15.9% of the
teachers in understanding instructional strategies, 6.5% of the teachers in understanding learning
needs and 9% of the teachers in understanding the assessment. There was little difference in
percentages of high and low level of understanding teaching and learning aspects. In all
dimensions, the percentages of moderate level of understanding are more than high and low level
of understanding teaching and learning aspects.
Table4.2 Means and Standard Deviations for Ten Items of Structured Practices
No Items N Means Std. Deviation
1. Item 1 144 3.89 0.86
2. Item 2 144 3.67 1.05
3. Item 3 144 3.94 0.99
4. Item 4 144 4.01 0.99
5. Item 5 144 4.26 0.76
6. Item 6 144 4.03 0.85
7. Item 7 144 3.90 0.89
8. Item 8 144 3.65 1.05
9. Item 9 144 4.20 0.73
10. Item 10 144 2.60 0.72
Overall 144 3.82 0.54
Scoring Direction: 1.00-1.49=never, 1.50-2.49=seldom, 2.50-3.49=sometimes, 3.5-4.49=often, 4.50-5.00=always
Structured Practices in Chemistry Teaching

4.26 4.2
4.5 3.89 3.94 4.01 4.03 3.9
3.67 3.65 3.82
4
3.5
Mean Scores
3 2.6
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Ten Items of Structured Practices
Figure 4.2 Mean Comparison for Ten Items of Structured Practices in Chemistry Teaching
According to table 4.8 and figure 4.3, it could be noted that the item (Check students’
exercise books regularly) had the highest mean score (M=4.20). And, the item (questions are
made to the application level and higher performance level of the students in checking students’
understanding of subject matter) had the lowest mean score (M=2.60). Based on this result, it can
be noted that teachers used to check the knowledge and comprehension level of students in
questioning.
Table 4.3 Means and Standard Deviation for Chemistry Teachers’ Student-Oriented
Practices
No. Items N Means Std. Deviations
1. Item 1 144 3.4 0.97
2. Item 2 144 3.1 1.07
3. Item 3 144 3.2 1.05
4. Item 4 144 3.27 0.87
5. Item 5 144 3.22 0.84
6. Item 6 144 3.03 1.02
Overall 144 3.21 0.74
Scoring Direction; 1.00-1.49=never, 1.50-2.49=seldom, 2.50-3.49=sometimes, 3.50-4.49=often, 4.50-5.00=always
Student-Oriented Practices
3.4
3.4
3.27
3.3 3.2 3.22 3.21
Mean Scores
3.2 3.1
3.1 3.03
3
2.9
2.8
Item1 item2 Item3 Item4 Item5 Item6 Overall
Six Items Of Student-Oriented Practices
Figure 4.3 Mean Comparison for Six Items of Student-Oriented Practices
In the table 4.3 and figure 4.3, the item (Have students work with concrete materials or
manipulative) had the highest mean score (M=3.4) which was equivalent to “sometimes” mark
on scale. So, it is found that chemistry teachers sometimes use the concrete materials in teaching
chemistry lessons. And, the item (Give enough time for reflective evaluation) had the lowest
mean score (M=3.03) finding that chemistry teachers sometimes give enough time for students to
reflect evaluation. Moreover, Others items which the mean scores are above 3.0, equivalent to
“sometimes” mark mon scale.
Table 4.4 Means and Standard Deviations for Enhanced Activities in Chemistry Teaching
No. Items N Means Std. Deviation
1. Item 1 144 1.76 0.92
2. Item 2 144 1.94 0.99
3. Item 3 144 2.7 0.89
4. Item 4 144 2.7 0.87
Overall 144 2.27 0.72
Scoring Direction: 1.00-1.49=never, 1.50-2.49=seldom, 2.50-3.49=sometimes, 3.50-4.49=often, 4.50-5.00=always
Enhanced Activities
3 2.7 2.7
2.5 2.27
1.94
1.76
Mean Scores
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Item1 Item2 Item3 Item4 Overall
Four Items of Enhanced Activities
Figure 4.4 Mean Comparison for four items of enhanced activities

According to the table 4.4 and figure 4.4, the item (Writing essay to assess students’
thinking and reasoning skills) and the item (Have students debate and evaluate upon an opinion)
had the highest mean score (M=2.7). Thus, it could be noted that chemistry teachers have more
strength upon making students writing essay and debate on an opinion in the practices of
enhanced activities. And, the item (working a project at least one week to complete) had the
lowest mean score (M=1.76). Thus, it could be noted that chemistry teachers have more strength
upon making students writing essay and debate on an opinion in the practices of enhanced
activities than practicing students doing investigation.
Table 4.5 Correlations between Chemistry Teachers’ Understanding of Teaching and
Learning Aspects and Instructional Practices
Chemistry
Chemistry Teachers’
Teachers’
Understanding of Teaching
Instructional
and Learning Aspects
Practices
Chemistry Teachers’ Pearson Correlation 1 .391**
Understanding of Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Teaching and
N 144 144
Learning Aspects
Chemistry Teachers’ Pearson Correlation .391** 1
Instructional Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Practices N 144 144
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
To examine the relationship between teachers’ understanding and instructional practices,

Pearson product-moment correlation was used. A correlation indicates that the size and direction
of a relationship. A correlation coefficient is a decimal number ranging from (+1.00) to (0.00) to
(-1.00). A coefficient near (+1.00) has a high size and a positive relationship. If the coefficient
near (0.00), the variables are not related. A coefficient near (-1.00) has a high size and negative
or inverse direction. A coefficient below plus or minus (0.35), low or not related; coefficient
between plus or minus (0.35) and (6.5), moderately related; and coefficient higher than plus or
minus (.65), highly related (Gay &Airadian, 2003).
According to the Table 4.5, there is significant relationship between chemistry teachers’
understanding of teaching and learning aspects and their instructional practices. And, it is found
that there is moderate relationship between chemistry teachers’ understanding and instructional
practices.
Discussions, Suggestions and Conclusion
Discussions
The main purpose of this study was to investigate teachers’ understanding of teaching and
learning aspects in chemistry teaching. Therefore, an investigation is conducted by using the
quantitative method. As a sample, a total of 144 senior assistant chemistry teachers were
selected. A survey questionnaire was used to elicit the responses from chemistry teachers to
know their understanding on teaching and learning aspects and the extent their understanding
conveyed during their instructional practices.
For the first dimension, it was found that chemistry teachers have positive professional
vision of teaching resulting the total mean score “3.99”. They expressed positive perceptions on
the items (teaching profession is important in society, professional development activities are not
conflict with their work, teaching is the application of skills in real situations, the capacities of a
teacher must improve continuously, teaching is a collegial act best done in collaboration with
others, classroom teaching makes the teacher more creative) which have the mean scores above
“4.0” and “3.5”.
And they expressed “undecided” in the items (Professional development activities are too
expensive and unaffordable for teachers and students’ success and instructional decisions depend
on external factors) which have the mean scores above “3.10” and “3.33”.
For the second dimension, chemistry teachers claimed that they have understanding on
curricular context resulting the total mean score “4.04”. They have positive perceptions on all the
items resulting the mean scores above “4.0” and “3.5”.
For the third dimension, chemistry teachers claimed that they have understanding on the
aspects of instructional strategies resulting the total mean score “4.1”. They expressed positive
perceptions on the items (my role as a teacher is to facilitate students’ own inquiry, I rely on the
teacher’s guide-book as the source of authority for instructional strategies, chemistry teachers
should strive to model the effective teaching methods, some chemistry lessons can be taught by
observation method and student-centered teaching method, some chemistry lessons can be taught
by the demonstration method to facilitate students’ leaning, I understand the teaching procedures
involved in student-oriented instruction) resulting the mean scores above “4.0” and “3.5”.
And they claimed “undecided” in the items (I need knowledge of chemistry teaching
strategies and a laboratory lesson consists of three steps) which have the mean scores “2.5” and
“2.57”.
For the fourth dimension, chemistry teachers claimed that they have understanding on the
students’ learning needs showing the total mean score “4.11”. They expressed positive
perceptions on the items (the higher mental processes of students are generated through the
internalization of culturally structured social activities, teachers must consider what each task or
activity will require of students, students differ learning styles according to their individual
differences, linking the prior knowledge with the new information causes meaningful learning,
the teacher must know the points in which students get misconceptions and learning the scientific
terms and formulas is more important before teaching scientific concepts and principles) all
showing the mean score above “4.0”.
For the fifth dimension, assessment is an integral component of teaching and learning
system. A large number of assessment methods are available for use in education. Assessment of
student learning requires the use of a number of techniques for measuring student achievement.
Chemistry teachers claimed that they have understanding the assessment aspects resulting the
total mean score “4.16”. They expressed positive perceptions on all the items showing the mean
scores above “4.0” and “3.5”.
According to findings from this study, high, moderate and low level of understanding
teaching and learning aspects are found. For the first dimension, it is found that 11.8% of
chemistry teachers were at high level, 69.4% of teachers were at moderate level and 18.8% of
teachers were at low level of understanding teaching profession. For the second dimension, it is
found that 18.1% of chemistry teachers were at high level, 64.6% of teachers were at moderate
level and 17.4% of teachers were at low level of understanding curricular context. For the third
dimension, it is found that 13.9% of chemistry teachers were at high level, 70.1% of teachers
were at moderate level and 15.9% of teachers were at low level of understanding instructional
strategies. For the fourth dimension, it is found that 22.9% of chemistry teachers were at high
level, 70.1% of teachers were at moderate level and 6.5% of teachers were at low level of
understanding students’ learning needs. For the fifth dimension, it is found that 15.9% of
chemistry teachers were at high level, 75% of teachers were at moderate level and 9% of teachers
were at low level of understanding assessment. Therefore, based on the results finding, it can be
interpreted that most teachers do not have complete understanding about the teaching and
learning aspects.
This may have been a result of a lack of professional development or a lack of effort in
promoting professional development to enhance teachers’ subject matter knowledge and PCK
(i.e, how to teach and apply the tools and resources of teaching). The idea of PCK was enticing
because it seemed to be such a clever way of imagining what the specialist knowledge of
teaching might involve. PCK conjured up an image of cutting-edge knowledge of practice,
something special and important, something that could define expertise, something that could
illustrate in a meaningful way why teaching needed to be better understood and more highly
valued.
The findings of instructional practices showed that structured practices are emphasized
more than student-oriented practices and there was totally absent the practices of enhanced
activities. There are ten items of structured practices corresponding to the teacher-centered
teaching included state learning goals, review students’ homework they have prepared, present a
short summary of the previous lesson, check students’ exercise book and lecture and check by
asking questions. Based on the results, 44.5% of chemistry teachers expressed “often do” and
26.3% of the teachers expressed “always do”.
According to the findings of student-oriented practices, 34.2% of the teachers expressed
“often do” and 7.9% of the teachers expressed “always do”. The mean scores of student-oriented
practices for the whole sample is found all above “3.0.” Therefore, it can be interpreted that
chemistry teachers do not still emphasize student-oriented practices. The findings of enhanced
activities show that 10.3% of the teachers is found “often” and 1.4% of the teachers is found
“always.” The mean scores of the enhanced activities show that “1.76” and “1.94” in the items
(work on project at least one week to complete and students make product that others can use).
This finding described that higher performance of students’ capacities were not totally absent in
chemistry teaching. Teachers need to change the pattern of questioning from the traditional way
of checking students’ knowledge. In order to increase interaction, science teachers need to set
hands-on activities, group or peer work, subsequent student presentations and discussions. Thus,
students need to be encouraged to liberally participate in such activities and willingly express
their thought.
PCK had a dramatic impact on teachers’ understanding of practice. The items (writing
essay to evaluate students’ thinking and reasoning skills and hold a debate upon an opinion) had
the mean scores “2.7” and “2.2.” This finding shows that chemistry teachers are weak in their
teaching practices of chemistry teaching. As a consequence, it was reminded of how limited
understandings of a specific topic inhibit the ability to create the amalgam of content and
pedagogy that is PCK. In addition, the essence of PCK is not captured by mere representations of
teachers just “knowing what to do” or “how to do it”. Teaching is complex work and many
teachers come to find that their initial simplistic views of teaching are confronted when the
intricacies of their work become clearer over time. Through this process, whereby a growing
understanding of teaching begins to emerge largely as a result of learning through experience, a
new appreciation of one’s skills and abilities compels some to move beyond the simple delivery
of information.
The present findings, however, show that regular science classrooms have not yet to
benefit from these commendable efforts. It is perhaps time for the science education research
community to re-examine and focus on the translation and scaling up of these pieces of
promising reform to science classrooms. The development of instructional resources, curricula
and strategies aimed at facilitating the teaching of science required for the professional
development of chemistry teachers. Results from survey responses and detailed analysis suggest
that there is a relationship between science teachers’ understanding of teaching and learning
systems and their instructional practices of chemistry teaching. From the surveys, a positive,
moderate and significant association between chemistry teachers’ understanding and their
indications of incorporating teaching and learning ideas in their instructional practices was
obtained. This finding pointed out that there is a moderate relationship between teachers’
understanding of teaching and learning ideas and their instructional practices conveying the
associated ideas. In this study, it is found that chemistry teachers have understanding on their
teaching profession, curricular context, instructional strategies, students' learning needs and
assessment. It will get better expectations on quality teachers if chemistry teachers have more
thorough understanding of teaching profession, the connection between curriculum, assessment
and instruction.
Suggestions
This study was restricted to the sample of population from the selected schools in Yangon
region. The participants were only 144 chemistry teachers from forty-eight high schools. It can
be conducted future research based on the findings of this study by using larger sample size of
participants in different high schools, primary and middle schools, colleges and university.
Video-observation method should be applied in further research to find out teacher-student
interaction more definitely. Besides, interview method should be undertaken in order to build
rapport between the researcher and the subjects.
Stephan Marble, Sandly Finley and Chris Ferguson (2000), made a framework for over a
year with groups of teachers in five sites to examine their perspectives, experiences, and
understanding about teaching. They created opportunities for teachers and their colleagues to
carefully reexamine how children learn. In the safety of these collegial communities, teachers
developed their confidence and refocused their practices. Most importantly, they moved from a
habit of thinking mostly about the instructional problem to a habit of thinking first about the
learner. This turn to learning opened doors to an extensive rethinking of teachers’ understanding
and approaches to teaching. Huberman (1995) said that collegial learning in school networks has
emerged as a way to promote professional development. This suggests that helping teachers build
new connections and relationships requires intense and honest engagement.
Teachers need a wide array of information, materials, and requirements to develop the
deep understanding necessary to make instructional decisions that promote students’ learning.
Teachers should be better able to understand and consider the importance of making the
connections between curriculum, assessment and instruction for the learner. Therefore, further
research should focus on what teachers do in the classrooms since content coverage and
instructional strategies are the predominant theme of most curricular and professional
development reforms. For teachers, designing a classroom assessment required to understand
establishing clear targets in conjunctions with selecting important content for students to learn
and appropriate instructional strategies to support their learning. Understanding of the
connections help teachers see the need to focus on student learning. Therefore, it is important to
build on teachers an understanding of how it is related to the other parts of the system. Chemistry
teachers need to engage in many professional development activities such as attending courses
and workshops, self-study, practicing, collaboration and observation. Professional development
of chemistry teachers is necessary to enhance their capacity in teaching practices and to improve
the current situation.
At the current trend of reform education, chemistry teachers face the challenges such as
teaching methods, their teaching proficiency, and ways to motivate their students. For facing
challenges to gain real traction in school science instruction, it requires reform efforts over
extended time and at several levels, students and teachers, curriculum and learning and teaching
resources, and school and district organizational support. This is in itself a complex endeavor, an
endeavor the science education community should strive to continue working on. This will
require the provision of time when teachers can meet to discuss new information with colleges
and to test, reflect on and evaluate its effectiveness in the classroom.
Short-term intensive workshops are needed in upgrading teachers’ content knowledge,
and in their acceptance of the ideas behind an innovation. Current efforts in addressing the
educational problem of quality education have largely focused on promoting quality teachers.
Therefore, the science education and research community should place equal emphasis on the
teachers and the teaching of science, and not simply on the learners and the learning of this
domain. It is also necessary to bear in mind that the professional development efforts should not
only help promote teachers’ understanding of teaching and learning but also provides strategies
and approaches they can use to facilitate their students’ conceptions. Other professional trainings
should address all the aspects of modern teaching-learning in a packaged programme so that the
teachers can have a complete idea about modern approach of teaching.
The educational stakeholders should fairly consider vulnerable condition of science
education depicts also the shortage of laboratory, availability of the laboratory equipment,
shortage of science teachers and trained science teachers in Myanmar. The challenges for
improving the quality of the education system, however, are significant, including low learning
levels, inadequate acquisition of non-cognitive skills, inequitable learning among students, a high
degree of variation between schools, low teacher motivation, low time on task, weak
examinations and teacher development systems.
It is found that the understanding of facilitation, dialogue, and reflection is not
widespread among those who currently work with preservice and in-service teachers. This way of
working represents a paradigm shift for many of those who would assist teachers, including
school district and university faculty. Therefore, the educational reformers need to learn more
about what these educators require to be better able to facilitate groups of teachers in ways that
promote the construction of more coherent practices.
Conclusions
The results regarding teachers’ understanding of teaching and learning have revealed that
in Myanmar high school chemistry teachers’ understanding regarding teaching and learning did
not partition within a particular dimension. Less than half of the chemistry teachers of the
researched schools have low level of understanding regarding teaching-learning and more than
half of the chemistry teachers hold moderate level of understanding. Only 20% of the teachers
hold high level of understanding teaching and learning aspects.
The 21st century is one of complexity and complex systems science has garnered
tremendous attention from scientists and policymakers. This field has influenced several science
education reform documents over the past decade and science educators and researchers have
advocated complex systems instruction in school science for better science understanding.
The empirical finding of the reasons hindering teachers’ understanding also hints that a
coordination of efforts – within and beyond professional development – will be required to
carefully address the educational problem. From providing more learning opportunities and
exposure to science teaching for teachers and students, designing teaching and learning aids to
visualize the obscure nature of underlying mechanisms of science subjects, to putting more
prominence to teaching in existing science syllabi and assessments, these efforts can help
alleviate some of the challenges science teachers face in understanding and teaching science,
especially, in chemistry teaching.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to those who helped out in carrying out this study. We wish to say sincerely thanks to
Dr. Aye Aye Myint (Rector, Yangon University of Education), Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung (Pro-Rector, Yangon
University of Education) and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing (Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education) for their
permission to carry out this study.
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Austin: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.
A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND

INDIRECT INSTRUCTION ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN
GEOMETRY
Yin Mon Aung1 and Khin Mar Khine2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the achievement differences in geometry between
Grade Six students those who are taught by using indirect instruction and those who are taught by
using direct instruction. It is an experimental research and the design adopted in this study was
posttest only control group design. Yankin and South Okkalapa townships were randomly selected
from four strata in Yangon City Development Area. One high school from each township was also
randomly selected. The participants in this study were (120) Grade Six students and they were
randomly selected from each school. Sixteen lesson plans and posttest were developed based on
Chapter (7), Area and Volume, from Grade Six Mathematics Textbook Volume (II). Level of
posttest items were based on the four levels of Bloom Taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension,
application and analysis. During the study period, the experimental groups were provided
instruction with indirect instruction and control groups were provided instruction with direct
instruction. The duration of the study period was two weeks. The posttest scores were analyzed by
using independent samples t-test to examine the differences in achievement result between
experimental and control groups. The result of the study showed that there was a significant
difference in the achievement in geometry between the experimental and control groups in each
selected school. This finding pointed out that using indirect instruction is significantly better on
students’ achievement in geometry than using direct instruction. It can be suggested that teachers
who teach geometry should use indirect instruction to improve in students’ achievement result.
Keywords: Direct Instruction, Indirect Instruction, Achievement in Geometry
Introduction
Education is the basic part of everyone’s life and it is required for holistic development of
individual. The main objective of education is to bring behavioral change in terms of cognitive,
skill and attitude and the purpose of teaching is to facilitate learning. All students do not learn the
same way and they learn in various ways. Therefore, teachers should vary their use of
instructional strategies in order to relate students’ learning style and needs (Flender & Brent,
2005, cited in Kipper, 2011).
Students need to know how to turn formal instruction into solving real life problems.
Geometry is a branch of mathematics and it has had a great importance in people’s lives.
Geometry helps students to acquire abilities such as making new discoveries, analyzing problems
and making connections between mathematics and real life situations. To be effective in teaching
geometry, the two most widely accepted instructional methods are direct instruction and indirect
instruction.
Direct instruction is primarily teacher-centered. It is typically large-group, teacher-
directed, highly structured expository teaching focus on academic content. The teacher is the
major provider of information and the procedures of direct instruction are closely fit on the
behaviorism (Borich, 2007). Indirect or experiential teaching is mainly student-centered and it
includes approaches in which students dig out their own learning. It seeks a high level of students
1.
Lecturer, Pathein Education College
2.
Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education
involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data and forming hypotheses.
Borich (1990) stated that learning at the lower level of cognitive domain (knowledge,
comprehension, application) relies heavily on direct instruction and the teaching functions
associated with indirect instruction are applied in the context of higher level of cognitive domain
(analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Although both methods can be used effectively in teaching
geometry, there could be some differences in students’ achievement result. Therefore, this study
is mainly aimed to investigate the achievement differences in geometry between students who are
taught by using indirect instruction and those who are taught by using direct instruction.
Aims
1. To investigate the achievement differences in geometry between Grade Six students who
are taught by using indirect instruction and those who are taught by using direct
instruction.
2. To give suggestions to improve teaching geometry based on the data obtained from the
study.
Hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference in the achievement in geometry between students who
are taught by using indirect instruction and those who are taught by using direct
instruction.
2. There are significant differences in performing knowledge, comprehension, application
and analysis level questions between students who are taught by using indirect instruction
and those who are taught by using direct instruction.
Scope of the Study
 This study is geographically limited to Yankin and South Okkalapa Townships in Yangon
City Development Area.
 No (1) Basic Education High School, Yankin and No (2) Basic Education High School,
South Okkalapa are selected for this study.
 Participants in this study are Grade Six students from the selected schools in (2017 -
2018) Academic Year.
 This study is limited to the content area of Chapter (7), Area and Volume from Grade Six
Mathematics Textbook Volume (II) prescribed by the Ministry of Education, Curriculum
and Textbook Committee.

Direct Instruction: An instructional approach to teaching basic skills and sequential materials in
which lessons are highly goal-directed and learning environments are tightly structured by the
teacher (Arends, 2007).
Indirect Instruction: An instructional approach where a teacher plays a facilitator role with
helping students to find out solutions by posing questions, guiding, indicating sources of
information, sharing ideas and problems (Demoze, 2002).
Achievement in Geometry: The measure (scores) obtained on the geometry unit test constructed
based on Bloom Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain.

Theoretical Perspective of Learning
Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors
and discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define learning as
nothing more than acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions. They believe
Learning is accomplished when a proper response is demonstrated following the presentation of a
specific environmental stimulus.
Specific assumptions and principles of behaviorism in the teaching learning process are
an emphasis on producing observable and measurable outcomes in students, pre-assessment of
students to determine where instruction should begin, emphasis on mastering early steps before
progressing to more complex level of performance and use of reinforcement to impact
performance.
Constructivism is a theory of learning that equates learning with creating meaning from
experience. Two permanent versions of constructivism are cognitive constructivism and social
constructivism. Cognitive constructivist considered learning is the product of an internal
cognitive activity and learners actively construct knowledge. Social constructivist viewed
knowledge as the product of learning whereby individuals engage socially through conversations
or shared problem-solving tasks and activities (Merriam, Caffarella & Baungartner, 2007, cited
in Churchill, 2013).Constructivism puts the learner at the center of the educational stage.
Constructivism asserts that knowledge cannot be handed from one person to another but must be
constructed by each learner through interpreting and reinterpreting a constant flow of
information. The learning environment encourages social networks and experiential opportunities
where individuals are encouraged to make sense of information for themselves. In a
constructivist classroom, the teachers build knowledge on students’ prior knowledge and
understanding, then carefully manage cues, penetrating questions, and instructional activities that
challenge and extend the students’ insight.
Bloom Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
The taxonomy of educational objectives is a framework for classifying statements of what
expect and intend students to learn as a result of instruction. Bloom Taxonomy of educational
objectives has three domains: Cognitive domain (Knowledge), Effective domain (Attitude) and
Psychomotor domain (Skill). Six major categories in the cognitive domain are knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The categories are ordered from
simple to complex and lower to higher order types of thinking.
Knowledge is the ability to recognize and recall information. Comprehension includes the
ability to translate or explain knowledge or information, to interpret it and to extrapolate it to new
situations. Application is the ability to use the information. Once student can understand the
information presumably they should be able to apply it. Analysis is the ability to divide the
knowledge into component parts and see their relationships. According to Bloom, this skill
includes analysis of elements, analysis of relationships and analysis of organizational principles.
Synthesis is the ability to put the parts together to form new ideas. This level includes such skills
as producing a unique communication, producing a plan or a proposed set of operations or
deriving a set of abstract relations. The highest cognitive level of taxonomy, according to Bloom
is Evaluation. This includes the ability to make judgment according to internal criteria and
external criteria.
Importance of Mathematics
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000) defines mathematics
as the study of the measurement, properties, and relationships of quantities and sets, using
numbers and symbols. Mathematics is a leading logical science upon other sciences like
Chemistry, Physics, Biology and Geography and it encompasses number sense, estimation skills,
ability to analyze data intelligently, knowledge of two and three dimensional geometry and
knowledge of probability.
Geometry is the part of mathematics and the study of the relationships among points,
lines, angle, surfaces and solids. Geometry can provide a more complete appreciation of the
world and it plays a key role in the study of other areas of mathematics. Problem solving skill is
one of the major reason for studying mathematics and geometry can develop that skill. The
function of the teaching geometry is to systematize the information received by the pupils from
the nature and practical works. The emphasis will be on the understanding of fundamental
concepts and techniques. Therefore, the objective of teaching geometry is not to teach the
students to know geometry but rather to lead them to think geometry.
Teaching Strategies for Direct Instruction
Direct instruction is basically teacher-centered that usually serves to address large group
of students. In this model, facts, rules and action sequences are presented to students in the most
direct way possible. Direct instruction usually takes place presentation and recitation format with
explanations, examples and opportunities for practice and feedback are provided by the teacher.
According to Borich (2007), direct instruction has the following six teaching strategies.
 Daily Review and Checking the Previous Day’s Work
 Presenting and Structuring
 Guided Student Practice
 Feedback and Correctives
 Independent Practice
 Weekly and Monthly Review
Review and checking at the beginning of the lesson emphasizes the relationship between
lessons, so the students remember previous knowledge and see new knowledge as a logical
extension of content already mastered. Daily review and checking at the beginning of a lesson
can be easily accomplished by instructing to correct each other’s homework at the beginning of
class, by identifying especially difficult homework problems in a question and answer format, by
sampling the understanding of a few students who are good indicators of the range of knowledge
and by reviewing the task- relevant information necessary for the day’s lesson.
In Presenting and structuring, lesson must be served in small portions that are consistent
with the previous knowledge, ability level and experience of the students. The key is to focus the
material on one idea at a time and to present it so learners master one point before the teacher
introduces the next point. Techniques for presenting and structuring new content include
establishing part-whole relationship, identifying sequential relationship, finding combinations of
relationship and drawing comparative relationship (Borich, 2014).
Guided students practice includes recalling from the structure of a lesson plan. The
presentation of stimulus materials is followed by eliciting practice with the desired behavior.
Prompting is an important part of eliciting the desirer behavior because it strengthens and builds
learners’ confidence by encouraging them to use some aspects of the answer that have already
been given in formulating the correct response (Gagne et al., 1997, cited in Borich, 2014). Three
kinds of prompting are verbal prompts, gestural prompts, physical prompts. Another guided
students’ practice is modeling. Modeling allows students to imitate from demonstration or infer
from observation the behavior to be learned. Four processes need to occur for the learners to
benefit from modeling are attention, retention, production and motivation (Borich, 2014).
Providing appropriate feedback and correctives involves knowing how to respond to
answers. Rosenshine & Stevens (1986) advised some points to respond to answers: For a correct,
quick and firm response, acknowledge the correct response and either ask another question of the
same student or move on to another student. For correct but hesitate response, provide a
reinforcing statement and restate the facts, rules or steps needed for the right answer. For an
incorrect response due to careless, indicate that the response is incorrect and quickly move on to
the next students without further comment. For incorrect response, that is due to lack of
knowledge, engage the students in finding the correct response with hints, probes or related but
similar questions ( cited in Borich, 2007).
After the students have given the correct answers, the teacher continues the independence
practice. The purpose of providing independence practice is to develop automatic responses in
students. Teacher should circulate around the classroom while students are engaged in
independence practice to provide feedback, ask questions and give brief explanations (Emmer et
al., 2006, cited in Borich, 2007)
Weekly and monthly review is the sixth and final direct instruction strategy. Periodic
review ensures that all task relevant information needed for future lessons and identified areas
that require re-teaching of key facts, rules and sequences. Weekly and monthly reviews
determine whether the pace is right or should be adjusted before covering too much content.
Teaching Strategies for Indirect Instruction
Indirect instruction is an instructional strategy that allows and encourages students to
analyze their experience actively in the classroom to become self-directed and self- responsible
for their own learning (Withall, 1987, cited in Demoze, 2002). Indirect instruction is more
complex than direct instruction and classroom activities are less teacher-centered. This brings
students’ ideas and experiences into the lesson and lets students to evaluate their own responses.
According to Borich (2007), indirect instruction has the following seven teaching strategies.
 Content Organization
 Conceptual Movement: Induction and Deduction
 Using Examples and Nonexamples
 Using Questions
 Learners Experience and Use of Students Ideas
 Student Self-Evaluation
 Use of Group Discussion
According to indirect instruction, the lesson must be introduced with a framework or
structure that organizes the content into meaningful parts. One way of providing this framework
is to use advance organizers and these set the groundwork for focusing the lesson topics.
Advanced organizers can be presented orally, charts and diagrams. An advance organizer gives
learners a conceptual preview of what is to come and helps them store the content for retention
and later use.
The next teaching strategy for indirect instructions is conceptual movement: induction
and deduction. Induction is a form of reasoning used to draw a conclusion or make a
generalization from specific instants (Stadler, 2011, cited in Borich, 2014). It is a process in
which students observe specific facts and then generalize them to other circumstances. Deduction
is reasoning that proceeds from principles or generalizations to their application in specific
instances. The teaching of concepts with the indirect instructional models uses inductive and
deductive thinking to develop initially crude and overtly restrictive concepts into more expansive
and accurate understandings.
Providing examples and nonexamples helps to define the essential and nonessential
attributes needed for making accurate generalizations. Examples represent the concept being
taught by including the attribute essential for recognizing that concept. Nonexamples fail to
represent the concept being taught by purposely. Borich (2014) stated that examples and
nonexamples can be used by providing more than a single example and nonexample, by using
examples that vary in ways that are important to the concept being defined, by including
nonexamples that do not represent the important dimensions of concept and by explaining why
nonexamples have some of the same characteristics as examples.
The fourth indirect instruction strategy is using questions. In indirect instruction, the role
of questions is to guide students into discovering new dimensions of a problem or new ways of
resolving a dilemma and not to get the correct answer quickly. Some uses of questions during
indirect instruction include refocusing, presenting contradictions to be resolved, probing for
deeper thought and responses, extending the discussion to new areas and passing responsibility to
the class.
The use of students’ ideas was considered the centerpiece of indirect instruction. Using
students’ ideas mean incorporating student experiences, points of view, feelings and problems
into the lesson by making the student the primary point of reference. This approach is intended to
heighten students’ interest, organize content around student problems, tailor feedback to
individual students and encourage positive attitudes and feelings toward the subject.
The sixth strategy for indirect instruction is to engage students in evaluating their own
responses and thereby take responsibility for their own learning. One way to accomplish this is
by allowing students to provide reasons for their answers so teacher and other students can
suggest needed changes. The teacher’s role is to maintain the momentum by offering hints or
focusing statements that students can use to evaluate their previous responses.
A group discussion involves student exchanges with successive interactions among a
large number of students. During these exchanges, teachers may intervene only occasionally to
review, summarize and evaluate each group’s progress and redirect the discussion when
necessary. Teacher tasks are orienting students to the objective of the discussion, providing new
or more accurate information when needed, reviewing, summarizing and relating opinions and
facts, redirecting the flow of information and ideas back to the objective of the discussion and
combining ideas and promote compromise to reach a conscious.
Method
Procedure
The design adopted in this study was one of the true experimental designs namely, the
posttest only control group design. The sample students were selected randomly. The students
were grouped randomly for experimental group and control group. In both schools, the
experimental groups were taught by using indirect instruction and control groups were taught by
using direct instruction. Learning materials were selected from chapter (7), Area and Volume,
Grade Six Mathematics Textbook Volume (II). Lesson plans and posttest were validated by
(5) expert teachers. To establish the reliability of the instruments, a pilot study was conducted for
one week at No (4), Basic Education High School, Kamaryut. Pilot data were analyzed by using
Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha and got the reliability level of (0.702).
The allocated time for posttest was (45) minutes and total score was (25) marks. Posttest
data were analyzed by using independent samples t- test.
Subject
All participants in this study were Grade Six students. Two Basic Education High Schools
were randomly selected from Yangon City Development Area. In each school, (60) students were
also selected by using simple random sampling method from the population. The selected
students were grouped randomly such as experimental group and control group.

Number of Students
No Township School Population Experimental Control Total
Group Group
1 Yankin BEHS(1) 165 30 30 60
2 South Okkalapa BEHS (2) 277 30 30 60
Note: BEHS= Basic Education High Schoool
Instrumentation
In order to study the achievement differences in geometry, a posttest was developed.
There were two sections in posttest and total score was (25) marks and time allocation was (45)
minutes. Level of items was based on the four levels of Bloom Taxonomy: knowledge,
comprehension, application and analysis. Lesson plans for direct instruction and indirect
instruction were developed by using the seven stages: Gaining attention, informing the
objectives, stimulating the recall of perquisite learning, presenting the stimulus material, eliciting
the desired behavior, providing the feedback and assessing the behavior (Borich, 2014) (see
Appendix A & B).
Data Analysis
The data obtained from posttest were analyzed by using the independent samples t-test to
compare the mean differences between the experimental and control groups.
Findings
The findings of experimental groups and control groups are as follows.
Table 2 t-Values for Posttest Score on Students’ Achievement in Geometry

School Group N M SD MD T df Sig.
S1 3.63 4.567 58 .000***
Control 30 16.27 3.39
S2 4.20 5.067 58 .000***
Control 30 15.83 2.82
Note: ***p < .001 S1 = BEHS (1) Yankin S2 = BEHS (2) South Okkalapa
The results showed that the mean scores of experimental groups were significantly higher
than the mean scores of control groups in two selected schools. It indicated that there was a
significant difference between the experimental and control groups on students’ achievement in
geometry in both schools.
Table 3 t -Values for Posttest Scores on Knowledge Level Questions

S1 0.17 1.433 58 .157 (ns)
Control 30 2.63 0.49
S2 0.07 0.528 58 .599 (ns)
Control 30 2.60 0.49
Note: ns = no significant S1 = BEHS (1) Yankin S2 = BEHS (2) South Okkalapa
The mean scores of experimental groups were slightly higher than the control groups. It
indicated that there was no significant difference between the experimental groups and control
groups in performing knowledge level questions in both selected schools.
Table 4 t -Values for Posttest Scores on Comprehension Level Questions

S1 0.24 1.381 58 .173 (ns)
Control 30 2.73 0.69
S2 0.33 1.637 58 .107 (ns)
Control 30 2.77 0.81
Note: ns = no significant S1 = BEHS (1) Yankin S2 = BEHS (2) South Okkalapa
The mean scores of experimental groups were not much higher than the control groups. It
showed that there was no significant difference between the experimental groups and control
groups in performing comprehension level questions in each selected schools.
Table 5 t -Values for Posttest Scores on Application Level Questions

S1 1.03 2.799 58 .007**
Control 30 6.90 1.64
S2 1.19 3.045 58 .004**
Control 30 6.34 1.58
Note: **p < .01 S1 = BEHS (1) Yankin S2 = BEHS (2) South Okkalapa
The mean scores of experimental groups were higher than the control groups. It showed
that there was a significant difference between the experimental groups and control groups in
performing application level questions in both schools.
Table 6 t -Values for Posttest Scores on Analysis Level Questions

S1 2.20 5.024 58 .000***
Control 30 4.00 1.70
S2 2.50 5.668 58 .000***
Control 30 4.23 1.33
Note: ***p < .001 S1 = BEHS (1) Yankin S2 = BEHS (2) South Okkalapa
At the analysis level, the mean scores of experimental groups were quite higher than the
control group. It was found that there was a significant difference between the experimental
group and control group in performing analysis level questions in both schools.
Summary of Quantitative Findings

 There was a significant difference in the achievement in geometry between students who
were taught by using indirect instruction and those who were taught by using direct
instruction.
 There was no significant difference in performing knowledge and comprehension level
questions between students who were taught by using indirect instruction and those who
were taught by using direct instruction.
 There was a significant difference in performing application level questions between
students who were taught by using indirect instruction and those who were taught by
using direct instruction.
 There was a significant difference in performing analysis level questions between
students who were taught by using indirect instruction and those who were taught by
using direct instruction.
According to the summary of the quantitative findings from this study, the application
and analysis level questions can be used to perform for the different achievement.
Discussion
Different teaching methods draw attention to different learning outcomes (Vygotsky,
2002, cited in Mawlese, 2014). This study provided support for this view. According to the
results, there was a significant difference on the overall mean scores between the experimental
groups and control groups in each selected school. This finding pointed out that using indirect
instruction is significantly better on students’ achievement in geometry than using direct
instruction. This finding is consistent with Jahr (2011) who found that the indirect instruction
stresses the importance of student involvement and student centered learning and can promote
more achievement result than the direct instruction.
At the comparison of mean scores on knowledge level and comprehension levels, there
were no significant differences between the experimental groups and control groups in both
schools. The result showed that not only indirect instruction but also direct instruction could
bring the same achievement result in performing knowledge and comprehension level questions.
This result supports the findings of Rosenshine (1997) who found that direct instruction
strategies are among those that correlate highest with student achievement as measured by tests,
which tend to emphasize facts, rules and sequences ( cited in Borich, 2014).
Concerning the application level, the comparison of mean scores between experimental
groups and control groups in both schools pointed out that there was a significant difference
between two groups in performing application level questions. This finding is not consistent with
Borich (2007) who found that learning at the lower level of cognitive domain (knowledge,
comprehension, application) relies heavily on direct instruction.
For the comparison of analysis level, the finding showed that the mean sores of
experimental group was significantly higher than the control group in both schools. This result
indicated that the use of indirect instruction could encourage more achievement result and higher
order thinking ability than the direct instruction. This finding is consistent with Borich (2007)
who pointed out that direct instruction is applied in the context of lower level skills (knowledge,
comprehension, application) and the teaching functions associated with indirect instruction are
best suited in the context of higher level skills (analysis, synthesis, evaluation) objectives.
Geometry is a network of concepts, ways of reasoning and representation systems used to
explore and analyze shape and spaces (Battista, 2007, cited in Walle, 2013). Therefore, geometry
teaching should focus on how to think and investigate the geometric concepts. According to the
result of the research, it can be concluded that indirect instruction can provide more achievement
result in geometry than direct instruction. Therefore, teacher should use indirect instruction in
teaching geometry to promote students’ higher order thinking skills.
In indirect instruction, teacher should consider specific time allocation for each stage of
the lesson since lesson planning. In group discussion, teacher should be ensured that students
have solid background of information before conducting discussion. Before giving group work,
teacher should explain the activity by using short and clear instruction. After giving instruction,
teacher should use instruction check questions (ICQ) to check students’ understanding what they
are going to do. By doing this, teacher could save the time and group work could be done within
the time limit. In addition, teacher should not allocate resources before giving instruction what
students are going to do. While students are doing group work, teacher should monitor the group
works and take the role of facilitator. Sometimes, students are difficult to get the generalization
in group discussion within the time limit. At that time teacher should change the role of
moderator and orient students to the objective of the discussion, provide more accurate
information where needed. In addition, teacher should review, summarize the opinions and facts
into meaningful relationship and adjust the flow of information and ideas.
Sometimes, students need to be familiar with basic skills to be able to find concepts,
pattern and abstraction. Direct instruction is useful to give the basic knowledge of the lesson
within the limited period. Thus, teacher should not exclude the direct instruction. While using
direct instruction, teacher should begin the lesson with a short review of previous prerequisite
learning. Scaffolding lesson should be presented with detail instruction and explanations.
Moreover, teacher should control the pace of the lesson, should provide systematic feedback and
corrective.
Direct and indirect instructions have proven to be the most commonly accepted and best
approaches to teaching geometry. Both methods have their respective advantages. Therefore, in
teaching geometry, teacher should adjust using these two methods according to the time, space
and circumstances.
Conclusion
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the achievement differences in geometry
between Grade Six students who are taught by using indirect instruction and those who are taught
by using direct instruction. Quantitative study was conducted to obtain the required data. The
design adopted in this study was one of the true experimental designs, namely the posttest only
control group design. After the experimental period, the independent samples t-test was used to
compare the students’ achievement result in geometry between experimental and control groups.
The result showed that that there was a significant difference between the experimental and
control groups on students’ achievement in geometry in both schools. According to the result,
teachers should use indirect instruction in teaching geometry to promote students’ achievement
result.
In the 21st century, an important goal of education is to develop individuals with high
level of mathematical proficiency to support future participation in employment and citizenship
(Battista, 2007, cited in Walle, 2013). Geometry teaching should focus on how to think and
investigate the geometric concepts. Teaching of geometry should be dynamic and should be
approached through meaningful explorations. Learning becomes more meaningful and
challenging when each student explore, estimate, experiment, question and hypothesize through
learner centered activities. Through direct instruction alone, students can learn how to perform
tasks in a way that their instructor asks them to. If the education system truly wants all students
to succeed, the students need to be taught how to solve problems with their own thoughts
.Therefore, to be able to adapt in 21st century technology, mathematics teachers should give more
emphasis on indirect instruction in teaching geometry.
Due to time limitation, this study was conducted about two weeks in two sample schools
from Yangon City Development Area and based on only one content area of geometry in Grade
Six Mathematics Textbook Volume (II). Therefore, further studies should be carried out in
different areas by taking longer duration and using wider content areas to recommend the result
of this study.
Acknowledgements
Firstly, we would like to express our respectful gratitude to Dr, Aye Aye Myint (Rector, Yangon University
of Education) and Dr, Pyone Pyone Aung and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing (Pro-Rectors, Yangon University of Education)
for their administrative support, encouragements and giving permission to do the study.
References
Arends, R. I. (2007). Learning to teach (7th ed.). New York: Mc Graw- Hill.
Borich, G.D., (1990). Observation skills for effective teaching. Columbus Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company.
Borich, G. D. (2007). Effective teaching methods: Research- based practice (6th ed.). New Jersy: Pearson Merril/
Prentice Hall.
Borich, G. D. (2014). Effective teaching methods: Research- based practice (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.
Churchill, R. (2013). Teaching: Making a difference (2nd ed.). Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Demoze, A. A. (2002). The practice of direct and indirect instruction strategies: The case of lecture and discussion
method in Addis Ababa University. Retrieved October 30, 2017, from http//www.etd.aau.edu.et>
bitstream.
Jahr, B. (2011). Effective 21st century education: Direct versus indirect instruction. Retrieved October 15, 2017,
from http//www.bndonjamesjahr.files.wordpress.com.
Kipper, H. (2011). Effective teaching strategies for direct and indirect instruction in teaching engineering. Journal
of problem of education in the 21st century, (36), 60-75. Retrieved October 30, 2017, from
http//www.oaji.net.articles.
Mawlese, J. K. (2014). Effect of problem solving strategy on secondary school students’ achievement in circle
geometry. Journal of education arts and humanities, 2 (2), 18-26. Retrieved November 15, 2017, from
http//www.watchpub/jeah/index.htm.
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. (2000). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Walle, J. A. (2013). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally. (8th ed.). New York:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Appendix A
Sample Lesson Plan for Indirect Instruction

Sample Lesson Plan (1)
(Gaining
Attention)
(Informing the
Objectives)
(Stimulating
the Recall of
Prerequisite
Learning
(Presenting
the Stimulus
Material)
b
A=bxh
3m
b = 5m, h=3m
A= b x h
5m = 5x3
= 15 m2
(Eliciting the
Desired
Behavior)
(Providing the
Feedback)
(Assessing the
Behavior)
Appendix B
Sample Lesson Plan for Direct Instruction

(Gaining
Attention)
(Informing
the
Objectives)
(Stimulating A= ½ x x
the Recall of
Prerequisite
Learning )
(Presenting
the Stimulus
Material)
D C
A B
E
ABCD
= ∆ABD + ∆BCD
= 2∆ABD
= 2x ½ bh
A=bxh
3m
5m
b = 5m, h=3m
A= b x h = 5 x 3 = 15 m2
ABCD CD= 5m
AB CD
3m
(Eliciting the
Desired
Behavior
(Providing the
Feedback)
(Assessing the
Behavior)
A STUDY OF SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS AND ACHIEVEMENT

OF STUDENTS IN SCIENCE AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL
Thin Thin Htike1, Khin Mu Mu Han2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the science achievement of students who are
taught with science process skills at the middle school level. This study was conducted with
quantitative research method. The experimental design adopted in this study was a true
experimental design, namely, posttest only control group design. This study was conducted in
Yangon Region. The sample schools for this study were selected by using a random sampling
method. Two high schools were selected from two different districts, Yangon Region. The
subjects were Grade Seven students selected from No. (1) BEHS Latha and No. (4) BEHS
Pazundaung. The reliability of instruments was calculated through a pilot testing with (30) Grade
Seven students. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) of the students’ achievement test
was (.743). For this study, (120) Grade Seven students were selected from both schools by random
sampling method. These students were divided into two groups: control and experimental. The
experimental group was treated with science process skills and the control group was taught with
formal instruction. After that, a posttest was administered to two groups. Independent samples
t-test was used to test whether there was significant difference between these two groups.
Examination of the means and t-test at No. (1) BEHS Latha (t=10.51, df = 58, MD=9.10, p=.000)
and No. (4) BEHS Pazundaung (t=14.95, df=58, MD=10.70, p=.000) indicated that students who
were taught by science process skills demonstrated significantly better than those who were taught
with formal instruction. Research findings proved that science process skills has positive
contribution to the science teaching at the middle school level.
Keywords: Science Process Skills, Achievement
Introduction
Science is simultaneously a kind of knowledge and a way of gaining and using that
knowledge. Indeed science is both product and process, inseparably joined. Science has made a
tremendous impact on the life of the present day society which is a product of science. The
thinking, feeling and actions of a modern man are practically guided by the effects of science.
There is an involvement of science, direct or indirect, in all works as well as leisure of a modern
man. The habits and attitudes have also been affected by science. Science affects the behavior of
the learner and enriches his character and personality. It also offers the opportunities for creative
thinking and constructive imagination.
Science is the system of knowing about the universe. The impact of science is evident in
agriculture, industry, health, modern civilization, democracy etc. Science looks for different
kinds of pattern and relationship in our universe. Nowadays children undergo the explosion of
information and they need to learn more to adapt the complex changing world. They also need to
learn by themselves and the role of teachers and parents is to facilitate in the learning process of
the children and to train them to become self-directed learners. To develop such habits, students
must possess science process skills. According to Johnston (2009, cited in Maranan, 2017),
science process skills are significant in improving students’ cognitive development and
facilitating students’ active participation during the teaching and learning process.
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, B.E.H.S, Kawhmu Township, Yangon
2
Dr, Lecture, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education

The science process skills constitute a general definition of the logical and rational
thought that are used throughout lifetime (Aydogdu & Kesercioglu, 2005, cited in Feyzioglu,
2009). Studies aiming to equip students with science process skills have concluded that students
acquire each science process skills through certain stages (Saat, 2004, cited in Feyzioglu, 2009).
These stages have been identified as recognition of scientific process, making habits, and
automation.
These skills can be gained by students through certain science education activities
(Harlen, 1999). Students equipped with science process skills tend to achieve higher than
students with low process skills. This is because such students tend to reason intelligently and
tackle problem situations more efficiently leading to higher achievement. Students who are able
to make use of formal thought are also able to solve problems beyond the capabilities of those
who did not possess modes of reasoning.
The general purpose of this study is to investigate the science achievement of students
who are taught with science process skills at the middle school level. The specific objectives are
as follows.
 To compare science achievement of the students who are taught with science process
skills and those who are not taught with science process skills.
 To provide suggestions for improving science teaching learning situation.
Research Hypotheses
(1) There is a significant difference in the achievement of science between students who
receive science process skills and those who do not receive.
(2) There is a significant difference between the achievement of students who receive science
process skills and those who do not receive in performing the knowledge level questions.
process skills and those who do not receive in performing the comprehension level
questions.
process skills and those who do not receive in performing the application level questions.
Scope of the Study
This research has its own particular limitations. The first limitation is related to the fact
that the participants of the study are from only two selected schools from Yangon Region.
Participants in this study are Grade Seven students from the selected schools within the school
year (2018-2019). The second limitation is that this study is only concerned with the science
process skills of the Grade Seven students. The third limitation is the content area of chapter (5)
from Grade Seven General Science Textbook prescribed by the Basic Education Curriculum,
Syllabus and Textbook Committee, 2018-2019.

Science Process Skills
Science process skills are the tools that students use to investigate the world around them
and to construct science concepts (Oxford Encylopaedia Science Dictionary).
Achievement
Achievement is a thing that somebody has done successfully, especially using their own
effort and skill (Oxford Encylopaedia Science Dictionary).
In line with the development of new science curricula in Myanmar, it is necessary for all
science teachers to have a firm understanding of the nature of science and be abreast of the
current educational advances affecting the society every day. The purpose of science education is
to provide experiences through which young children can acquire the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that lead to patterns of behavior acceptable to the society. Science teachers need to be
willing to help their students develop science process skills as well as provide scientific
technological knowledge.
Teaching science only through note taking and memorization cannot get students achieve
science concepts. Teaching with science process skills is an appropriate approach for elementary
and middle school teachers. Science process skills approach not only allows students to be an
active participants in the learning process but also forces them to take an active role by engaging
them in a meaningful thought provoking way. Science process skills are based on real life
situations and such skills lead students develop self-confidence to solve problems that they might
face in everyday activities.
Teaching science through science process skills provide students with experiences that
help them attain positive attitudes toward science. If teachers are knowledgeable about the
science process skills, their students will gain appropriate and effective skill instruction. These
science process skills are vital for science learning and concept formation at the primary and
middle school levels. The National Science Teacher Association (NSTA, 2002) states that
teachers should create learning situations that focus on inquiry and the process skills to enhance
students’ learning.
Therefore, a research for studying the science process skills and the science achievement
of students at the middle school level is necessary.
Importance of Science Process Skills
Skills refer to specific activities or tasks that a student can proficiently do. Skills can be
clustered together to form specific competencies. To be competent in the scientific knowledge,
learners must use science process skills because they are ways of the acquisition of such
knowledge. Ways of thinking in science are also called the process skills. Science process skills
include the skills of each individual that are used in daily life which can improve the quality and
standard of life by understanding the nature of science. Science process skills are process
thinking skills using scientific processes and approaches (Rezba, Sprague & Fiel, 2002).
Learning science from cradle to adulthood begins with the development of science
process skills. This is because science process skills serves as instrument that encourages the
learner to perform the kinds of tasks that would lead him/her to reflective thinking and discovery
knowledge. When science process skills are emphasized in the classroom, students’ proficiency
on individual skills increases, some skills are transferred to new situations, and the skills are
retained over time (Padilla, 1990). Padilla suggests that basic science process skills provide a
foundation for more complex science process skills. The development of science process skills in
students provides essential components for the development of the general goals of education
(Gbamanja, 2002, cited in Joseph, et., al., 2017).
The development of SPSs enables students to acquire the skills necessary to solve
everyday problems (Aydogdu et al., 2014, cited in Rauf, et.,al., 2013). If these skills are not well
developed, relevant evidence is not collected. According to karamustafaoglu (2011, cited in
Maranan, 2017), understanding of science process usually refer to skills or abilities that must be
owned by the scientists on the process of scientific discovery. The processes of science are basic
components of thinking and are useful in problem solving and critical thinking, not only in
science but also in day-to-day life situations.
Advantages of Science Process Skills

1. It develops skills in the learner which he or she could use in solving everyday problem.
2. It is activity-oriented, learner-centered and encourages maximum student participation in
the learning activities.
3. It is motivating and increases students’ interest in their activities.
4. Students tend to develop the scientific method of thinking in the learning process.
5. It facilitates concept formation emanating from primary experiences which the learner
will encounter in the skills acquisition process.
6. It also encourages the development of skills which are the general attributes of scientists
which students must emulate.
Disadvantages of Science Process Skills
1. Other non-science disciplines do not seem to benefit much from this approach since it is
scientifically oriented.
2. The planning of the activities to facilitate skill developing among students could be time
consuming and expensive in terms of material resources required.
Research Design
The research design used for this study was a true experimental design.
Procedure for the Study
The researcher sought out the literature related to this study through books and Internet
sources. After that, lesson plans and an achievement test were constructed for this study.
Validation for instruments were determined by the expert judgments. According to their
suggestions, test items were modified again and its marking scheme was also presented. After
getting the validity of these instruments, pilot study was conducted. The pilot study was
conducted in Basic Education High School, Kawhmu in November, 2018. After the pilot study,
the experiment was conducted in No (1), Basic Education High School, Latha and No (4), Basic
Education High School, Pazundaung.
The sample students were selected in random. The students were grouped randomly for
control and experimental group. And then the experimental group learned through science
process skills and the control group received the formal instruction. Finally, the achievements of
experimental and control group were compared by using the independent samples ‘t’ test.
Instruments
In this study, lesson plans and an achievement test for Grade Seven students were used as
instruments.
(a) Lesson Plan
The format of lesson plan was based on the five basic science process skills described by
Padilla, (1990). They are observing, communicating, classifying, inferring and predicting. The
learning materials are the lessons from Chapter (5) “The Earth and Space”. Extended materials
were pictures, models and the things in the school compounds.
(b) Achievement Test
The posttest (achievement test) were developed based on the chapter (5) The Earth and
Space in Grade Seven General Science Textbook prescribed by the basic education curriculum,
syllabus and textbook committee. A table of specifications was drawn up for the posttest in order
to facilitate the crafting of test questions. The items used for the posttest were composed of (5)
true/false items, (5) completion items, (5) multiple choice items, (5) matching items and (5) short
question items. The allocated time for the test was (45) minutes. The total marks for this test
were (30).
Population and Sample Size

All the participants in the sample were Grade Seven students. This study was conducted
in Yangon Region. There are four districts in Yangon Region. Two districts were selected in
random. After that, one high school from each township was selected as sample schools. The
participants in this study were selected by random sampling and they were assigned to
experimental and control group. The total number of students participated in this study were
(120).
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics (mean score and standard
deviation). The independent samples ‘t’ test was used to compare the achievement of students
who learned by science process skills and that of students who learned by formal instruction at
knowledge, comprehension, and application level. In order to determine the significant
differences, the independent samples ‘t’ test was used with SPSS 22.
Research Findings
Finding of Students’ Achievement at Knowledge Level on the Posttest Question
Table 1 t-Values for Experimental and Control Group on the Posttest Question at
Knowledge Level
Sig
(2-tailed)
1.06 4.98 58 .000***
(1) Control 30 3.97 0.93
1.50 6.53 58 .000***
(4) Control 30 4.10 1.06
Note: ***p < .001
BEHS (1) – No. (1) Basic High School Education, Latha
BEHS (4) – No. (4) Basic High School Education, Pazundaung
The mean scores of experimental and control groups were (5.03) and (3.97) in BEHS (1).
They showed that there was a significant difference between the achievement of control and
experimental group at the knowledge level in BEHS (1). This means that the students’
achievement of experimental group at knowledge level is higher than that of control group. And
the mean scores of experimental and control groups were (5.60) and (4.10) in BEHS (4). This
also means that the students’ achievement of experimental group at knowledge level is higher
than that of control group in BEHS (4). This result is also illustrated by the Figure 1.
Figure 1 Mean Comparison of Students’ Achievement on the Posttest Question at Knowledge

Level by Schools
Finding of Students’ Achievement at Comprehension Level on the Posttest Question

Comprehension Level
School Group N M SD MD t df Sig (2-tailed)
4.07 12.26 58 .000***
(1) Control 30 6.23 1.63
2.54 6.69 58 .000***
(4) Control 30 8.23 1.92
Note: ***p < .001
The mean scores of experimental and control groups were (10.30) and (6.23) in BEHS
(1). It was found that the mean scores of experimental group was significantly different from the
mean scores of control group in BEHS (1). In BEHS (4), the mean score (10.77) of experimental
group is significantly different from the mean score (8.23) of control group. It can be interpreted
that the achievement of experimental group is higher than that of control group at comprehension
level. This result is also illustrated by the Figure 2.
Figure 2 Mean Comparison of Students’ Achievement on the Posttest Question at

Comprehension Level by Schools
Finding of Students’ Achievement at Application Level on the Posttest Question
Application Level
Sig
(2-tailed)
3.63 6.34 58 .000***
(1) Control 30 6.30 2.32
6.33 10.09 58 .000***
(4) Control 30 4.27 1.98
Note. ***p <.001
In comparison of the two groups’ means of BEHS (1) indicated that the mean score of
experimental group (9.93) was significantly higher than the mean score of control group (6.30) at
application level. And also in BEHS (4), the mean score (10.60) of experimental group is
significantly higher than the mean score (4.27) of control group. It can be interpreted the
achievement of experimental group is significantly higher than that of the control group at
application level in the posttest. This result is also illustrated by the Figure 3.
Figure 3 Mean Comparison of Students’ Achievement on the Posttest Question at Application

Level by Schools
Summary of Findings
The results of findings were as follows.
 At knowledge level, there was a significant difference between the achievement of
students who learned by science process skills and those who learned by formal
instruction. This means that the achievement of experimental group is higher than that of
control group at knowledge level.
 At comprehension level, there was a significant difference between the achievement of
instruction. This means that the thinking skills of experimental group is higher than that
of control group at comprehension level.
 At application level, there was a significant difference between the achievement of
instruction. This means that the problem solving skills of experimental group is higher
than that of control group at application level.
Discussion, Suggestions, Conclusion

Discussion
According to the research findings of students’ achievement in science, it was found that
the mean scores of experimental and control groups were significantly different in each school.
The mean scores for the total achievement at knowledge, comprehension and application levels
of experimental and control groups were (25.27) and (16.17) in No. (1) Basic Education High
School, Latha and (27.30) and (16.60) in No. (4) Basic Education High School, Pazundaung.
This results showed that the achievement of the experimental groups who learned by science
process skills was significantly higher than that of the control groups who did not.
By teaching with science process skills, active participation can be achieved. The
construction of reality by verbal processes is frequently impossible because of the differences
between the images which students visualize and the images which the writer or the speaker is
attempting to convey. The more opportunities the students have for observing, the more they will
improve observing skill and the more they will comprehend what they learn. According to the
findings, the students from the experimental groups improved the level of comprehension and
application. They were also able to construct their knowledge personally based on their
experiences and develop a better understanding of scientific concepts.
Most students are not able to apply knowledge acquired in the class environment to other
situations including other class environments. This is due to not having an appropriate cognitive
level of comprehension and application. Students who acquired science process skills tend to
think analytically and are more successful with new problems than those who do not possess
science process skills (Oloyede, 2012).
It can be said that students in the experimental groups were active in the learning process
because the students in the experimental groups applied their own process skills in learning the
science lessons rather than listening to the teacher’s lecture and reading the passage.
Suggestions
Rote learning and memorization do not support the creativity and critical thinking skills.
These skills are essential elements in the 21st century that generates rapid development in
information and technology and a constant explosion of knowledge. Science process skills are the
foundation of such skills. They can be achieved by emphasizing student-centered approach that
stresses the background situation of the students on which effective learning is made with the
help of the teachers. Therefore, in order to meet the needs of nowadays, educators have to move
from the teacher-centered approach to learner-centered approach. In today’s classroom in
Myanmar, students are asked to listen to the teacher’s lecture, take down notes, memorize facts
and information that they do not understand or the materials that was unknown. It is the
responsibility for all educators to create better learning situation and provide students with the
skills and confidence to go forth to solve the world’s problem. By developing science process
skills, students can become competent problem solvers and face the challenges head on according
to this study.
Students who are taught with process skill approach are able to apply their skills and
realize the importance of these skills in everyday activities. Learning with science process skills
places students in realistic, contextualized environments. Both teachers and students should use
materials or equipment during teaching and learning process. This will help students understand
science concepts, in the event where the materials are not available, teachers or students must
improvise. In school where large classes exist, teachers should endeavor to sub-divide the
students into smaller groups and teach each group using extended materials at different times.
This will help students in full participation during the lesson. Developing science process skills
in learning science, students will recognize and accept the ways in which each individual is
unique, understand that their lives influence their environment and are influenced by it, use
information and values to make rational decisions and evaluate the personal consequences. They
can also be aware of the constant changes in themselves. Applying science process skills,
students become more autonomous, self-directed and responsible for their own learning.
One of the objectives of teaching Middle School General Science in Myanmar is to help
pupils learn to think scientifically and creatively. Science education is crucial to enhance the
ability of the leaders and citizens of tomorrow to create solutions and find new paths to a better,
more sustainable future. It is through education that the next generation of citizens, workers,
professions and leaders will be prepared for life-long learning about sustainability (UNESCO,
2012). Students should be given the responsibility to search for their own meaning through
hands-on activities. It helps students to get them to think for themselves.
Therefore, educators should emphasize and be aware of the importance of teaching
methods and styles of teaching on their teaching learning situation. And also, teachers should
know the importance of selecting the most appropriate teaching methods. According to the
results of this study, the mean scores of experimental group are higher than that of control group
at all levels (knowledge, comprehension and application). The emphasis on student’s self-study is
important. The students should construct their own knowledge. Teachers should think from the
angle of a learner, not to think how to give all the knowledge to students or to give all the content
of the textbook to students in detail. The teacher should take more time in planning the lessons
and engage students maximally with activities that should help them develop the spirit of enquiry
through their exploration of nature from their local environment.
To equip students with science process skills in classroom environment, teachers

themselves should possess these skills. A teacher who is not properly equipped with these skills
may experience difficulties to deliver these skills to the students. Teachers should select the
appropriate teaching aids that can stimulate students’ interest to use their science process skills in
the learning process. Science process skills are essential for encouraging critical thinking,
cooperative learning and enhancing problem solving skills by solving real world problems. And,
the teacher should design several good problems covering the knowledge of the course.
Teachers should manage a class where student teams are working independently and at a
different pace and choose a problem that allows students to successfully reach the assigned
outcomes. Teachers should provide a good learning community in the classroom with positive
teacher-student and student-student relationships and give opportunities for students to do the
activities. Teachers should encourage students to think more deeply and critically, to participate
in problem solving activities and discussions, and to stimulate students to seek information on
their own. Most of the students are not capable of thinking on their own. Therefore, teachers
should help students become self-directed learners and create a classroom environment in which
students study with freedom and think critically. Teachers as facilitators should help to keep the
students focused on the essential problem, through the problem might change over time, and even
become more complex.
In this research, there were some limitations such as content area (only Chapter-5, “the
Earth and Space” from Grade Seven Science Textbook) and the sample is only Yangon Region.
Therefore, the results were not representative for the whole content area of Grade Seven General
Science. Science process skills should be used at various school levels: primary, middle and high
school level. As the size of the sample is small, this result may not be generalized to a larger
population. Thus, carrying out a larger research in a nationally representative area in a longer
duration is highly recommended to validate results of the present research.
Conclusion
Scientific knowledge includes theory, principles and laws forming content part of
sciences. To be competent in the scientific knowledge, learners must use science process skills
because they are ways of the acquisition of such knowledge. Ways of thinking in science are also
called the process skills. Science process skills include the skills of each individual that are used
in daily life which can improve the quality and standard of life by understanding the nature of
science. Science process skills are process thinking skills using scientific processes and
approaches (Rezba, Sprague & Fiel, 2002). These skills help the learner build up competence in
searching for knowledge and information in the field of sciences through scientific method and
arousal of interest in future science-based pursuits.
When science process skills are emphasized in the classroom, students’ proficiency on
individual skills increases, some skills are transferred to new situations, and the skills are retained
over time (Padilla, 1990). Padilla suggests that basic science process skills provide a foundation
for more complex science process skills. He also affirms that teachers cannot expect students to
develop the more complex skills and higher order thinking skills if students are not provided the
opportunity to practice the basic skills.
The main purpose of this study is to study science process skills and achievement of
students in science at the middle school level. Quantitative research methodology was used to
study science process skills and achievement of students in science at the middle school level.
The design adopted in this study was true experimental design (posttest only control group
design).
There are four districts in Yangon Region: East, West, South and North. Two districts
were selected in random and then one township was chosen in random from each selected
district.
According to this study, the achievement of students in experimental group was
significantly higher than that of control group in the combination of all levels in the posttest
(knowledge, comprehension and application level).
Finally, the teacher should use suitable teaching methods or the styles of teaching for the
students to have a sound understanding of the material. And the teacher cannot expect to teach all
the material in a textbook to students. The teacher should tell the students that they are
responsible for their study and emphasize on their self-study. Therefore, the teacher should focus
on new teaching strategies and methods. Science process skills will encourage the students to
become active participants in their learning. So, the teachers should consider to use science
process skills in their instruction in science according to the time and circumstance of a
classroom situation.
In addition more research is needed to find the ways how to improve students’ problem
solving skills, teamwork skills and critical thinking in their learning process. This research is
only concerned with the quantitative measure of students’ achievement by using science process
skills and formal instruction in teaching general science. It is better to find the solutions for the
students’ problems facing in their learning process both in quantitative and qualitative research.
And then, this research is concerned with the quantitative measure of students’ achievement at
knowledge level, comprehension level and application level. And also, a study should be made
about the effects of science process skills on students’ achievement at all levels (six levels of
Bloom’s Taxonomy). As a result of this study, it is recommended that in this study, the sample
schools were randomly selected from Yangon Division. Further research should be carried out
for the other states and divisions.
Acknowledgements
and Head, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education and Dr. Ma kyi Swe, Associate Professor,
Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education for their invaluable guidance and suggestions
throughout M.Ed program. We also want to express our thanks to all participants in our study. We are indebted to all
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Appendix A
Achievement Test
Posttest (30 marks)

Appendix D
Marking Scheme for Posttest
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STUDENT’S INTEREST IN

MATHEMATICS AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL
Phyu Phyu Win1 and Htay Win2

Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the factors affecting the student’s interest in
mathematics at the middle school level. Especially, this study aims to investigate the teacher
factors and student factors that affect students’ interest in mathematics. Quantitative method was
used to gather required data. The research method for this study was descriptive research method.
Four townships were randomly selected from four districts in Yangon Region. Two high schools
and one middle school from each township were selected by using stratified random sampling
technique. The subjects in this study consisted of (68) middle school mathematics teachers and
(600) Grade Eight students. As instruments, teacher questionnaire, student questionnaire and
students’ interest questionnaire were used. For obtaining questionnaire reliability of the pilot test
was administered. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) of five-point Likert-type of
teacher questionnaire was (.721), student questionnaire was (.745) and students’ interest
questionnaire was (.834). In order to know the correlation between the factors mentioned above
and students’ interest in mathematics, Pearson product-moment correlation was used. According
to the results, the correlation between teacher factors and students’ interest in mathematics was
(r = .778, p< .01) and the correlation between student factors and their interest in mathematics was
(r = .565, p < .01). These results showed that teacher factors and student factors were positively
correlated with students’ interest in mathematics.
Keywords: Factor, Interest, Mathematics.
Introduction
Education plays a tremendous role in economics and social development of country.
Education is very important to everyone to lead a successful life. Also, competency in
mathematics learning is vital to any individual and nation in domestic and business deals,
scientific discoveries, technological breakthrough, problem-solving and decision making in
different situations in life.
Mathematics is a subject that determines individuals’ functionality in any given society. It
is essential requirement in every field of intellectual endeavor and human development to cope
with the challenges of life. To be skillfull, a genuine interest in school subjects is important as
well. Students with an interest in a subject like mathematics is likely to be more motivated to
manage their own learning and develop the requisite skills to become effective learners of that
subject.
Hence, interest in mathematics is relevant when considering the development of effective
learning strategies for mathematics. According to Voss and Schauble (1992, cited in Arthur,
2014), higher levels of interest would result in higher levels of cognitive activation leading to
higher achievement. So, the researcher thought that it is important to investigate the factors that
affecting students’ interest in mathematics.
1.
Senior Assistant Teacher, No.8 Basic Education High School, Hlaingthayar, Hlaingthayar Township, Yangon
2.
Dr, Lecturer, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education

In several education systems all over the world, mathematics is one of the important
subjects within the list of foundation subjects that constitute the core curriculum for basic
education. The basic knowledge acquired in mathematics at the lower level is vital for a student
to progress to upper classes in secondary schools. Mathematics is a core subject in schools all
over the world and occupies a privileged position in the school curriculum.
Napoleon remarked that “The progress and improvement of mathematics is linked to the
prosperity of the state. The competence gain in the study of mathematics is widely used in all
spheres of human life. Mathematics plays a key role in shaping how individuals deal with the
various sphere of private, social and civil life (Anthony & Walshow, 2009, cited in Ogunkola,
2012). It is a backbone of students to achieve and develop the skill in reasoning and thinking
level.
Moreover, mathematics is at the heart of many successful careers and successful lives
(National Council of Teachers, 2000, cited in Ogunkola, 2012). Mathematics is a precursor of
scientific discoveries and inventions. It is the foundation of any meaningful scientific endeavor
and any nation that must develop in science and technology and must have a strong mathematical
foundation for its youths (Hersh, 1986, cited in Ogunkola, 2012). It is also the foundation on
which the whole essence of living revolves and the platform for scientific and technological
innovation.
In the field of education, mathematics has become a burning problem and the numbers of
low achiever students in mathematics in the school level are constantly increased. In spite of the
pedagogic progress and efforts of teachers of mathematics, results in general are unsatisfactory.
This may be due to the lack of ‘interest’ of the students in the subject of mathematics.
Whatever one learns, ‘interest’ plays a dominant role in making him learn that things. When a
student attributes high value to a particular subject area, then it is said that the student has interest
in that area. According to Gardener and Tamir, (1999, cited in Arthur, 2014) the term ‘interest’
refers to engage in some types of activities rather than others. ‘Interest’ may be regulated as a
highly specific types of attitude. When we are interested in a particular phenomenon or activity,
we are favorably inclined to it and give time to it. The term ‘interest’ is used also to indicate a
permanent mental disposition. According to Mc Dougal, (2000), cited in Arthur, (2014), ‘taking
interest’ means the bearing of a condition or subject. If a person takes ‘interest’ in a subject, then
he would centralize himself in it despite being tired.
It is utmost needed to create interest of students in mathematics, so that different
intellectual traits like power of thinking, reasoning, analysis, synthesis, discovery etc develop in
the students and there by lead the society towards a positive and constructive direction that
teachers know the interest of pupils towards different subjects. Mathematics is an essential not
only for education but also very useful in day to day life. Various factors are involved in shaping
the understanding and learning of mathematics. However, one of the prerequisites for
understanding mathematics is interest in learning mathematics and the desire to learn it.
Despite mathematics’ great importance, it is the only subject that is most dreaded to
learners among all subjects offered in schools (Ashcraft & Faust, 1994; &Akinoso, 2011, cited in
Chinaedum, 2015). Now a day’s student’s interest is going down and down. If the students keep
interest in mathematics then automating they have high level of reasoning and achievement. Poor
achievement in mathematics may be traceable to students’ lack of interest in studying the subject.
So, the researcher wanted to investigate the factors affecting students’ interest in mathematics at

The main purpose of the study is to investigate the factors affecting students’ interest in
mathematics at the middle school level.
 To investigate the teacher factors that affect students’ interest in mathematics.
 To investigate the student factors that affect students’ interest in mathematics.
 To investigate students’ interest in mathematics at the middle school level.
 To investigate the relationship between teacher factors and students’ interest in
mathematics.
 To investigate the relationship between student factors and their interest in mathematics.
Research Questions
The research questions of this study are as follows:
 To what extent do teacher factors affect students’ interest in mathematics?
 To what extent do student factors affect students’ interest in mathematics?
 To what extent do students have interest in mathematics?
 Is there a relationship between teacher factors and students’ interest in mathematics?
 Is there a relationship between student factors and their’ interest in mathematics?
Scope of the Study
that the participants of the study came from only Yangon Region. Participants in this study are
(68) middle school mathematics teachers and (600) Grade eight students from the twelve selected
schools of the four Districts (East, West, South, and North) within the academic year (2018-
2019). Eight Basic Education High Schools and Four Basic Education Middle Schools are
included in this study. The second limitation is that this study is only concerned with the factors
(teacher factors, student factors) that affecting students’ interest in mathematics. Particularly, this
study is concerned with teacher factors (teachers’ knowledge, instructional strategy, attitudes
towards mathematics and class size) and student factors (attitudes towards mathematics, attitudes
towards their mathematics teachers and mathematics anxiety).
Factor: A factor is defined as one of the elements contributing to a particular result or situation
(Costello, 1992, cited in Payan, 2014).
Interest: Interest is defined as the feeling of intentness, concern and curiosity about an object
(Obodo, 1991, cited in Arthur, 2014).
Mathematics: Mathematics is the gateway and key to all sciences (Bacon, n.d., cited in Zubair,
2012).

Mathematics is a highly structured subject it’s also abstract in some ideas and it requires
some special attention in learning. Hence, students see mathematics as difficult in nature.
According to Sidhu (1995), “To arouse and maintain the student's interest in mathematics, is a
major problem for the teacher. He knows that loss of interest is one of the principal causes of
student failure”. Lack of interest by pupils should not be allowed to prevail in a class, as effective
learning might not take place. (Gagne, 176), For example, a student who has a positive attitudes
towards mathematics, studies it effectively because he like it .This is supported by Aremu (1998,
cited in Arthur, 2014) who explain that when pupils express lack of interest in the subject it
affects the way they react or listen to the teacher. Students work most effectively at tasks in
which they are genuinely interested.
Moreover, this study is vital in mathematics education for the following reasons. First, it
could provide information to mathematics teachers on why pupils lose interest and development
negative attitudes in learning mathematics so that they can take steps to instill interest and
positive attitudes toward learning mathematics. Secondly, it could provide information to teacher
education institutions on how to arouse interest and maintain positive attitudes of which can in
turn be shared with trainee teachers. Thirdly, the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) might
formulate and implement a syllabus and learning materials that arouse interest toward learning
mathematics in the light of the results of this study. Lastly, the finding of this study will
contribute to the existing mathematics education literature and provide information for further
studies.

Teacher Factors Affecting Students’ Interest in Mathematics
If teacher is interested in mathematics, his students will also show interest in it. If, on the
other hand, he dislike mathematics his students will also dislikes it. A teacher who is interested in
mathematics will regularly practice it. As a result of this he will be strong in it and teach it with
enthusiasms. For examples, when a teacher is confident, supportive and enthusiastic, those
characteristics are communicated to the students with the result that the learning experience and
the outcomes are generally positive. Thus, teachers play a pivotal role in the teaching-learning
process because they manage themselves and others involved in the learning environment. In this
study, teacher factors such as teachers’ knowledge, instructional strategy, teacher attitudes
towards mathematics and class size were studied.
Teachers’ Knowledge
Excellent teachers of mathematics have a sound, coherent knowledge of mathematics
appropriate to the student level they teach, and understanding of the broader mathematics
curriculum. They understand how mathematics is represented and communicated, and why
mathematics is taught. Fennema and Franke (1992, cited in Turnuklu & Yesildere, 2007)
determined the components of mathematics teachers’ knowledge as;
1) Knowledge of mathematics
 Content knowledge
 The nature of mathematics
 The mental organization of teacher knowledge
2) Knowledge of mathematical representations

3) Knowledge of students
 Knowledge of students’ cognitions
4) Knowledge of teaching and decision making
Instructional Strategy
A qualified mathematics teacher can easily use different approaches/ methods, styles,
illustrations, examples, and improvise materials in teaching students mathematics concepts,
principles or ideas which counterpart (unqualified mathematics teacher) cannot do. This suggests
student mathematics interest is depended on qualification of mathematics teacher. A qualified
mathematics teacher can arouse students’ interest in mathematics learning and ensure success in
the learning of the subject through the use of appropriate instructional strategies in teaching the
student. There are effective instructional strategies as follow.
Teachers’ Attitudes towards Mathematics
Neal (1969, cited in Jacobs, 2010) defied attitude towards mathematics as a tendency to
engage in or avoid mathematics activities, a belief that one is good or bad in mathematics is
useful or useless. An understanding of how attitudes are learned should establish a connection
between teachers and students’ attitudes and performance. Schofield (1981, cited in Jacobs,
2010) reports that positive teacher attitudes towards mathematics were significantly related to
high achievement in pupils. Teachers are the key to improving mathematics education. The
preparation, certification, ongoing professional and attitude of teachers define the outcome of
their students.
Class Size
The number of students in a mathematics class otherwise referred to as class size is a
factor of interest to learn mathematics. According to Ifamuyiwa (2005), uncooperative attitude of
the students and large class size contribute to student’ poor performance in mathematics. More
so, probably because of the negative effect of large class size that Claiber Associates (2005, cited
in Vandenberg, 2012), reported that class size of not more than 18 students per teacher is
required to produce the greatest benefits. Large class size therefore affects preparatory training
such as students’ interest to further learning of mathematics.
Student Factors Affecting their Interest in Mathematics

Chung (1998, cited in Mensah et al., 2013), in his study of 11-13 years old, also
discovered positive correlation between attitude and mathematics achievement. The correlation
showed that the more positive the attitude, the higher the level of achievement as well as interest
in the student. In this study, student factors such as (attitude towards mathematics, attitude
towards their teacher and mathematics anxiety) were studied.
Students’ Attitudes towards Mathematics

Attitude towards mathematics is an important variable, which steers the behavior of
students about mathematics lessons as how they should be and which have contribution for their
motivation, in other words, it can be considered as the determinant of personal emotions
(Bayturan, 2004). It is important for the success in mathematics (Enemark & Wise, 1981, cited in
Akkaya, 2012), has an important role for explaining mathematics success of students. Moreover,
students’ success and interest in mathematics depend on their attitudes towards mathematics.
Students’ Attitudes towards their Mathematics Teachers
Students’ attitudes towards their teachers play a crucial role in the teaching and learning
process of mathematics. Teachers are, invariably, role models whose behaviors are copied by
students. So, students follow like their teacher behavior. If the teacher is interested in
mathematics, his students will show interest in it. Thus, all mathematics teachers should support
and encourage their students to develop positive attitude towards mathematics.
Mathematics Anxiety
According to Burns (1998, cited in Wigfield, 1998), many students have fears and
loathsome experiences about mathematics. Such negative experiences are caused by mathematics
anxiety which knows no boundaries irrespective of age or gender. Mathematics anxiety is the
feeling of tension, helplessness, mental disorganization and dread one when required to
manipulate numbers and shapes and the solving of mathematics anxiety is poor mathematics
achievement and competence (Asheraft, 2002). Students who are infested with mathematics
anxiety will lack interest to learn mathematics and consequently may tend to achieve poverty in
the subject.
Research Method
This study is concerned with the factors that affect students’ interest in mathematics from
the selected schools. The factors such as teacher factors and student factors were investigated to
be able to determine whether these factors affect students’ interest in mathematics or not.
Research design and procedure, instruments, population and sample size, and data analysis are
presented in this chapter to address the research questions.
The research design for this study was a descriptive research design, in which the
researcher seeks to determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or
more quantifiable variables (teacher factors, student factors and students’ interest in
mathematics). In this study, data were collected through a quantitative method. Quantitative
method is research technique that is used to gather quantitative data-information dealing with
numbers and anything that is measurable (Gay & Airasian, 2003).
First of all, the researcher sought out the relevant literature concerning with the research
through reading books. Moreover, the researcher studied the literature from the Internet sources.
Secondly, in order to get the required data, the researcher constructed the instruments. Content
validity was determined by experienced teachers’ judgment. After getting the validity of these
instruments, a pilot testing was conducted. The pilot testing for the instrument was conducted in
November, 2018. The modified instruments were distributed to all participants of the twelve
sample schools with the help of the headmaster/ headmistress of those schools in December
2018. After all instruments were returned, and then the data were entered the computer data file
and were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS 22).
Instrumentation
In this study, two types of questionnaire (questionnaire for teacher and questionnaire for
student) for Grade Eight students were used as the instruments. Questionnaire for teachers’
knowledge was mainly based on “The Components of Mathematics Teachers’ Knowledge”
(Fennema and Franke, 1992). Questionnaire for instructional strategy was mainly based on
“Effective Instructional Strategies” (Sinay, E., & Nahornick, A., 2016). Questionnaire developed
by Meece (1981) was adapted to investigate mathematics anxiety of students. Questionnaire for
class size was mainly based on Kristy Chandler Vandenberg (2012).Questionnaire developed by
Tapia and Marsh (2004) was adapted to investigate teachers’ attitudes towards mathematics,
students’ attitudes towards mathematics and students’ attitudes towards their mathematics
teacher. Questionnaire for students’ interest in mathematics was developed by the researcher
based on four dimensions by “The Four-Phase Model of Interest Development” (Hidi &
Renninger, 2006).
All participants in the sample were Grade Eight students and middle school mathematics
teachers. This study was conducted in Yangon Region in which there are four districts and thus
one township was randomly selected from each district. Two high schools and one middle school
were selected from each township as the sample schools by using stratified random sampling
technique. Therefore, twelve schools (eight high schools and four middle schools) are included in
this study. Middle school mathematics teachers and Grade Eight students from the selected
schools were selected as the sample of the subjects by using equal size random sampling. So, the
participants in this study were consisted of (600) students and (68) teachers respectively.
Data Analysis
In this study, the data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics such as mean, standard
deviation, percentage and person product-moment correlation. In order to know teacher factors,
student factors and students’ interest in mathematics mean, standard deviation and percentage
were used. Person product-moment correlation was used to assess whether there was relationship
between teacher factors and students’ interest in mathematics and student factors and their’
interest in mathematics at the middle school level.
Findings
Findings of Teacher Factors in the Selected Schools
In order to find out teacher factors, a questionnaire for mathematics teachers was used. It
is necessary to examine the percentage of the teachers who had low, moderate and high level of
performance in teacher factors. There were involved 68 numbers of teachers in teacher factors.
The full score for teacher factors was (200).The sample mean and standard deviation in teacher
factors were (164.51) and (10.887) respectively. Based on the scores in respective areas of
teacher factors, teachers with scores below (153.62) were identified as those who had low level
of teachers’ performance and teachers with scores above (175.40) were identified as those who
had high level of teachers’ performance. Then, teachers with scores between and equal (153.62)
and (175.40) were considered as those who had moderate level of teachers’ performance. The
percentage of the teachers in low, moderate and high levels of performance were 16% (N=11),
66% (N=45) and 18% (N=12) respectively (see Table 1).
Table 1 Level of Teachers’ Performance in Teacher Factors

Level of Teachers’ Score (x) No. of Percentage
Performance Teacher (%)
Low x < 153.62 11 16
Moderate 153.62≤ x ≤175.40 45 66
High x > 175.40 12 18
Total 68 100
Figure 1 displays the percentage of the teachers’ performance in each level based on the
results of the percentage of Table 1.
Percent
18% 16%
Low
Moderate
66%
High
Figure 1 Level of Teachers’ Performance in Teacher Factors
Findings of Student Factors in the Selected Schools

In order to find out student factors, a questionnaire for students was used. It is necessary
to examine the percentage of the students who had low, moderate and high level of performance
in student factors. There were involved 600 numbers of students in student factors. The full score
for student factors was (120).The sample mean and standard deviation in student factors were
(94.67) and (7.408) respectively. Based on the scores in respective areas of student factors,
students with scores below (87.26) were identified as those who had low level of students’
performance and students with scores above (102.08) were identified as those who had high level
of students’ performance. Then, students with scores between and equal (87.26) and (102.08)
were considered as those who had moderate level of students’ performance. The percentage of
the students in low, moderate and high levels of performance were 4 % (N=25), 37 % (N=220)
and 59 % (N=355) respectively (see Table 2).
Table 2 Level of Students’ Performance in Student Factors
Level of Students’ No. of Percentage
Score (x)
Performance Student (%)
Low x < 87.26 25 4
Moderate 87.26 ≤ x ≤102.08 220 37
High x > 102.08 355 59
Total 600 100
Figure 2 displays the percentage of the students in each level based on the results of the
percentage of Table 2.
Percent
4% Low
37% Moderate
59% High
Figure 2 Level of Students’ Performance in Student Factor
Finding of Students’ Interest in Mathematics in the Selected Schools

In order to find out students’ interest, a questionnaire for students’ interest in mathematics
was used. It is necessary to examine the percentage of the students who possessed low, moderate
and high level of interest in mathematics. There were involved (600) numbers of students in this
study. The full score for students’ interest in mathematics was (140).The sample mean and
standard deviation were (110.30) and (12.426) respectively. Based on the scores in respective
interest items, students with scores below (97.87) were identified as those who possessed low
level of interest and students with scores above (122.73) were identified as those who possessed
high level of interest. Then, students with scores between and equal (97.87) and (122.73) were
considered as those who possessed moderate level of interest. The percentage of the students in
low, moderate and high levels of interest were 16 % (N=95), 66 % (N=398) and 18 % (N=107)
respectively (see Table 3).
Table 3 Level of Students’ Interest in Mathematics
Percentage
Level of Interest Score (x) No. of Student
(%)
Low x < 97.87 95 16
Moderate 97.87 ≤ x ≤ 122.73 398 66
High x > 122.73 107 18
Total 600 100
Figure 3 displays the percentage of the students in each level of students’ interest in
mathematics based on the results of the percentage of Table 3.
Percent
18% 16%
Low
Moderate
66% High
Figure 3 Level of Students’ Interest in Mathematics

Relationships of Teacher Factors, Student Factors and Students’ Interest in Mathematics

The relationship between teacher factors and students’ interest in mathematics, and the
relationship between student factors and their interest in mathematics are presented as follows:
Relationship between Teacher Factors and Students’ Interest in Mathematics

To examine the relationship between teacher factors and students’ interest in
mathematics, Person product-moment correlation was used. It was found that there was a
significant correlation r = .778, p<.01. This result shows that there was a significant correlation
between teacher factors and students’ interest in mathematics. The result shows that the direction
of correlation was positive. This means that if the function of teacher factors is high, the interest
of students in mathematics is likely to be high or if the function of teacher is low, the interest of
students in mathematics is likely to be low. Table 4 shows the correlation between teacher factors
and students’ interest in mathematics.
Table 4 Correlation between Teacher Factors and Students’ Interest in Mathematics

Correlation
Teacher Students’ Interest
Factors in Mathematics
Pearson Correlation 1 .778**
Teacher Factors Sig. (2-tailed) .003
N 12 12
Students’ Pearson Correlation .778** 1
Interest Sig. (2-tailed) .003
In Mathematics N 12 12
After that, the correlation between the respective areas of teacher factors and students’
interest in mathematics is presented in Table 5.
Table 5 Correlation between Respective Areas of Teacher Factors and Students’ Interest
in Mathematics
Correlation
SI TK IS TA CS
Students’ Interest in
1 .712** .758** .777** -.591*
Mathematics (SI)
Teachers’ Knowledge (TK) 1 .737** .445 -.610*
Instructional Strategy (IS) 1 .534 -.567
Teachers’ Attitudes towards
1 -.460
Mathematics (TA)
Class Size (CS) 1
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Relationship between Student Factors and their Interest in Mathematics

To examine the relationship between student factors and their interest in mathematics,
Person product-moment correlation was used. It was found that there was a significant
correlation r = .565, p<.01. This result shows that there was a significant correlation between
student factors and their interest in mathematics. The result shows that the direction of
correlation was positive. This means that if the function of student factors is high, their interest in
mathematics is likely to be high or if the function of student is low, their interest in mathematics
is likely to be low. Table 6 shows the correlation between student factors and their interest in
mathematics.
Table 6 Correlation between Student Factors and their Interest in Mathematics
Correlation
Students’ Interest in
Student Factors
Mathematics
Pearson Correlation 1 .565**
Student Factors Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 12 12
Interest Sig. (2-tailed) .000
In Mathematics N 12 12
After that, the correlation between the respective areas of teacher factors and students’
interest in mathematics is presented in Table 7.
Table 7 Correlation between Respective Areas of Student Factors and their Interest in
Mathematics
Correlation
SI SAM SAT MA
Students’ Interest in ** **
1 .614 .481 -.563**
Mathematics (SI)
Students’ Attitudes towards
1 .360** -.262
Mathematics (SAM)
Students’ Attitudes towards
1 -.301
their teachers (SAT)
Mathematics Anxiety (MA) 1
Summary of Findings
To sum up, the findings can be generalized as follows:
 The percentage of the teachers in low, moderate and high levels of performance were
16% (N=11), 66% (N=45) and 18% (N=12) respectively.
 The percentage of the students in low, moderate and high levels of performance were 4 %
(N=25), 37 % (N=220) and 59 % (N=355) respectively.
 The percentage of the students in low, moderate and high levels of interest were 16 %
(N=95), 66 % (N=398) and 18 % (N=107) respectively.
 Teacher factors have positively correlated with students’ interest in mathematics (r= .778,
p<.01).
 Student factors have positively correlated with their interest in mathematics (r= .565,
p<.01).
Based on the research findings, discussion, suggestions and conclusion will be presented
in the next chapter.
Conclusion
This chapter will present the discussion, suggestion and conclusion.
Discussion
From the research findings (Table 1), it was observed that there were involved 68
numbers of teachers in teacher factors. The sample mean and standard deviation in teacher
factors were (164.51) and (10.887) respectively. It was observed that 16 % (N=11) of the
teachers were low level teachers’ performance, 66 % (N=45) of the teachers were moderate level
teachers’ performance and 18 % (N=12) of the teachers were high level teachers’ performance in
teacher factors. It can be interpreted that most teachers were moderate level of teachers’
performance in teacher factors. So, this finding revealed that the answer of the first question: To
what extent do teacher factors that affect students’ interest in mathematics? Moreover, this
finding shows that most teachers have average level of ability in teachers’ knowledge,
instructional strategy, teachers’ attitudes towards mathematics and interaction with students in
teaching mathematics.
From the research findings (Table 2), it was observed that there were involved 600
numbers of students in student factors. The sample mean and standard deviation in student
factors were (94.67) and (7.408) respectively. It was observed that 4 % (N=25) of the students
were low level, 37 % (N=220) of the students were moderate level and 59 % (N=355) of the
students were high level in student factors. It can be interpreted that most students were high
level in student factors. So, this finding revealed that the answer of the second question: To what
extent do student factors that affect their interest in mathematics? Moreover, this finding shows
that most students were good condition in their attitudes towards mathematics, attitudes towards
their mathematics teachers and mathematics anxiety in learning mathematics.
From the research findings (Table 3), it was observed that there were involved
600 numbers of students in this study. The sample mean and standard deviation in students’
interest in mathematics were (110.30) and (12.426) respectively. It was observed that 16 %
(N=95) of the students possessed low level of interest, 66 % (N=398) of the students possessed
moderate level of interest and 18 % (N=107) of the students possessed high level of interest in
mathematics. It can be interpreted that most students had moderate level of interest in
mathematics. So, this finding revealed that the answer of the third question: To what extent do
students have interest in mathematics? Moreover, this finding shows that most students have
average level of interest in learning mathematics. So, they need to improve their interest in
learning mathematics.
According to the research findings (Table 4), the correlation between teacher factors and
students’ interest in mathematics was found that the correlation (r = .778, p<.01). This result
shows that the direction of correlation was positive and it was pointed out that if the functions of
mathematics teachers are high, students’ interest in mathematics is also high. So, this finding
revealed that the fourth question: Is there a relationship between teacher factors and students’
interest in mathematics?
From the research findings (Table 6), the correlation between student factors and their
interest in mathematics was found that the correlation (r = .565, p<.01). This result shows that the
direction of correlation was positive and it was pointed out that if the functions of students are
high, their interest in mathematics is also high. So, this finding revealed that the fifth question: Is
there a relationship between student factors and their interest in mathematics?
According to research findings (Table 5), the correlation between respective area of
teacher factors and students’ interest in mathematics were found that the correlation between
mathematics teachers’ knowledge and students’ interest in mathematics was .712, the correlation
between instructional strategy and students’ interest in mathematics was .758, the correlation
between mathematics teachers’ attitudes towards mathematics and students’ interest in
mathematics was .777 and the correlation between class size and students’ interest in
mathematics was - .591. These findings revealed that mathematics teachers’ knowledge,
instructional strategy and mathematics teacher attitudes towards mathematics were positively
correlated with students’ interest in mathematics. Among respective area of teacher factors, the
fourth area, class size was negatively correlated with students’ interest in mathematics. This
result shows that the direction of correlation was negative and if the ratio of class size is large,
students’ interest in mathematics is low or if the ratio of class size is small, students’ interest in
mathematics is to be high.
Based on the result of research findings (Table 7), the correlation between respective area
of student factors and their interest in mathematics were found that the correlation between
students’ attitudes towards mathematics and their interest in mathematics was .614, the
correlation between students’ attitudes towards their mathematics teachers and their interest in
mathematics was .481 and the correlation between mathematics anxiety and their interest in
mathematics was -.563. These findings revealed that students’ attitudes towards mathematics and
students’ attitudes towards their mathematics teachers were positively correlated with their
interest in mathematics. . Among respective area of student factors, the third area, mathematics
anxiety was negatively correlated with students’ interest in mathematics. This result shows that
the direction of correlation was negative and if the mathematics anxiety is high, students’ interest
in mathematics is low or if the mathematics anxiety is low, students’ interest in mathematics is to
be high.
The research findings reveal that teacher factors and student factors affect students’
interest in mathematics. These findings can support the finding of Leonard Chinaedum (2015):
teacher factors, student factors, instructional strategy, mathematics anxiety and class size have
significant relative effects on mathematics interest.
According to the above results, a generalization can be drawn that teacher factors and
student factors are significantly influenced on students’ interest in mathematics. Therefore, it can
be realized that these factors are essential for improving students’ interest in mathematics.
Suggestions
Based on the research findings, it was found that most students possess moderate level of
interest in learning mathematics. In order to motivate student’ interest, the mathematics teachers
need to be creative in their teaching methods. To increase students’ interest, the teacher should
use a variety of visual aids, instead of the usual paper and pencil test and they should use
continuous assessment. Moreover, mathematics lessons should be prepared to address a variety
of learning styles. Students should be encouraged to learn mathematics. The mathematics teacher
needs to know their pupils well, in general, so that the needs of the pupils are well catered for.
This will enable the teacher to plan a lesson which will absorb all the pupils’ interests.
Moreover, based on the findings of this study, it is suggested that mathematics teachers
should develop positive attitude towards the subject and make mathematics interesting and
appealing to students in order to help them a positive attitude towards it. Thus, mathematics
teacher ought to create interesting and non-threating environments in their mathematics
classroom and model enthusiasm for the teaching and learning of the subject. In this way, the
students may develop positive attitude and more interest in learning mathematics.
Furthermore, interest is one of the most important ingredients in the learning process
which builds a strong inner feeling or motion to have an appetite to learn concepts no matter how
challenging the task may be. So, a mathematics teacher should well verse with means and
techniques of arousing and maintaining interest in mathematics. To arouse and maintain interest
in mathematics, the following points should be considered in depth.
The teacher should explain to the child the usefulness of learning mathematics in their
daily life and for higher studies.
 The teacher should correlate the contents of mathematics with other school subject.
 The teacher should remove the fear from the mind of the child that is not a difficult
subject rather very easy and interesting.
 The teacher should use different methods of teaching.
 The teacher should use Audio-visual aids in learning.
 The teacher should give interesting puzzles to the learner in teaching mathematics
lessons.
 The teacher should give incentives to the learner.
In this study, sample schools were randomly selected from only Yangon Region. So,
further research should be carried out for the rest States and Region for replication. Thus,
carrying out a larger research in a nationally representative area in a longer duration is highly
recommended to validate the present research results. Moreover, this research concerned with the
middle school level students. That is so, other studies with the primary and high school level
students should be conducted.
In addition, this study dealt with the factors that affect students’ interest in mathematics
such as teacher factors (teachers’ knowledge, instructional strategy, teachers’ attitudes towards
mathematics, class size), and student factors (students’ attitudes towards mathematics, students’
attitudes towards their mathematics teachers, mathematics anxiety). Therefore, further studies
should be conducted with many other factors.
Conclusion
One of the objectives of mathematics of secondary school stage is to develop interest in
mathematics (Zubair, 2012). For pupils to learn mathematics, they need to have interest and a
positive attitude. The challenges of mathematics learning for today’s education are that it requires
disciplined study, concentration and motivation. To meet these challenges learners must be
focused and motivation to progress. This requires pupils having interest and positive attitude. All
good teaching should arouse attention and interest. Interest is important in the teaching of a
teacher and in the required absorption of the children in their learning. Firsov (2004) stated that
interest leads to learning – if students are interested in a subject they will succeed.
So, there is a need to catch and hold students’ interest in mathematics, to tap the full
potential of talent within this domain -both male and female- and to encourage them to pursue
related careers. When pupils lack interest towards learning mathematics might they may have
low achievement or poor performance in the subject. Thus, the researcher wanted to know what
factors that affect students’ interest in learning mathematics. This is the main reason for
conducting this research study.
According to the above results, it can be seen that there is a relationship between teacher
factors and students’ interest in mathematics and student factors and their interest in
mathematics. Thus, teachers must revise formal teaching methods which often do not match the
students’ learning styles and skills needed to be productive in society.
Therefore, the researcher would like to put forward the following conclusive remarks.
 Students today have a need for practical mathematics. Mathematics needs to be relevant
to their everyday life.
 Students must be engaged in exploring, conjecturing, and thinking rather than engaged in
only role learning of rules and procedures.
 Teaching methods must be re-examined and there should be more emphasis placed on the
specific methods which include less lecture, more student directed classes, and more
discussion.
 Teachers not only need knowledge of a particular subject matter but also need to have
pedagogical knowledge and knowledge of students.
 Teachers need to be creative in their teaching methods, so students do not lose interest.
 To engage students in mathematics, a teacher can focus on active involvement and
student-centered activities, connect to everyday life, support conceptual competences,
encourage active involvement, allow students to problematize the content, empower them
to address the problems using their own authority and provide relevant resources.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our respectful gratitude to Dr. Aye Aye Myint (Rector, Yangon University of
Education), Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing (Pro-Rectors, Yangon University of Education) for
their permission to carry out this research successfully. Then, we would like to express our special gratitude to
Dr. Khin Mar Khine (Associate Professor and Head of Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education)
for her expert guidance, valuable advice, invaluable suggestions and immense knowledge. And, we would like to
express our immense gratitude to all my teachers in Yangon University of Education. Thank a million for every
person who helped in this research.
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A STUDY OF MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT GEOMETRY IN MIDDLE

SCHOOL LEARNERS
Phyo Thiri Cho1 and Htay Win2
Abstract
The main purpose of this research is to study the misconceptions about geometry in middle school
learners. Quantitative research methodology was mainly used to find out students’ misconceptions
in geometry. The design adopted in this study was a descriptive research design. This study was
conducted in Yangon Region. There are four districts in Yangon Region: East, West, South and
North. One township from each district was randomly selected. Two basic education high schools
and one basic education middle school from each township were randomly selected. Thus, eight
high schools and four middle schools were included in this study. To obtain the required data,
(600) students and (68) mathematics teachers were participated in this study. Two instruments: a
test for Grade Eight students’ misconceptions in geometry and a questionnaire for mathematics
teachers’ perceptions were employed. The test included eight content areas: angles, triangles,
congruence of triangles, quadrilaterals, parallel lines, circles, Pythagoras’ theorem, and areas and
volumes. The questionnaire consisted of (15) items on a five point Likert scale of (1) to (5) to
explore attitude, attention, participation, doing exercises and conceptual understanding. The
internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) for the test and the questionnaire were (.740) and (.866)
respectively. The research findings revealed that most of the students had misconceptions in
geometry, and least of the students had understanding the concept and less understanding the
concept in geometry. For Grade Eight students, the highest level of misconceptions in geometry
was in Pythagoras’ theorem and the lowest level was in angles. For Grade Eight students, the
highest level of the causes of misconceptions in geometry was in doing exercises (rote learning)
and the lowest level was in attitude. To reduce misconceptions in geometry, it is necessary to
ensure meaningful learning and quality education.
Keywords: geometry, misconception.
Introduction
Competency in mathematics is a necessity in the modern world because it not only plays
a vital role in supporting the education system but also is a practical discipline reaching into a
wide variety of fields such as science, technology, etc. Similarly, geometry, an area of
mathematics, helps in developing good reasoning and it is applicable to solve human and natural
problems like everyday life problems. Thus, it is necessary to be successful teaching and learning
in geometry. According to National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2000),
students must learn mathematics with understanding, actively building new knowledge from
experience and prior knowledge. In learning geometry, if learners have misconceptions before
teaching, these can lead to confusion, frustration, errors and prevent learners to build up
confidence and positive attitude towards mathematics learning, to value mathematics and to
appreciate the beauty of mathematics. Therefore, in order to prevent misconceptions in geometry,
there is necessary to understand why these misconceptions emerge and persist.
1.
Senior Assistant Teacher, B.E.H.S (Kyontar) , Pyapon Township, Ayeyarwaddy Region
2.

Learners’ thinking about geometry is critical in learning geometry. Although geometric
concepts have a visual aspect, learners consider them difficult to learn (NCTM, 1989, cited in
Kembitzky, 2009). Clements and Battista (1992, cited in Pusey & Lousie, 2003) indicated the
reasons for learners’ misconceptions about geometric concepts as follows: learners do not
understand subjects sufficiently, they overgeneralize specific rules about geometric expressions,
they mostly learn by rote, and they cannot understand concepts exactly. Besides, according to
National Education Strategic Plan (NESP) (2016), the current emphasizes on rote memorization
of factual information in learning and assessment. This will make learners’ misconceptions.
Some fundamental misconceptions often originate from earliest years of schooling, but
may persist at higher levels. Besides, learners can enter into a classroom having misconceptions
that have the potential to derail new learning. This can justify why it is important to carry out a
research on the misconceptions held by learners in the teaching and learning of concepts.
If a learner has a misconception prior to learning a subject, this may prevent him/her
from learning the new subject properly, thereby leading to new misconceptions. Thus, it is
necessary to know learners’ common misconceptions to reduce learners’ conceptual difficulties
and to become successful learning.
In Myanmar, middle school level is the bridge between the primary school level and the
high school level. Students’ meaningful learning of geometry could help them solve and
appreciate real-life problems. But, many students have some difficulties in geometry.
They thought themselves that “They cannot do geometry. Geometry and they are like oil
and water.” They mostly learn rote learning. They have accustomed to learning through
memorization with hard work, but not independent thinking and creativity. Then, they gradually
become math phobia, especially in geometry.
Effective mathematics teaching requires understanding what students know and need to
learn and then challenging and supporting them to learn it well (National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, NCTM, 2000, cited in Kembitzky, 2009). Identification of students’ specific
misconceptions is especially important for students with learning disabilities and low performing
students (Salvia & Ysseldyke, 2004, cited in Zuya & Kwalat, 2015). By pinpointing students’
misconceptions, teacher can provide instruction targeted to the student’s area of need. Therefore,
this study is aimed to study students’ misconceptions in geometry.
The main purpose of this research is to study the misconceptions about geometry in
middle school learners.
The specific purposes are as follows:
1. To find out students’ misconceptions in geometry
2. To investigate the mathematics teachers’ perceptions on the causes of students’
misconceptions in geometry
3. To give suggestions for reducing misconceptions in geometry at the middle school
level
Research Questions
The research questions are as follows:
1. To what extent do Grade Eight students have misconceptions in geometry?
2. In which content area do Grade Eight students have the highest level of misconceptions in
geometry?
3. In which content area do Grade Eight students have the lowest level of misconceptions in
geometry?
4. In which cause do Grade Eight students have the highest level of misconceptions in
geometry?
5. In which cause do Grade Eight students have the lowest level of misconceptions in
geometry?
Scope of the Study

that the participants of the study came from only twelve selected schools from Yangon Region.
Participants in this study are Grade Eight students from the twelve selected schools in four
districts (East, West, South and North) in the academic year (2018-2019). The second limitation
is the content areas of the subject. The content areas are limited to eight areas such as angles,
triangles, congruence of triangles, quadrilaterals, parallel lines, circles, Pythagoras’ theorem and
areas and volumes, based on mathematics textbooks volume II (Grade Six, Grade Seven and
Grade Eight).
The third limitation is that this study is only concerned with three levels of
misconceptions (recognition/visualization, analysis, informal deduction) according to the van
Hiele theory. Besides, in this study, other ways that foster learners’ misconceptions in geometry
at the middle school level were not tried to find out. The fourth limitation is that the
questionnaire for mathematics teachers’ perceptions was only used to investigate the
mathematics teachers’ perceptions on the causes of students’ misconceptions in geometry.

Geometry: Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with point, straight line, plane
figures, space, spatial figures, the relations between them and the measures of geometric figures
including length, angle, area and volume, etc. (Biber, Tuna & Korkmaz, 2013, cited in Zuya &
Kwalat, 2015).
Misconception: A misconception is a concept that is not in agreement or is different from the
accepted understanding of in a field and that are presumed to interfere with the acquisition of
new knowledge (Resnick, 1983, cited in Mestre, 1989).

Geometry is the study of shapes, their relationships and their properties (Bassarear, 2012,
cited in Luneta, 2015). In teaching geometry, learning concepts with understanding is essential.
When learners have conceptual knowledge, they know more than isolated facts and methods.
They are able to represent mathematical situations in different ways and know how different
representations can be useful for different purposes.
According to Hibert (1986), conceptual knowledge is achieved in two ways: by the

construction of relationships between pieces of information and by the creation of relationships
between existing knowledge and new information that is just entering the system. However,
learners’ rote (and frequently faulty) knowledge often interferes with their informal (and usually
correct knowledge). This may lead to misconceptions. If learners have misconceptions, their
learning becomes more challenging. If a learner holds a misconception, it distorts correct
concepts.
An understanding of common students’ misconceptions, and effective strategies to help
students avoid them, is an important aspect of mathematical pedagogical content knowledge
(Graeber, 1999). If teachers “un-teach” or “undo” students’ misconceptions first, students cannot
become successful learners with positive outcomes.
With a greater understanding of students’ misconceptions of the skills that are
prerequisites to the learning of new material in basic mathematics, teachers may be able to
improve student learning. To do so, teachers must understand students’ misconceptions.
Therefore, to help teachers, this study is intended to find Grade Eight students’ misconceptions in
geometry.

Mathematics Education
Mathematics plays a vital role in the day to day life. The knowledge of fundamental
process of mathematics and the skill to use them are the preliminary requirements of human
beings in any society of modern time. Thus, it is a very important subject.
Mathematics is necessary for the development of scientific, technical, monetary and
commercial activities around the life of an individual and the community. Mathematics aids in
understanding other subjects, especially science subjects, and in teaching mathematics.
Therefore, it is necessary to enable the learner develop clear and logical thinking needed for
analysis of both academic and everyday life situation.
The Reasons for Learners’ Failing in Mathematics
According to Lieback (n.d.), some learners failed at mathematics because of rote learning,
anxiety, understanding and attitude.
Rote Learning
Learning by heart is the memorization of information based on repetition. Some consider
rote learning to be a necessary step in learning certain subjects. Although there are many
advantages, rote learning can lead to many disadvantages. Rote work is widely considered an
inaccurate representation of the learner’s intelligence and comfort with the subject matter.
Because it relies so heavily on memory, and does not necessarily reflect the student’s core
understanding of the subject, theory and memorization can portray a false sense of
accomplishment.
Anxiety
Anxiety is possible to become over-motivated. Many psychologists have shown that high
anxiety impedes learning. Learners with negative attitude towards geometry have performance
problems simply because of anxiety.
Understanding
When concepts are explained, students have to rely on their understanding and
imagination to figure out what is being taught. If not, learning will not be a continuing process.
Attitude
Attitude plays an important role on leaners’ geometry achievement. Learners’ interest in
geometry is associated with their achievement in geometry. In addition, learners’ attitude towards
geometry had a direct effect on their achievement. In spite of the recognition given to geometry
among mathematics topics, it is evident that learners still show negative attitude towards
geometry thereby leading to poor performance.
The above causes can make learners fail in mathematics as well as geometry and also lead
to some misconceptions. Therefore, teachers should try to reduce learners’ anxiety and ensure
meaningful learning, conceptual understanding and positive attitude.
The Teaching of Geometry
Geometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with space, figures in space and with
properties of those figures such as size and shape. It involves the great importance place in
people’s lives to fulfill the need of human beings to specify quantities, to measure figures, land
and earth, and make maps. Thus, it is a very important subject in daily life.
Geometric representations can be used to help students make sense of other areas of
mathematics: fractions and multiplication in arithmetic, the relationships between the graphs of
functions (of both two and three variables), and graphical representations of data in statistics. It is
also an important branch of mathematics and it is well known to be the one of basic skills to be
mastered. Therefore, it is an important area in the school mathematics curriculum and necessary
to teach.
The Objectives of Teaching Geometry at the Middle School Level

According to Sidhu (1995), the objectives of teaching geometry at the middle school level
are as follows:
1. To familiarize with the use of the straight edge, protractor, compass, an set-square and to
draw the simple geometric figures with them
2. To help students learn the important facts, relations and principles of geometric figures by
drawing, measuring, comparing, experimenting, discussing, explaining, questioning,
conjecturing, verifying and testing
3. To help students learn the geometric vocabularies
4. To develop an understanding of the inductive method as a way of looking for geometric
facts, relations and principles
5. To acquaint the students with the characteristics of good geometric notation
Different Stages of Teaching Geometry

According to Sidhu (1995), there are three stages of teaching geometry: the practical
stage, the stage of reasoning and the systematizing stage.
1. The Practical Stage
The practical stage is the stage of the geometry of the classroom and environment. It is
the period of experimentation, observation, recognition and construction. In the practical stage,
students will be expected to acquaint themselves with the common geometrical concepts and
figures. By examining and handling geometric models, straight lines, curved lines, angles,
triangles, polygons, circles, cubes, cuboids, cylinders, sphere, etc., students will be mainly guided
to experience the symmetry, variety, regularity and beauty of forms in the nature and practical
arts. Besides, students will be taught how to keep and handle the instruments. The work will
center round the observing and drawing of common geometric figures. But it should not be taken
to mean that practical geometry ends with this stage. It is the beginning of the entire geometrical
work.
2. The Stage of Reasoning
The stage of reasoning is the stage to learn to prove theorems and exercises. The proofs
will have to be presented in both the practical and theoretical forms to provide flawless
understanding. In this stage, students will be expected to get used to reasoning without
dependence on real and concrete instances. The reasoning will more and more incline to the side
of argument than stick to the obvious nature of observation. Informal reasoning will be
encouraged and made interesting and attractive at this stage. Students will be enabled to know the
interesting theorems of plane geometry and to solve easy riders. Students will be prepared for the
more formal reasoning to come in the next stage.
3. The Systematizing Stage
The systematizing stage is the stage of acquisition of mastery in reasoning. The reasoning
will be more rigorous but properly suited to the mental age of the students. Practice in logical
reasoning will be more important than convincing them that the facts are true. Dependence on
axioms will also be reduced.
Importance of Conceptual Understanding in Geometry
Geometry is a way of thinking. Geometric understanding builds its foundation on
geometric meaning. When a student understands the meaning underlying principles of geometric
concepts, he or she has conceptual knowledge in geometry. Conceptual understanding refers to
an integrated and functional grasp of geometric ideas. Conceptual understanding knows more
than isolated facts and methods.
In the 21st century, students need to develop conceptual understanding in order to flourish
and solve problems as adults in the present changing environment. The successful student
understands the ideas and has the ability to transfer their knowledge in new situations and apply
it to new contexts. Therefore, conceptual understanding is an important component and teachers
should help learners ensure conceptual understanding.
Before learning the new concept, if learners have some misconceptions, it may disturb to
understand the concept and use the concept appropriately. Hence, learners will also encounter
conceptual difficulties and many challenges. That is why, to ensure conceptual understanding, it
is necessary to find out and understand learners’ misconceptions.
Nature of Misconception
Students’ thinking consists of many things. Formulae, relevance, tedium and enjoyment
are part of their attitudes and thinking about mathematics. Many students do not come to the
classroom as “blank slates”. Rather they come with informal theories constructed from everyday
experiences. These theories have been actively constructed. They provide an everyday
functionality to make sense of the world but are often incomplete half-truths (Mestre, 1989). So,
they become misconceptions.
Students learn concepts, and sometimes they can also learn misconceptions – in spite of
whatever teachers try to teach them. Some errors or mistakes are persistent because of
misconceptions. However, although misconceptions are consciously made, mistakes are usually
due to carelessness. They cannot do the same for misconceptions. Misconceptions are committed
because students think they are correct.
Students often approach learning situations with misconceptions or with prior knowledge
that actually impedes learning. During experiences with a concept or a process (or a procedure), a
student focuses on whatever the experiences appear to have in common and connects that
information to information already known. Students have done the right beginning to solve the
problems but they couldn’t reach correct answer because of some mathematical misconception.
Some students will make some generalizations that are not correct and many of these
misconceptions will remain hidden unless the teacher makes specific efforts to uncover them.
Misconceptions are a problem for two reasons. First, students tend to be emotionally and
intellectually attached to their misconceptions, partly because they have actively constructed
them and partly because they give ready methods for solving various problems. Second, they
definitely interfere with learning when students use them to interpret new experiences.
Another problem that leads to very serious learning difficulties in mathematics is those
misconceptions that student may get from previous inadequate teaching, informal thinking, or
poor remembrance. Therefore, it is very important to recognize student misconceptions and to
re-educate students to correct mathematical thinking.
Students’ Misconceptions in Geometry

Knowledge is not transferred from person to person. The individual does not passively
receive knowledge from the environment, but is an active participant in the construction of
his/her own knowledge. The construction activity involves the reception of new ideas and the
interaction of these with the students’ existing ideas. Student errors are the result or the product
of previous experience in the mathematics classroom.
Confusions or misconceptions that occur during the fundamental learning of underlying
concepts, may lead to greater difficulties throughout school and beyond. It is important that
students develop correct concepts. Misconceptions are conceptual or reasoning difficulties that
hinder students’ mastery of any discipline.
Geometric misconceptions are the students’ unacceptable explanations and responses
about geometric concepts as a result of passing through inaccurate, incorrect and confused life,
and learning experiences which contradict with the approved geometric concepts by mathematics
teaching professionals partially or wholly. This is based on the fact that students' awareness of
such concepts is in contrast with those who are specialized in these concepts.
Many students have problem in comprehending geometric concepts, which is an
important aspect of learning mathematics. Reasons for students’ misconceptions in geometry
include students’ reliance on the physical appearances of the figures, inability to associate
geometric properties with one another, overgeneralization and rote learning (Ozerem, 2012).
Some common misconceptions in geometry among students are as follows. Clements and
Battista (1992, cited in Pusey & Lousie, 2003) said geometric shapes presented in non-standard
forms are hardly recognized by many students, as they perceive a square as not a square if it is
not on a horizontal base. Furthermore, many students have problems in perceiving class
inclusions of shapes, for example, they do not think that a square is a rectangle, or a square is a
rhombus, and a rectangle is a parallelogram.
Other common misconceptions include, using the bottom line as the base of the triangle
in calculating the area of a triangle; larger space means larger angle; inability to understand the
angles in parallel lines – alternate and corresponding angles; inability to recognize and perceive
the properties of quadrilaterals; learning formulas and definitions inadequately.
Many teachers have observed that many students have numerous misconceptions about
geometry when a teacher discusses a geometry proof problem in class, it generally involves oral
presentation of a formal proof and body movements pointing at different parts of the figure of the
problem. Students must watch, listen, jot notes, and think as a lecture proceeds. They have to
refer to many elements of the instruction and incorporate them into their memory (Sweller, 1988,
cited in Ozerem, 2012). This often causes cognitive overload and poses a negative effect on
students’ learning.
Addressing the difficulties and misconceptions in learning geometry, Duval, Healy and
Hoyles (1998, cited in Ozerem, 2012) explained that geometry instruction is often more complex
than that of numerical operations or elementary algebra. It is therefore more important that
geometry instructions must incorporate new and tested approaches such as using visual and
multimedia tools in the classroom. Furthermore, to be effective teaching learning in geometry,
teachers should try to apply appropriate theories, approaches and methods according to their
students’ previous knowledge.
The van Hiele Theory

According to Senk (1989, cited in Makhubele, 2014), the van Hiele theory of levels of
thought in geometry is the most famous and prominent model used in the teaching of geometry.
The two Dutch mathematics educators, Pierre van Hiele and his wife Dina van Hiele investigated
the role of instruction in assisting learners to acquire geometric knowledge and raise their thought
levels.
According to van Hiele (1986, cited in Makhubele, 2014), there are five levels in
students’ geometric understanding. They are:
1. Level 0 (recognition/visualization): Learners identify, name, compare and operate on
geometric figures on the basis of their appearance in a holistic manner at this level they
are able to recognize and name figures based on the characteristics of the figure. The
emphasis at this level is on the shapes that students can observe, feel, build, take part, or
work with in some manner.
2. Level 1 (analysis): Learners analyze figures in terms of their components and discover
the relationships among those components as well as derive the properties/rules of a class
of shapes empirically. They are able to consider all shapes within a class rather than a
single shape. Learners begin to appreciate that a collection of shapes goes together
because of properties.
3. Level 2 (informal deduction): Learners are able to interrelate logically previously
discovered properties/rules by giving or following informal arguments. They begin to be
able to think about properties of geometric objects.
4. Level 3 (deduction): Learners are able to prove theorems deductively and establish
interrelationships among networks of theorems. Learners begin to appreciate the need for
a system of logic. They are able to work with abstract statements about geometric
properties and make conclusions based on logic than intuition. They also prove theorems
using clearly articulated logical reasoning.
5. Level 4 (rigor): Learners establish theorems in different postulation systems and
analyze/compare these systems. At this level, there is an appreciation of the distinctions
and relationships between different axiomatic systems. Learners can understand the
necessity of precision and the interrelationships between mathematical systems or
structures. This means learners can reason abstractly without any reference to a concrete
model.
Among them, the first three levels (recognition/visualization, analysis and informal
deduction) will be examined in this study.
Research Method
This study is concerned with the misconceptions about geometry in middle school
learners. The purpose of this study is to find out the students’ misconceptions in geometry at the
middle school level. Research design and procedure, instruments, population and sample, and
data analysis are presented to address the research questions.

Research design and procedure are presented as follows:
Research Design
The research design for this study was a descriptive research design. In this study, data
were mainly collected through a quantitative method. The researcher used descriptive research
design to collect data about the Grade Eight students’ misconceptions in geometry. Quantitative
descriptive research data were mainly collected from the test and the questionnaire.
Procedure
To obtain the required data, the researcher had done the following steps in this study.
Step 1: Formulating the Problem
The students’ misconceptions in learning geometry are still in the unsatisfied condition.
So, to study the misconceptions about geometry in middle school learners is necessary.
Step 2: Compiling Related Literature

The researcher sought out the literature related to this study through reading books.
Moreover, the researcher studied the literature from the Internet sources.
Step 3: Constructing Instruments and Validation
A questionnaire for mathematics teachers’ perceptions and a test for Grade Eight
students’ misconceptions in geometry were constructed under the guidance of the supervisor.
After preparing the instruments, in order to get validation, expert review was conducted by three
experts in the field of mathematics from Mathematics Department, four experts in the field of
mathematics from the Department of Methodology and two experts who had experience in
teaching mathematics from the basic education middle schools and high schools. Since
ambiguities were found in the responses, a little change was made in the original questionnaire
after consulting experts.
Step 4: Pilot Testing
The questionnaire for mathematics teachers’ perceptions and the test for Grade Eight
students’ misconceptions in geometry were validated through pilot testing with four middle
school mathematics teachers and fifty Grade Eight students. The pilot testing for the instruments
was conducted in B.E.H.S 2 (Hmawbi). The internal consistency of the questionnaire for
mathematics teachers’ perceptions was (.866) and the test for Grade Eight students’
misconceptions in geometry was (.740) by using Cronbach’s Alpha.
Step 5: Sampling
After the pilot test, the sample schools for this study were selected by using stratified random
sampling method. Two high schools and one middle school were selected from each district.
Therefore, eight high schools and four middle schools were included in this study. There were
(68) middle school mathematics teachers and (600) Grade Eight students participated in this
study.
Step 6: Data Collection
The modified instruments were distributed to all participants of the twelve sample schools
with the help of the headmaster/headmistress of those schools in December 2018. After that,
students’ answer sheets were scored manually based on the marking scheme.
Step 7: Analysis of the Data
All the data were organized into the computer data file and were analyzed using the
Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS 22).
Instruments
In this study, a questionnaire for mathematics teachers’ perceptions and a test for Grade
Eight students’ misconceptions in geometry were used as the instruments. The questionnaire for
mathematics teachers’ perceptions was mainly based on questionnaire developed by Wong et al.
(2001) and questionnaire developed by Kakai (2012). It included causes of students’
misconceptions in geometry. It consisted of (15) items on a five point Likert scale of (1) to (5) to
explore attitude, attention, participation, doing exercises and conceptual understanding. A test for
Grade Eight students’ misconceptions in geometry was mainly based on three-tier diagnostic test
developed by Ningrum et al. (2018) and three-tier diagnostic test developed by Jauhariyah et al.
(2018). It consisted of three levels of questions: the first level contained the usual multiple-choice
questions, the second level contained the choice of reason, and the third level contained questions
relating to the belief in the answer chosen in two the previous level. Using this test, it can be
known the students who understand the concept, students who have experience misconception,
and students who do not understand the concept (see Appendix).
Population and Sample
All participants in the sample were Grade Eight students and middle school mathematics
teachers. This study was conducted in Yangon Region. There are four districts in Yangon
Region. One township from each district was randomly selected for this study. The sample
schools for the study were selected by using a stratified random sampling technique. Two high
schools and one middle school from each township were selected as the sample schools.
Therefore, eight high schools and four middle schools are included in this study. Grade Eight
students and middle school mathematics teachers from selected schools were selected as the
sample. The number of students was (600) and the number of teachers was (68).The participants
in this study were selected by using a random sampling method and a stratified random sampling
technique respectively.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation and
percentage). In order to know the students’ misconceptions in geometry, their achievement and
their confidence in performing geometric problems, mean, standard deviation and percentage
were used. In addition, the responses to the questionnaire for mathematics teachers’ perceptions
were analyzed to investigate the mathematics teachers’ perceptions on the causes of students’
misconceptions in geometry.
Findings
Findings of Students’ Misconceptions in Geometry
Geometry
M UC UC
22% 18%
LUC
LUC DNUC
G 18% G
21%
DNUC M
21%
Figure 1: Percentage of Students’ Responses in Geometry

Note: UC = Understand the Concept LUC = Less Understand the Concept
DNUC = Do Not Understand the Concept G = Guessing
M = Misconception
Misconceptions
37
40 30 30 31 31
Percentage (%)
30 25 26 26
20
10
0
Angles Parallel Lines Areas and Triangles Congruence of Quadrilaterals Circles Pythagoras'
Volumes Triangles Theorem
Content Area
Figure 2 Comparison of Percentage of Students’ Misconceptions in Content Areas of Geometry
Findings of Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions on the Causes of Students’ Misconceptions

in Geometry
15
9.74 10.31 10.6 10.71
9.25
10
Mean
5
0
Attitude Participation Conceptual Attention Doing Exercises
Understanding
Cause of Misconception
Figure 3 Comparison of Mean for Causes of Students’ Misconceptions in Geometry Summary

of Findings
To sum up, the findings can be generalized as follows:
 According to a test for Grade Eight students’ misconceptions in geometry, Grade Eight
students have 22% misconceptions in geometry.
 Grade Eight students have 25% misconceptions in angles.
 Grade Eight students have 30% misconceptions in triangles and congruence of triangles
respectively.
 Grade Eight students have 31% misconceptions in quadrilaterals and circles respectively.
 Grade Eight students have 26% misconceptions in parallel lines and areas and volumes
respectively.
 Grade Eight students have 37% misconceptions in Pythagoras’ theorem.
 Therefore, for Grade Eight students, the highest level of misconceptions in geometry is in
Pythagoras’ theorem and the lowest level is in angles.
 According to questionnaire for mathematics teachers’ perceptions, the mean of doing
exercises (10.71) was the highest among five causes of students’ misconceptions in
geometry and that of attitude (9.25) was the lowest.
 Thus, for Grade Eight students, the highest level of the causes of misconceptions in
geometry is in doing exercises and the lowest level in attitude.
Conclusion
Discussion, suggestions and conclusion will be presented.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study is to study the misconceptions about geometry in middle
school learners. The specific purposes are to find out students’ misconceptions in geometry, to
investigate the mathematics teachers’ perceptions on the causes of students’ misconceptions in
geometry and to give suggestions for reducing misconceptions in geometry at the middle school
level. To implement these three purposes, this study was conducted by five research questions. In
this part, the findings of the research study will be discussed according to the research questions.
Research Question 1: To what extent do Grade Eight students have misconceptions in
geometry?
According to the research findings, concerning the students’ responses in geometry (see
Figure 1), the researcher found that eighteen percent of students’ responses in geometry were
Understand the Concept (UC) and Less Understand the Concept (LUC) respectively. Twenty one
percent of students’ responses in geometry were Do Not Understand the Concept (DNUC) and
Guessing (G) respectively. Twenty two percent of students’ responses in geometry were
Misconception (M). Therefore, most of the students have misconceptions in geometry and least
of the students have understanding the concept and less understanding the concept in geometry.
Research Question 2: In which content area do Grade Eight students have the highest level
of misconceptions in geometry?
Research Question 3: In which content area do Grade Eight students have the lowest level
of misconceptions in geometry?
Then, the research questions 2 and 3 will be discussed. Figure 2 was illustrated by
arranging the percentages of misconception in content areas of geometry in ascending order.
According to Figure 2, the first is the percentage of misconception in angles. The second is the
percentage of misconception in parallel lines and areas and volumes. The fourth is the percentage
of misconception in triangles and congruence of triangles. The sixth is the percentage of
misconception in quadrilaterals and circles. The last is the percentage of misconception in
Pythagoras’ theorem. Therefore, for Grade Eight students, the highest level of misconceptions in
geometry is in Pythagoras’ theorem and the lowest level is in angles.
Research Question 4: In which cause do Grade Eight students have the highest level of
misconceptions in geometry?
Research Question 5: In which cause do Grade Eight students have the lowest level of
misconceptions in geometry?
Besides, the research questions 4 and 5 will be discussed. Figure 3 was illustrated by
arranging the means for the causes of students’ misconceptions in geometry in ascending order.
According to Figure 3, the first is the mean of attitude. The second is the mean of participation.
The third is the mean of conceptual understanding. The fourth is the mean of attention and the
fifth is the mean of doing exercises. Therefore, for Grade Eight students, the highest level of the
causes of misconceptions in geometry is in doing exercises and the lowest level is in attitude.
According to the results of the above presentation, the highest level of the causes of
misconceptions in geometry was in doing exercises (rote learning). This result implies that most
of the students are learning by rote. Rote learning can make students to be inadequate thinking
and reasoning abilities. Thus, it is necessary to reduce rote learning.
According to National Education Strategic Plan (NESP) (2016), the current emphasizes
on rote memorization of factual information in learning and assessment. Although there are many
advantages of rote learning, rote learning can lead to many disadvantages. Clements and Battista
(1992, cited in Pusey & Lousie, 2003) indicated the reasons for learners’ misconceptions about
geometric concepts as follows: learners do not understand subjects sufficiently, they
overgeneralize specific rules about geometric expressions, they mostly learn by rote, and they
cannot understand concepts exactly.
According to the research findings, most of the students have misconceptions in
geometry, least of the students have understanding the concept and less understanding the
concept in geometry, and the highest level of the causes of misconceptions in geometry is in
doing exercises (rote learning). These results are consistent with the facts indicated by Clements
and Battista (1992, cited in Pusey & Lousie, 2003). Therefore, to reduce misconceptions, it is
necessary to ensure meaningful learning and quality education.
Suggestions
To reduce learners’ misconceptions in geometry and rote learning, it is necessary to
ensure meaningful learning and quality education. To become meaningful learning and quality
education, effective teaching and learning is essential. That is why; teachers should use
appropriate methods according to the level of geometric thinking of students. Teachers should
use three stages of teaching geometry: the practical stage, the stage of reasoning and the
systematizing stage. If students do not have the underlying foundation of what actually means,
students will struggle with learning geometry. Therefore, teachers should not be concentrated on
facts. Learning by doing can make students raise the level of recall and retention of the content in
long-term memory. Thus, teaching should be done in using visual aids, manipulatives, games and
puzzles, etc.
Besides, students should learn geometry by small group cooperative learning. Small
group provides a forum in which students ask questions, discuss ideas, demonstrate to others,
learn to listen to others and offer constructive criticism and summarize their discoveries in
writing. If so, students can reduce anxiety and misconceptions. Furthermore, to become effective
teaching and learning, the nature of the classroom should be suitable for actively oriented
pedagogy. This classroom should provide learners to interact with teacher without fear and move
freely in it. It should also provide opportunity for variety of activity. Sufficient learning materials
should available in this classroom. There should be freedom of expression and need of the
learners should be taken into consideration. Areas like reference corner, reading corner,
information corner, classroom library, etc. should set up in the classroom.
These are some suggestions to reduce misconceptions and ensure meaningful learning
and quality education. Moreover, many factors to take into account before learning and after
learning are also remaining in order to become meaningful learning. In the teaching and learning
process, the teacher is essential. Thus, to become effective teaching and learning, teachers should
continuously try to know the factors that support meaningful learning and to upgrade their
pedagogical content knowledge.
Conclusion
In the 21st century, learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or
concepts based upon their current and past knowledge. If learners have actively constructed
misconceptions, they will think everything according to misconceptions and solve various
problems by using them. They will definitely interfere with learning. Therefore, it is necessary to
reduce misconceptions to become effective learning.
Besides, one of the challenges for mathematics educators is not only enabling their
charges to know more and be able to do more with their mathematics, but to have a greater
affinity for mathematics itself (Allen, 2011, cited in Foley, 2016). Therefore, teachers should try
students to have positive attitudes towards mathematics.
Positive student perceptions of mathematics can link to higher student achievement.
These can contribute to students in their daily lives. If students have misconceptions in geometry,
these can lead to confusion, frustration, errors and prevent learners to build up confidence and
positive attitude towards learning, to value mathematics and to appreciate the beauty of
mathematics. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce students’ misconceptions. To reduce
misconceptions in geometry, it is also necessary to understand why these misconceptions emerge
and persist.
According to the research findings, most of the students had misconceptions in geometry,
least of the students had understanding the concept and less understanding the concept in
geometry, and the highest level of the causes of students’ misconceptions in geometry was in
doing exercises (rote learning). Therefore, it is necessary to ensure meaningful learning and
quality education.
To become meaningful learning and quality education, teaching and learning should be
effective. To become effective teaching and learning, teachers should know the previous
knowledge of their students and use appropriate methods according to the level of students’
geometric thinking. Teachers should teach students by using visual aids, manipulatives, games
and puzzles, etc. Furthermore, students should learn small group cooperative learning. To be
convenience in learning geometry, a proper atmosphere should be created in the classroom.
Furthermore, teachers should use not only summative assessment but also formative
assessment. Assessment should not emphasize on rote memorization of factual information. It
should emphasize students’ thinking and reasoning skills. If teachers find out students’
misconceptions according to the result of assessment, teachers should not ignore these
misconceptions. Teachers should provide remediation by using appropriate methods. Only when,
teachers will reduce students’ misconceptions.
Although this study cannot fulfill the all objectives of teaching mathematics at the middle
school level in Myanmar, it can be a support for teachers and curriculum planners to understand
the middle school learners’ misconceptions and address conceptual difficulties.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Aye Aye Myint (Rector, Yangon University of Education),
Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing (Pro-Rectors, Yangon University of Education) for their
arrangement and permission to carry out this study. Then, we would like to express our immerse gratitude to
Dr. Khin Mar Khine (Associate Professor and Head of Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education)
for her expert guidance, great support and precious suggestions. Thanks a million for a piece of advice to all of the
teachers in Yangon University of Education. Thank you so much for all people who participated in this thesis work.
References
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Mathematics- Representation.pdf
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Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Ministry of Education.
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Sidhu, J. M., (1995). The teaching of mathematics (4th ed.). India: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Wong, N.Y., Lam, C. C., Wong, K. M. P., Leung, F. K. S., & Mok, I. A. C. (2001). Students’ views of mathematics
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Appendix
1. a.
A. 30°, 60° B. 40°, 140°
C. 70°, 200° D. 90°, 270°
b.
A. 90° B. 180°
C. 270° D. 360°
c.
(i) (ii)
Marking Scheme
No. of Items = 22 items
Each question = 1 mark
=1 =0
Each Item Problem Level Analysis
a b c Category
1 1 1 Understand the Concept
1 1 0 Less Understand the Concept
0 0 0 Do Not Understand the Concept
1 0 0 Guessing
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 0 1 Misconception
0 1 1
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE DIFFICULTIES OF STUDENTS IN

LEARNING BIOLOGY
Hnin Oo Wai1 and Su Su Khine2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the difficulties of students in learning biology.
Especially, causes of difficulties in terms of subject matter, use of instructional materials, teachers’
styles of teaching, students’ attitudes, study habits and students’ anxiety in subject were examined.
Difficult biology topics were also investigated. Sixteen high schools from eight townships of four
districts in Yangon Region were randomly selected. (32) biology teachers and (640) Grade Ten
science students from the selected schools participated in this study. Three instruments:
questionnaire for teacher, questionnaire for student and an achievement test were used. For
obtaining questionnaire reliability, the pilot test was administered. According to the
questionnaires’ responses, causes of students’ difficulties learning in biology were presented as
percentage. According to the teachers’ responses, the most serious causes of difficulties of
students in learning biology were due to inadequate use of instructional materials and students’
poor study habits in biology. Based on the students’ responses, the most serious causes of
difficulties were due to inadequate use of instructional materials and students’ anxiety. Difficult
topics such as plant and animal cells, plant and animal tissues, bacterial cell and protozoa were
mostly responded. And then, students’ achievement in biology was presented as mean score and
standard deviation. Pearson product moment correlation was also used to study the relationship
between students’ learning difficulties and their achievement in biology. The correlation between
students’ learning difficulties and their achievement in biology was r=-.698, p < .01. These results
showed that students who have difficulties in learning have lower achievement and vice versa.
Keywords: difficulty, biology, learning
Introduction
Education is the process through which an individual is developed into individuality and a
person into a personality. It refers to the change in behavior, attitude and culture brought about in
the individual as a result of his having undergone education during a particular period (Sharma &
Vyas, 2017). In Myanmar society, education is traditionally valued as a key determinant for
social mobility and it is widely recognized as a critical building block for nation building,
national unity and sustainable development (National Education Strategic Plan [NESP], 2016).
As children grow up in an increasingly technologically and scientifically advanced world, they
all need to be scientifically literate to succeed. Science is the most ideal subject to help improve
students’ thinking ability, for it emphasizes inquiry, which in turn permits students to construct
their own knowledge through active investigation of objects and events (Collette & Chiappetta,
1989). In accordance with Myanmar education curriculum, science is taught from Kindergarten
(KG) to Grade Nine as a compulsory subject. At the upper secondary school level, science is
optional and students who take science combination have to learn Physics, Chemistry and
Biology. The knowledge of biology is the major potent source for social and economic changes
in the contemporary history of mankind (Owiti, 2009). Unlike other science subjects, biology is
expected to be performed much better because the subject matter touches on life and life
processes that are expected to be interesting and motivating to the learners (Samikwo,
2013).Therefore, the teaching and learning of biology should be taken very seriously.
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, B.E.H.S (2) South Okkalapa, Yangon Region
2

In our universe, plants and animals are depending on each other. Animals have to take
food and water to survive. The food that the animals had taken are the products and by products
of the plants. For this reason, the study of living things, biology, stands as the most fundamental
and important of all the sciences (BEd Correspondence Course, 2018). Biology is a unique
discipline where experiments with living organisms can take place both in the laboratory and in
the field (Prokop, 2007, cited in Hasruddin & Putri, 2014). But, biological materials that exist
today is loaded with biological terms, mostly taken from the Latin so that the loss of important
concepts that are simply not understood by the students (Hasruddin & Putri, 2014). According to
research done by Samikwo (2013) obtained that respondents named terminologies used in the
content of biology, misspelling of biological terms and the strict making of biology examinations
as the key challenges faced in the study of biology.
As a result, the improvement of biology learning for all students requires effective
teaching in all classrooms. Effective teaching requires clarity in presentation and explanation.
According to a study by Smith and Meux (1962, cited in Westwood, 1996), it appears that the
greatest source of confusion in learners is lack of precision in teachers’ explanations. Poor
explanations usually get learners confused and therefore create learning problems. Added with
the lack of teaching learning strategies that is used so that students unable to complete the study
(Hasruddin & Putri, 2014).
Also, inadequate or lack of practical work during biology lessons could be a stumbling
block to pupils insofar as understanding new biological concepts is concerned (Woodley, 2009).
Because biology includes many abstract concepts and phenomena that require observation,
students need to see what they are learning or to experiment with what is being taught. Moreover,
the use of instructional materials in teaching biology is very important because it provides a
concrete basis for conceptual thinking which motivates pupils to learn more. However, it is fail to
use instructional materials and do practical work in teaching biology lessons today. Failure to use
on the part of the teacher as Onyegegbu (2001) explained made it rather difficult for pupils to
grasp difficult biological concepts.
In addition, Dillon (2008, cited in Salibio, 2014) stated that students’ learning and
studying habits were one of the reasons they had difficulties in learning biology. Success or
failure of each student depends upon his own study habits. Many students of today memorize
biology by rote without acquiring real understanding of principles. Besides, many of them did not
study biology regularly, review previously taught materials or work on biology questions on a
regular basis. As a result, in such a context, students cannot learn biology with understanding.
This causes very rapid rate of forgetting.
Furthermore, if students are not happy with the way that biology is taught, they may show
disinteret in and negative attitudes towards biology and its teaching. Without interest or
motivation in the subject being studied, it is hard for the learner to keep learning. Thus, students
should be given opportunities to develop positive attitudes in relation to their studies in biology.
Promoting positive attitudes related to the pupil’s understanding in biology is a key part of
biology education (Johnstone & Reid, 1981, cited in Chu 2008).
Besides, students of all academic achievement levels suffer from academic anxiety
(Dobson, 2012). Anxiety is a negative feeling to learning process. According to the research done
by Ucak and Say (2018) indicate that anxiety and negative attitudes become obstacles to
students’ participation into the teaching and learning process and they reduce students’
performance and achievement.
For these issues, it was aimed to investigate the causes of difficulties of students in
learning biology and to give suggestions based on the data obtained from this study to improve
biology learning.

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the difficulties of students in learning biology.
The specific objectives are as follows:
(1) To investigate the causes of difficulties students face in learning biology
(2) To investigate the difficult biology topics for Grade Ten students
(3) To investigate the relationship between students’ learning difficulties and their
achievement in biology
(4) To give suggestions based on the data obtained from the study to develop biology
learning
Research Questions
(1) What are the most serious causes of difficulties of students in learning biology from
teachers’ views?
(2) Which biology topics do Grade Ten students have difficulties learning from teachers’
views?
(3) What are the teachers’ views of the reasons which students face difficulties in learning
biology?
(4) What are the most serious causes of difficulties of students in learning biology from
students’ views?
(5) Which biology topics do Grade Ten students have difficulties learning from students’
views?
(6) To what extent do students achieve in biology in the selected schools?
(7) Is there any significant relationship between students’ learning difficulties and their
achievement in biology?
Scope of the Study

(1) This study is geographically restricted to Yangon City Development Area (YCDA).
(2) Participants in this study were (32) biology teachers and (640) Grade Ten science
students from (16) selected Basic Education High Schools within (2018-2019) Academic
Year.
(3) Three instruments: questionnaire for teacher, questionnaire for student and an
achievement test for students were used.
(4) Questionnaires in this study are limited to find out the causes of difficulties in learning
biology in terms of subject matter, instructional materials, teachers’ styles of teaching,
students’ attitudes, students’ study habits and students’ anxiety.
(5) The achievement test included true/false items, completion items, multiple-choice items
and short-question items.
(6) The content area is limited to twelve topics from five chapters covered in biology
textbook to measure students’ achievement.

Difficulty: Something that inhibits the student in accomplishing correctly or in understanding
quickly a given terms (Centeno, 1988)
Biology: The study of life and living organisms including their physical and chemical structure,
function, development and evolution (Richards, 2002)
Learning: The acquisition of new behavior or strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as
the result of experience (Henry P. Smith, 1962)

In accordance with Myanmar basic education curriculum, Grade Ten biology is the
foundation course for the beginners to make them aware of the actual meaning of biology that
deals with living things, organisms. A subject becomes interesting with systematic learning
methods. It is thus greatly depend on the deliverers (teachers) who must prepare each lesson
carefully in order to draw the interests of the receivers (students) (Ministry of Education [MOE],
2016). Therefore, teachers should make biology lessons interesting and attractive for students to
learn more effectively.
Students are also more motivated to solve authentic problems and show the preference for
the learning activities through a process of thinking and working rather than just learning by
listening (Lombardi & Oblinger, 2007, cited in Suwono et al., 2017). Bilbao (2006, cited in
Alngog & Aledon, 2014) pointed out that learning through hearing alone proves to be the least
effective means of learning. One learns eleven percent by hearing as against eighty-three percent
by seeing. As far as retention of hearing is concerned, learning through hearing again stands at
the lowest ebb because after three days, we recall only ten percent of what we learn through
hearing as against fifty percent of what we learn through both hearing and seeing and ninety
percent of what we acquire by applying three of our senses i.e. seeing, hearing and doing. Thus,
the need to emphasis on the use and importance of instructional materials in any learning and
teaching environment cannot be underestimated. For any learning to take place, the teacher has to
make use of these materials that would enable him to teach effectively (Effiong et al., 2015).
Not only do teachers need to know how to teach but students need to know how to study.
The link between study habits and academic achievement has strong connection. By learning
better study techniques, students may save time and effort and at the same time do their work
better (Ellis, 1956). Thus, proper study habits and skills entail to proficiency as well as high
quality of learning.
Additionally, the aim of teaching biology is in making educated students: people who can
understand the importance of the role of biology in their society and can make judgments or
decisions based on biological views, where appropriate. Success in learning is closely related to
degree of concentration. Concentration is closely related to interest (Ellis, 1956). Students’ like
and dislike towards biology as well as their belief are influencing their learning. For these
reasons, it is important to not only give biological knowledge but also to encourage the
development of positive attitudes towards biology in biology classes (Suzuki, 2007).
Myanmar secondary education has numerous problems. It completely emphasizes upon
rote learning and memorization and regurgitation inhibiting students’ creative thinking and
critical thinking skills (Wikipedia, 2011). Teachers of today need to know and see in which part
their students have difficulties in learning and they also need to explore the ways to minimize the
difficulties students face learning in biology.

Importance of Biology
Johnson (1986, cited in Ozcan, 2003) pointed out the importance of biology which will
have a profound impact on ones’ lives through advances for the next few decades. Biological
sciences stimulate human interest to find the truth with an intellectual rigor therefore have
important cultural and educational functions (Liras, 1994, cited in Ozcan, 2003). It is a very
important thing for all to have healthy life for everybody and biological knowledge can assist:
understanding the routes of infection, the immune system, how people practice good domestic
hygiene and use ordinary medicine such as antibiotics (Rowland, 2007, cited in Salibio, 2014).
According to Sharma (2009), the knowledge of body structures and its systems help ones
to lead a healthy life. Similarly, knowledge about the balanced diet and hygienic principles helps
ones to lead a healthy life. The study of botany has also helped ones to understand the
germination process of different plants and thus to improve the quality of seeds of useful plants
and improve the quality of their variety which will not only have resistance to diseases but also
give more yield and production.
Likewise, Samikwo (2013) stated that the biology subject caters for the needs of a learner
who may pursue his or her studies in the subject and its related disciplines. In many areas,
biological knowledge can be applied in general improvement of man’s well-being as evidenced
in medicine, agriculture and industry. In brief, it can be seen that knowledge derived from
biology has a major significance for the lives of all students and for the way societies may
develop.
Causes of Difficulties Learning in Biology

Learning difficulties have probably existed since the beginning of the human race, but
have received concerted attention only since the 1950s and 1960s. Since the mid-1960s, efforts
on behalf of students with learning difficulties have grown rapidly, with support a very active
parent/advocacy group, and state and federal legislative mandates (Bill & Carol, 1989). Learning
difficulties may have not only in education but also in other professions (Orton, 1925, cited in
Bill & Carol, 1989).
Learning difficulties in biology stem from many causes. The main reasons why students
have difficulties learning in biology are the nature of biology (subject matter), teachers’ styles of
teaching biology, lack of resources, students’ learning and studying habits and students’ feelings
and attitudes towards the subject (Cimer, 2011).
1. Nature of Biology
Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions and disciplines. In biology area,
students have to learn structure and classification of animals and plants, observation of
organisms, structure of cells of organism, reproduction and investigation of environment (Suzuki,
2007). Some topics covered in the biology course are difficult for students to connect with their
lives directly because their effects are complex and indirect. For instance, the cell division is a
microscopic subject. Unless the expressions seen in this subject (chromosome, chromatid,
protoplasm) are related to daily life, the subject is learnt more difficulty (Tasci & Soran, 2008,
cited in Ozcan et al., 2013).
Diagrams are critically important in biology teaching. To develop scientific meanings,
diagrams and illustrations are universally accepted as being beneficial learning tools in many
disciplines (Stieff, Bateman & Uttal, 2005, cited in Liu, 2012). However, research suggests that a
large number of students have difficulty understanding and illustrating diagrams (Hartley et al.,
2011, cited in Liu, 2012).
In addition, biology is especially prone to terminology overload. There are many terms
and many synonyms; most terms are long, polysyllabic words of Greek or Latin origin, which
makes them more difficult to read or say. Learners who learn biology not in their first language
face the problem of understanding both the scientific terminologies (technical terms) and regular
explanation of the knowledge itself. Language development and concept development are linked
so that if the language is not learner-friendly, they will experience difficulties in understanding
concepts.
2. Teachers’ Styles of Teaching Biology

The teacher is one of the key factors in the actualization of the goals of teaching science
in the secondary schools as stipulated by the National Policy on Education (2004). The teacher
not only needs the knowledge of subject matter but an in-depth knowledge of the organization of
the contents of the subject matter (Arubayi, 2010). Genome (2012, cited in Arubayi, 2010)
defined the place of the teacher in biology as “making the biology come alive by illustrating how
classroom biology applies to the professional laboratory and make the students aware of the
relevance of biology to their lives”. The transmission of subject matter from the teacher to the
student is done through method. By means of method, the child is guided as to what parts subject
matter to appreciate and what attitudes to develop.
In addition, effective teaching requires teachers to check continuously the development of
students’ understanding and give detailed positive feedback in order to make sure that students
correctly integrate new knowledge into the existing knowledge structure (Svinicki, 1999; Cimer,
2004; cited in Cimer, 2007). Cimer (2004, cited in Salibio, 2014) said that teacher styles of
biology teaching and teaching methods and techniques may be factors that affect students’
learning in biology. As a result, it is of paramount importance for a teacher to adopt the
appropriate teaching methods and techniques according to the teaching environment and the
curriculum provided. For, according to Kempa (1991), a learning difficulty may be said to exist
in such situation as mismatch between instructional approaches used by the teacher and the
student’s preferred learning mode (learning style).
3. Importance of Instructional Materials in Biology

The use of instructional materials would make discovered facts glued firmly to the
memory of students. Trowbridge and Bybee (1990) said that more of the students’ senses are
stimulated by instructional materials. Similarly, Nwike and Catherine (2013) stated that students
learn more and perform better when they are taught with instructional materials because using
instructional materials give students the chance to feel, view, listen and touch the material during
teaching which help to arouse students’ attention and interest in the process of teaching and
learning.
Similarly, practical activities in biology lessons have an important place among
instructional methods for a meaningful learning. Practical work can provide a good opportunity
for students to apply their newly acquired knowledge or skills and gain first-hand experience of
phenomena talked about in theory (Millar, 2002, cited in Cimer, 2007). Teaching through
practical work enhances students’ understanding of the abstract terms. Cross (1987, cited in
Ozcan, 2003) concluded that “when students are actively involved in the learning task, they learn
more than when they are more passive recipients of instruction”. By actively participating, the
students with learning advantages in the learning process it is possible to create real meaning
(Frankenstein, 1981, cited in Ozcan, 2003). For these reasons, there must be science laboratories
in schools and laboratory practice is compulsory for all students in biology classes.
4. Concept of Study Habits
Of all educational objectives, few are more important and none is more difficult to
achieve than the development of efficient, independent, permanent study habits and skills. With
this in mind one of the continuous objectives of teaching should be the improvement of the study
habits and techniques of the students (Trexlar, n.d., cited in Ellis, 1956). Study habit refers to the
student ways of carrying out the task of studying by using various techniques and ways in the
field of study to keep him afloat along with the wise use of his or her time in studying. Good
study habits can be defined as to have a clean, organized area for studying, keeping good notes,
reading textbooks as well as studying at the same time each day. According to M.T.V Nagaraju
(2004, cited in Ellis, 1956), study habit serves as the vehicle of learning and poor study habits
creates anxiety in the students.
Gbore (2006, cited in Odiri, 2015) argue that study habits have strong relationship with
the academic performance of students. A student who cultivates certain study habit will perform
differently from a student who has another set of study habit. It is believed that student who lacks
effective and efficient means of studying would be building on shaking foundation and
consequently have weak foundation. It is worthwhile to note and understand that one of the
reasons of underachievement by students is lack of proper methods of study.
5. Concept of Attitudes
Attitudes provide a frame of reference for the individual. The attitude towards biology is
an important component that is needed to support teaching and learning of the subject. In order to
be effective in leaning biology, students need to develop attitudes not only towards the learning
of biology such as understanding about the nature of knowledge, about approaches to successful
study, about the nature of learning as a lifelong process but also towards the process of biology.
Zacharia and Barton (2004, cited in Mavrikaki et al., 2012) suggested that attitudes are affected
by students’ interest levels in biology, the curriculum and the learning climate. So, students’
attitudes towards biology can be considered as a necessary one to predict biology-related

behaviors such as having interest or lack of it, whether or not a student will have the subject
further and even in taking it for a career.
6. Concept of Anxiety
Many foreign language learners experience foreign language anxiety which is a situation-
specific and unique type of anxiety closely related to the acquisition of a foreign language. Some
conditions of foreign language learning that provoke anxiety in learners like confusion and
embarrassment may result from the inability of the learners to comprehend or articulate written
input. Test anxiety is one of the major problems among students and it is also thought to be one
of the biggest hurdles in achieving good grades. Whenever students take some test, they
encounter some level of anxiety, which decreases their performance. Researchers found that
anxious individuals find it harder to avoid distractions and take more time to turn their attention
from one task to the next than their less anxious peers. This makes learning, reading,
remembering and writing difficult affecting academic performance.

Research Design
The research design used for this study was a descriptive research design, in which the
researcher seeks to determine whether, and to what degree, students’ have difficulties in learning
biology and the relationship exists between students’ learning difficulties and their achievement
in biology. In this study, data were mainly collected through a quantitative method.
Instruments
In this study, the relevant data and information were collected by teachers’ questionnaire,
students’ questionnaire and an achievement test. Six dimensions: subject matter, teachers’ styles
of teaching, use of instructional materials, students’ attitudes towards biology, students’ study
habits and students’ anxiety in biology were included in both questionnaires: teachers and
students. The item for questionnaire of subject matter was adapted by Zisanhi (2013) and Liu
(2012). The items for questionnaire of use of instructional materials and teachers’ styles of
teaching were adapted by Salibio (2014). Study habit’s questionnaire was constructed based on
“Educational Psychology” (Ellis, 1956). The item for questionnaire of students’ attitudes was
based on Chu (2008) and students’ anxiety was based on Zeidner (1998). In addition to these
questionnaires, an open-ended question for teachers which is adapted by Cimer (2011) was used
as an instrument.
Research Findings
Findings of the Difficulties of Students in Learning Biology from Teachers’ Views
In order to find out the difficulties of students in learning biology from teachers’ views, a
questionnaire on difficulties into six factors was examined. Percentage of teachers’ responses to
each difficulty was presented (see Table 1 and Figure 1).
1. Percentage of Teachers’ Responses to Each Difficulty

Number of Teachers’ Responses to
Types of Difficulties Percentage
Each Difficulty
Subject Matter 15 47%
Teachers’ Styles of Teaching 19 59%
Instructional Materials 28 88%
Attitudes 28 88%
Study Habits 29 91%
Anxiety 20 63%
Note: Total number of teachers = 32
100% 91%
88% 88%
90%
80%
70%
59% 63%
Percentage
60%
47%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Subject Teachers' Instructional Attitudes Study Habits Anxiety
Matter Styles of Materials
Teaching
Causes of Difficulties
Figure 1 Percentage of Teachers’ Responses to Each Difficulty

From analyzing the data result, it was found that inadequate use of instructional materials,
students’ attitudes towards biology and students’ poor study habits are the most serious causes of
difficulties of students in learning biology.
Findings of Teachers’ Responses to Difficult Biology Topics for Grade Ten Students
In order to find out the difficult biology topics for Grade Ten students from teachers’
views, a question as “Read the list of biological topics stated below and tick the difficult topics
for students to learn” was examined. Number of teachers’ responses to difficult biology topics for
Grade Ten students was presented in Table 2.
2. Number of Teachers’ Responses to Difficult Biology Topics for Grade Ten Students
No Difficult Biology Topics Number of Teachers’ Responses
1 Plant and animal cells 5
2 Plant and animal tissues 28
3 Bacterial cell 6
4 Protozoa 15
According to the results described in Table 2, it can be seen that “plant and animal
tissues” is the most difficult biology topic for Grade Ten students in biology.
Findings of Teachers’ Responses to Open-ended Question

The reasons for why Grade Ten students face difficulties in learning the topics as stated
above are as follows:
 Terminology (biological terms are less familiar for most students)
 Confusion (similar words, different meanings are included)
 Students’ poor study habits (rote memorization without understanding, lack of writing
down the spelling of biological terms)
 Inadequacy of use of instructional materials
 Time for teaching is insufficient
 In plant and animal tissues, tables and meanings are complex unlike the other topics.
 In protozoa, it is broad and includes many topics which are abstract and complex.
Findings of the Difficulties of Students in Learning Biology from Students’ Views

In order to find out the difficulties of students in learning biology from students’ views, a
questionnaire on difficulties into six factors was examined. Percentage of students’ responses to
each difficulty was presented in Table 3 and Figure 2.
3. Percentage of Students’ Responses to Each Difficulty
Types of Difficulties Number of Students’ Responses Percentage
to Each Difficulty
Subject Matter 448 70%
Teachers’ Styles of Teaching 434 68%
Instructional Materials 552 86%
Attitudes 334 52%
Study Habits 468 73%
Anxiety 541 85%
Note: Total number of students = 640
100%
86% 85%
90%
80% 70% 73%
68%
70%
Percentage
60% 52%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Subject Teachers' Instructional Attitudes Study Habits Anxiety
Matter Styles of Materials
Teaching
Causes of Difficulties
Figure 2 Percentages of Students’ Responses to Each Difficulty

From analyzing the data result, it can be interpreted that inadequate use of instructional
materials and students’ anxiety are the most serious causes of difficulties in learning biology.
Findings of Students’ Responses to Difficult Biology Topics

In order to find out the difficult biology topics from students’ views, a question as “Read
the list of biological topics stated below and tick the difficult topics for students to learn” was
used. Number of students’ responses to difficult topics was presented in Table 4.
4. Number of Students’ Responses to Difficult Biology Topics

No Difficult Biology Topics Number of Students’ Responses
1 Life and its characteristics 68
2 Plant and animal cells 76
3 Classification of plant and animal 144
4 Plant and animal tissues 149
5 Bacterial cell 135
6 Protozoa 232
7 Liverworts, mosses and ferns 87
According to the results described in Table 4, it can be observed that “protozoa” and
“plant and animal tissues” are the most difficult biology topics for Grade Ten students.
Findings of Relationship between Students’ Learning Difficulties and their Achievement in

Biology
To examine the relationship between students’ learning difficulties and their achievement
in biology, Pearson product-moment correlation was used. It was found that there is a significant
correlation between students’ learning difficulties and their achievement in biology and it also
shows that the direction of correlation is negative (r = -.698**, p < .01). This means that if
students’ difficulty is high, their achievement is likely to be low or if students’ difficulty is low,
their achievement is likely to be high (see in Table 5).
5. Correlation between Students’ Learning Difficulties and their Achievement in Biology

Correlation
Students’ Students’
Difficulties Achievement
Students’ Pearson Correlation 1 -.698**
Difficulties Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 640 640
Students’ Pearson Correlation -.698** 1
Achievement Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 640 640
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Discussion, Suggestion and Conclusion

Discussion
This study is aimed to investigate the difficulties of students in learning biology. In this
research study, students’ learning difficulties in biology had been examined under six factors:
subject matter, teachers’ styles of teaching, instructional materials, students’ attitudes towards
biology, students’ study habits and students’ anxiety. According to the teachers’ responses, it can
be seen that inadequate use of instructional materials and students’ poor study habits cause
learning difficulties in biology mostly. Also, it was found that (5) teachers responded that plant
and animal cells is difficult, (28) teachers responded that plant and animal tissues is difficult, (6)
teachers responded that bacterial cell is difficult and (15) teachers responded that protozoa is
difficult for students among (32) biology teachers.
The reasons for why Grade Ten students face difficulties in learning these topics were due
to terminology, confusion, students’ poor study habits, inadequacy of use of instructional
materials and time for teaching is insufficient. Besides, in plant and animal tissues, tables and
meanings are complex unlike the other topics and in protozoa, it is broad and includes many
topics which are abstract and complex.
According to the students’ responses, it was found that inadequate use of instructional
materials and students’ anxiety cause learning difficulties in biology mostly. Plant and animal
cells, plant and animal tissues, bacterial cell and protozoa are found as difficult topics for most
students. It was also found that there was a significant correlation r = -.698**, p< .01. Based on
this result, it can be interpreted that students’ learning difficulties and their achievement is
negatively correlated.
This study is consistent with the study of Cimer (2011) who investigated what makes
biology learning difficult and effective: students’ views? In his study, the participants identified
the nature of the subject matter as the main reason for their difficulties in learning. The main
reasons for this were that biology includes there are a lot of concepts, various biological events
that cannot be seen by the naked eye, some concepts are too abstract and that there are a lot of
foreign / Latin words. Another reason in his study for why students had difficulties learning in
biology was teacher qualities. A few of students indicated that teachers’ lack of mastery in
biology and teaching negatively affected their learning.
Students’ study habits were one of the reasons they had difficulties learning in biology.
Many students do not study biology lessons regularly, review previously taught materials or work
on biology questions on a regular basis. According to Cimer (2011), the final reason students
have difficulties learning in biology was the paucity of facilities, materials and lesson time.
Suggestions
A foundation in biology is considered to be critical for the 21st century students since
many of decisions require an understanding of biology. According to Ozcan (2003), the students
through biology education should be able to comprehend basic structure of living organisms,
recognize and protect the environment, comprehend the importance of environment for human
life, gain conscious of health care, think critically and approach the resolutions to the problems
that he or she met through the life with scientific method and relate the gained knowledge to
everyday life. Consequently, teaching and learning of biology should be taken very seriously.
Every subject has its difficulty. In biology area, it includes many abstract concepts and
also saturates with many scientific terms, Latin words which are less familiar with many
secondary school students in Myanmar. This makes students specifically low achievers hard to
learn and understand very well. According to the questionnaire responded, it was observed that
many students experience difficulties in understanding technical vocabularies (biological terms)
very well and difficult to pronounce these terms, too”. So, teachers should explain the scientific
terminologies precisely in order for students to understand these terms well and to apply these
terms in further studies. In addition, students should be well practised to pronounce these terms
correctly.
Inadequate use of instructional materials while teaching and learning biology is one of the
reasons which makes students’ learning difficult. To minimize it, teachers should use various
visual teaching and learning materials and tools as figures, models, computer simulations, videos
and real specimen in teaching biology, a practical subject. Moreover, practical work should be
done regularly for students to comprehend new ideas or concepts and construct their own
knowledge because as stated above biology includes many abstract concepts and phenomena that
require observation and experiment with what is being taught. In addition, microscope is such an
essential instrument for biology teaching that all schools should have at least one and teachers
should let students make contact with it.
The role of teacher in education is very important as well. Teachers’ qualities influence
students’ achievement. Teachers should explain the objectives of the lesson before it starts.
Knowing the objectives of the lessons make students more interested and more meaningful. This
helps students learn in a more meaningful way. Besides, teachers should employ appropriate
teaching methods and techniques depending on the nature of subject matter. Subsequently,
teachers should provide examples from the real world or students’ daily lives to recognize easily
what is being taught and should establish links between topics. Teachers should also be confident
enough to handle with the subject matter and should be ready to explain and answer to the
questions probed by the learners. Likewise, as there are students having mixed ability in a single
classroom, teachers should try to understand his students with regard to their abilities, capacities,
needs, aims, weakness and their level of aspirations and beliefs. In addition, teachers should also
give regular feedback to his students on their performance without any personal bias. In so doing,
the gap between the teacher and his students should be minimized.
If students are not happy with the ways that is learnt or dislike the subject they learn,
negative attitudes will develop. Developing negative attitudes causes learning problems. As a
result, they may fail to achieve highly in classes or exams. Accordingly, teachers should help
their students to develop the right kind of attitudes towards subjects in classrooms through the
use of teaching methods that arouse and sustain students’ interest in the subject. In other words,
teachers should make biology lessons interesting, fun, attractive and challenging. In addition,
motivation is needed to create positive learning environment as it pushes the students to gain
interest and develop positive attitudes towards the subject being taught. So, teachers should not
miss to motivate their students.
It is noted that biology is a subject which includes many technical terms and non-
technical terms that require to be memorized. But, learning by heart it is needed to know the
meaning of the scientific terms because learning by rote is easily forgotten. Therefore, students
should be forced to learn the biology lessons with understanding. In this study, many students
agreed the fact that they do not study the biology lessons regularly. How a student takes his or
her studies greatly determines his or her level of academic achievement. Without good study
habits, a student cannot succeed. So, students should be nurtured to enhance good studying habits
as writing down the important notes, studying the lessons regularly, and learning by linking the
real life’s happenings, etc.
Students of all academic achievement levels suffer from academic anxiety. According to
this study, it was observed that many students agreed the statement that lack of understanding the
biology questions, lack of understanding the vocabulary, lack of understanding the biological
concepts cause students’ academic and test anxiety. Anxiety can negatively affect academic
performance. Therefore, reducing anxiety levels in students is essential for helping to improve
academic achievement. Hence, teachers should practice students to have good study skills and
good test taking skills. Similarly, students should be taught to use methods such as mindfulness
meditation whenever anxieties increase.
To conclude up, a teacher should be aware in which parts his or her students experience
difficulties in learning and also let students overcome it with his act of teaching. For further
study, the following points are suggested.
 As this study was carried out in Yangon Region, the generalizability of this result may be
uncertain to be representative nationally.
 It would be better to conduct if sufficient time is allowed.
 Interviews and observations should be conducted in addition to questionnaire to acquire
the complete figures of students’ learning difficulties in biology.
Conclusion
Education is a necessity of life. Without education, no new ideas will be explored.
Without new ideas, there will be no creativity. Without creativity, there will be no development.
Therefore, “plants are developed by cultivation and men by education” stated Rousseau. The
standard of livings can be raised through education. Human beings do learning and teaching to be
educated since learning and teaching are the foundation of education and training. Learning is a
never ending process. Teaching is a process that facilitates learning. As a result, teacher plays an
important role in the teaching-learning process as a facilitator of learning.
The function of a teacher in a creating positive classroom environment is very important.
A teacher should identify and meet the educational needs of the learners. A teacher must try to
know the motivational level, abilities, attitudes, emotional conditions, interests and intelligence
of the learners. As students are unique individuals, teaching methodologies must be varied by
teachers to accommodate the different individual learning styles of student. Several important
questions are come out concerned with learning as “How do individuals learn? What are the
factors that influence learning? What makes students learning difficult? How do overcome
learning difficulties?” It is essential to investigate the factors influencing learning or the causes
which makes learning difficult.
Based on the results shown in above, a generalization can be drawn that inadequate use of
instructional materials in teaching biology mostly causes learning difficulty in most students. It is
believed that this research will be beneficial for teachers and students in order to minimize
difficulties in learning. It is hoped that it will give some assistance for further study concerned
with biology.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to those who helped us in carrying out this study. We wish to say sincerely thanks to
Dr. Aye Aye Myint (Rector, Yangon University of Education), Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung (Pro-Rector, Yangon
University of Education) and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing (Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education) for their
permission to carry out this study.
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J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

IN LEARNING BIOLOGY
Thet Htar Swe1 and Su Su Khine2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the factors that influence on students’ academic
achievement in learning biology. Specifically, this study aimed at investigating school based
factors and student factors that influence on students’ academic achievement in learning biology.
Quantitative research methodology was mainly used to gather required data. The design adopted in
this study was a descriptive research design. Sixteen high schools were selected from Yangon
Region. A sample of (50) biology teachers and (640) Grade Ten science students was used. The
school based factors considered in this study include: teaching methods, teaching and learning
resources, and principal’s instructional supervisory role. The student factors considered in this
study include: teacher- student relationship, students’ attitudes towards biology, students’
motivation towards biology, students’ study habits and parental involvement. A pilot study was
conducted to test the reliability of the measuring instruments. Three sets of instruments were used
to collect data. These included the students’ questionnaire, the teachers’ questionnaire and an
achievement test. Descriptive Statistics such as mean, standard deviation and Pearson product –
moment correlation coefficient were used to analyze data using Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences Programme (SPSS) version 25. The finding indicated that the correlation between school
based factors and students’ biology achievement was r = .819, p < .01 and the correlation between
student factors and students’ biology achievement was r = .889, p < .01. The results of this study
revealed that school based factors and student factors were positively correlated with students’
biology achievement.
Keywords: learning, biology, academic achievement, factor.
Introduction
Education is the process of instructions aimed at the all-round development of the
individual, facilitating realization of self-potential and latent talents of an individual (Anderman,
Maehr & Midgley, 1999). Education starts with the birth of an individual and then it goes on till
the last day of the individual. Education equips the individual with social, moral, cultural and
spiritual aspects and thus makes life progressive, cultured and civilized. About education, P.O.
Bannerji said, “It is the development of the power of adaptation to ever changing social
environment” (Rather, 2004). In this modern era, science has become the backbone for the
prosperity in each and every field of life. A broad science education for the entire population is
therefore more vital today than ever. Biology is one of the cornerstones of science. In many
areas, biological knowledge can be applied in general improvement of man’s well-being as
evidenced in Medicine, Agriculture and Industry. From this point of view, biology is
fundamental and important of all the other subjects of science. So educators need to consider how
to teach to develop students’ biological literacy and how to promote students learning in biology
and which factors are important for attaining students’ academic achievement in learning
biology.
1.
Senior Assistant Teacher, B.E.H.S (Branch) Phuu Gyi, Hmawbi Township, Yangon Region
2.
200 J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No.

All people are living in the age of knowledge explosion and knowledge economy.
Knowledge is power. Those nation and their citizens who are successful in knowledge creation
can really rule the world. Every citizen of this world must know and understand himself or
herself in relation to the environment, various processes of life, plants, animals and their
interaction and interdependence. Only after understanding these, one can preserve, enrich and
endeavor to create a better environment to live in. Biology deals with plants, and animals, their
biological processes, interactions, interdependence, and the role of biotic factors in the
environment (Ahmad, 2011).
In the era of globalization, the world faces many social, economic, and environmental
challenges as well as ethical problems. Biology is undoubtedly a key discipline in understanding
and responding to some of these pressing issues of the day from the many challenges arising
from population growth, human impacts on ecosystems and services to climate change and
sustainability (Kim & Diong, 2012). Many biologists are working on problems that critically
affect people’s lives such as the world’s rapidly expanding population, global warming and
diseases. The knowledge that biologists are gaining is of fundamental importance to people's
ability to manage the world’s resources in a suitable manner, to prevent or cure diseases, to
control population growth rate and to improve the quality of humans’ lives and those of their
children and grandchildren. All of these improvement meet human needs and so these times have
been considered as “the Age of Biology”. Because the activities of biologist alter people’s lives
in so many ways, an understanding of biology is becoming increasing necessary for any educated
person (Raven & Johnson, 1988). Therefore, a foundation in biology is considered to be critical
for the 21st century students since many of decisions require on understanding of biology
(Keysar & PasQuale, 2006, cited in Samikwo, 2013). In addition, educating people in science
especially Biology has been widely acknowledged as a way of promoting economic
development, eliminating poverty and introducing social welfare. Thus, biology plays a role in
everyone’s lives and touches almost every aspect of human existence in some ways. Because of
the indispensability of biology, much emphasis must be placed on biology achievement at the
upper secondary school level. Therefore, this study sought to investigate factors influencing
students’ academic achievement in learning biology.

The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the factors that influence on students’
achievement in learning biology.
Objectives of the Study
The study intended to achieve the following specific objectives:
 To investigate the school based factors that influence on students’ academic achievement
in learning biology.
 To investigate the student factors that influence on students’ academic achievement in
learning biology.
 To investigate the students’ academic achievement in biology.
 To give suggestions to improve the achievement of students in learning biology.
J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020 Vol. XVIII. No. 201
Research Questions
This study was guided by the following questions:
 Is there a relationship between school based factors and students’ biology achievement?
 Is there a relationship between student factors and students’ biology achievement?
Scope of the Study
This study has its own particular limitations. The first limitation is related to the fact that
the participants of the study come from only Yangon Region. Sixteen Basic Education High
Schools were included in this study. Participants in this study were (50) biology teachers and
(640) Grade Ten Science Students from the sixteen selected schools within academic year (2018-
2019). The second limitation is that this study specifically focused on the school based factors
(teaching and learning resources, teaching methods, principal’s instructional supervisory role)
and student factors (teacher-student relationship, students’ attitude towards biology, students’
motivation towards biology, students’ study habits, and parental involvement) that influence on
students’ biology achievement. Besides, there has been many other factors influencing students’
biology achievement but this study did not try to find out other factors that influence on students’
achievement in learning biology at the upper secondary school level. As a result the finding of
this study may not exactly bring out the influence of such other factors.

Learning: Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old
behavior as the result of experience (Smith, 1962, cited in Mangal, 2007).
Biology: Biology is the study of living things and their vital processes (Sarojini, 2010).
Academic achievement: Academic achievement means the extent to which the learner is
profiting from instruction in the given area of learning i.e. achievement is reflected by the extent
to which skill and knowledge has been imparted to him (Crow & Crow, 1969).
Factor: A factor is defined as one of the elements contributing to a particular result or situation
(Costello, 1992, cited in Mutinti, 2018).

There is no country that would develop without the use of science and technology because it
is considered as the backbone of national development. Biology is one of the largest and most
important branches of science. The 21st century has been called a Biology century because of the
many advances in humankind’s understanding of the basic processes and component of life (Kim
& Diong, 2012). The main goals of science education are to develop understandings of biological
systems, the methods of scientific inquiry, prepare students to make responsible decisions
concerning science-related social issues and inform students about possible science careers
(Bybee, Carlson-Powell & Trowbridge, 2007, cited in Kim & Diong, 2012). To develop science
education, it is also important to know factors that influence students’ achievement in learning
biology. Therefore, school based factors and students factors are important aspects to consider
also in school biology education.

School Based Factors Influencing on Students’ Biology Achievement
According to Onyara (2013, cited in Mutindi), school based factors are those within
school control that can influence students’ academic achievement in schools. They include;
teaching methods, teaching and learning resources and principal’s instructional supervisory role.
Teaching Methods
Early educators such as Dewey (1964), Montessori (1968) and Froebel (1974) believed
that, effectiveness of teaching and learning are determined by the type of teaching strategies
applied in classroom. A teaching method is characterized by a set of principles, procedures or
strategies to be implemented by teachers to achieve desired learning in students (Liu & Shi,
2007, cited in West Wood, 2008). These principles and procedures are determined partly by the
nature of the subject matter to be taught, and partly by their beliefs or theories about how
students learn. Anene (1999, cited in Caleb, 2015) stated that teaching methods are pedagogical
strategies designed and adopted by the teacher to facilitate teaching on the teacher’s part and
learning on the learner. According to him, for effective teaching and learning to take place, the
skillful teacher needs to use many different methods at his disposal.
Teaching and Learning Resources

According to Coombs (1970), education consists of two components. He classified these
two components into inputs and outputs. According to him, input consists of human, physical
facilities and material resources and output are the goals and outcomes of the educational
process. Teaching and learning resources which are educational inputs are important to the
teaching of any subject in the school curriculum. Teaching and learning resources comprises
basically three components: material resources, physical facilities and human resources.
Availability of teaching and learning resources enhances the effectiveness of schools as they are
the basic resources that bring about good academic performance in the students (Atieno, 2014).
Principal’s Instructional Supervisory Roles
Principals in schools are the people entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring that
educational strategies are put in place that support effective teaching and learning for all students
in their schools (Makau, Ronoh & Tanui, 2016). Principals are the chief instructional supervisors.
Their key responsibility is to promote the learning and success of all students by ensuring that
effective instruction is done (Alig-Mielcarek, 2003, cited in Makau, Ronoh & Tanui, 2016).
Instructional supervision is a collegial, collaborative way of offering help to improve instruction
(Olivia & Pawlas, 2004, cited in Makau, Ronoh & Tanui, 2016). Therefore, instructional
supervision is primarily concerned with improving instructional practices for the benefit of
students. According to Okumbe (1998), the instructional supervision aspect involves helping in
the formulation and implementation of lesson plans, notes, and schemes of work, evaluating the
instructional programmes and overseeing modification, delivery of instructional resources,
helping in conducting and coordinating staff in- servicing, advising and assisting teachers
involved in instructional programmes.
Student Factors Influencing on Students’ Biology Achievement

Student factors have an effect on academic achievement of students. In this study, student
factors such as teacher- student relationship, students’ attitudes towards biology, students’
motivation towards biology, students’ study habits and parental involvement were studied.
Teacher- Student Relationship

On average, students spend six hours at school each day for 170 days throughout the year.
Therefore, it comes as no surprise that teachers have an enormous amount of influence on their
students. This influence, or power, can significantly impact the learning environment, which, in
turn, affects a student’s achievement in school. The most powerful weapon teachers have, when
trying to foster a favorable learning climate, is a positive relationship with their students
(Boynton & Boynton, 2005, cited in Varga, 2017).
Teachers who take time develop positive relationships with their students will see
improvement in their students both academically, behaviorally, and emotionally. Students who
have positive relationships with their teachers tend to put forth more effort in class and as a result
improve their academic achievement. Teachers also see improvement in their student behavior
when they take the time to develop positive relationships with their students. Positive
relationships between students and teachers have positive academic affects (Pianta, 1999, cited in
Varga, 2017).
Students’ Attitudes towards Biology
Attitude is generally deﬁned as an individual’s tendency to react positively or negatively
towards a stimulus (Fishbein and Ajzen 1977, cited in Karadag, 2017). Reid (2006) notes that
attitudes translate people’s evaluation of things to certain behaviors toward something or
someone. Indeed, they shape people’s ways of thinking and behavior and, therefore, assume great
importance. Attitudes are highly complex and can affect learning extensively. A learner’s attitude
relates to all the facets of education. For example, the attitude of a learner towards biology will
determine the measure of the learner’s attractiveness or repulsiveness to biology. Attitudes
associated with biology appear to affect students’ participation in biology as a subject and impact
performance in biology (Linn, 1992, cited in Jebson & Hena, 2015). It is generally believed that
students’ attitude towards a subject determines their success in that subject. In other words,
favorable attitude result to good achievement in a subject.
Students’ Motivation towards Biology

According to Ertem (2006, cited in Karadag, 2017), motivation is an inner state
uncovering individuals’ behavior and directing them to these behaviors. In an educational
context, motivation may be described as a student’s desire, intention and behaviors directed to
learning and achieving their optimum educational outcome. It involves students’ energy and
drive to learn, work effectively and achieve to their potential at school, and the behavior that
follow from this energy and drive (Martin, 2003, cited in Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013).
Especially educational researchers and practitioners express that motivation is one of the most
important factors in student achievement and in ensuring continuous achievement (Karadag,
2017).
Students’ Study Habits

Study is a part of life for anyone who goes to school or college and every person studies
in different ways to some degree or the other. According to Crow & Crow (1948) study can be
interpreted as a planned program of subject matter mastery. It is essential to learning and
fundamental to school life. Its chief purposes are (1) to acquire knowledge and habits which will
be useful in meeting new situations, interpreting ideas, making judgments, and creating new
ideas, and in the general enrichment of life; (2) to perfect skills: (3) to develop attitudes.
Habits help the individual to do something with less effort and thought. They are
important and play a crucial role in shaping the personality of the individual. In the field of
education habits of thinking regularly, proper reasoning, concentration on study, punctuality etc.,
help the students in their proper adjustment and learning. According to Percival and Ellington
(1984, cited in Osa-Edoh & Alutu, 2012), study habit refers to the method or techniques of
effective learning which in turn involve a set of study skills as organization of time, effective use
of time, reading skills, essay writing, report writing skills, note-taking, examination techniques
and even job-hunting skills.
Parental Involvement
Parents are essential in children’s daily lives and they play a significant role in their
children’s education. In the more economically developed countries, parents are actively
involved in their children’s education at all ages. Parental involvement can be defined as any
interaction between parents and children at home or with the school to ensure that the children’s
academic performance is going in a positive way. Most commonly, parental involvement is
categorized in home-based and school based involvement (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997,
cited in Jaiswal & Choudhur, 2017).
Home based involvement includes strategies like communication between parents and
children, creating a learning environment at home, monitoring and helping in homework, talking
with them about school related activities and academic issues, monitoring their progress,
encouraging school success. Parents school based involvement refers to parents’ participation in
school activity such as Parent Teacher Organisation (PTOs), volunteer work, attending school
events and conference, visit to classroom and interaction with class teachers.
Research Method
This study is concerned with the factors that influence on students’ academic achievement
in learning biology. The factors such as school based factors (teaching methods, teaching and
learning resources, and principal’s instructional supervisory role), and student factors (teacher-
student relationship, students’ attitudes towards biology, students’ motivation towards biology,
students’ study habits and parental involvement) are investigated to be able to determine whether
these factors influence on students’ biology achievement or not. Research design and procedure,
instruments, population and sample, and data analysis are presented to address the research
questions.
Research Design
The research design for this study was descriptive research design, in which this study
seeks to determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more
quantifiable variables (school based factors, student factors and students’ biology achievement).
Quantitative method was used to collect the required data for this study.
Procedure
Firstly, the problem concerning students’ academic achievement in biology learning was
formulated. Secondly, the related literature for the study through books, journals and internet
sources was gathered. The third procedure for this study was the questionnaire and achievement
test were developed under the careful guidance of the supervisor.
The instruments for the study were reviewed by six experienced teachers from
Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education. After modifying these instruments, a
pilot study was carried out with two biology teachers and fifty science students from No. (1)
Basic Education High School, Hmawbi Township, Yangon Region. Necessary modifications
were made again under the supervision of the supervisor. After pilot testing, the questionnaires
were distributed to the total of (640) students from Grade Ten and (50) biology teachers and the
achievement test was administered to the total of (640) students from Grade Ten, High School
level on November, 2018.
Instruments
In this study, two types of questionnaire (questionnaire for teacher and questionnaire for
student) and an achievement test for Grade Ten students were used as the instruments.
Questionnaire for teaching methods used by biology teachers was mainly based on “Teaching of
Life Science” (Sharma, 2009) and “The Act of Teaching” (Cruickshan, Jenkins & Metcalf,
2009). The questionnaire for teaching and learning resources was based on “The World
Educational Crisis: A System Analysis” (Coombs, 1970). The questionnaires for principal’s
instructional supervisory role was based on “Educational management: Theory and practice”
(Okumbe (1998). Questionnaire developed by Fisher, Fraser, & Cresswell (1996) was adapted to
investigate teacher- student relationship. Questionnaire for students’ attitudes towards biology
was mainly based on “Slovakian Students Attitudes toward Biology” (Prokop, Tuncer, Chuda,
1970). Questionnaire developed by Glynn, Koballa, et al (2006) was adapted to investigate
students’ motivation towards biology. The questionnaire for students’ study habits was mainly
based on “Study Habits Inventory” (Patel, 1976) and the questionnaires for parental involvement
was based on “A review of the relationship between parental involvement and students’
academic performance” (Jaiswal & Choudhuri, 2017). The total items were (72) on a five point
Likert-type scale of (1) to (5) to explore school based factors and student factors. The
achievement test was based on the content area of Grade Ten Biology textbooks prescribed by
the Curriculum and Textbook committee, Ministry of Education, Myanmar. True/false items,
completion items, multiple choice items, short answer and long answer items were used for this
study. There were totally items (39) were included in the test. The items in the test were
constructed according to Bloom’s Taxonomy.

This study was conducted in Yangon Region. The research area was divided into four
parts (East, North, West and South in Yangon Region). Two townships from each part were
randomly selected for study. Selection of schools was based on simple random sampling
technique. Two schools from each township were selected for this study. Sixteen high schools
were selected as representative schools for this study. Participant students for this study were
selected by using random sampling technique. The number of teachers and students were (50)
and (640) respectively.
Data Analysis
The data was analyzed by using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation and
correlation). The descriptive analysis: the mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum
scores were used to describe the mean scores of each factor by schools. Pearson Correlation
Analysis was conducted to provide information about the relationship between the selected
factors and students’ biology achievement.
Findings
Findings of School Based Factors in the Selected Schools
In order to find out the school based factors, a questionnaire for biology teachers was
used. The average mean score is (97.54) and standard deviation is (8.669). The scores for school
based factors ranged from (72) to (113) (See Table 1).
Table 1 Mean Scores of School Based Factors in the Selected Schools
Number of Std.
School Mean Minimum Maximum
Teacher Deviation
BEHS1 South Dagon 2 97.50 4.950 94 101
BEHS2 South Dagon 4 100.00 2.944 97 104
BEHS1 Thingangyun 4 91.50 4.726 85 95
BEHS Thuwana 4 102.00 4.761 99 109
BEHS1 Mayangone 2 95.00 14.142 85 105
BEHS2 Mayangone 4 106.50 4.509 103 113
BEHS2 Hlaing 4 92.50 13.435 83 102
BEHS4 Hlaing 2 81.00 12.728 72 90
BEHS1 Thanlyin 4 109.00 1.826 107 111
BEHS2 Thanlyin 4 101.50 2.887 98 105
BEHS1 Kyauntan 2 97.50 9.192 91 104
BEHS2 Kyauntan 2 94.50 2.121 93 96
BEHS2 Insein 4 101.00 2.828 99 105
BEHS1 Insein 4 87.25 4.924 81 93
BEHS1 Mingalardon 4 85.00 7.071 80 90
Average/ Total 50 97.54 8.669 91.38 101.63
Findings of Student Factors in the Selected Schools

In order to find out the student factors, a questionnaire for students was used. average
mean score is (168.01) and standard deviation is (20.355). The scores for student factors ranged
from (95) to (221) (see Table 2).
Table 2 Mean Scores of Student Factors in the Selected Schools

School Number of Mean Std. Minimum Maximum
Student Deviation
BEHS1 South Dagon 40 164.78 23.958 95 202
BEHS2 South Dagon 40 170.35 19.453 125 219
BEHS Thuwana 40 175.80 20.313 126 208
BEHS1 Mayangone 40 162.68 17.607 129 193
BEHS2 Mayangone 40 176.27 16.742 130 205
BEHS2 Hlaing 40 163.67 20.633 118 201
BEHS4 Hlaing 40 153.33 15.488 128 188
BEHS1 Thanlyin 40 182.75 11.584 159 216
BEHS2 Thanlyin 40 163.97 21.016 104 191
BEHS1 Kyauntan 40 170.72 17.161 137 210
BEHS2 Kyauntan 40 172.20 20.386 112 204
BEHS2 Insein 40 174.35 19.127 137 221
BEHS1 Insein 40 172.90 17.862 127 203
Average/ Total 640 168.01 20.355 123.94 203.88
Findings of Students’ Biology Achievement in the Selected Schools
In order to measure the students’ biology achievement in the selected schools, a test that
is comprised of (39) items from five chapters of the Grade- 10 Biology textbook with the help of
table of specifications was constructed. The average mean score is (33.95) and the standard
deviation is (6.092) (See Table 3).
Table 3 Mean Scores of Students’ Biology Achievement in the Selected School

Number of Std. Maximu
School Mean Minimum
Student Deviation m
BEHS1 South Dagon 40 34.37 6.815 20 45
BEHS2 South Dagon 40 37.70 6.509 23 48
BEHS Thuwana 40 38.00 6.987 23 47
BEHS1 Mayangone 40 34.63 6.720 20 43
BEHS2 Mayangone 40 38.40 5.848 23 47
BEHS2 Hlaing 40 34.12 3.844 24 41
BEHS4 Hlaing 40 31.13 6.398 22 42
BEHS1 Thanlyin 40 41.05 4.728 24 47
BEHS2 Thanlyin 40 35.82 6.968 20 44
BEHS1 Kyauntan 40 37.75 5.952 25 47
BEHS2 Kyauntan 40 37.00 6.222 20 45
BEHS2 Insein 40 37.52 5.316 24 48
BEHS1 Insein 40 38.13 5.730 23 47
Average/Total 640 33.95 6.092 21.93 45.19
Relationship between School Based Factors and Students’ Biology Achievement

To examine the relationship between school based factors and students’ biology
achievement, Pearson product-moment correlation was used. It was found that there was a
significant correlation r = .819, p < .01. The result shows that there was a significant correlation
between school based factors and students’ biology achievement. The result shows that the
direction of correlation was positive. Table 4 shows the correlation between school based factors
and students’ biology achievement.
Table 4 Correction between School Based Factors and Students’ Biology Achievement
Correlation
Students’ Biology
School Based Factors Achievement
School Based Pearson Correlation 1 .819**
Factors Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 16 16
Biology
Achievement Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 16 16
After that, the correlation between the respective areas of school based factors and
students’ biology achievement is presented in Table 5.
Table 5 Correlation between Respective Areas of School Based Factors and Students’
Biology Achievement
Correlation
SBA TM TLR PISR
Students’ Biology 1 .705** .708** .691**
Achievement (SBA)
Teaching Methods (TM) 1 .754** .503*
Teaching and Learning 1 .546*
Resources (TLR)
Principal’s Instructional 1
Supervisory Roles (PISR)
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Relationship between Student Factors and Students’ Biology Achievement

To examine the relationship between student factors and students’ biology achievement,
Pearson product-moment correlation was used. It was found that there was a significant
correlation r = .898, p < .01. The result shows that there was a significant correlation between
student factors and students’ biology achievement. The result shows that the direction of
correlation was positive. Table 6 shows the correlation between student factors and students’
biology achievement.
Table 6 Correction between Student Factors and Students’ Biology Achievement

Correlation
Students’ Biology
Student Factors
Achievement
Student Pearson Correlation 1 .898**
Factors Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 640 640
Biology Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Achievement N 640 640
After that, the correlation between the respective areas of student factors and students’ biology
achievement is presented in Table 7.
Table 7 Correlation between Respective Areas of Student Factors and Students’ Biology
Achievement
Correlation
SBA TSR SAB SMB SH PI
Students’ Biology 1 .611** .621** .704** .771** .700**
Achievement (SBA)
Teacher- Student 1 .412** .412** .420** .409**
Relationship (TSR)
Students’ Attitudes 1 .593** .462** .377**
towards Biology (SAB)
Students’ Motivation 1 .624** .481**
towards Biology (SMB)
Students’ Study Habits 1 .563**
(SSH)
Parental Involvement (PI) 1
Summary of the Research Findings

The summary of the research findings of this study are presented as the following.
 For school based factors, the average mean score is (97.54) and standard deviation is
(8.669).
 For student factors, the average mean score is (168.01) and standard deviation is (20.355).
 For students’ biology achievement, the average mean score is (33.95) and standard
deviation is (6.092).
 According to the table (4), there was a significant correlation (r = .819, p < .01) between
school based factors and students’ biology achievement.
 According to the table (6), there was a significant correlation (r = .898, p < .01) between
student factors and students’ biology achievement.
Conclusion
Discussion
The purpose of this study is to investigate the factors that influence students’ academic
achievement in learning biology. According to the Table 4, the correlation between school based
factors and students’ biology achievement was found that the correlation r = .819, p < .01. This
result shows that the direction of correlation was positive and it was pointed out if the function of
school based factors are high, students’ biology achievement is also high. So, this finding was
revealed the research question: Is there relationship between school based factors and students’
biology achievement?
From the research findings Table 6, the correlation between student factors and students’
biology achievement was found that the correlation r = .898, p < .01. This result shows that the
direction of correlation was positive and it was pointed out if the functions of student factors are
high, students’ biology achievement is also high. So, this finding was support the research
question: Is there relationship between student factors and students’ biology achievement?
Suggestions
The students’ academic achievement plays an important role in producing the best quality
students who will become great leader and manpower for the country thus responsible for the
country’s economic and social development. The social and economic development of the
country is therefore, directly linked with students’ achievement. Academic achievement gives
students an opportunity to develop their talents, improve their grades and prepare for the future
academic challenges. Mastery of academic content serves as the basis for higher order thinking
skills as well as the impetus for improved interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies. In
today’s world having strong background in science subjects, especially in biology seems very
crucial in getting into many careers and occupation such as medicine and economic areas. In the
advancement of science in this rapidly changing world, the role of biology is highly pronounced.
To insure this, students’ achievement in science field particularly in biology should be high.
According to the Table 5, the use of teaching methods by teachers has a significant
influence on students’ biology achievement. The method in any teaching and learning situation is
very important because it affects the responses of students and determines whether they are
interested, motivated and involved in a lesson in such way as to engage in a good learning. The
students face many difficulties in learning biology. Because biology subject involves many
abstract concepts and terms such as metabolism, adaptability, cell, tissues. To overcome these
barriers, teachers need to utilize various teaching methods. Therefore, teachers should also
increase their knowledge of various instructional strategies in order to keep students engaged and
motivated throughout the learning process. Since individual students differ in regard to their
specific needs according to their personality patterns, the biology teacher should select
appropriate teaching methods to the pupils in his class, and to the subject he is teaching. In
addition, Ministry of education, curriculum developers should outline appropriate instructional
methods for use by teachers to teach any topic highlighted in the biology curriculum. This will
gear towards enhancing students’ achievement potentials in schools.
According to the Table 5, teaching and learning resources significantly influence on
students’ biology achievement. Nowadays, student-centered approaches to learning are being
officially encouraged by the Ministry of Education. However, the success of these approaches
will be affected by the availability of teaching and learning resources. Biology as a branch of
science has interconnected series of concepts. This has been necessary to demystify teaching of
difficult concepts by intensifying the use of material resources in the teaching of biology.
Besides, biology subject requires a lot of practical works, so inadequate teaching and learning
materials and physical facilities may lead to passive learning with profound effects on learners’
academic achievement. Even though how good a curriculum may be, absence of teaching and
learning resources (teaching and learning materials, physical facilities and human resources) can
jeopardize its effective implementation. Therefore, adequate teaching and learning resources
should be provided by the Ministry of Education for effective teaching and learning of biology in
schools. For the betterment and improvement of biology achievement, country should further
invest in teaching and learning resources for the better achievement of the students.
According to the Table 5, there is an improvement in the students’ achievement in the
biology when principals monitor the teaching learning process. Therefore, principals should
supervise, evaluate and coordinate the instruction process to ensure that it is in line with the set
goals. This can be done by meeting with individual teachers to encourage them on the effective
use of instruction time and new teaching skills and also with students to discuss their
performance at given times. Principals should be available in the school to both teachers and
students. They should visit teachers in classrooms and laboratory to encourage the teachers and
ensure the provision of teaching and learning resources.
Besides, the school principals should ensure that they check on the teachers’ lesson plans,
teachers’ records of work, and students’ exercise books and carry out the conferences with the
teachers regularly to ensure that the process of instructional supervision in schools is effective.
Principals should monitor students’ progress by discussing their academic achievement with
teachers. Moreover, the principal should intensify classroom observations with the aim of
ensuring efficiency as the teachers are able to provide the students with the necessary knowledge
and no time is lost or wasted. By doing so, students’ academic achievement will improve
significantly. Therefore, principals should be setting time for instructional supervision in schools
because it is one of the roles that influence students’ academic achievement positively.
According to the Table 7, teacher- student relationship has a significant influence on
students’ biology achievement. In order to build a positive relationship between teacher and
student, the teachers should care their students’ needs and strengths, holds a supportive
relationship with their students, and give them the same chances and opportunities to participate
in the learning process. These opportunities make students feel comfortable and free to interact in
the classroom and improve their academic achievement. Furthermore, the teacher should
establish a supportive and warm classroom climate, and encourage students to behave well in
classroom and to be motivated. To build caring and respectful teacher-student relationships, the
teacher should praise students’ academic progress, encourage low achievers, reinforce positive
behaviors, convey respect and establish trust in students.
According to the Table 7, students’ attitudes towards biology significantly influence on
students’ biology achievement. Attitudes influence performance in a subject because it provides
students with the drive to participate in the learning process. Therefore, biology teacher should
use modern methods of teaching including use of computers and audio visual aids in presenting
biology lessons to facilitate students understanding and sustain their interest in the subject. These
will help foster a more positive attitude of students towards biology. In addition, biology teachers
should create interesting and non-threating environments in their classroom and model
enthusiasm for the teaching and learning of the subject. This may go a long way to help students
develop positive attitude towards the biology subject, learn it without any inhibition and hence
improve their academic achievement. Furthermore, the curriculum planners, the teachers and
parents should articulate well on the usefulness and applicability of biology in general so that
students create positive minds towards the subject and subsequently strive to improve in the
subject. According to the Table 7, student’s achievement greatly relies on their motivation of
learning. The teachers of biology should try as much as they could to motivate their students
during the course of instructions. In order to motivate students, the teacher should use reward and
incentive appropriately during his delivery of instruction and give praise to students for their
effort and being active participants in classroom activities. Besides, active participation of
learners increases motivation. Therefore, the teacher should utilize student-centered instructional
strategies such as discovery learning, cooperative learning, discussion method, etc. in teaching
biology. These strategies encourage students to collaborate and learn from each other. So, these
strategies improve students’ active and interactive learning. Moreover, teachers should also build
good interpersonal relationships with students and this enhances achievement motivation as well
as proper academic engagement for academic success. Furthermore, the desirable physical
learning environment can motivate students’ biology learning. Hence, the government and
Ministry of Education should provide well equipped biology laboratory with numerous
specimens, adequate microscopes and the necessary materials to do practical work and the
classroom with adequate teaching aids.
According to the Table 7, it can be easily seen that how a student takes his or her studies,
greatly determines his level of academic achievement. Therefore, teachers, schools and parents
should pay attention to the study habits of learners. Teachers should guide students to understand
and develop in them the desirable study habits, while parents should understand the significance
of good study habits and monitor their children towards that.
According to the Table 7, parental involvement has a significant influence on students’
biology achievement. Thus parents should play a leading role in supporting their children’s
education. Parents should set high and realistic expectations for their children’s educational
attainment. These high and realistic expectations will motivate their children to perform well
academically. Parents should ensure home supervision by establishing and enforcing the rules
and regulations regarding school and home activities as well as providing opportunities and
environment conducive for learning. Parents should also assist students in doing homework,
discuss with children about what they are doing in school, monitor progress and encourage
school success. As school involvement, parents should attend in parent teacher conference,
participate in school events and communicate with the teacher in order to know their children
academic and learning progress, and teaching learning condition. Parents should also participate
in their children’s school by joining Parent Teacher Association. Parent Teacher Associations
(PTAs) should be strengthened in all schools to support improved student learning.
Conclusion
In today’s global economy a nation’s success depends fundamentally on the knowledge,
skills and competencies of its people. Countries which invest in education are likely to reap
substantial long-term benefits, such as greater economic and social prosperity (MOE, 2016).
Education at upper secondary school levels is supposed to be the bedrock and the foundation
towards higher knowledge in tertiary institutions or university. It is an investment as well as an
instrument that can be used to achieve a more rapid economic, social, political, technological and
scientific development in a country. Science and technology is now widely considered as the
pillar of any country’s development. Science education is imperative for useful living in any
society and it is at the centre of producing resources necessary for socio-economic, scientific and
technological development needed for advancement of any nation.
In the current scenario, biology has a pivotal role to play in the economic and social
development of any nation. According to Ajelayemi (1990, cited in Owiti, 2009) the knowledge
of biology is the major potent source for social and economic changes in the contemporary
history of mankind. It has contributed so much and still continues to contribute to make life
comfortable for people, whether in urban or rural areas, both in developed and developing
countries. Everyday, each person is called upon to make decisions concerning personal and
societal issues involving biology. Such decisions are likely to be difficult to make. They may be
the wrong decisions if there is little or no understanding of biological information or scientific
awareness (Franyo, 2007, cited in Owiti, 2009). Therefore, it becomes very important that each
member of the society should develop an understanding of biology. Biology education also
modifies the habitual attitude of imagination, creativity, feelings of the learners and humans’
thoughts of the purposes of life and how to improve it to a sufficient extent. Bearing in mind the
importance of biology, it is the need of the hour to promote the biology achievement of students,
who form the concrete foundation for the country’s progress. There are numerous factors that
contribute an important part in enhancing the academic achievement of students in learning
biology.
According to the research findings, it can be concluded that there is a relationship
between school based factors and student factors and students’ biology achievement. According
to this study, these factors are important and significantly influence on the students’ biology
achievement. On the basis of this research, students, teachers, parents and principal need to form
joint efforts to promote students’ academic achievement in learning biology.
Acknowledgements
Education), Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing (Pro-Rectors, Yangon University of Education) for
their arrangement and permission to carry out this research successfully. Then, we would like to express our
immerse gratitude to Dr. Khin Mar Khine (Associate Professor and Head of Methodology Department, Yangon
University of Education) for her expert guidance, great support and precious suggestions. And, we wish to
acknowledge with deep appreciation to all of the teachers from Methodology Department for their support, guidance,
and advices throughout the research. We wish to send our deepest love, gratitude and warmest appreciation to our
parents for their physical and mental supports. We wish to record our full thanks to all people who participate in
thesis work.
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A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING ON

STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN GRADE NINE ECONOMICS
Than Than Hsint1, Myint Thu Zar2
Abstract
The major purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of cooperative learning on students'
achievement in grade nine economics. This study was conducted using quantitative research
method. Quantitatively, an experimental study was used to compare the students' economics
achievement between the control group and the experimental group. The posttest only control
group design was used in this study. In this experimental study, the subjects were Grade Nine
students (economics combination) who were selected and tested from two schools; No. (1) Basic
Education High School, Mayangone and No.(4) Basic Education High School, Insein from
Yangon Region. The subjects, (64) Grade Nine student were chosen from each school. The
students from each school were randomly divided into two groups: experimental group and control
group. The subjects from the experimental group were taught by using cooperative learning
method and those from the control group were taught by using formal instruction. After that, a
posttest was administered to two groups. Independent samples t-test was used to analyze whether
there were significant differences between two groups. The results showed that the students who
received a treatment by using cooperative learning method were significantly higher than those
who received formal instruction. Examination of the mean and t-test at No. (1) Basic Education
High School, Mayangone was (t = 6.26, df = 62, MD = 3.00, p < .001) and No. (4) Basic
Education High School, Insein was (t = 5.08, df = 62, MD = 2.56, p < .001). The result indicated
that there was a significant difference between the two groups. Therefore, research findings
proved that cooperative learning method has positive contribution to the economics teaching and
learning at the high school level.
Keywords: Cooperative Learning, Economics, Achievement
Introduction
It is widely accepted that of all the subjects children study in school. Social studies is a
very important and compulsory subject which has the most responsibility for preparing them to
be good citizens. The social studies is an integration of experience and knowledge concerning
human relations for the purpose of citizenship education. The basic purpose of the social studies
is to develop reflective, competent, and concerned citizens (Martorella, 1985). Hugo believed
that education is crucial to the improvement of the economic and social situation for all people
(Skeel, 1979). Economics is a social science, which is the study of human beings as they exist,
and make reasonable thinking in their ordinary business of life.
In cooperative learning, it encourages learners to work together for both the common and
individual goal. Slavin (1995) considers the cooperative learning as a tool for promoting
individual skills, improving relationship among students and preparing them to play roles in
group activities. Each member will have an equal opportunity to learn, to converse with peers,
present and defend ideas, exchange diverse believes, question other conceptual frameworks and
are actively engaged. By working together in small groups, students may discuss and explore
problem solving techniques. Students also develop problem solving skills, practice meaningful
tasks, thinking skills and social skills.
1
Dr, Lecture, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education
2
Senior Assistant Teacher, Basic Education High School , Kone Pyin , Ayeyarwady

The main purpose of the study is to study the effects of the cooperative learning on grade
nine students' achievement in economics. The specific objectives are as follows:
 To compare the economic achievement between the students who receive instruction
through cooperative learning and those who do not receive it,
 To give suggestions based on the data obtained from the study to improve in teaching
economics.
Research Hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference in economics achievement between Grade Nine students
who receive instruction through cooperative learning and those who do not receive it.
2. There is a significant difference in performing knowledge level questions between Grade
Nine students who receive instruction through cooperative learning and those who do not
receive it.
3. There is a significant difference in performing comprehension level questions between
Grade Nine students who receive instruction through cooperative learning and those who
do not receive it.
4. There is a significant difference in performing application level questions between Grade
Nine students who receive instruction through cooperative learning and those who do not
receive it.
Scope of the Study
 Two Basic Education High Schools (No.1, BEHS Mayangone and No. 4, BEHS Insein)
are selected for this study. Participants in this study are Grade Nine students (economics
combination) from selected schools in (2017-2018) Academic Year. In each selected
school, only 64 students are included in this study.
 This study is to find out the effects of cooperative learning on Grade Nine students'
economics achievement.
 This study is limited to the content area of chapter (10) "Trade, Finance, Transport, and
Communication Sectors of Myanmar" from Grade Nine Economics textbook prescribed
by the Basic Education Curriculum and Syllabus and Textbook Committee, 2017-2018.
 Cooperative Learning: Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so
that the students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning (Zubair,
2012).
 Economics: Economics is the study of human efforts to satisfy what appear to be
unlimited and competing wants through the careful use of relatively scarce resources
(Clayton, 1995).
 Achievement: Achievement is the ability to demonstrate accomplishment of some
outcome for which learning experiences were designed (Őzdemir, 2016).

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
Cognitive development has its origins in interaction among people in a culture before the
psychological process representing those ideas, events, attitudes, and strategies become possible
within children. All personal psychological processes begin as social processes, shared among
people, often among adults and children. According to Vygotsky, cognitive development should
be enhanced when children work cooperatively or collaboratively with adults and other children.
Vygotsky (1978, cited in Gage & Berliner, 1992) stated cooperative learning enhances
children's intellectual growth by working in within one another's proximal zones of development.
Zone of proximal development is the zone between what a student can achieve independently and
what a student can accomplish while working with an instructor or more capable peers (Johnson
& Johnson, 2007). Cooperative learning provides modeling, coaching, and scaffolding for the
students; therefore, students learn from each other (Slavin, 1995). Vygotsky (1978, cited in Gage
& Berliner, 1992) declared that teachers should minimize the time for students to work alone.
Importance of Learning Economics
The use of learning economics can be seen from three dimensions: (i) personal
satisfaction; (ii) social benefits and (iii) an intellectual exploration (Srinivasan, 2005).
Personal Satisfaction
Most of the activities carried out in a family are economics in nature. The advantage
students of economics have is that they learn a lot about real life economic activities in a
systematic way in schools. This enable them in understanding various economic activities taking
place in their surroundings compared to those who do not study economics. It introduces students
to the concept of satisfaction or benefit that a consumer derives when units of a commodity are
consumed along with how much the consumer needs to pay for the good.
Social Benefits
The study of economics widens the understanding about and adds value to democracy and
good citizenship. Students of economics get the opportunity to learn about various economic
issues faced by the nation. A large variety of economics curricular activities help them to
critically analyze economic issues and make suggestions based on economic principles that are
studied over the years. Economic theories train students to think like a scientist- to put it rightly-
as an economist-logically and rationally.
Intellectual Exploration
Learning economics is an exciting intellectual adventure. Economics students also get
excited when they master many facets of the economic system. Peterson (n.d, cited in Srinivasan,
2005) stated that economics offers a pleasing blend of the purely intellectual and the artistic, for
pure economics analysis has the rigour and symmetry of science and mathematics, whereas the
policy partakes more the uncertain character of an art than a science.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work
together to maximize their own and each other's learning (Johnson, Johnson, 2007). Cooperative
learning occurs when students work in small groups to help each other learn. Cooperative
learning groups vary in size, although four is a typical number of students. When students are
assigned to work in a cooperative group, the group usually stays together for weeks or months,
but cooperative groups usually occupy only a portion of the student's school day or year
(Sherman, 2001, cited in Santrock, 2006). In a cooperative learning group, each student typically
learns a part of a larger unit and then teaches that part to the group. When students teach
something to others, they tend to learn it more deeply (Santrock, 2008).
The Purpose of Cooperative Learning
There are basically four main reasons why cooperative learning is to be recommended:
(Santrock, 2006).
1. More children actively learning
Cooperative learning helps to actively engage more children in learning than do teacher-
centered or lecture-oriented methodologies. By using more cooperative methodologies in which
students work together in groups, all students are actively engaged on a learning task. Students
become more active participants in their own learning, as opposed to passive recipients of
knowledge who only listen, observe and take notes.
2. Children learn to help one another
Cooperative learning encourages students to support their classmates in a group rather
than to compete against one another. In this way, students can combine their talents and help one
another.
3. Children-to-child learning support
Cooperative learning provides the opportunity for higher-achieving students to help
students who are slower learners. These higher-achieving students can probably communicate
more easily with peers than can the teacher. The help of these students also increases the amount
of explanation that occurs in the classroom overall.
4. Improved motivation through success
Cooperative learning helps to improve the motivation of many students by offering the
opportunity to more students to experience the joy of winning and academic success. In
classrooms where students are only allowed to complete individually, only the few high
achieving students will likely have this experience.
In classrooms where the students are divided into cooperative teams, each with its high
and low-achieving students, the opportunity to succeed is more evenly distributed.
Cooperative Learning Methods
In cooperative learning instructional methods, students work together in small groups to
help each other learn. There are various forms of cooperative earning and each has a set of best
procedures to follow (Chruickshank, Bainer & Metcalf, 1999).
Student Team Achievement Divisions (STAD): Student Teams Achievement Divisions
(STAD) was developed by Robert Slavin and his colleagues at John Hopkins University and is
perhaps the simplest and most straightforward of the cooperative learning approaches (Slavin,
1994, 1995 cited in Arends, 2007). According to Slavin (1995), the instructional technique,
STAD typically involves five steps:
1. Presentation. New material is typically presented to class using conventional approaches
like lectures, discussions.
2. Teamwork. Groups are given material to study and worksheets to complete. They can
work on these individually, in pairs, or in larger groups. They are encouraged to help each
other and to make sure that everybody understands and knows the material, the emphasis
being on the performance of the team.
3. Quizzes. At the end of the study period, which typically lasts a week, students write
quizzes based on that week's material- individually, and without helping each other.
4. Individual improvement scores. Team scores are then calculated. And although
recognition is given to teams that obtain the highest total scores, winning teams are those
whose individuals improved the most. In that way, lower-achieving students can
contribute as much to the team's total score as more able students.
5. Team recognition. Teams are then rewarded, perhaps with certificates, tokens, prizes,
and praise. Team scores may also be used as a factor in determining individual grades.
In STAD, when delivering a good presentation, the teacher should get students' attention,
tell them what they will learn and what they should be able to do after learning; relate the new
information to ideas learners already know; present information in a step-by-step manner; don't
overwhelm or underwhelm; emphasize the most important points students need to remember or
use; use examples and illustrations to increase clarity; use variety to maintain attention; and make
sure learners understand by asking them questions.
Two Stay Two Stray: Two Stay Two Stray (TSTS)
The TSTS procedure is based on Spencer Kagan (1992, cited in Maonde et al., 2015):
1. The teacher introduces the lesson.
2. The teacher divides the students into groups of four.
3. The students work together in a group of four.
4. Two members from each group stray to two other groups.
5. Two members stayed have job to share their work and information to those who come to
their group.
6. The two strayed members get back to their own group and the groups discuss in their own
group.
7. Finally, the teacher asks what the students have learned.
The advantages of using Two Stay Two Stray technique are:
1. This technique can be applied to all of lesson materials.
2. Every group can share information with other students.
3. Students can train social relation to other student.
4. This technique can train students' respect in a problem.
5. That can improve good relation among the students.
6. That can increase students' critical thinking on a problem.
Among many cooperative learning methods, the researcher used two cooperative learning
methods (STAD and TSTS) in this study.
The design adopted in this study was one of the true experimental designs, viz., the
posttest only control group design.
Table 1: Experimental Design
No. of Students
Group Assignment BEHS(1) BEHS(4) Treatment Posttest
(Mayangone) (Insein)
Cooperative
Experimental Random 32 32
Learning EA
Formal
Control Random 32 32
Instruction EA
Note: EA = Economics Achievement
According to Gay (2003), true experimental research allows researchers to make cause-
effect statements about their research studies. True experimental researchers control the selection
of participants for the study, divide the selected participants into two or more groups that have
similar characteristics at the start of the research experiment, and then apply different treatments
to the selected groups. The prerequisite test was administered to all selected students before the
treatment was provided. According to the scores of the prerequisite test, the students were
randomly divided into two groups: control group and experimental group.
Finally, the achievement of experimental group and control group were compared by
using the independent sample t- test.
Instrumentation
The instruments used for this study were a prerequisite test and a posttest (Achievement
test).
(i) Prerequisite Test

The researcher developed a prerequisite test to measure the basic economics knowledge
of the selected samples. There are (25) true or false items in this test and the total score of the test
was (25) marks.
(ii) Posttest
A posttest was constructed to measure the economics achievement of Grade Nine
students. The students had to answer all questions and there was no choice. The test was
constructed based on Grade Nine Economics Textbook with the advice and guidance of the
supervisor. In the question used for posttest, 5 items were true or false items, 5 items were
completion items, 5 items were multiple choices items, 5 items were short questions.

Two High Schools were selected from Yangon Region by using simple random sampling
method. These sample schools were No. (1) BEHS, Mayangone and No. (4) BEHS, Insein. No.
(1) BEHS, Mayangone was selected from Western area and No. (4) BEHS, Insein was selected
from Northern area in Yangon Region. At No. (1) BEHS, Mayangone, only (64) students were
selected by random sampling method from a total population of (437) Grade Nine students
(economics combination) in the academic year 2017-2018. In the same way, only (64) students
were selected from a total population of (317) Grade Nine students (economics combination) at
No. (4), BEHS, Insein (see Table 2)

Name of School No. of Total Population No. of Selected Student
BEHS (1) 437 64
BEHS (2) 317 64
BEHS (1) = No. (1) Basic Education High School, Mayangone
BEHS (2) = No. (4) Basic Education High School, Insein
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using a descriptive statistics (means, standard deviation) and
independent samples t-test. The independent samples t-test was used to compare the achievement
of students who receive instruction through cooperative learning method and those who receive
instruction through traditional method at knowledge, comprehension, and application level. In
order to determine the significant differences, the independent samples t-test was used with the
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 22.0.
Findings
This chapter is concerned with the research findings from the quantitative study.
Quantitative study deals with the analysis of the data, findings and interpretations of the
experimental study. The independent samples t-test was used to compare the differences between
the control and experimental groups.
The data obtained from the posttest were recorded systematically. And then, these data
were analyzed by using the independent samples t-test to compare the differences between the
experimental and control group. The t-test for independent samples was used to compare whether
the students in one group did better or worse than the students in other group.
Table 3 t Values for Posttest Economics Achievement Scores
BEHS (1) 3.00 6.258 62 .000***
Control 32 13.75 1.778
BEHS (2) 2.56 5.080 62 .000***
Control 32 13.63 1.755
Note: ***p < .001
Table (3) shows for posttest economics achievement scores. Moreover, it describes
standard deviation, mean difference, t-value, degree of freedom, and Sig (2 tailed). The mean
scores of the experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in two
sample schools (see Table 3). It showed that there was a significant difference between the
experimental group and the control group for scores on the overall economics achievement in
each school.

Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS (1) 0.41 0.927 62 0.357(ns)
Control 32 7.97 1.805
BEHS (2) 0.28 0.790 62 0.433(ns)
Control 32 7.88 1.561
Note: ns = not significant
groups were not significantly higher than that of the control groups in each school (see Table 3).
It showed that there was no significant difference between the experimental group and control
group for the scores on knowledge level questions in each selected school.

Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS (1) 1.53 4.860 62 .000***
Control 32 4.72 1.198
BEHS (2) 1.41 5.428 62 .000***
Control 32 4.41 0.979
Note: ***p< .001
According to the scores on the comprehension level questions, the mean scores of the
schools (see Table 5). It showed that there was a significance difference between the
experimental group and control group for the scores on comprehension level questions in each
selected schools.
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS (1) 1.06 4.581 62 .000***
Control 32 1.06 0.948
BEHS (2) 0.88 3.950 62 .000***
Control 32 1.34 0.827
Note: ***p< .001
As regards the scores on the application level questions, the mean scores of the
experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in both selected
schools (see Table 6). It showed that there was a significant difference between the control group
and experimental group for the scores on application level questions in each selected schools.
Summary of Quantitative Findings
The results of research findings from two selected schools were as follows:
(1) There was a significant difference between the control groups and experimental groups on
the scores of economics achievement in two selected schools. It can be interpreted that
the use of cooperative learning method has a significant effect on the overall economics
achievement of the students.
(2) There was no significant difference between the control groups and experimental groups
on the scores of knowledge level questions in each selected school. It can be interpreted
that formal instruction can also bring about the improvement of students' ability to
remember previously learned materials as cooperative learning method.
the scores of comprehension level questions in each selected school. It can be interpreted
that cooperative learning method can encourage the improvement of students' conceptual
understanding.
the scores of application level questions in each selected school. It can be interpreted that
cooperative learning method can bring about the improvement of students' ability to apply
economics concepts in new situation.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study is to find out the effects of cooperative learning on
students' achievement in grade nine economics. The results show that the posttest mean score of
the experimental group was significantly higher than that of the control group in each school. So,
the first hypothesis is accepted.
The results also show that there was no significant difference between the economics
achievement of two groups, experimental group and control group, in answering knowledge level
questions in each school. So, the second hypothesis is rejected.
The results also show that there was a significant difference between the economics
achievement of two groups, experimental group and control group, in answering comprehension
level questions in each school. So, the third hypothesis is accepted.
The results also show that there was a significant difference between the economics
achievement of two groups, experimental group and control group, in answering application level
questions in each school. So, the fourth hypothesis is accepted by the results of the study.
Suggestion
This research will contribute to improvement of economics teaching at the high school
level in Myanmar. Cooperative learning consists of five basic elements: positive
interdependence, individual accountability, interpersonal and small group skills, face-to-face
promotive interaction and group processing. Learning situations are not cooperative if students
are arranged into groups without the prescribed five basic elements. Therefore, when
implementing cooperative learning, teachers need to create learning environments which include
the above five essential elements. Each teacher needs to know how to prepare and plan his/her
lessons and create their tasks. Grouping of students can be a difficult process and must be
decided with care. Groups should contain three to five members. If the group is too small, one
member can dominate the others. If it is too large, the group will ignore the contributions of one
or more members. The group should be heterogeneous. Therefore, teachers should organize
students into heterogeneous groups with respect to sex, and ability/learning styles when
implementing cooperative learning. The present study used two cooperative learning methods
(Student Teams Achievement Divisions and Two Stay Two Stray). The effectiveness of other
methods of cooperative learning can also be studied. Moreover, further research of this kind with
respect to different subjects and at all levels should be carried out in education.
Conclusion
Cooperative learning comprises instructional methods in which teachers organize students
into small groups, which then work together to help one another learn academic content (Slavin,
2011, cited in Tran, 2013). In this research, cooperative learning was found to be more effective
than formal instruction with respect to students' achievement. In the cooperative learning
environment, students learn to analyze, synthesize, and critically analyze others' ideas, which
contribute much to the improvement of critical thinking.
The results indicated that STAD and TSTS cooperative learning methods compared to
traditional method showed better achievements and motivated students to learn in economics.
The effective use of cooperative learning method has significant effect on the overall economics
achievement of the students. Therefore, cooperative learning method surely has positive
contribution to the economics teaching at the high school level.
Acknowledgements
First of all, we would like to express our respectful gratitude to Dr. Myo Win, Professor and Head,
Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education for his invaluable guidance and suggestions
throughout MEd program. We also want to express our thanks to all participants in our study. We are indebted to all
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A CASE STUDY OF USING SCIENCE LABORATORY IN TEACHING

SCIENCE SUBJECTS AT THE HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL
2
Myint Kyaw Hein1 and Khin Mar Khine
Abstract
The primary purpose of the study is to investigate the science teachers’ perception of using science
laboratory in teaching science subjects at the high school level. Science laboratory is a setting in
which the students work cooperatively in small groups to investigate scientific phenomena, a
unique mode of instruction and unique mode of learning. The design applied in this study was the
descriptive case study design. The sample size for this study was six science teachers from No.
(1), BEHS, Hlegu and No. (1), BEHS, Mingalardon in Yangon Region. Triangulation, content
analysis and cross site analysis were used to analyze the qualitative data such as interview, and
observation records. The semi-structured interview and observation checklists were applied to
collect the data. According to the result of the study, science teachers perceived that science
laboratory had the impact on science teaching. Finally, discussion, and suggestions were provided
for improving science teaching and learning at the high school level.
Keywords: Science Laboratory, Science, Perception.
Introduction
Science education is the most crucial factor in building a well-developed and modern
country because this age is knowledge-driven age. Science knowledge explosion is more rapidly
increasing in this century and science education is the most essential component of today
education. Science is a process as well as a product of that process. Moreover, science process
skills are important in exploring truth science products and science teachers must teach students
to be coped with the basic science process skills. In addition, basic education is the foundation of
higher education in which students may study depthfully specialized subject according to their
interest. So, teachers must help students to fulfill basic knowledge and skills.
Science is a practical oriented work discipline and the laboratory is accompanied with
every science subject. No course in science can be considered as complete without including
some practical work. The science laboratory is the potential place where theory and practice can
converge for students.
According to Tobin (1990), laboratory activities allow students to learn with
understanding and engage in a process of constructing knowledge by doing science. Science
laboratory has the potential to develop students’ abilities and skills. In addition, science
laboratory is the place where teachers can train students to be skillful in science process and
gained basic science knowledge. Basic science teachers are the most important in teaching
science at the high school level. According to Collette and Chiappetta (1989), inspiring and
encouraging students to do well in school can be achieved through science activities and
laboratories. According to Hofstein and Lunetta (2003), experiences in a laboratory can also help
students to gain ideas about the nature of the science that are crucial for their understanding of
scientific knowledge. Laboratory activities permit students to participate in investigations in
which they do their own thinking and draw conclusions. Laboratory activities give students
concrete learning experiences in which they can explore new ideas and relate concepts and
theories to data gathered by personal observations (Hurd, 1964, cited in Collette & Chiappetta,
1989).
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, No.2 Basic Education High School, Yankin, Yankin Township.
2.
Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education.
If a teacher believes that the laboratory work is important and has the competence and the
scientific facilities, the students will frequently engage in laboratory activities that will reflect the
philosophy of the teacher. If a teacher believes that the function of teaching science is to transmit
information, the laboratories will be deductive in nature, occurring after textbook reading and
classroom discussion. Thus, the laboratory will serve to verify existing knowledge. If the teacher
believes that teaching science should be investigative in nature, then the laboratories will be
inductive and will occur before textbook readings and teacher lectures and presentations (Pella,
1961, cited in Collette & Chiappetta, 1989). Nevertheless, promotion of science laboratory
activity and practical work in school is increasingly a matter of concern. Science laboratory will
have an impact on teaching science. Thus, the focus of this paper is to explore teachers’
perception on the science laboratory in teaching science and the impact of science laboratory in
students’ learning at the high school level.

The main purpose of the study is to explore the teachers’ perception on science laboratory
in teaching science at the high school level.
Specific purposes of the study are:
(1) To identify the impact of science laboratory on teaching science subjects.
(2) To find out the teachers’ perception on teaching science in the science laboratory
environment.
Research Questions
(1) How do teachers perceive on teaching science?
(2) Why do teachers use science laboratory in teaching science?
(3) How do science teachers deal with science laboratory?
(4) How do teachers perceive the impact of science laboratory in teaching science?
Scope of the Study
This study is geographically restricted to Yangon Region. Participants in the study are six
science teachers who taught at Grade Nine and Grade Ten from No (1) B.E.H.S, Hlegu, Hlegu
Township and No (1) B.E.H.S, Mingalardon, Mingalardon Township within the 2017 – 2018
academic year. Participants are selected by using purposive sampling method. Although there are
many factors that impact on science teaching such as using teaching aids and electronic media,
activity-based learning, concept map, and appliance of different science teaching methods, this
study is restricted to the impact of science laboratory on teaching science.
Science laboratory: Science laboratory is a setting in which the students work cooperatively in
small groups to investigate scientific phenomena, a unique mode of instruction and unique mode
of learning (Hofstein and Lunetta, 1982).
Science: Science is a way of thinking in the pursuit of understanding nature, a way of
investigating and a body of established knowledge (Collette & Chappetta, 1989).
Perception: Perceptions are the processes that determine how humans interpret their
surroundings.

According to the epistemology, the sources of knowledge gained are different. The
empiricism stress that students gained knowledge from experiences, experimentation in
pragmatism and learning by doing in constructivism. Science teaching is closely related to above
philosophies. In this study, science knowledge has to be viewed as tentative human construction
from the constructivist perspective.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a psychological and philosophical perspective contending that
individuals form or construct much of what they learn and understand (Tonning 1990, cited in
Leslie, 1995).
A basic assumption of constructivism is that people are active learners and must construct
knowledge for themselves (Geary, 1995, cited in Leslie, 1995). To understand material well,
learners must discover the basic principles for themselves. The teachers provide the appropriate
materials and a social context within which the material is discussed but does not lecture or guide
discussion in the traditional sense.
Another constructivist assumption is that teachers should not each in the traditional sense
of delivering instruction to a group of students. Rather, teachers should structure situations such
that learners become actively involved with content through manipulation of materials and social
interaction. Activities include observing phenomena, collecting data, generating and testing
hypotheses, and working collaboratively with others. Students are taught to be self-regulated and
take an active role in their learning by setting goals, monitoring and evaluating progress, and
going beyond basic requirements by exploring interests (Geary, 1995, cited in Leslie, 1995).
Constructivist Learning Environment
Constructivist environments should create rich experiences that encourage students to
learn. According to Brooks (1990, cited in Lesie, 1995), there are some guiding principles of
constructivist learning environments. One principle is that teachers should pose problems of
emerging relevance to students, where relevance is preexisting or emerges through teacher
mediation. Thus, a teacher might structure a lesson around questions that challenge students'
preconceptions. A second principle is that learning should be structured around primary concepts.
This means that teachers design activities around conceptual clusters of questions and problems.
Third, it is important to seek and value students' points of view. Trying to understand students'
perspectives is essential for learning activities that are challenging and interesting. This requires
that teachers ask questions, stimulate discussions, and listen to what students say. Teachers who
make little effort to understand what students think fail to capitalize on the role of their
experiences in learning. Fourth, teachers should adapt curriculum to address students'
suppositions. Some activities encouraged in constructivist classrooms are experimentation,
research project, field trips, class discussion and so on.
Constructivism and Science Laboratory
Constructivism is an educational theory that emphasizes hands-on, activity based teaching
and learning during which student develop their own frames of thought. Constructivist learning
theory states that knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner, and instructors cannot
simply feed knowledge to willing recipients. Shiland (1999) applies five postulates of this
learning theory to the laboratory environment. The first states that learning requires mental
activity. This application involves modifying experiments to encourage students to design parts
of the procedures, identify variables and construct subsequent data tables. The second states that
naive theories affect learning, and Shiland (1999) suggests moving experiments to the beginning
of the chapter, allowing students to make predictions and explain them before the experiment.
The third states that learning occurs from dissatisfaction with present knowledge, and
experiments should be designed as problems to challenge this knowledge. The fourth suggests
that learning has a social component that needs to be addressed through opportunities to discuss
results and predictions with other students and instructors. Finally, the fifth postulate states that
meaningful learning needs to connect theoretical principles with practical applications. All of
these elements are part of laboratory-based learning, establishing a constructivist model of
learning.
School Science Laboratory

The goal and purposes
Lunetta (1998) explained the objectives of laboratory activities as follows.
 Providing students with theoretical and conceptual information while learning natural
science.
 Enabling students to learn science by helping them understand methods and nature of
science.
 Enabling students to do science using scientific research procedures.
 Supporting students in a way that will help them define and put scientific theories into
practice.
 Improving students' analytical and critical skills and encouraging them to be creative in
science field.
The Laboratory as a Learning Resource
Laboratory work can be used as a powerful learning resource of science. Laboratory work
is based on the principle of learning by doing and it is an integral part of science education. It
helps in better understanding of various concepts of science and construction of knowledge. The
first-hand experience obtained through experiment of knowledge. It imprints a permanent
impression on the mind of the learners and provides opportunity to the teacher to inculcate
various process skills of science such as observation, classification, analysis of data, recording,
inferring, generalizing and communicating. Process skills required help in developing interests,
values, and spirit of inquiry that constitute scientific attitude. Students learn while handling,
manipulating and innovating different types of equipment. It provides an environment to learners
for exhibiting their qualities such as resourcefulness, initaitiveness, orderliness, cooperation, and
team spirit. Students enjoy working together with their peers with some freedom of action,
having a feel of excitement of the unknown and achieving a sense of discovery. Learners cannot
discover all of science; however, encouraging them to observe, investigate and think critically on
a laboratory activity can facilitate them to construct some abstract concepts and principles of
science, to awaken curiosity about the world around them and to gain a feel and appreciation of
science. Thus, laboratory work facilitates development of (i) cognitive abilities, i.e. principles
and laws discussed in the classroom may precede or follow the laboratory work or it may be
carried out during discussion; (ii) process skills of science; (iii) scientific attitude; and
(vi) understanding nature of science. Use of laboratory must be focused towards achieving these
developments.
The kind of experience that is provided by the laboratory cannot be replaced by any other
exercise. Well-planned laboratory experiences have great potential to attract students.
Common Characteristics of Science Laboratory

Laboratory guide book or manual is designed to identify problems requiring observations
and solutions. Laboratory assistant helps science teacher to maintain and organize the equipment
and supplies. The directions for laboratory exercises must be explicit. They can be given orally or
in written form or discussed during the pre-laboratory session.
Auxiliary record book - Observation of the experiment performed should be recorded in
it. Discussion in laboratory includes pre-discussion and post-discussion.
Effectiveness of the laboratory experiences is directly related to the amount of individual
participation by students. Individual participation means active involvement in the experiment
with definite responsibilities for its progress and success.
Approaches to Laboratory Work

Verification or Deductive Laboratory
The verification or deductive laboratory is the most common approach to laboratory work
in science courses. The purpose of this type of laboratory work is to illustrate concepts,
principles, and laws. Teachers generally present major ideas first, through lecture, discussion,
and reading, followed by laboratory work to illustrate and verify ideas using concrete activities.
Inductive laboratory
The inductive laboratory provides students with the opportunities to form concepts,
principles, and law through firsthand experiences before they are discussed and taught in the
classroom.
Science Process Skill Laboratory
A major purpose for including laboratory work in science courses is to present science as
a way of investigating and as a way of thinking. Science process skills include basic skills;
observing, classifying, using space/time relations, using numbers, measuring, inferring,
predicting, and integrated skills; defining operationally, formulating models, controlling
variables, interpreting data, and experimenting.
Technical Skill Laboratory
Good laboratory techniques are essential to conduct successful laboratory activities and to
collect accurate data. They require manipulative skills that involve the development of hand-eye
coordination.
Exploratory Laboratory
Science teachers allow their students to explore an idea, concept, principle, or theory
without structured procedures. In an exploratory laboratory students are given the freedom to
explore and test ideas.
Laboratory Instructional Styles

Descriptor
Style Outcome Approach Procedure
Expository Predetermined Deductive Given
Inquiry Undetermined Inductive Student generated
Discovery Predetermined Inductive Given
Problem-based Undetermined Deductive Student generated
Source: from J. J. Lagowski, (2002).
Science Teaching Methods.
Science teaching methods are lecture, demonstration, discussion, laboratory method,
project and problem solving.
Method and Materials

The study is aimed to explore the high school science teachers’ perception toward science
laboratory in teaching science. Teaching science is not interesting without laboratory. Teaching
science is always accompanied with science laboratory. In every science curriculum the
laboratory work is included. This study was conducted by using interview and observation
methods.
Research design and procedure

This study is a descriptive case study by using interview and observation techniques.
Descriptive case study focuses on thick description of whatever is being studied. Thick
description may be defined as the complete and literal description of the entity investigated. This
study used the semi-structured interview to explore teacher’s perception and naturalistic
observation checklists to watch the teacher’s performance during the laboratory instruction.
Firstly, the relevant literature is studied. In order to get the required data, the instruments
were developed. Content validity was determined by expert judges. After preparing the required
interview questions and checklists, pilot testing was done. During the interview procedure, audio-
recorder and note taking were used to record the data. The interview takes an average of twenty
minutes. During the observation procedure, checklists were used to observe teachers’
performance during laboratory instruction and to detect the physical appearance of science
laboratory. According to the pilot study, the interview questions were modified by repairing the
wording and added the other facts needed to ask. After the pilot study, the main study was
executed during the last two weeks of November in 2017 – 2018 academic year. The modified
instruments were interviewed to the selected participants of the two sample schools and the data
were analyzed.
Instruments
The interview was conducted by using semi-structured questions (see Appendix A).
These questions were constructed based on Ayse, G. K. and Zengin, R. 2015. The interview
consists of six components. Two types of observation checklists were created. One is aimed at
investigating the teachers’ performance during teaching science in science laboratory. This
checklist was developed based on the procedure of laboratory method and demonstration method
of Belen, 1962, cited in Garica, 1989, (see Appendix B2). Another was established to describe
the physical appearance of science laboratory (See Appendix B1).

This study used the purposive sampling method and it was conducted in the North district
of Yangon region. Participants were selected from one of the high schools in Mingaladon
Township and from one of the high schools in Hlegu Township. This study was implemented
during 2017 - 2018 Academic year. It takes about two weeks.
Data Analysis
The modified questions were interviewed to six participants from the selected schools.
Qualitative data were collected from the teachers’ response of interview and performance from
checklist. The record of the interview was translated into a scripts as important reference for
encoding. The observation was noted descriptively and reflectively. The data were analyzed by
using triangulation method, content analysis and cross-site analysis method.
Findings
Demographic Factors of science Teachers
The science teachers are from thirty to fifty nine years old. They are bachelor and master
degree holders. Their total teaching services are about eight years to thirty years. They teach
science twenty four periods per week. The range of science teaching services is at least four years
to at most twenty six years.
Science Teaching
Most science teachers apply explanation (lecture) and demonstration methods in science
teaching. They employ direct instructional strategies. Teachers aim students to understand the
lesson clearly and apply knowledge and formula in problem solving at examination. They only
look forward students to pass examination outstandingly. They aim to increase pass percentage
range of examination (See Appendix C). Teachers' difficulties are insufficient conditions of
laboratory equipment, materials, chemicals and teaching aids. They cannot show real objects for
every lesson. Teachers solve these difficulties by showing relevant photos and videos that are
downloaded from internet and Facebook instead of real objects (See Appendix C). So, teachers
apply technology in science teaching. Teachers’ technology skills are important in today science
teaching. Another difficulty is that some students are weak in Mathematics and Basic English
skills.
Teachers are really interested in science teaching because science is related to the nature
and environment and scientific knowledge can be applied in real life. Science teaching includes
practical and discovery work. Teachers are satisfied with science teaching. They thought that
science has no fictional character and it is pragmatic.
Appliance of Science Laboratory
There is only one science laboratory in No.1, B.E.H.S, Hlegu but No.1, B.E.H.S,
Mingalardon has three science laboratories. Teachers apply science laboratory in science
teaching. Because of appliance of science laboratory, students can execute practical work and
observe demonstration. They can easily understand, memorize, retain and remember the lessons
lastly. They are interested in experiment. Practical equipment can only be systematically stored
in science laboratory. Teachers have known that science laboratory assists students to learn
lessons easily. Performing experiments can identify that theory is true.
Doing Laboratory Work

Teachers aim that doing laboratory work can improve students’ thoughts and
comprehension about the lessons. Students will illuminate lessons explicitly. Because of practical
experience, students can make reasoning for everything (See Appendix C). Teachers comprehend
that science laboratory is a learning resource. Teachers think that science laboratory is absolutely
necessary for science teaching because students learn effectively and remember the lesson.
Explanation of lessons by showing real objects is necessary for students’ understanding.
Students’ investigative and creative abilities can be developed. It can concluded that science
teachers’ purpose of doing laboratory work is to facilitate development of cognitive abilities and
process skills of science. Teachers taught in science laboratory according to the practical course
relating to the lesson. Teachers performed convenient laboratory work. Laboratory work is not
performed for every lesson (See Appendix C). The laboratory work is not systematically
recorded in books. Teachers are weak in doing laboratory work. In site one, laboratory assistant
helps teachers to perform experiment by preparing required materials and equipment for
demonstration. She stores the laboratory equipment and materials systematically. But in site two,
laboratory assistant does not help teachers. Nevertheless, laboratory assistant should help science
teachers to maintain and organize equipment and supply for the preparation of laboratory and
demonstration.
Teaching Methods and Approaches Applied in Science Laboratory

Teachers use demonstration, laboratory, cooperative and discussion methods in science
teaching at science laboratory. They apply question and answer techniques and observation
techniques. Teachers apply direct and indirect instructional methods. They can use variety of
teaching methods in science teaching at the science laboratory but classroom situation must be
interactive.
The four science teachers apply science laboratory after lesson. Those teachers execute
verification or deductive laboratory work. Teachers thought that without knowing theory and
procedure, students do not understand how to perform experiment. After they have known them,
they can verify that theory is true by performing laboratory work themselves (See Appendix C).
But two science teachers apply science laboratory before lesson. Those science teachers execute
inductive laboratory work. Before lesson, doing laboratory work by students improve their
understanding (See Appendix C). Teachers employ inductive and deductive approach in science
teaching.
Implementation of laboratory work
Teachers implement laboratory work by working together each other. They draw practical
schedules and prepare experiment themselves. Teachers’ cooperation is important to execute the
laboratory work. Teachers determine the laboratory procedure by asking opinions from partners.
Based on the method they applied, they also determine the laboratory procedure. Four science
teachers employ teacher-led demonstration method. So, they use the laboratory procedure such as
purposing, proper demonstration, executing and evaluation. Two science teachers employ
laboratory method. So, they use laboratory procedure such as lesson introduction, predicting and
overview of activity, performing experiments and closure. It can be interpreted that four science
teachers mainly apply expository laboratory instruction style. Two science teachers employ
discovery laboratory instruction style. Teachers assess students’ laboratory work by giving A, B
grade on practical book. They also check students’ understanding by asking questions. The
practical marks are not needed to count for final exam result. So, they only check the practical
paper whether students get the right results (See Appendix C).
Teachers favour to implement group laboratory work because time is not enough to do
individual laboratory work and the laboratory books are not sufficient. Because of group
laboratory work, students can give their opinions to each other and they can work cooperatively
together (See Appendix C). Teachers create science laboratory as a place in which students work
cooperatively in small groups to investigate the phenomena. Although social interaction in
laboratory is paramount, individual participation is also important in science laboratory work.
Teachers approach students by using questioning and observation techniques in teaching
laboratory work. They explore background knowledge of students by asking questions. Their
approaches are formal. It should include discussion because science laboratory work includes pre
and post discussion. Teachers’ problems are that the required laboratory equipment and materials
are not sufficient and enough to implement laboratory work. They are weak in knowledge to do
practical experiment. The laboratory materials are old, faded and needed to be repaired. Teachers
solve these problems by applying replaceable materials that are easily got from environment.
Teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and creative abilities are important to become successful
teaching – learning process in science laboratory. Teachers have no laboratory manual but they
have laboratory work book. They study the procedure in the work book and implement them.
Teacher's manual for science laboratory is absolutely necessary because without knowing the
procedure, effects of chemicals and limitations of experiments, and how to apply instruments,
teaching science in the laboratory cannot be successful. The head of the school supports the
laboratory equipment that are given by Ministry of Education. Four science teachers attended
practical course at West Yangon University. This course takes only one day. The dean of subject
has a chance to attend this course. They get a lot of new required knowledge from this course.
The practical course is absolutely necessary for all science teachers.
Practical Experiment
Teachers thought that practical experiments make science teaching more interesting.
Since students perform and observe experiments themselves, scientific knowledge, facts and
concepts are firmly attached in their memory. Teachers said that science teaching without
practical experiment is like story telling (See Appendix C). Practical experiments play a main
role in science instruction. Four science teachers favour student-led experiments. Two science
teachers prefer teacher-led experiments. But in reality, teacher-led experiments are performed
because of incomplete situation of materials and apparatus. Teacher-led experiments are
convenient if students have limited amount of scientific knowledge to do experiments well.
Teachers thought that students can easily understand the lesson, remember the important facts
and identify that theory is true by performing practical experiments. Practical experiments are
suitable with students’ learning. Science teaching with practical experiments help students to
learn lessons easily. Teachers believe that the practical experiment is related to students’ learning
theoretical lesson because students can easily memorize the lessons and retain them lastly when
they perform and observe the experiments (See Appendix C). Science includes facts, concepts,
theory and law. Without practical science teaching may be unsuccessful. Nevertheless, teachers
who have positive scientific attitude and creative spirit can create complete science laboratory
environment in which students will actively learn by performing practical experiments. Teachers
assume that there is a significant difference in students’ learning between doing science
experiment and conventional teaching. Students interest to perform practical experiment. But in
conventional teaching, students may be lazy and not interested in lesson. Practical experiments
have positive effect on students’ learning and their interest.
Perception toward Science Laboratory

Teachers believe that science laboratory has impact on students’ learning because
students easily recognize and remember the lessons when they perform laboratory work (See
Appendix C). Teachers suppose that practical experiments are much enough to concretize
abstract knowledge for students. Students have difficulty to understand the theoretical lessons
that are abstract. Practical experiments confirm that theory is true. So, students’ abstract
knowledge can be transformed into concrete. Teachers believe that students can apply knowledge
gained through learning in science laboratory as a basis for next grade. The scientific skills and
ways of problem solving can be applied in real life situation (See Appendix C). So, teachers have
to teach students to develop scientific thoughts, attitudes and skills by the use of laboratory work.
Teachers assume that science teaching in the laboratory progress students’ learning and active
participation because students work together to get the right result of experiment and they also
ask investigative questions. Science laboratory should be a place which can progress students’
learning by allowing them to perform practical experiments cooperatively with each other.
Teachers like science teaching in science laboratory and interest to do experiments. Science
practical work is related to the environment. Students’ thoughts, affiliation and confidence can be
improved by teaching science in laboratory. Teachers who have positive attitude toward science
laboratory may design experiments even without complete situation of laboratory equipment.
Discussion and Conclusion

Discussion
This study is to investigate the teachers’ perception towards the science laboratory in
science teaching. In the research of Kozcu (2006), he described that laboratory based learning has
a much greater effect on students' academic success, level of memory and their sensibility than
the formal teaching. In this study the teachers perceive that science laboratory activities assist
students to learn lesson easily. Science laboratory has positive influence on science teaching in
which students can easily understand, lastly retain and remember the lessons. Trowbridge and
Bybee (1990) suggested that in reality, the maximum learning may be achieved, for certain
students, by working in pair or small group activity may be beneficial. This result is agreement
with this study. Teachers thought that students can give opinions and work cooperatively because
of group laboratory work. They asserted that the group work is time saving approach. In the
research of Prachanent and Chaivisthungkura (2016), they asserted that problems of lacking basic
science laboratory equipment result students have no chance to do experiments. To enable the
complete contents, teachers used the video clips involving experiments. Comparatively, the
research found that most science laboratory equipment are faded, old and are not enough for all
students. Teachers apply replaceable materials that are easily got from environment. They also
show the relevant pictures and videos that are downloaded from the internet.
The laboratory guides or manuals and instruction must develop students’ conceptual
understanding, creative thinking, problem solving activity, and scientific thinking (Pavelich and
Abraham, 1979). In this study, teachers have no laboratory manuals. They have laboratory work
books. They implement laboratory work by asking opinions from each other. Four science
teachers applied verification or deductive laboratory approach and two science teachers used
inductive laboratory approach. According to (Renner, 1986), in good laboratory, students
discover concepts: they do not just verify them. Science teaching should include both
approaches.
Laboratories are crucial making abstract concepts concrete (Pekmez, 2001, cited in
Sample, 2011). In this study teachers perceive that students’ abstract knowledge can be
transformed into concrete because of performing practical experiment which can verify that
theory is true. Learning can be more meaningful by the manipulation of objects such as in the
laboratory and through the use of pupil experiences and interest. This statement supports with
this study's results. Teachers perceived that laboratory activity broadens interest of students and
science students can see and confirm things in the textbook. Moreover, when the students handle
themselves in the experiments, experience is impressed more trimly on their minds than when
they listen or see from distance. They prefer student-led demonstration. But, in reality, teacher-
led demonstrations are performed.
According to Bybee (2000), the school laboratories have the potential to be an important
medium for introducing students to central, conceptual and procedural knowledge and skills in
science. The findings of this study confirm Bybee's statement. Teacher believed that knowledge
gained though science laboratory can be applied in the next grade. The scientific and problem
solving skills can be also applied in real life situation. According to Freedman (1997), laboratory
work is an effective learning environment for enhancing attitudes, stimulating interests and
enjoyment and motivating students to learn science. Teachers asserted that students’ thoughts,
affiliation, and confidence can be improved by teaching science in laboratory. Laboratory work
has impact on students’ learning and improve students’ participation because they perform
experiments. Their inquiry and investigative spirits are evoked.
Suggestions
Science teachers perceived that science laboratory has impact on science teaching.
Science laboratory activities motivated students to learn by doing individually or in a small
group. According to the results of the study, the suggestions are given as follows.
a. In order to make use of laboratory effectively which is essential for science instruction,
the perceptions of science teachers and students need to be considered for necessary
regulations and developments of laboratory work.
b. Teachers should systematically and regularly implement the laboratory work.
c. Teachers should provide the direct experiences in science where students are curious,
energetic and resourceful.
d. Experimental activities should improve scientific thought and problem solving skills so
that students can develop positive attitude in science learning.
e. Teachers should be provided on the job training on how to conduct practical experiment
in classrooms.
f. A wealth of resources for experimentation should be provided.
g. The laboratory should be provided in every Myanmar high school.
Conclusion
In order to fulfill the goal of science education, the teachers must be well prepared in their
respective science subjects. They must have a firm understanding of the nature of science and
help their students to develop inquiry skills as well as provides scientific and technological
knowledge. Students must learn factual information, but, more important, they must discover
ideas for themselves through laboratory activities, field studies and library work (Gould, 1984,
cited in Collette & Chappetta, 1989).
Science involves highly complex and abstract subject matter that some high school
students fail to grasp science concepts without concrete objectives and opportunities for
manipulations. The solution of solving above problem is appliance of science laboratory in
teaching science because laboratory activities give students concrete experiences in which they
can explore new ideas and theories by gathering data and observation. Science laboratory has an
important role in learning science. Practical work is more important because of the fact that
people learn by imitating and by doing scientific principles and applications. Practical classroom
experiments help in boarding pupils experience and develop initiative and cooperation. Science is
a laboratory oriented subject because it contains a lot of practical wok to do in teaching and
learning process. Science laboratory is a crucial factor in learning and achievement in that
subject.
The laboratory activities have had distinctive and central role for science curriculum. The
science teachers asserted that many benefits mount up from engaging students in science
laboratory activities. So, science laboratory play an important role in science teaching.
Acknowledgements
Education), and Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing (Pro-Rectors, Yangon University of Education)
for their permission to present this paper.
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Appendix A
Interview Questions for Science Teachers
Demographic Factor
1. Gender: Male Female
2. How old are you?
3. Which certifications did you got?
4. What is your teaching services?
5. Which subject do you teach at present?
6. Which grade do you teach at present?
7. Describe your total teaching periods at present?
8. How long is your teaching services as a science teacher?
Teaching Science
1. Which teaching methods do you always use in teaching science? Explain one of
them?
2. What is your aim of teaching science? Why do you set this aim?
3. Which difficulties do you always face in teaching science? How do you solve them?
4. How do you feel about science teaching?
5. Are you interested in teaching science? Why?
6. Do you apply science laboratory in teaching science? Why?

Teaching Science
Using Science Laboratory
1. What is your purpose of doing laboratory work in science laboratory? Why do you set
this purpose?
2. Do you think that science laboratory is necessary for teaching science? Why do you
think like this?
3. How many periods per week do you teach in science laboratory? How long take a
period?
4. Is there laboratory assistant to help you in the laboratory?
5. Before lesson or after lesson, when do you use science laboratory? Why do you use
like this?
6. Which methods do you use in teaching science in the laboratory? Why do you use
them?
Implementation of Laboratory Work

1. How do you implement laboratory work?
2. How do you determine the laboratory procedure?
3. How do you assess laboratory work?
4. Which one do you favour: individual laboratory work or group work? Why do you
prefer this?
5. Which approaches do you use in teaching laboratory work? How do you apply
laboratory manual?
6. Which problem do you face during implementation of laboratory work?
Interest in Doing Practical Experiment

1. Do you think that teaching science without practical experiment is not interesting?
Why do you think like this?
2. While doing practical experiment, do you prefer teacher-led experiment or student-

led experiment? Why?
3. Do you think that practical experiment is suitable or not with students’ learning? How
and why do you perceive like this?
4. How do you think that there is any relationship between the practical experiment and
students’ learning theoretical lessons?
5. Is the laboratory material and equipment suitable and enough for the students? If not,
how do you implement practical experiment?
6. What is the difference of students’ learning between conventional teaching and doing
science experiment? How do you think about this difference?
Perception toward Teaching Science in the Laboratory

1. How do you believe that science laboratory has the impact on students’ learning?
2. Do you think that laboratory work are enough to concretise abstract knowledge for
students? Why do you think that?
3. Do you believe that students could apply knowledge gained through learning in
science laboratory in their daily life? How can they apply? Why?
4. Do teaching science in the laboratory progress students’ learning and active

participation? How do they progress?
5. How do you feel about teaching science in the science laboratory yourself?
6. How do your headmaster/headmistress support for your science laboratory? Do you

attend laboratory course? How do this course support for your teaching?
Appendix B 1
Observation (I)
School ------------------
Checklists for the Physical Appearance of Science Laboratory
No Indicator / Statement Poor Fair Good

Organization
1. Ventilation System
2. Waste Disposal
3. Clean
4. Lighting
5. Water Supply
6. Usage of Basin
7. Structures of Tables
8. Structures of Shelves
Appliance of Teaching Aids

9. Uses of Charts
10. Uses of Models
11. Periodic Table
12. Laboratory Safety Rules
Maintainance
13. Storage of Chemicals
14. Storage of Materials
15. First-aid box
16. Laboratory Manual
17. Stock Register
18. Instructional Card
19. Pupils’ Practical Notebook
20. Record of Doing Practical Work
Appendix B2
Observation (II)
Performance during Laboratory Work
1. Subject ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Topic ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Period ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. No of students ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Experiment ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Apparatus ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Materials ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. Aim ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. Procedure ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. Techniques used ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
11. Methods applied ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
If the teacher used Laboratory method or Student-led demonstration
Teacher performance Yes No Students performance Yes No
1. Lesson introduction
Asking Questions Answer questions
Discussion Active discussion
Grouping students Actively participation
Giving the required apparatus Carefully and systematically use
2. Predicting and overview of

activity
Arousing investigative questions Describe investigative questions
Designing experiment Carefully note taking
Laboratory safety instruction Carefully pay attention to teacher
Explaining instructional Carefully listening and asking
procedure questions about unclear facts
3. Performing experiment
Teacher monitor group as they Systematically, actively and
work on the laboratory individually perform experiment
Helping students with Know how to use apparatus &
difficulties in doing experiment Asking teachers for their
difficulties
Telling students to collect the Collecting data from careful
data from experiment observation
Discussion with students Discussion with teacher or peers
4. Closure
Summarize, transfer and relate Reporting their observation and
to real life summarization
Evaluation of students’ work Answer questions
If the teacher used teacher-led demonstration

Teacher performance Yes No Students performance Yes No
1. Purposing
The class (or) and teacher Decides an activity that involves
decides an activity that involves demonstration
demonstration
Asking questions Answer questions
Discussion Discussion
2. Planning
Grouping students Actively participation
Designing experiment Carefully pay attention
Laboratory safety instruction Carefully note taking, and
listening
3. Proper demonstration
Teach the theory of concepts Asking investigation questions and
before demonstration carefully pay attention
4. Executing
Self-preparation Self-preparation
Right explanation Right explanation
Starting experiments Starting experiments
Handling instrument Handling instrument
Explaining observations Explaining observations
Writing report
5. Evaluation
Asking questions Answering questions
Appendix C
Teachers’ Responses to Interviews
Q: What is your aim of teaching science?
P1: “To get knowledge and got distinctions with high marks.”
P2: “To complete a course outstandingly.”
P3: “To understand the lessons clearly.”
Q: How do you solve difficulties facing in teaching science?

P1: “I searched the photos and videos relevant to the lessons and show them to students.”
P2: “Sometimes, I showed the pictures that are downloaded from internet.”
P3: “I download the pictures from the internet. When I show these photos, students
understand lessons.”
Q: What is your purpose of doing laboratory work?

P1: “I aims students to learn lesson by doing experiments rather than by heart.”
P2: “Students will make reasoning for everything.”
P3: “Students will clearly and easily study the lessons.”
Q: How many periods per week or month do you always teach laboratory work?
P1: “Relating to the lesson.” “Can’t tell the periods explicitly.”
P2: “I have to favour the normal teaching periods.”
P3: “The laboratory work cannot be done for every lesson.” “Can’t tell the exact period.”
Q: Why do you use science laboratory after lesson?

P1: “Because students have known terminology, they can guess what can happen.”
P2: “Before the lesson, students do not know theory.”
P3: “After the lesson, they can verify theory.”
Q: Why do you use science laboratory before lesson?

P1: “Since students firstly get the concrete experience, they are more interested. Can get
more knowledge in giving lecture.
P2: “To improve their understanding”
Q: How do you assess laboratory work?

P1: “I assess students’ understanding by asking questions”
P2: “I give A, B grade on practical work book.”
P3: “The practical marks are not needed for final results.”
Q: Which one do you favour: individual lab work or group lab work?
P1: “Group works can emerge good social interaction among students.”
P2: “Group work is better because students give their opinions to each other.”
P3: “Time is not enough to do individual laboratory work.”
Q: Do you think that practical experiment is suitable with students’ learning?

P1: “Practical experiments are linked to the lessons.” “Because of them, students can verify
that theory is true.”
P2: “Without practical experiment, teaching science is like story telling.”
P3: “Students answer the questions without forgetting unimportant facts.”
Q: How do you think that there is any relationship between the practical experiment and
students’ learning theoretical lessons?
P1: “Yes, they are related. If they see experiments, they understand the refraction of light
and law of refraction.”
P2: “Theory and practical experiments are related. So, experiment can identify that theory
is true.”
P3: “After explanation of theory, I taught how to apply it in practical. Students are more
likely to understand the theory.”
Q: How do you believe that science laboratory has the impact on students’ learning?
P1: “It is the most believable fact. Science lab effects on students’ learning.”
P2: “Since students directly see the experiments, they are easy to recognize the lessons.”
P3: “They remember the lessons. We should do laboratory work more than conventional
teaching.
Q: Do you believe that students could apply knowledge gained through learning in science
laboratory in their daily life? How they can apply? Why?
P1: “Some can be applied for the next level or grade.”
P2: “If students can apply knowledge, they may create new things.”
P3: “Through finding the result and solving problems in schools, students get process skills,
and ways to solve their real life problems.
THE EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS ON THE SCIENCE

ACHIEVEMENT OF MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL STUDENTS
Htet Htet Aung 1 and Ma Kyi Swe2
Abstract
The major purpose of this research was to study the effects of Instructional aids on the science
achievement of middle school level students. This study was conducted with both quantitative and
descriptive research methods. For quantitative research, an experimental study was used to
investigate the effects of instructional aids. In this experimental study, the subjects were Grade
Seven students selected from BEHS-B Kyauk Chet and No (1) BEHS Pyinmana. The
experimental designed adopted in this study was a true experimental design, namely, posttest only
control group design. For this study, (120) Grade Seven students were selected from both schools
by random sampling method. These students were divided into two groups: experimental and
control group. The experimental group was taught by using instructional aids and the control
group was taught as formal instruction. After that, a posttest was administered to two groups.
Independent samples t-test was used to test whether there was significant difference between these
two groups. Examination of the means and t-test at BEHS-B Kyauk Chet (t=13.85, df = 58,
MD=16.84, p < .001) and No (1) BEHS Pyinmana (t=7.47, df=58, MD=11.37, p < .001) indicated
that students who were taught by using instructional aids demonstrated significantly better than
those who were taught as formal instruction. The descriptive data also supported the findings from
the experimentation. For this research study, students from the experimental group from two
selected schools were given a questionnaire. It consists of (16) items five-point Likert-scale. The
results showed that the students expressed their willingness to learn science by using instructional
aids and they had positive attitudes towards instruction by using instructional aids. Research
findings proved that the use of instructional aids has positive contribution to the science teaching
at the middle school level.
Keywords: instructional aids, achievement, science
Introduction
Education is a process which, changes, moves, is flexible and is infinitely varied. The
most changes that are impinging in education are science and its application. So, everyone needs
to understand the relationship between science and men. Science education is intended to prepare
youth to assure future science-oriented carriers in business and industry. And also, science
education is expected to contribute not only to the personal development of individual but also
the national building. To give precedence to the teaching of science of strengthening and
developing productive forces is one of the aims of Basic Education. The huge contribution of
science teaching to the society leads to far higher. So, it is quite obvious that science education is
highly important. Instructional aids make a lesson or a lecture more interesting and provide a
memorable experience not only for students but for teachers as well. Moreover, instructional aids
eliminate the abstract nature of science by concretizing the facts in the lesson content. Since
instructional aids can help to bring a change in the atmosphere of the class, instructional aids can
help students to develop scientific attitudes and get training in scientific methods. Thus,
instructional aids play the vital role in teaching science.
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, Basic Education High School, Shwe Kyin
2

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of instructional aids on the
science achievement of the middle school level students. The specific purposes are as follow:
(1) To compare the science achievement between students who are taught by using
instructional aids and those who are not.
(2) To study the effects of instructional aids in teaching science.
(3) To investigate students’ attitudes towards the instruction by using instructional aids.
(4) To give suggestions based on the data obtained from the study for the improvement of
science teaching.
Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses of the study are as follows.
(1) There is a significant difference between the science achievement of the Grade Seven
students who learn science through the use of instructional aids and those who learn
science without using instructional aids.
science without using instructional aids in answering knowledge level questions.
science without using instructional aids in answering comprehension level questions.
science without using instructional aids in answering application level questions.
(5) The students will have positive attitude towards the instruction by using instructional
aids.
Instructional Aids: Instructional aid has defined as "activity or illustrative materials by means of
which the learning process may be encouraged or carried on; includes audio-visual aids as well
as other sensory aids" (Good, 1959).
Instructional Aids: Instructional aids were devices that can be employed to aid in teaching
process. (Bruner, 1960)
Achievement : Accomplishments or proficiency of performance in a given skill or body of
knowledge (Good, 1959).
Science : Knowledge as of facts, phenomena, law and proximate causes, gained and verified by
exact observation, organized experiment and correct thinking, also the sum of the universal
knowledge (Good, 1959).

In the process of education, a teacher required to make decision about what should be
taught, what methods should be used in the instruction, what learning activities should be
included in each lesson, whether learning should be by group activity or individual project, and
what techniques should be applied to evaluate this learning. Thus, education involves the
investigation of the multitude of problems and questions, and the possible answers to all of these
questions are based on the teacher’s beliefs about people, about the world, about how students
learn, about how students think, and about values. Discipline and classroom control practices are
especially dependent on the teacher’s belief system and philosophy of education. Teaching
without a philosophy would be analogous to building a house on sand instead of on a firm
foundation, or to taking a trip without a road map ( Hessong & Weeks, 1991).
Cognitivism is a cognitivist theory that based on thought process behind the behavior. It
means that the theory occurs inside the learners mind consciously. A key focus of cognitive
psychology is looking at how to communicate or transfer knowledge to students in the most
effective and efficient way by looking at mental processes, and how the structure of the brain is
changed during the course of learning. The cognitive orientation to learning focuses on how
students manipulate information during learning, and how students make meaning out of
information and experience. . One cognitive function that plays a key role in learning is memory.
Memory is the active mental mechanisms that enable people to retain and retrieve information
about past experience (Baddeley, 1999; cited in Sternberg & Willians, 2010). The three major
components of memory are the sensory register, short-term or working memory, and long-term
memory. During the communicative process, the sensory register of the memory acts as a filter.
As stimuli are received, the individual’s sensory register works to sort out the important bits of
information from the routine or less significant bits. Within seconds, what is perceived as the
most important information is passed to the working or short-term memory where it is processed
for possible storage in the long-term memory. This complex process is enhanced by the use of
instructional aids that highlight and emphasize the main points or concepts.
Objectives of Using Instructional Aids

Instructional aids are used in the teaching-learning process as described the following
objectives:
 To reinforce what one is saying
 To ensure that one’s point is understood
 To signal what is important/essential
 To support the lesson plan and support the learning
 To enhance the interest of students
 To enable the students to visualize or experience something that is impractical to see or
do in real life
 To engage students’ other senses in learning process
 To facilitate different learning styles (Babaria Institute of Technology, 2011)
Charactierstics of Good Instructional Aids
A few characteristics of good instructional aids are enlisted as follows:
 They are large enough to be seen by the students for whom they are used.
 They are meaningful and they always stand to serve a useful purpose.
 They are upto the mark and uptodate in every respect.

 They are simple, cheap, and may be improvised. They are not very costly.
 They are handy and easily portable.
 They are accurate.
 They are realistic.
 They are according to the mental level of the learners.
 Their purpose may be informative but it is not just entertainment.
 They motivate the learners. They capture the attention of the pupils.
 They help in the realization stipulated learning objectives.
 They are useful for supplementing the teaching process but they cannot replace the
teacher. (Rather, 2004)
Principles for the Selection of Instructional Aids
A science teacher has to take care of the following principles while making a judicious
selection of the proper teaching aids for teaching a particular topic in his subject.
 Relevancy. The aid used should be quite relevant to the topic in hand.
 Suitability. It should suit the topic as best as possible by making its study quite
comprehensive, interesting, permanent and effective.
 Educative. The aid should have specific educational value besides being interesting and
motivating. In no case it should be confined to mere entertainment.
 Best substitute for the first hand experience. The aid should be so chosen as to prove a
best possible substitute in terms of reality, accuracy and truthful representation of the
object or first hand experiences.
 Simplicity. The aid should be quite simple in its construction and use. It must also be able
to convey its sense as simply as possible.
 Learner centered. The aid material selected should be such that it suites the age level,
grade level, basic instincts, urges, interest and other unique characteristics of the students
of the class.
 Environment centered. The aid material should suit the requirement of the physical,
social, and cultural environment of the students.
 Practicability. The aid material should be selected in view of the prevailing
circumstances, available resources and purposes to be served. It should not be too costly
in its purchase and collection or in terms of its use and demonstration in the class. It
should meet the available circumstances in terms of weather conditions, climatic
requirements, handling by the teacher and students and other resources readily available
in the institution and classroom.
 Objectives attainment. The aid material should be so selected as to help in the proper
realization of the stipulated learning or instructional objectives of the topic in hand.
(Sharama, 2009)
Advantages of Instructional Aids
The instructional aids as have many advantages which are explained as follows:
 The use of teaching aids by the teacher while teaching make the teaching learning process
more interesting.
 The use of instructional aids gives reality to the learning situation.

 It gives vividness to the learning situation.
 It gives clarity to the learning situation.
 The aids motivate the child and arouse his feeling of curiosity.
 They make the abstract ideas concrete and thus help in making learning more effective.
 The different types of aids when use successfully in the classroom provide variety in the
classroom situations.
 The different types of aids, thus, serve in different ways for meeting out the varied
requirements of the students.
 The aids are good substitutes for the real objects as they make learning equally
meaningful.
 The use of instructional aids help in the development of various skills among the students.
Types of Instructional Aids
In modern trends in Educational Technology, Mohanty (2007) classified teaching aids:
1. According to the Sense-Stimulation
2. According to the Projection Facilities Available
3. According to Kinds of Experiences
4. According to the Learner Control and
5. According to Their Reach
1. According to the sense stimulation
The teaching aids or instructional aids may be divided into three categories:
 Visual
 Audio, and
 Audio-visual
2. According to Projection Facilities Available
Audio-visual aids are divided into:
 Projected
 Non-projected and
 Activity aids
3. According to the Kinds of Experiences
 Real-Objects, Specimens
 Field Visits, Observations, Excursions
 Case Studies
 Demonstrations
 T.V., Films, Closed Circuit TV
 Slide, Film Strips
 Picture, Maps, Photographs
 Display Board, Radio, Audio Cassettes
 Chalkboard
 Abstract Word
4. According to the Learner’s Control

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
No control High-Control
Radio Projected Non-Projected Computer,
TV Aids Aids Program Learning,
Tape Recorder
5. According to Their Reach
 Computer-Assisted Instructional (CAI) Programme
 Non-Projected Aids
 Projected Aids and
 Mass Media
Sampling and procedure
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of instructional aids on the
science achievement of middle school level students. The research design for the study was an
experimental research design. Quantitative research methodology was used to compare students'
achievement between two groups: Experimental group and Control group. For descriptive study,
a questionnaire was used to interpret the students’ attitudes, feelings, satisfactions, experiences
and opinions about instruction by using instructional aids. This study was geographically
restricted to Naypyidaw Union Territory. The townships in Naypyidaw Union Territory are
stratified into two districts: Ottara and Dekkhina. Two townships from those districts were
randomly selected for this study; one township was from Ottara district and the other from
Dekkhina. The required schools were selected by using simple random sampling method. The
sample schools are Basic Education High School-Branch, Kyauk Chet and No. (3), Basic
Education High School, Pyinmana. There were totally (86) students who were learning Science
in Grade-Seven at BEHS-B, Kyauk Chet and (73) students who were learning Science in Grade-
Seven at No. (3), BEHS, Pyinmana. Among them, (30) students for the experimental group and
(30) students for the control group from each school were selected by using the simple random
sampling method.
Results
After the treatment is given, posttest was administered to measure the science
achievement of the students. The data were analyzed by using the independent samples t-test to
compare the differences between the experimental and the control groups (See Table 1).
Table 1 t-Value for Posttest Science Achievement Scores
S1 16.84 13.85 58 .000***
Control 30 18.73 4.95
S2 11.37 7.47 58 .000***
Control 30 19.10 4.74
Note: ***p<.001
S1=Basic Education High School- Branch, Kyauk Chet
S2=No. (3), Basic Education High School, Pyinmana
The mean scores of experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the control
groups in each school. As shown in the table, there was a significant difference between the
experimental and control group for the scores on the science achievement in each school.
Table 2 t-Value for Mean Scores on Knowledge Level Questions

S1 1.47 3.81 58 .001**
Control 30 5.13 1.75
S2 1.40 3.61 58 .001**
Control 30 4.10 1.21
Note: **p< .01
According to the scores on the knowledge level questions, the mean scores of the
experimental groups were higher than the mean scores of the control groups in both selected
schools. It showed that there was a significant difference between the experimental and control
group for the scores on knowledge level questions in each school.
Table 3 t-Value for Mean Scores on Comprehension Level Questions

School Group N M SD MD t df Sig (2-tailed)
S1 7.57 12.37 58 .000***
Control 30 10.33 2.84
S2 2.83 3.34 58 .001**
Control 30 11.20 3.07
Note: ***p<.001, **p<.01
According to the scores on the comprehension level questions, the mean scores of the
experimental groups were higher than the mean scores of the control groups in both selected
schools. It showed that there was a significant difference between the experimental and control
group for the scores on comprehension level questions in each school.
Table 4 t-Value for Mean Scores on Application Level Questions
S1 8.37 11.50 58 .000***
Control 30 2.70 2.62
S2 7.00 9.18 58 .000***
Control 30 3.93 1.85
Note: ***p <.001
As shown in table (4), the mean scores of the experimental groups were significantly
higher than that of the control groups in both schools. It showed that there were significant
differences between the two groups for the selected schools on the scores of the application level
questions.
Descriptive Research Findings

In order to find out the attitude of students who learned by using instructional aids, the
questions concerned with their attitude on science learning through instructional aids were asked
(See Figure 1).
3%
have positive attitude
do not have positive

attitude
97%
Figure 1 Overall Percentages of Students’ Attitudes towards Instruction by Using

Instructional Aids
According to figure 1, (97%) of the students have positive attitudes and (3%) do not have
positive attitudes towards instruction by using instructional aids. Some students do not have
positive attitudes because they have had no experience in expressing that kind of questionnaire
and in learning by using instructional aids.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of instructional aids on the
science achievement of middle school level students. Results from the study showed that the
posttest mean scores of experimental groups were significantly higher than the mean scores of
control groups in two selected schools. This result supports the research hypothesis. According to
the comparison of mean scores on knowledge level questions for both selected schools, the
findings showed that the achievement of experimental group was significantly higher than that of
control group. It can be interpreted that the use of instructional aids could bring about the
improvement of students’ ability to remember the basic knowledge. According to the comparison
of mean scores on comprehension level questions in two selected schools, the findings pointed
out that there were significant differences between experimental and control groups.
Experimental students had been given the opportunity to learn science in more than one form
such as still pictures, real objects, charts and videos. Instructional aids develop the proper image
when students see, hear, taste and smell properly (Nikky, 2010). Instructional aids help students
to understand more about the content they were learning. According to the comparison of mean
scores on application level questions in two selected schools, the result pointed out that there
were significant differences between the experimental and control groups. Experimental students
got high marks in application questions. This indicates that students’ transfer of learning has
improved. In this study, the experimental students were given to visualize the real world
situations through videos, pictures, charts and real objects. So, they can understand the main
concepts clearly and improve higher order thinking skills and can transfer what they have learned
at school to real life situations.
Suggestions
The rapidly changing world needs many people to be equipped with sound foundation of
knowledge of science to live safely and to contribute to the world they live in. Science is a
subject that is needed to be explained systematically and to be presented with validate evidence
so that the students can understand, amaze, believe and be more interested in science. In our
country, especially during these years, most students in urban regions have access to the internet
through their phones and now they are living in a world concentrated with colorful images,
videos and texts. When they come to school, one-sided printed book may be something boring
that cannot attract their attention. Without attending to something, they cannot be given any
knowledge and skills. Thus, it is important to attain students’ attention on the lesson, but it will
not be enough to get the attention at the very start. Attention is something that is needed to be
maintained throughout the lesson.
To be able to motivate students and keep their attention throughout the lesson depends on
the teacher who designs and prepares instructional aids. The teachers should be able to use
internet to be able to learn and prepare instructional aids. And science teachers should discuss
and share experiences with each other about the instructional aids. Because commercial
instructional aids available in market may not contribute well to students’ learning since they are
not designed according to the students’ mind works and most of them are designed by those who
are not educational professionals. Moreover, the teacher knows about the students’ level of
knowledge, skills and the difficulty level they can deal with. Moreover, the teachers are the ones
who have studied how students’ mind works. So, the teacher should prepare instructional aids for
the respective topics.
According to the results of this research, the use of instructional aids has a positive
contribution to students’ science achievement. The teacher should understand the role of
instructional aids in teaching learning process. Moreover, the teacher should prepare and use
instructional aids in teaching science. While selecting and using instructional aids, some
precautions should be used.
 The aids should be fully checked up before using them in the class.
 Aids should be used at the right time and in proper condition.
 The teacher should consider cognitive psychology related to how people mind works.
 Aids should not be allowed to become masters in the teaching learning process.
 In a lesson, too many aids should not be used.
 The aids should have specific educational value besides being interesting and motivating.
These are suggestions consequent upon the findings of the study. But, no study is perfect
in an effort. Thus, a need for further research is quite necessary. This research was done at the
middle school level. It provides useful results and many suggestions to improve science
education at the middle school level. Therefore, a large number of researches should be carried
out at all levels such as primary and high school levels. Instructional aids can be used to the other
subject areas. So, further researches should also be carried out in other subjects. And this study
was done in the Naypyitaw Union Territory. Therefore, further researches should be carried out
in other States and Regions. Moreover, science education is very important to improve students’
higher order thinking. Many researches can provide good suggestions and recommendations to
improve science education. Therefore, further researches in this line are needed for the
improvement of science teaching.
Conclusions
The main purpose of this research was to study the effects of instructional aids on the
science achievement of middle school level students. Both quantitative and descriptive studies
were conducted to obtain the required data. Firstly, an experimental design was used to study the
effects of instructional aids on the science achievement of middle school level students.
Generalization can be drawn on the basis of results. According to posttest results, the means of
students who were taught with instructional aids were significantly higher than those who were
taught without instructional aids. And students’ performance has significant difference on overall
science achievement and achievement of knowledge, comprehension and application level
questions. It can be concluded that the use of instructional aids improves students’ memorization,
conceptual understanding and critical thinking skills. Moreover, it is also interpreted that students
can apply learning materials in new situations. Thus, instructional aids should be created and
used in teaching science.
Secondly, a descriptive research was done to study the students’ feelings, attitudes,
experiences and opinions about instruction with instructional aids. Students expressed that they
were very happy and satisfied the learning with instructional aids. It also promoted their
conceptual understanding. Moreover, students described that they get much knowledge without
repetition. They also felt that they desired to learn science subject by using instructional aids. The
strengthened interest in science may lead the students onto a science related carrier path and
establish higher quality scientific literacy. Thus, students’ interest and attitudes are very
important for science learning. According to this research, the descriptive research findings
indicated that the attitudes, vales and opinions of students towards learning of science were
positive. According to the results of this research, it is revealed that the use of instructional aids
can significantly promote science achievement of middle school level students.
Acknowledgements
Education), Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung (Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education) and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing
(Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education) who allowed us to do this research. We would like to express our
heartfelt gratitude to Daw Khin Aye Myint, (Retired Professor & Head, Department of Methodology, Yangon
University of Education) for her valuable advice.
References
Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Oxford, England: Harvard.
Good, C. V. (1959). Dictionary of education: prepared under the auspices of phidelta kappa (2nd ed.). United States
of America: McGraw-Hill BookCompany, Inc.
Hessong, R. F. & Weeks T. H. (1991). Introduction to the foundation of education (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillian
Publishing Company.
Nikky. (2010). Teaching aids, their needs, types and importance of teaching aids in teaching learning process.
Retrived on September 3, 2018 from http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/120148-Teaching-
Aids-Their-Needs-Types-Importance.aspx
Rather, R. (2004). Essentials of instructional technology. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
Sharma, P., (2009). Teaching of life science. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.
Strenberg, J. R., & Williams. M. W. (2010). Educational Psychology (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Trundle, K. C, (2009). Teaching science during the early childhood years. Retrieved July 27, 2018, from
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/237342472-Teaching-Science-During-the-Early-Childhood-
Years
Appendix A
A Lesson Plan for Experimental Group
- photo (1)
photo (2) –
photo (3) –
photo (4) –
photo(5)–
photo (6) –
video file – video file
Important
Learning T-L
Teaching Activities duration Points for T-L
Activities Materials
Process
Photo (1)
Photo (2)
Video
Important
Learning T-L
Process
File
Photo (1)
Photo(3) Communication
Photo (4) skills
Photo (5)
Photo (2)
Photo (6)
Photos,
charts,
white
board
Important
Learning T-L
Process
Photos,
charts,
white
board
Note: T-L= Teaching –Learning

THE EFFECTS OF CONCEPT-BASED TEACHING ON STUDENTS’

ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL
Su Hlaing Hnin1 and Ma Kyi Swe2
Abstract
The major purpose of this research was to study the effects of concept-based teaching on students’
achievement in science at the middle school level. Concept-based teaching is defined as a student-
centered learning environment that fosters the development of reasoning skills using concepts. The
experimental designed adopted in this study was a true experimental design, namely, posttest only
control group design. For this study, an experimental study was used to investigate the effects of
concept-based teaching. In this experimental study, the subjects were Grade seven students
selected from No (1) BEHS Insein and No (2) BEHS Mayangone. For this study, (120) Grade
Seven students were selected from both schools by random sampling method. These students were
divided into two groups: control and experimental. The experimental group was treated with
concept-based teaching and the control group was taught as formal instruction. After that, a
posttest was administered to two groups. Independent samples t-test was used to test whether there
was a significant difference between these two groups. Examination of the means and t-test at No
(1) BEHS Insein (t=12.19, df = 58, MD=14.90, ***p<.001) and No (2) BEHS Mayangone
(t=13.08, df=58, MD=4.90, ***p<.001) indicated that students who were taught by concept-based
teaching demonstrated significantly better than those who were taught as formal instruction. In
this study, (15) items questionnaires were used to observe the students’ attitudes towards general
science learning through concept-based teaching. The results showed that the students expressed
their willingness to learn in concept-based teaching and they had positive attitudes towards this
concept-based teaching. Research findings proved that concept-based teaching has positive
Keywords: concept, teaching, concept-based teaching, science, achievement
Introduction
The main aim of education is to help the children to learn their living and to make them
dependent. Treagust (1995, cited in Trundle, 2009) suggests that children’s conception stem from
and are deeply rooted in the child’s daily life context. Science education enables
students to resolve their sorts of needs and consist of activities for giving the individuals the
suggestions, skills and attitudes including scientific processes. Concept-based teaching focuses
on continually moving students toward deeper conceptual understanding. With concept-based
teaching, once the students understand the primary concept and have gained further knowledge
can be applied in new environment and situation. One part of this study is also to explicate the
conception of concepts based on recent developments in cognitive science and to bridge this view
with views about the nature of scientific knowledge.
Aims
 The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of concept-based teaching on
students’ achievement in science.
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, No. (1) Basic Education High School, Latpadan
2
The specific purposes are as follows,

 To compare students’ science achievement between experimental group and control
group.
 To investigate the attitudes of students from experimental group on concept-based
teaching in science.
 To give suggestions based on the data obtained for improving science teaching and
learning at the middle school level.
Research Questions
Q1: Are there any significant differences in science achievement of students who receive
learning with concept-based teaching and those who do not receive?
Q2: Are there any significant differences in science achievement of experimental group and
control group in answering knowledge level questions?
control group in answering comprehension level questions?
control group in answering application level questions?
Q5: Can concept-based teaching make increase in scientific attitudes of students?
Scope of the Study

The following points are the scope of the study:
 This study is limited to the selected chapter of Grade Seven general science textbook and
is conducted in two sample schools in Yangon Region.
 Participants in this study are (120) Grade Seven students from the selected schools within
the school year (2018-2019).
 This study is limited to the content areas from Grade Seven science textbook to
investigate students’ science achievement.
The methods uses in this study are concept-based teaching and formal instruction method.
Science “Science is the study of knowing about the universe through data collected by
observation and controlled experimentation (Carin & Sund, 1989).”
Concept “A concept is a thought, an opinion, an idea, or a mental image (Good, 1959)” Broad,
abstract ideas that, when used in a concept-based curriculum, are taught throughout the
curriculum (Gidden et al., 2015).”
Teaching “Teaching is the act of instructing in an educational instruction;
Teaching is the act of providing activities, materials, and guidance that facilitate learning in
either formal or informal situations. (Good, 1959)
Concept-based Teaching “Concept-based teaching is defined as a student-centered learning
environment that fosters the development of reasoning skills using concepts.”
Achievement “Achievement is the result of what an individual has learned from some
educational experiences (Traver, 1970, p.447).”
Reviewed of Related Literature

Concept learning is one of the intellectual skills. It involves the ability to apply
knowledge across a variety of instances or circumstances. Intellectual skills differ from
declarative knowledge involves a memorization of an association between two or more entities.
There are two distinctly different kinds of concepts: concrete and abstract. Concrete concepts are
known by their physical characteristics, which may be discerned by any of senses-sight, smell,
taste, touch, or hearing. Some of them, such as “bull market,” have no appearance. They are
abstract concepts, sometimes called defined concepts. In the actual design of instruction when
teachers know the level of sophistication of learners the teacher may wish to consider whether
the teachers are teaching a particular concept at the concrete or the abstract level because the way
the teachers address the two types is somewhat different. Concept learning is not also the
application of a principle that contains the concept. Learners who have acquired concepts are also
able to supply their own examples of the concepts and apply the concepts appropriately in day-
to-day encounters.
Essential Conditions of Learning Concepts
The essential conditions in a concept lesson are the features that promote generalization
and discrimination and reduce over- and under generalization. Although the most critical features
of a concept lesson lie in the events within the body of the lesson, we will describe important
features within each of four main components of the lesson.
Two General Strategies of Concept Instruction
Concept instruction may follow one of two general strategies: a predominantly generative
strategy or more supplanted one. One type of generative strategy is termed as inquiry approach. It
is contrasted to a more typically supplanted strategy called an expository approach. Neither
approach is particularly better than the other but one may be more appropriate than the other
depending upon the context, the learners, and the learning task.
An inquiry strategy is often referred to as an expository strategy or a discovery approach.
An inquiry strategy presents examples and no examples of the concept and prompts the learners
to induce or “discover” the concept underlying the instances. Joyce and Weil’s (1986, cited in
Smit, & Ragan, 1999) “concept attainment model” is an example of an inquiry approach to
teaching concepts. In this strategy learners are presented with a group of matched examples and
no examples in verbal, auditory, or visual form.
An expository approach presents the concept, its label and its criteria attributes earlier in
the sequence than in the inquiry approach. Expository instruction, like inquiry instruction,
presents many examples and no examples: however, these instances follow a discussion of the
expanded instructional events employs a more expository sequence.
(1) Introduction
(2) Establish Instructional Purpose
(3) Preview Lesson
(4) Process Information and Examples
(5) Focus attention
(6) Practice
(7) Evaluate Feedback
Employ Learning Strategies

Some strategies that a learner may employ in acquiring concepts have already been
mentioned- elaborating by inventing one’s own examples and isolating attributes and
highlighting these attributes in some way. This strategy may be built “built into instruction”
provided by the learner, promoted by the instruction, or a combination of all three. An approach
to concept instruction proposed by Tessmer, Wilson, and Driscoll (1990, cited in Smit, & Ragan,
1999) emphasizes the use of analogies, learning strategies, and thinking strategies. It is discussed
four strategies: the development of concept “tree” or “map,” analogies, mnemonics, and the use
of imagery.
Learning Science Concepts with Analogies
Analogies help learners understand new concepts by highlighting similarities to familiar
ones. Glynn Russel and Noah (1997, cited in Alice, 2011) defined analogy as a strategy that
helps students form initial mental models of key science concepts by facilitating introduction of
the concepts in ways that are concrete, meaningful and relevant to students. According to Ruhl
(2003, cited in Alice, 2011) an analogy is a comparison of something unfamiliar with something
familiar in order to explain a shared principle. Like a bridge that spans the gap between what a
teacher wants, a student to learn and what the student already knows. An analogy builds on the
framework of the learners’ existing knowledge so they are not starting from scratch. Sani (2006,
cited in Alice, 2011) opined that analogy is one of the teaching strategies within the constructivist
frame that has evidently proved effective in preventing and overcoming poor performance and
wrong perception of the students. Venvile and Thiele (1992, cited in Alice, 2011) and Sani
(2006, cited in Alice, 2011) reported three benefits of the use of analogies as a teaching technique
for abstract concepts. These are: (i) it provides visualization of abstract concepts (ii) it helps
compare similarities of the students’ real world with the new concept; and (iii) it has a
motivational function.
There are two domains of analogy: the analogue domains that exist in memory from
which the analogy is drawn and the target domains which contain the science concepts under
study that form the instructional objectives of the analogy (Sarantopoulos and Tsaparlis, 2004,
cited in Alice, 2011). Analogies are of various types depending on the nature of what they
represent and the problem they are intended to solve in the teaching and learning situation.
Teaching-With-Analogy model is preferred to other Analogy model for this study
because the model simplifies a difficult concept or idea, provides a variety of approach to link an
unfamiliar idea with and visualizes a structure or process. Above all, it puts into consideration the
prior knowledge of the learner, which constructivist view that meaningful learning must
necessarily involves students in integrating new information or knowledge with pre-existing
schemata (Millar, 1989, cited in Alice, 2011). To maximize the benefit of analogies, the teaching
with analogies model introduced by Glynn, Duit, and Thiele (1995, cited in Alice, 2011) consist
of six operations as follow:
1. Introduce the target concept.
2. Cue the student’s memory to the analogous situation
3. Identify the relevant features of target and analogy.
4. Map the similarities between the analogy and the target concepts
5. Identify where the analogy breaks down
6. Draw conclusions (Alice, 2011).

The research design for this study was true experimental design (Posttest-only control
group design). All participants in this study were Grade Seven students. This study was
conducted in Yangon Division. Two districts were selected in random. One township from each
selected district was also selected in random. One high school from each township was selected.
Participants in this study were selected by random sampling and they were randomly assigned to
control group and experimental group. Experimental group learned with the Concept-Based
teaching and the control group received the formal instruction. The achievements of experimental
and control group were compared by using the independent samples ‘t’ test.
Instruments
The instruments used for this study were test items for posttest and attitude questionnaire
for students’ attitude towards concept-based teaching.
(a) Posttest
This test was constructed to measure general science achievement of the students. It
consisted of true or false items, completion items, multiple choice items, short question and long
question items. Test items were constructed based on the Chapter (5) from the Grade Seven
General Science Textbook. The test items were constructed according to the advice and guidance
of the supervisor. In order to get validation, the copies of the table of specification and posttest
questions were distributed to five experts who have special knowledge in science from
Department of Methodology. According to their suggestions, the test items were modified again.
The allocated time for this test was (90) minutes, and the given marks were (50). The reliability
coefficient Cronbach’s Alpha was used to determine whether each test item was appropriate or
not. Its value was (0.79).
(b) Attitudes towards Concept-Based Teaching
In this study, (15) items were used to observe the students’ attitudes towards general
science learning through concept-based teaching. The questionnaire was constructed according to
the advice and guidance of the supervisor. In order to get validation, the copies of questionnaire
were distributed to five experts. According to their suggestions, the questionnaire was modified
again. Pilot test was conducted with (10) students. The reliability coefficient Cronbach’s Alpha
was used to determine whether each item was appropriate or not. Its value was (0.84).
Results
For quantitative research findings, data were recorded systematically. These data were
analyzed by using the independent samples t-test to compare the differences between the
experimental and the control groups.
Table 1 “t” Values for Posttest Science Achievement Scores
Sig.
(2-tailed)
School Experimental 30 32.80 5.63
14.90 12.19 58 .000***
1 Control 30 17.90 3.61
16.30 11.34 58 .000***
2 Control 30 25.57 6.11
Note: ***p< .001
The results showed that there was a significant difference on the overall scores of science
achievement of the students who were taught by concept-based teaching and those who were
taught as formal instruction in each school (See Figure 1).
41.87
Students' Achievement (Mean
45
40 32.80
35 25.57
30
Scores)
25 17.90
Experimental
20
15 Control
10
5
0
S1 S2
School
Figure 1 The Comparison of Means on Science Achievement

According to the findings, it can be interpreted that the use of concept-based teaching has
significant effect on the overall science achievement of students. Thus, the concept-based
teaching positively contributed to the science teaching methodology at the middle school level.
Table 2 “t” Values for Scores on Knowledge Level Questions
Sig.
(2-tailed)
4.90 13.08 58 .000***
1 Control 30 6.83 1.48
3.10 8.21 58 .000***
2 Control 30 9.23 1.83
Note:. ***p< .001
Results of knowledge level questions showed that the means of the experimental groups
were significantly higher than that of the control groups in each school. It showed that there was
a significant difference on the scores of knowledge level questions of the students who receive
concept-based teaching and those who do not receive as formal instruction in each selected
school.

3.73 6.98 58 .000***
1 Control 30 7.87 1.92
4.43 8.40 58 .000***
2 Control 30 9.60 2.25
Note: ***p < .001
According to the scores on comprehension level questions, the means of the experimental
groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in each selected school. It
showed that there was a significance difference on the scores of the comprehension level
questions of the students who were taught by concept-based teaching and those who were taught
as formal instruction in the selected schools.
Table 4 “t” Values for Scores on Application Level Questions
School Group N M SD MD t df Sig.(2-tailed)

School 1 6.27 8.75 58 .000***
Control 30 3.20 1.71
School 2 8.77 10.66 58 .000***
Control 30 6.73 3.42
Note: **p < .01, ***p < .001
As regards with the scores on the application level questions, the means of the
experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in each school. It
showed that there was a significant difference on the scores of the application level questions of
the students who were taught by concept-based teaching and those who were taught as formal
instruction in each selected school.
After using the concept-based teaching, in order to find out the attitudes of students who
learned by concept-based teaching, a questionnaire concerned with their attitudes on the concept-
based teaching was used (See Figure 2).
Positive attitudes
Do not have
13.91% positive attitudes
86.09%
Figure 2 Total Percentage of Students’ Feelings, Beliefs and Attitudes towards

Concept-Based Teaching
According to the results of (15) items five-point Likert-scale, (86.09%) of the students
have positive attitude and (13.91%) have negative attitude towards concept-based teaching. In
this study, it can be interpreted that scientific attitudes of students can be increased by using with
concept-based teaching. By relating previous experiences with the new experiences, it can
promote their logical thinking skills. Moreover, students learned scientific concepts with extra
activities that are related to the lesson. Therefore, they have mastered their learning.
Discussion
According to the results of this study, it was found that the posttest mean score of
experimental group was significantly higher than that of the control group for each school. This
result pointed out that concept-based teaching had significant effect on science achievement of
the students. Concept-based teaching gives the fruitful effects on science instruction at the middle
school level. Although it is emphasized on student-centered teaching, the teacher plays a vital
role to use it in the classroom appropriately. Concept-based teaching helps learners understand
new concepts by highlighting similarities to familiarities ones. Teaching materials and teaching
activities were effectively prepared for the students in experimental group to be effective and
efficient in teaching. In formal, the teacher taught science by presenting facts and information,
imparting knowledge and emphasizing main points with a little students’ involvement in teaching
learning situation.
According to the comparison of mean scores on knowledge level questions for all the
selected schools, the finding showed that there were significant differences between experimental
group and control group. This means that teaching science by concept-based teaching could bring
about the improvement of students’ memorization rate and recall the information more easily.
This result is consistent with Alice (2011) who found that Teaching-With-Analogy improves
students’ academic performance and retention of evolution concepts.
According to the comparison of mean scores on comprehension level questions for all the
selected schools, the finding showed that there was a significant difference between experimental
group and control group. It can be said that concept-based teaching could bring about the
improvement of students’ conceptual understanding. This result is in line with Hinai, & Balushi,
(2015) who remarked that analogy-based instruction impact on immediate and postponed science
achievement.
As for the comparison of means scores on the application level questions for all the
selected schools, the finding showed that there were significant differences between experimental
group and control group. It can be concluded that students from experimental groups improve
higher order thinking skills and can transfer what they have learned at school to real-life
situations. This finding is in line with Frazier, (2013) who noted that concept-based teaching
promotes emergence and progress of their conceptual understanding. This finding is also
consistent with Ospanova, (2018) who noted that concept-based teaching increased students’
critical thinking and improves their performance and higher order thinking.
According to (Figure 2), all students in experimental groups feel that they can make
connections between scientific concepts and their life-world experiences, they can visualize the
abstract concepts and they become more conceptual understanding on science by concept-based
teaching. 96.6 percent of students feel more enjoyment by teaching science with concept-based
teaching and that they can realize the concepts by thinking. 95 percent of students are interested
in science by teaching related with concepts and 93.3 percent of students feel that they can get
the chance to learn the main concepts. 90 percent of students feel more curiosity by using
material related to the subject. 88.3 percent of students feel that they can understand the main
concepts and they can understand the gained concepts by linking with real life. 86.6 percent of
students feel that they can develop interesting in science by concept-based teaching. 83.3 percent
of students feel that they can realize the meaning and value of science subject. 81.7 percent of
students can get habit to investigate the environment and 80 percent of students feel that they can
apply the previous knowledge by integrating with the new knowledge. 78.3 percent of students
can describe environmental concepts by linking with own experience and 76.7 percent of
students can understand unfamiliar concepts compared with familiar concepts. 73.3 percent of
students can get more enjoyment to learn the other subject with concept-based teaching.
According to this result, 86.09 percent of students have positive attitudes and 13.91 percent of
students have negative attitudes toward concept-based teaching.
Generalization can be drawn that the concept-based teaching can enhance positive
attitude towards science teaching. Thus, the science teachers should use concept-based teaching
in science classroom.
Conclusion
The main purpose of this research was to study the effects of concept-based teaching on
students’ achievement in science at the middle school level. Quantitative study was mainly used
to compare students’ science achievement between two groups; experimental group and control
group. The students were selected by simple random sampling method. The instruments used in
this research were a posttest to measure students’ science achievement and a questionnaire to
measure students’ attitudes toward concept-based teaching.
Firstly, an experimental design was used to study the effects of concept-based teaching on
students’ achievement in science at the middle school level. Generalization can be drawn on the
basis of results. According to posttest results, the means of students who were taught by concept-
based teaching were significantly higher than those who were taught as formal instruction. It can
be concluded that concept-based teaching improves students’ memorization, conceptual
understanding and critical thinking skills. Moreover, it is also interpreted that students can apply
learning concepts in new situations. Thus, this concept-based teaching can achieve success in
teaching science. Secondly, an attitude questionnaire was done to study the students’ feelings,
attitudes, experiences and opinions about science teaching with concept-based teaching. Students
described that they were very happy and satisfied by using concept-based teaching also promoted
their conceptual understanding.
According to the result of this study, concept-based teaching methods are useful methods
in teaching-learning process. Teaching is effective when students relate prior knowledge to new
one to understand the subject matter. Concept-based teaching helps students to think by
themselves and identify their misconceptions. It also helps students to visualize abstract concepts
and think about the relationships between different concepts. It can facilitate learning by
explicitly integrating new and old knowledge and make students to visualize the relationships
between target concepts which can lead students to learn meaningfully.
Concept-based teaching focuses on core concepts that foster knowledge and facilitates
learning. The traditional method merely connects students to the source of information which
may or may not be retained for a longer period of time, whereas, conceptual learning focuses on
making the students understand the core idea so as to retain the information as valuable
knowledge which they can apply throughout their lives.
A concept-driven education focuses on developing an effective approach to teaching and
learning; empowering young people or a lifetime of learning, independently and in collaboration
with others and preparing a community of learners that engage with global challenges through
inquiry, action, and reflection. Concept-based teaching can introduce students to universal rules
and engaged them in the true process of learning. It can help students create a connection with
their prior experience creating a deeper connect with the understanding of content knowledge
which further help students in responding to their learning with appropriate actions.
To improve science education, teaching learning situations and teaching approaches are
very important. Students’ engagements are central role to improve science education. The
concept-based teaching is the bridge between theory and practices. Students can apply theory in
their real life situations. This teaching promotes deeper understanding of scientific concepts.
Moreover, this concept-based teaching is applicable to all students. Therefore, it is an applicable
and useful method for the development of science teaching.
Moreover this study showed that students’ learning based on their prior knowledge and
concepts was more effective than learning as formal instruction. It improves not only students’
learning rate but also promotes their thinking ability. Moreover, this result recommends many
science teachers to achieve their teaching learning situation more effectively. The effective use of
the concept-based teaching has significant effect on the overall science achievement of the
students. Therefore concept-based teaching surely has positive contribution to the science
teaching at the middle school.
Acknowledgements
Education), Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung (Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education) and Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing
(Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education) who allowed us to do this research.
References
Alice, J. (2011). Effects of Teaching-With-Analogy on academic performance and retention of evolution concepts
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http://kubanniabu.edu.ng>jspui>bitstream
Al-Hinai, M., & Al-Balushi, S. (2015). Reflecting analogy-based instruction to enhance immediate and postponed
science achievement. Retrieved December 26, 2018, from [email protected]
Carin, A & Sund, R. B. (1989). Teaching science through discovery. Coiumbus: Merrill Publishing.
Frazier,J. (2013) Benefits of concept based learning that helps to retain knowledge longer. Retrieved January 2,
2019, from http://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/.benefits-of-concept-based-learning-that-helps-to-
retain-knowledge-longer/113773
Gay, L. R., & Airadian, P. (2003). Educational Research: Research Competencies for Analysis and Application.
(7 th ed.). New Jersy: Merrill Prentice
Gidden, JF, et al. (2015). Selecting concepts for a concept-based curriculum: application of a benchmark approach.
Retrieved July 27, 2018, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/22849765
Good, C. V. (1959). Dictionary of education (2 nd ed.).New York: McGraw-Hall.
Ospanova, N.(2018). The influence of concept-based teaching on high school students’ research skills. HAMK
Unlimited Journal. Retrieved December 27, 2018, from https://unlimited.hamk.fi/ammatillinen-
osaaminen-ja-opetus/concept-based- teaching-and-research-skills
Smit, P. L., & Ragan, T. J.(1999). Instructional Design (2 nd ed.). Hoboken: John Wilkey & Sons. Inc.
Traver, John P.(1970) Fundamentals of educational psychology. Scrantom, Pensyvania: International Textbook
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Years
Appendix A
Sample Lesson Plan for Experimental Group
- Textbook, Chart, Worksheets, Photographs, Video File.
-Introducing
the target
concept
-Cueing the
students’
memory
-Identifying the
relevant
features
-Mapping the
similarities
video
-Identifying
where the
analogy
breaks down
-Drawing
conclusions
about the
target concept
A STUDY OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS’ MATHEMATICAL

PROFICIENCY IN THE MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM
Than Zaw Hlaing1 and Naing Naing Thein2
Abstract
This study investigated middle school students’ mathematical proficiency in the mathematics
classroom featured in conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence,
adaptive reasoning and productive disposition among six hundred Grade (8) students in Yangon
Region. A descriptive research design was adopted and two types of instruments: a mathematical
proficiency test reflected in former four strands and a productive disposition questionnaire towards
mathematics were employed. The internal consistency reliability coefficient for the test was (.714)
and that for questionnaire was (.704). The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics
of frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation and inferential statistics of Pearson
product-moment correlation. Research findings revealed that most of the students had moderate
level of mathematical proficiency. Moreover, the results showed that students’ procedural fluency
was the highest and strategic competence was the lowest among the former four strands. There
was a significant positive relationship among five strands of mathematical proficiency. Grounded
on this baseline study, it was thus, suggested that first, a nationwide survey on mathematical
proficiency at all grades should be conducted and then, intervention program should be mapped
out to cater students’ current level.
Keywords: Mathematical Proficiency, Conceptual Understanding, Procedural Fluency, Strategic
Competence, Adaptive Reasoning, Productive Disposition
Introduction
In this age, routine is different. The world is gradually filled with more technological
advancements at an alarming rate. However, there is no exaggeration that all those expansions
concern somewhat with mathematics. Thus, the idea that mathematics every person needs is to be
able to execute solely basic computations has been old-fashioned. Rather, today society members
require the ability to have greater understanding of mathematical ideas, use mathematical
reasoning and logic, and solve many problems to adapt to those changes. In the same vein, they
all need to have increased mathematical proficiency so that they will meet current and future
demands of society.
Ally (2011) pointed out the importance of background mathematical knowledge for all
students. According to him, if one has flaws in his or her mathematical background knowledge or
lacks a solid grasp of facts, procedure, definitions, and concepts of mathematics, he or she will
significantly be handicapped in mathematics. Along with this, every student’s idea on any
domain of mathematics is shaped by his or her experiences in touch with the subject at all levels
passed. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) supported this view that
students’ understanding of mathematics, their ability to use it to solve problems, and their
confidence in, and disposition toward mathematics are all shaped by the teaching they had
encountered in school.
Sadly, current teaching situations in Myanmar traditionally focus on rote learning (CESR,
2013). It aims to have students reproducing content, no matter if they make sense or not. Put the
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, B.E.H.S (branch) Shan Ywa, Kyauk Taw Township, Rakhine State
2
other way, it does not consider students’ actual understanding and own thinking, instead, forgoes
on replicating mathematical ideas. When the individuals memorize something that they do not
fully understand, they cannot construct any link between the new information and the stored one
(Ausubel, 1968). That is why students cannot connect different bits of mathematical ideas in their
brain and preserve them last longer.
Likewise, they cannot utilize them in solving many problems. Also, they cannot
determine whether the computational procedure is appropriate or not. As a result, their
motivation towards mathematics leads to decline at a certain level and so, they can get more
difficulties in learning mathematics. In other words, their level of mathematical proficiency may
be lower as much as possible. To cherry-pick this situation, there is an urgent need to determine
students’ level of mathematical proficiency.
Moreover, if the diagnostic result shows a poor outcome, something better can still be
done. There were many instances confirmed that such assessment had positive great impact on
students’ progress in mathematics education. As an example, the result from National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in 1999 underlined that only 21% of Grade (4)
students, 24% of Grade (8) students, and 16% of Grade (12) students are nationally proficient in
mathematics. Teachers, principals, parents, policy makers, and researchers all had used this result
in developing ways to improve mathematics education in the U.S. As a result, all these graders
scored higher than in recent previous assessment. For example, in 2009, 26% of twelve-graders
performed at or above the proficient level. That is why there is a need to diagnose students’
mathematical proficiency.
Basically, it is undeniable that today society requirement, current mathematics teaching
orientations, and the impact of NAEP assessment on American mathematics education were the
primary derives to undertake this study.
The present study generally tends to investigate middle school students’ mathematical
proficiency in the mathematics classroom. Specifically, it aims to
 investigate students’ mathematical proficiency in mathematics,
 compare former four strands of mathematical proficiency among students,
 find out the relationship among five strands of students’ mathematical proficiency, and
 make suggestions for promoting five strands of mathematical proficiency of the students.
Research Questions
This study sought to address the following questions.
Q1: To what extent do the students possess mathematical proficiency in mathematics?
Q2: Which strands are the highest and the lowest among former four strands of mathematical
proficiency?
Q3: Is there any significant relationship among the strands of mathematical proficiency of the
students?
Scope of the Study

Even though this research reached its goals, there were some unavoidable limitations.
First, because of the time limit, this study was conducted on a small size of middle (Grade 8)
students came from eight selected basic education high schools only in Yangon Region within
the academic year (2018-2019). Second, this study is concerned only with mathematical
proficiency reflected in five strands (conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic
competence, adaptive reasoning, and productive disposition) due to the 2001 consensus report by
National Research Council (NRC). Finally, the content area to be studied is limited to number
domain. There are many reasons of being this domain targeted. First of all, Kilpatrick et al.
(2001) suggests that number sense is the foundation of all later number work. Moreover, number
is a basis to describe and understand the world. In addition, every mathematics curriculum during
all school years is not outside the number domain. Furthermore, this domain supports other
branches of mathematics like algebra, geometry, probability and statistics and vice versa. For
example, a better understanding of number basis would enable students to handle algebraic
operations and manipulation stronger (Watson, 1990).
Kilpatrick and his colleagues coined the term mathematical proficiency with five strands
as conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, adaptive reasoning and
productive disposition (Kilpatrick et al., 2001) and the following concepts hereby provide the
bases for this study:
Conceptual understanding is defined as an integrated and functional grasp of
mathematical ideas like concepts, operations and procedures (Kilpatrick et al., 2001). Such
understanding allows students to build new knowledge through making connections with the
previously learned knowledge. It promotes retention and fosters the development of fluency.
Therefore, students with conceptual understanding truly know more than isolated facts and
methods. They understand why a mathematical idea is important and the kinds of contexts in
which it is useful. Also, they have the ability to represent different mathematical situations and to
connect these representations.
Procedural fluency means ‘skills in carrying out procedures flexibly, accurately,
efficiently, and appropriately’ (Kilpatrick et al., 2001). So, students displaying procedural
fluency know procedures, and when and how to use them appropriately, and can apply them
flexibly, accurately and efficiently. It is worthy for teachers to note that students’ learning and
practicing procedures should be based on understanding in that those who learn procedures
without understanding can typically do no more than apply the learned procedures, whereas ones
who learn with understanding can modify or adapt procedures to make them easier to use.
Strategic competence refers to ‘the ability to formulate mathematical problems, represent
them, and solve them’ (Kilpatrick, et al., 2001). By the same token, this strand is generally
concerned with a person’s ability to formulate a problem mathematically, and then use his or her
previous knowledge to solve it. Having strategic competence enables a person to make out which
strategies may be useful and appropriate in solving the problem. Hence, a student with strong
strategic competence is able to have several approaches to the solution of a problem and then,
choose flexibly among them through reasoning and reflecting on his or her experiences. Rather,
students who do not possess adequate strategic competence will approach a mathematical
problem through a trial and error strategy frequently.
Adaptive reasoning stands for the capacity to think logically, reflect, explain and justify
one’s answer (Kilpatrick et al., 2001). It is the glue that holds everything together, the lodestar
that guides learning’ in that adaptive reasoning allows for concepts and procedures to connect
together in sensible ways, suggests possibilities for problem-solving, and allows for
disagreements to be settled in reasoned ways. More specifically, it includes not only formal
proofs and deductive reasoning, but also informal explanations or justification about
mathematical ideas, intuition and inductive reasoning based on patterns, analogy and metaphor.
Therefore, students using adaptive reasoning can think logically about the relationships among
concepts and situations, consider appropriate alternatives, reason correctly and justify the
conclusions.
Productive disposition is the tendency to see sense in mathematics, to perceive it as both
useful and worthwhile, to believe that steady effort in learning mathematics pays off, and to see
oneself as an effective learner and doer of mathematics (Kilpatrick et al., 2001). Rather than
seeing mathematics as a set of arbitrary rules that one must memorize, students with productive
disposition view mathematics as a system of connected conceptions that can be understood with
perseverance and diligent effort. Students with strong productive disposition are confident in
their knowledge and ability, they see that mathematics is reasonable and understandable, and
believe that appropriate effort and experiences makes them achieved mathematics. Then, they
believe that mathematics is for everyone and reject the mathematics mystery. Moreover,
Siegfried (2012) used eight constructs: affect; beliefs; goals; identity; mathematical integrity;
motivation; risk taking; self-efficacy appropriately in attempts to define the term ‘productive
disposition’.
In addition, Kilpatrick and his colleagues (2001) also noted that these five strands are
interwoven and interdependent in the development of mathematical proficiency. Besides, these
five strands provide a framework for discussing the knowledge, skills, abilities, and beliefs that
constitute mathematical proficiency which enables students to cope with the mathematical
challenges of daily life and also enables them to continue their study of mathematics in high
school and beyond.
Research Method
Research Design
The research design used in this study was a descriptive design under quantitative
approach.
Instruments
To address the above research questions, two instruments were used. They include a
mathematical proficiency test composed of former four strands and a questionnaire about
productive disposition towards mathematics. The test questions were adopted from standardized
question banks (TIMSS, NAEP) with a little modification to align with Myanmar mathematics
curriculum. Items in the questionnaire were developed on the basis of the definition of productive
disposition by Siegfried (2012).
Afterwards, to attain the reliable data, expert validation was conducted through the
careful assessment of six experts who are very special in mathematics education and teaching
from Department of Methodology in both Yangon and Sagaing Universities of Education.
Thereafter, making necessary changes will be carried out under the consultation of the
supervisor.
Pilot Testing
A pilot test was administered on November 25, 2018 to (40) Grade Eight students in
No. (7), Basic Education High School in Alone. To measure the reliability of the instrument, the
Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated. This process gave rise to the internal consistency reliability
coefficient (.714) for mathematical proficiency test and (.704) for questionnaire.
There were (600) Grade Eight students coming from Yangon Region involved as
participants in this study (see Table 1). Moreover, the equal-sized (non-proportional) random
sampling technique was utilized.
No. of Participant
No. Township School
Population Participant
1 BEHS 3 492 75
North Dagon
2 BEHS 5 254 75
3 BEHS 1 696 75
Dagon
4 BEHS 2 237 75
5 BEHS 1 452 75
Thanlyin
6 BEHS 4 186 75
7 BEHS 3 440 75
Mingaladon
8 BEHS 2 260 75
Total 600
Note: BEHS = Basic Education High School
Data Collection
The modified instrument was distributed to all participants of the eight sample schools
with the help of the headmaster/headmistress of those schools in December, 2018. Then, all data
will be collected, and entered into the computer data file.
Data Analysis
Once the data were collected, both mathematical proficiency test and questionnaire were
coded using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). Then, the data were analyzed
by using descriptive statistics. In order to measure the level of students’ mathematical
proficiency, mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentage were used. Furthermore,
Pearson product-moment correlation was employed to determine the relationship among the
strands of mathematical proficiency.
Research Findings
Findings about Mathematical Proficiency among Students
A total score was computed from the five strands of mathematical proficiency. Then, it
was found that (a) the scores were ranged from (67) to (153), and (b) the sample mean for eight
selected schools was (111.66) with its standard deviation (15.01). With respect to those results,
the level of mathematical proficiency was sorted into three categories: poor (scores below 96.65),
moderate (between 96.65 and 126.67 both inclusive), and high (scores above 126.67).
Afterwards, as can be seen in Table (2), 15.17% of the students (N = 91) got in touch with
poor level, 69.83% of the students (N = 419) with moderate and 15% of the students (N = 90)
with high levels respectively.
Table 2 Students’ Level of Mathematical Proficiency
No. of Student Level
Mathematical Poor (%) Moderate (%) High (%)
Proficiency 600
15.17 69.83 15
Findings about Mathematical Proficiency in Former Four Strands

A total score for the first four dimensions was calculated separately from the group of
items under each strand whereas the full score were fixed as (13) points for every aspect. Every
single group includes (7) items respectively with (5) multiple choices, one short-response and
one long-response.
Then, it got a message that (a) on conceptual understanding, the score ranged from (0) to
(13), and the sample mean was (6.13) with standard deviation (2.54), (b) on procedural fluency,
the score ranged from (0) to (13), the sample mean was (6.34) and the standard deviation was
(3.40), (c) for strategic competence, the score ranged from (0) to (12), the sample mean was
(4.41) and the standard deviation was (1.81), and (d) for adaptive reasoning, the score ranged
from (0) to (13), the sample mean was (5.52) with standard deviation (2.76).
Manipulating these results yields students’ mathematical proficiency for each strand to
three categories: poor, moderate, and high. Students with scores above the (+1) standard
deviation from the sample mean came up with high level and those with scores below the (-1)
standard deviation from the sample mean were at the poor level. Then, the students with the
scores between (+1) and (-1) standard deviation from the sample mean were fallen in the
category with moderate level. Table (3) pinpoints students’ mathematical proficiency in five
strands.
Table 3 Students’ Level of Mathematical Proficiency in Former Four Strands
Mathematical Proficiency in Former Four Strands (%)
Level Conceptual Procedural Strategic Adaptive Reasoning
Understanding Fluency Competence
Low 16 16 16.33 14.67
Moderate 72.67 70.17 75.67 71.83
High 11.33 13.83 8 13.5
Along with these findings, it was significantly to be found that only 17.3% of the students
(N=104) got the mean value (0.17) in item one among five multiple choices and 82% of the
students with score under mean value i.e. zero chose the option B.
To measure the extent of productive disposition, five-point Likert scale items were used.
The total score (percentage) was performed from the eight constructs together with (3) items each
which all comprises productive disposition towards mathematics. Then, it was noticed that
66.40% of the students (N=398) had positive productive disposition, 19% of the students
(N=114) had negative productive disposition and the rest 14.60% of the students (N=88) had
neither (see Table 4).
Table 4 Students’ Degree of Mathematical Proficiency in Productive Disposition
No. of Student Level of Agreement (%)
Productive
Positive Neutral Negative
Disposition 600
66.4 19 14.6
Findings about Comparison for Former Four Strands of Mathematical Proficiency
With respect to mean scores in former four strands: conceptual understanding, procedural
fluency, strategic competence, and adaptive reasoning, it was noted that the highest mean value
was (6.42) equals to that of procedural fluency subscale and the lowest was (4.42) refers to that
of strategic competence subscale, too. Table (5) shows the comparison of mean scores with their
respective standard deviation.
Table 5 Comparison of Mean Scores for the Former Four Strands
Strand of Mathematical Standard
No. of Student Mean
Proficiency Deviation
Conceptual Understanding (CU) 600 6.13 2.54
Procedural Fluency (PF) 600 6.34 3.40
Strategic Competence (SC) 600 4.41 1.81
Adaptive Reasoning (AR) 600 5.52 2.76
Findings about Relationship among the Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency

To determine the interrelationship among five strands of mathematical proficiency,
Pearson product-moment correlation was used. According to Gay and Airasian (2003), the
correlation coefficient less than plus or minus (.35) was interpreted as low or no relation,
between plus or minus (.35) and (.65) as moderate relation and higher than plus or minus (.65) as
high relation. Then, as can be seen in Table (6), there was a significant positively moderate
correlation among the five strands of mathematical proficiency.
Table 6 Correlation among Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency
Correlation
CU PF SC AR PD
CU 1 .584** .552** .537** .375**
PF 1 .561** .561** .418**
SC 1 .512** .424**
AR 1 .374**
PD 1
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Note: CU = Conceptual Understanding, PF = Procedural Fluency, SC = Strategic Competence, AR = Adaptive

Reasoning, PD = Productive Disposition

Discussion
This section attempts to discuss serious findings about the three research questions
framed for this study.
Discussion for Research Question One
The results relating to the research question one: To what extent do the students possess
mathematical proficiency in mathematics? exhibited in Table (2) indicates that most of the
students (69.83%) from the selected schools had moderate level of mathematical proficiency with
15.17% poor level of mathematical proficiency and only just few students (15%) showed high
level of mathematical proficiency.
Moreover, it is apparent that this finding is a bit different with the result from the
Awofala’s research conducted in Nigeria, 2017. Evidence from his research revealed that most of
senior secondary school students from the elitist schools had high levels of mathematical
proficiency (Awofala, 2017). Personally, this disparity may be due to one possibility. According
to the results in Table (3), it was found that most of students possess moderate level of ability in
all four strands with mostly strong productive disposition. That is why most of the students had
moderate level of mathematical proficiency in that all those strands had a great impact on their
mathematical proficiency. In other words, all those strands represent the comprehensive term
‘mathematical proficiency’.
Like an evolution process, those results in all former strands may be due to the effect of
teaching-learning process adopted in the classroom. Traditionally, mathematics education in
Myanmar put more emphasis on rote learning (CESR, 2013) which less emphasizes on providing
students opportunities for learning though as NRC (2001) pointed, teaching-learning should be
enactment, on the mutual and interdependent interaction of three elements: mathematics content,
teacher, and student.
Significantly, in item one which assesses procedural fluency about order of operation
only 17.3% of the students got the correct answer. This means that most of the students cannot
add and multiply numbers in a right procedure. Moreover, 82% of the students chose Option B as
the correct answer in this item. This exhibits that most of the students had misconception in the
process of four basic operations. This additional result is similar with the findings of Moodley
(2008) that misconception influenced the achievement of the students on procedural fluency.
This may be due to the fact that teaching procedural fluency does not ground on sound
conceptual understanding.
Discussion for Research Question Two

The results relating to the research question two: What are the highest and the lowest
among former four strands of mathematical proficiency? exhibited in Table (5) indicates that the
mean score of procedural fluency was the highest but on the other hand, that of strategic
competence was the lowest. It means that most of the students in this study outperformed in
procedural fluency rather than other strands. In other view, facility in computation at a higher
degree, did not lead the students to develop other strands completely i.e. skill in procedural
fluency is not to be counted into the development of other strands.
This result is also similar with the finding of Wu (2008) in China that Chinese students’
procedural fluency was at a higher level compared to other strands: conceptual understanding and
word problem. From personal point of view, this may be associated with traditional teaching
method of mathematics held in the classroom. Samuelsson (2010) showed that there were no
significant differences between traditional and problem solving teaching methods when assessing
procedural fluency but students’ progress in conceptual understanding, strategic competence, and
adaptive reasoning was significantly better when teachers taught with a problem-based
curriculum. In other words, it indirectly highlights that current traditional mathematics teaching
methods weightage on practicing students’ procedural fluency.
Discussion for Research Question Three
The results in Table (6) which attempts to answer the research question three: Is there any
significant relationship among the strands of mathematical proficiency of the students? indicate
that there was a significant moderate correlation at p < 0.1 among five strands of mathematical
proficiency. Since a positive linear correlation was found, it can be concluded that (a) the strands
are significantly correlated with each other and (b) when one is high, the others will be high and
while one is low, there will be the others low.
This finding is supported by the literature explained by National Research Council (NRC,
2001). As a student gains conceptual understanding, computational procedures are remembered
better and use more flexibly to solve new problems. In turn, as a procedure becomes more
automatic, he is enabled to think about other aspects of a problem and to tackle new kinds of
problems, which leads to new understanding. Solving challenging problems develops new
understanding and fluency. Moreover, adaptive reasoning is the glue that holds all strands to be a
network. It states that this strand is interrelated with other strands and vice versa. Students
without proper developing the four strands prescribed will not engage in mathematics tasks in
long-lasting and in turn, students without proper productive disposition will do so.
Suggestions
The mathematics to which students are exposed from preschool to Grade Eight has many
aspects. They have already learned many things about number for at least eight years at school.
But, according to the findings of this study, most of the sample students had moderate level of
mathematical proficiency and even in procedural fluency, misconception influenced the students’
achievement. This underlines that such proficiency requires to be developed in right manner.
Actually, the ways in which mathematical proficiency is developed may be a pedagogical
challenge for most of mathematics teachers. So, with the aim of developing mathematical
proficiency at least with misconceptions, the following points are suggested in accordance with
the related literature.
1. Teaching and learning should be the product of trilateral interaction among three
elements: teacher, content and students rather than relying on teacher.
2. A mathematics curriculum should be coherent, focused on many important mathematics
ideas from different areas, and well-articulated across the grades.
3. The classroom practices should give students the opportunities to develop mathematical
proficiency in five strands.
4. The opportunities to develop conceptual understanding should place more emphasis on

connection of many mathematical ideas through reasoning and justifying.
5. The opportunities to develop procedural fluency should stem on methodical, well-timed
practices using different mathematical operations but rooted in conceptual understanding.
6. The opportunities to develop strategic competence should rely on frequent exposure to
many mathematical problems that reflect real-world situations and focus on choosing the
appropriate problem-solving strategy to the mathematical situation.
7. The opportunities to develop adaptive reasoning should emphasize on encouraging to
actively engage in justification.
8. The opportunities to develop productive disposition towards mathematics should make a
focal point on demonstrating sensitivity towards learner’s previous difficulties,
encouraging persistence, and accepting mistakes as part of learning.
Conclusion
According to National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008), a strong foundation in high
school mathematics through Algebra II is strongly correlated with access to college, graduation
from college, and earning in the top quartile of income from employment. It highlights the
importance of mathematical proficiency or experiences students took with them. Therefore, this
study was conducted for the purpose of studying middle school students’ mathematical
proficiency in the mathematics classroom. The descriptive survey method was utilized. To gather
the necessary data for this study, two measuring tools: mathematical proficiency test reflected in
four parts and productive disposition questionnaire were used whereas test items came from the
NAEP and the TIMSS study. Six-hundred middle students in Yangon Region during the school
year 2018-19 were involved as respondents.
The analysis was structured in accordance with the five strands of mathematical
proficiency. To determine the level of students’ mathematical proficiency, the data from the test
items were analyzed by using a Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and the
questionnaire was analyzed thematically. Then, the findings of this study are summed up in line
with three research questions as follows.
1. Most of the students from the selected schools had moderate level of mathematical
proficiency but with misconception in procedural fluency.
2. Most of the students from the sample schools outperformed in procedural fluency than
other strands.
3. There was a significant positive moderate correlation among five strands of mathematical
proficiency.
Actually, what kind of instruction given by the teacher in the classroom also affects the
development of students’ mathematical proficiency. Moreover, the instruction is in context (cited
in Adding It Up, 2001). This means that mathematical proficiency cannot be achieved through
isolated efforts. All interested stakeholders have to work together to improve mathematics at
school. Furthermore, based on the limitations, findings and suggestions sections, some of the
following recommendations for further studies can be underscored as follows.
1. Conducting this study only at middle school level, there should be further studies at other
levels in that it takes time to develop mathematical proficiency.
2. Restricting this inquiry only in Yangon Region, further studies should be carried out in
other regions for replication.
3. Being the study area in number domain, there should be investigated in other domains
because mathematics curriculum has not been confined to this area only.
4. Framing this research only in survey within a short duration, further studies should be in
qualitative such as opportunities to develop students’ mathematical proficiency.
5. With the aim to improve students’ proficiency in mathematics further studies should be
concerned with instructional practices that promote mathematical proficiency.
6. In order to overcome the teachers on the danger of misconception, additional studies
should explore the factors that influence students’ mathematical proficiency for all grades.
As a significant factor, it can be expected that this study can help the teachers and many
curriculum developers to take the results: students’ current mathematical proficiency from this
study as a beginning point in their teaching or reforming curriculum.
References
Ally, N. (2011). The promotion of mathematical proficiency in Grade 6 mathematics classes from the
Umgungundlovu district in KwaZulu-Natal. (Master’s thesis). Retrieved January 6, 2018, from
http://hdl.handle.net/10413/5791.
Awofala, A.O.A. (2017). Assessing senior secondary school students’ mathematical proficiency as related to gender
and performance in mathematics in Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Education and
Science (IJRES), 3(2), 488-502.
Comprehensive Education Sector Review (CESR). (2013). Basic education. Phase 1. Rapid Assessment Report, p
(163).
Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2003). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications (7th ed.).
New Jersey: Merrill.
Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
Moodley, V. G. (2008). A description of mathematical proficiency in number skills of grade ten learners in both the
mathematics and mathematics literacy cohorts at a North Durban schools. A dissertation submitted for
the degree of Masters of Education. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban.
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). (1999). The nation’s report card. Retrieved January 1, 2018,
from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main1996/1999452.pdf
National Center for Education Statistics. (2011). The nation’s report card: Mathematics. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Education. Retrieved February 22, 2018, from http://nationsreportcard.gov/math_2009/
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston,
VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008). Foundations for success: The final report of the National
Mathematics Advisory Panel. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved February 9,
2018 from http://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final/final-report.pdf
Samuelsson, J. (2010). The impact of teaching approaches on students’ mathematical proficiency in Sweden,
International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 5(2), 61-77.
Siegfried, J. M. (2012). The hidden strand of mathematical proficiency: defining and assessing for productive
disposition in elementary school teachers' mathematical content knowledge. An unpublished PhD
Thesis, University of California, San Diego and San Diego State University, USA.
Watson, J. (1990). Research for teaching: Learning and teaching algebra. Australian Mathematics Teacher, 46(3).
Wu, Z. (2008). Using the MSA model to assess Chinese sixth graders’ mathematics proficiency. Journal of
Mathematics Education, 1(1), 74-95.
UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION STUDENT TEACHERS’ GENDER

AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY
Naing Naing Thein1
Abstract
This study intends to investigate University of Education student teachers’ gender awareness and
attitude towards gender equality and compare postgraduate and undergraduate student teachers’
gender awareness and attitude. Two hundred and twenty postgraduate student teachers and two
hundred and forty undergraduate student teachers from Yangon University of Education and
Sagaing University of Education were involved as participants. A descriptive research design was
adopted for this study. A survey questionnaire was used to investigate student teachers’ gender
awareness of personality related behaviors and job related behaviors, and attitudes towards gender
equality, and open-ended items oriented to reveal student teachers’ expectations and attitudes in
terms of treating the issue of gender equality. The reliability of instrument was calculated through
pilot testing with (30) student teachers. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) of the
questionnaire was (.749). Moreover, the collected quantitative data were analyzed by using
descriptive statistics of frequency and percentage, and inferential statistics of independent samples
‘t’ test. The qualitative data were interpreted by categorizing the common points. Quantitative
findings revealed that 70% of postgraduate student teachers and 45% of undergraduate student
teachers have gender awareness of personality related behaviors and 56% of postgraduate student
teachers and 49% of undergraduate student teachers have gender awareness of job related
behaviors. The family or environment of postgraduate student teachers (78%) and undergraduate
student teachers (74%) have the attitude towards gender equality. Further, the findings indicated
that all student teachers accepted in union that all males and females should have equal right in
gender.
Keywords: Attitudes, Gender, Gender Awareness, Gender Equality, Gender Mainstreaming
Introduction
There are several social challenges in the 21st century. Along with accelerated
globalization forces, society is becoming more and more complex. Many people, especially
migrant ones, are perceived as a threat in some communities because traditional, political and
social balances and consensus are weakening due to migration. Social inequality has increased
and discrimination against minorities arises everywhere as a reaction to this trend. Moreover,
gender discrimination is still prevalent in some communities. Some groups of women face
additional forms of discrimination based on their age, ethnicity, nationality, religion, health
status, marital status, education, and socioeconomic status among other groups. In these contexts,
school cannot stay apart of the social changes. It should prepare student teachers to understand
what is going on around them. Today schools should provide students with knowledge, skills and
tools to face the challenges of social inequality and instability in their community. Gender
inequality is one dimension of a more broad and ambitious task that the schools should take into
consideration.
If a country wishes to contribute to a social welfare of women, it is necessary to adopt the
gender approach in school as much as possible. Educational policies and programmes should be
aware of and address gender differences. Teachers need to incorporate the gender perspective in
their teaching. So having gender awareness and attitude towards gender equality among the
teachers is crucial. They should aim to provide a global and critical view on gender equality.
1
Dr, Associate Professor Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education
Awareness and attitude towards gender equality is a considerable factor for building democratize
society without discrimination.
The main purpose of this study is to investigate University of Education student teachers’
awareness and attitude towards gender equality. The specific purposes are as follows:
 To investigate the Universities of Education student teachers’ gender awareness of
personality related behaviors and job related behaviors.
 To investigate the attitudes of the family or environment of the student teachers from the
Universities of Education towards gender equality.
 To compare between postgraduate and undergraduate student teachers’ awareness and
attitude towards gender equality.
 To investigate the expectations and attitudes of the Universities of Education student
teachers in terms of treating the issue of gender equality.
Research Questions
(1) Do the student teachers from the Universities of Education have gender awareness of
personality related behaviors?
(2) Do the student teachers from the Universities of Education have gender awareness of job
related behaviors?
(3) Do the families or environment of the student teachers from the Universities of Education
have positive attitudes towards gender equality?
(4) Is there a significant difference between postgraduate and undergraduate student teachers
awareness and attitudes towards gender equality?
(5) What are the expectations and attitudes of the Universities of Education student teachers in
terms of treating the issue of gender equality?
Scope of the Study
This research has its own particular limitations. The first limitation is related to selected
universities. There are three Universities of Education in Myanmar, however, Yangon University
of Education and Sagaing University of Education are selected for this study. The second
limitation deals with selected departments. There are three educational departments in each
university: department of educational theory, department of educational psychology and
department of methodology. Among them, the participants came from only department of
methodology. The student teachers from PhD and MEd programs are selected as postgraduate
student teachers and first year BEd student teachers are selected as undergraduate student
teachers. The last limitation deals with the areas of the study. The University of Education
student teachers’ awareness and attitude are investigated into only two areas: personal related
behaviors and job related behaviors.

Attitudes
Attitudes are defined as beliefs that individuals express regarding appropriate roles for
men and women in a given institutional and cultural environment (Andreβ & Quack, 2015).
Gender
Gender refers to socially constructed identities, attributes and roles for women and men
(UN, 2014).
Gender Awareness
Gender awareness is the ability to view society from the perspective of gender roles
(UNIFEM, 2005).
Gender Equality
Gender equality means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights,
resources, opportunities and protections (UN Millennium Project, 2005).
Gender Mainstreaming
Gender mainstreaming is a strategy for making girls’ and women’s, as well as boy’s and
men’s, concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes so that girls and boys and women and
men benefit equality, and inequality is not perpetuated (UNICEF, 2017).

Gender equality is regarded one of the core factors to build democratic society and the
essential component of economic growth and societal well-being. At the same time, education is
often considered as a human right and an essential tool for achieving the goals of equity,
development and peace and to be one of the key factors that should be addressed in order to
promote equal opportunities and mainstream gender equality. On the one hand, education and
school are informed by the values and attitudes that are prevalent in the society. Education
becomes a powerful tool for changing the societal attitudes and empowering the next generation.
Therefore, it is important to mainstream gender equality in the curricula, school culture, teaching
materials and methods in order to prevent the reproduction of gender stereotypes. Successful
mainstreaming of gender equality, therefore, cannot be achieved without having the necessary
knowledge, tools and teaching methods to understand and tackle gender stereotypes and
mainstream gender equality among the teachers. With this view, it is necessary to investigate the
University of Education student teachers’ gender awareness and attitudes towards gender
equality because they will be the leaders of tomorrow classrooms.
International Groundwork for Women’s Rights
Women’s rights have been at the heart of a series of international conferences that have
produced significant political commitments to women’s human rights and equality. Starting in
1975, which was also international women’s year, Mexico City in Mexico hosted the world
conference on the international women’s year, which resulted in the world plan of action and the
designation of 1975–1985 as the United Nations Decade for Women. In 1980, another
international conference on women was held in Copenhagen, capital of Denmark, and the
convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women was opened for
signature. The third world conference on women was held in Nairobi, capital of Kenya, with the
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women having begun its work in 1982.
These three world conferences witnessed extraordinary activism on the part of women from
around the world and laid the groundwork for the world conferences in the 1990s to address
women’s rights, including the fourth world conference on women held in Beijing in 1995 (UN,
2014).
There are five international level groundwork deals with women rights.
(1) Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
In 1993, the world conference on human rights was held in Vienna. It sought to review
the status of the human rights machinery in place at the time. Women’s rights activists mobilized
to ensure that woman’s human rights were fully on the agenda of the international community
under the rallying cry ‘Women’s Rights are Human Rights’.
(2) International Conference on Population and Development
In 1994, the international conference on population and development was held in Cairo,
Egypt represented a milestone for women’s rights. The issues taken up in its programme are
fundamentally related to women’s human rights, including gender equality, reproductive health,
birth control and family planning, women’s health, as well as immigration and education of
women.
(3) Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action
Adopted during the fourth world conference on women in September 1995, the Beijing
declaration and platform for action focused on (12) areas concerning the implementation of
women’s human rights and set out an agenda for women’s empowerment. It builds on the results
of the previous three world conferences on women, but is considered a significant achievement in
explicitly articulating women’s rights as human rights. The platform for action is the most
comprehensive expression of states’ commitments to the human rights of women.
(4) Millennium Development Goals
In 2000, the international community agreed to eight time-bound development goals to be
achieved by 2015 at UN Headquarters in New York, including a goal on gender equality and the
empowerment of women, as well as one on the reduction of maternal mortality. Seven of the
goals have specific targets to measure progress. Although they have shortcomings from a human
rights perspective, the Millennium development goals are an important political commitment
which has galvanized international support for some of the world’s most daunting problems.
Millennium development goal (3) with respect to women’s rights is to promote gender equality
and empower women.
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
The United Nations conference on sustainable development brought Heads of State and
Government to Brazil in 2012. The outcome document of the conference states that “gender
equality and the effective participation of women are important for effective action on all aspects
of sustainable development” and calls for the repeal of discriminatory laws and for ensuring
women’s equal access to justice (UN, 2014).
CEDAW and Myanmar

Myanmar is a signatory to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1997), and is committed to international policy
initiatives to improve the situation of women, including the International Conference on
Population and Development, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, and the
Millennium Declaration. The Association of South East Asia Nations (ASEAN) has established
the ASEAN Commission on Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Women and Children
(ACWC), and the ASEAN Committee on Women (ACW), of which Myanmar is a member.
Myanmar, as an active member of both committees, has drafted the National Strategic Plan for
the Advancement of Women based on the Constitution 2008, CEDAW and the (12) Priority
Areas of the Beijing Platform for Action. The National Strategic Plan for the Advancement of
Women (NSPAW) will provide support to improve the situation of women and to fully enjoy
their rights in accordance with the features of the Constitution of Republic of the Union of
Myanmar (2008) (MNCWA, n.d.).
National Strategies Plan for the Advancement of Women (NSPAW) (2013-2022)
After participation at the fourth world conference on women (Beijing, 1995), the Ministry
of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement established the Myanmar National Committee for
Women Affairs (MNCWA) in 1996 to enhance the advancement of women, and was
reestablished in 2012 according to the policies of the new Government. MNCWA draw the
national strategic plan for the advancement of women (2013-2022) which is based on the (12)
priority areas of CEDAW and the Beijing Platform for Action. These (12) critical areas are:
1. Women and livelihoods,
2. Women and education and vocational training,
3. Women and health,
4. Violence against women,
5. Women and emergencies,
6. Women and economy,
7. Women and decision making,
8. Institutional mechanism for the advancement of women,
9. Women and human rights,
10. Women and the media,
11. Women and the environment, and
12. The protection and empowerment of girls.
For each of the priority area, sub-committees have been established comprising focal
Ministries and other stakeholders working in different sectors. Terms of reference for each sub-
committee related to NSPAW have been established. In the Ministries involved in the
implementation of NSPAW, at least one focal person have been designated to coordinate and
monitor work on all the priority areas that specific Ministry is engaged in. The management
committee for NSPAW have been developed a (5) year operational plan to coordinate and
prioritize the implementation of strategic policies, plans and legislative reforms developed by the
working group/task forces for each of the (12) priority areas. The management committee for
NSPAW reviews progress towards the objectives of NSPAW and the extent to which efforts are
leading towards meeting anticipated outcomes according to the core indicators. The monitoring
framework, including data collection mechanisms have been reviewed annually and will continue
to be developed and refined. Reporting guidelines and timelines have been developed by the
management committee for NSPAW. In the area of women and education and training, the key
objective is to strengthen systems, structures and practices for ensuring access to quality formal
and non-formal education for women and girls. It consists of four main parts: (1) research and
surveys, (2) awareness raising, (3) implementation, and (4) budget and policy making.
Research Method
Research Design
A descriptive research design was used to collect quantitative and qualitative data for this
study.
Two hundred and twenty postgraduate student teachers and two hundred and forty
undergraduate student teachers participated in this study. The population and sample size of
postgraduate and undergraduate student teachers are presented in Table (1).
YUOE SUOE
No. Program Sample Sample
Population Population
Male Female Total Male Female Total
1 PhD (Prelim) 14 4 10 14 8 2 6 8
2 MEd
34 4 30 34 42 6 36 42
(Second Year)
3 MEd
28 4 24 28 47 10 37 47
(First Year)
4 MEd (Q) 25 2 23 25 22 - 22 22
Total 101 14 87 101 Total 18 101 119
5 BEd
408 60 60 120 354 60 60 120
(First Year)
Total 60 60 120 Total 60 60 120
Awareness and attitude towards gender equality is a considerable factor for building
democratize society without discrimination. Firstly, the literature related to this study were
compiled through training materials on gender mainstreaming in teacher education in Myanmar,
books and the Internet sources. After that, a questionnaire was constructed for this study. The aim
of this questionnaire is to investigate student teachers’ awareness and attitude towards gender
equality. To find the reliability of the instruments a pilot test with (30) student teachers was
conducted. Then, two Universities of Education were selected randomly. Two hundred and
twenty postgraduate student teachers and two hundred and forty undergraduate student teachers
were also selected as participants. The required data were collected in February 2019 and then
the data were entered into the computer data file and analyzed using the Statistical Package for
the Social Science (SPSS).
Instrument
In this study, a survey questionnaire was used to investigate student teachers’ gender
awareness of personality related behaviors and job related behaviors, and the family and
environment of student’s attitudes towards gender equality, and open-ended items oriented to
reveal the expectations and attitudes of student teachers towards the issue of gender equality.
This questionnaire was developed based on the ideas and understanding gained from the Training
Workshop on Gender Mainstreaming in Teacher Education in Myanmar which held in November
2018 at Pinlong Hall, Yangon University. There are three mains part in this questionnaire.
In the first part, there are two sections: (1) student teachers’ gender awareness of
personality related behaviors and (2) job related behaviors. There are total of ten items in each
section and each item has three options. The three options are (1) girls’ related behavior,
(2) boy’s related behavior and (3) both girls’ and boys’ related behavior. If the respondent
chooses (1) or (2), it can be interpreted as he/she does not have gender awareness, and if (3) is
chosen, it can be interpreted as having gender awareness.
The second part is related to the families or environment of student teachers’ attitudes
towards gender equality which includes four dichotomous items. The last involves two open-
ended questions concerning the expectations and attitudes of the Universities of Education
student teachers in terms of treating the issue of gender equality.
Data Analysis
The collected quantitative data were analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS) with descriptive statistics of frequency and percentage, and influential statistics
of independent samples ‘t’ test. The qualitative data were interpreted by categorizing the
common points.
Research Findings
Quantitative Findings
(i) Postgraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Personality Related Behaviors
Research findings indicated that majority of the postgraduate student teachers (70%) have
gender awareness in personality related behaviors. The results of gender awareness for each class
are presented in Table 2.
Table 2 Postgraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Personality Related
Behaviors
Percentage (%)
No. of
No. Class Having Gender Not Having Gender
Participant
Awareness Awareness
1 Ph D (Prelim) 22 72 28
2 MEd (2nd Year) 76 71 29
3 MEd (1st Year) 75 75 25
4 MEd (Q) 47 60 40
Over All 220 70 30
The detailed findings of gender awareness of personality related behaviors for each item
Table 3 Postgraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Personality Related

Behaviors for Each Item
Responded Percentages (%)
Personality No. of
No. Behavior
Behavior Participant
Girl Boy Both Boy & Girl
1 Gentleness 220 65 - 35
2 Sound mind 220 3 22 75
3 Caring 220 7 10 83
4 Preventing 220 4 24 72
5 Management 220 6 6 88
6 Creativity 220 3 24 73
7 Pioneering 220 10 12 78
8 Patience 220 33 10 57
9 Kindness 220 38 4 58
10 Responsiveness 220 6 14 80
(ii) Undergraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Personality Related Behaviors

Research findings revealed that majority of the undergraduate student teachers (45%)
have gender awareness in personality related behaviors. The results of gender awareness for each
class are presented in Table 4.
Table 4 Undergraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Personality Related
Behaviors
Percentage (%)
No. of Having Not Having
No. Class
Participant Gender Gender
Awareness Awareness
1 BEd 1st Year (YUOE) 120 36 64
2 BEd 1st Year (SUOE) 120 54 46
Over All 240 45 55
The detailed findings of gender awareness of personality related behaviors for each item
Table 5 Undergraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Personality Related
Behaviors for Each Item
Personality No. of
No. Behavior
Behavior Participant
1 Gentleness 240 64 2 34
2 Sound mind 240 3 30 67
3 Caring 240 8 15 77
4 Preventing 240 3 46 51
5 Management 240 7 17 76
6 Creativity 240 3 30 67
7 Pioneering 240 15 15 70
8 Patience 240 27 14 59
9 Kindness 240 35 5 60
10 Responsiveness 240 7 30 63
(iii) Postgraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Job Related Behaviors

Research findings indicated that the majority of the postgraduate student teachers (56%)
have gender awareness in job related behaviors. The results of gender awareness for each class
Table 6 Postgraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Job Related Behaviors
Percentage (%)
No. of
No. Class
Participant Having Gender Not Having
Awareness Gender Awareness
1 Ph D (Prelim) 22 60 40
2 MEd (2nd Year) 76 56 44
3 MEd (1st Year) 75 60 40
4 MEd (Q) 47 48 52
Over All 220 56 44
The detailed findings of gender awareness of job related behaviors for each item are
presented in Table 7.
Table 7 Postgraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Job Related Behaviors for
Each Item
No. of
No. Personality Behavior Behavior
Participant
1 Carrying heavy things 220 5 85 10
2 Cooking 220 50 1 49
3 Driving 220 - 15 85
4 Domestic (Chores) 220 39 - 61
5 Doing community welfare 220 20 - 80
6 Parenting 220 24 3 73
7 Selling and buying car 220 - 82 18
8 Construction career 220 - 70 30
9 Volunteering 220 - - 100
10 Nursing 220 48 4 48
(iv) Undergraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Job Related Behaviors

Research findings revealed that majority of undergraduate student teachers (49%) have
gender awareness in job related behaviors. The results of gender awareness for each class are
Table 8 Undergraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Job Related Behaviors
Percentage
No. Class No. of Student Having Gender Not Having Gender
Awareness Awareness
1 BEd 1st Year YUOE) 120 40 60
st
2 BEd 1 Year (SUOE) 120 58 42
Over All 240 49 51
The detailed findings of gender awareness of job related behaviors for each item are presented
in Table 9.
Table 9 Undergraduate Student Teachers’ Gender Awareness of Job Related Behaviors for
Each Item
No. Personality Behavior No. of Participant Behavior
1 Carrying heavy things 240 4 86 10
2 Cooking 240 71 3 26
3 Driving 240 2 33 65
4 Domestic (Chores) 240 64 2 34
Doing community 240 1 33 66
5
welfare
6 Parenting 240 37 4 59
7 Selling and buying car 240 4 75 21
8 Construction career 240 3 68 29
9 Volunteering 240 2 5 93
10 Nursing 240 62 5 33
(v) Attitudes of the Family or Environment of the Postgraduate Student Teachers towards
Gender Equality
Research findings indicated that the family or environment of the postgraduate student
teachers (78%) have the attitude towards gender equality. The results of each class are presented
in Table 10.
Table 10 Attitudes of the Family or Environment of the Postgraduate Student Teachers
towards Gender Equality
Percentage (%)
No. Class No. of Student Having Gender Not Having Gender
Equality Equality
1 Ph D (Prelim) 22 65 35
2 MEd (2nd Year) 76 79 21
3 MEd (1st Year) 75 87 13
4 MEd (Q) 47 79 21
Over All 220 78 22
Attitudes of the Family or Environment of the Undergraduate Student Teachers towards

Gender Equality
Research findings indicated that the family or environment of the undergraduate student
teachers (74%) have the attitude towards gender equality. The results of each class are presented
in Table 11.
Table 11 Attitudes of the Family or Environment of the Undergraduate Student Teachers

towards Gender Equality
Percentage (%)
No. Class No. of Student Having Gender Not Having
Equality Gender Equality
1 BEd 1st Year (YUOE) 120 75 25
2 BEd 1st Year (SUOE) 120 72 27
Over All 240 74 26
The Comparison between Postgraduate and Undergraduate Student Teachers’ Awareness

and Attitudes towards Gender Equality
Three areas of gender awareness and attitudes between postgraduate and undergraduate
are compared.
Table 12 The Comparison between Postgraduate and Undergraduate Student Teachers’
Awareness and Attitudes towards Gender Equality
Sig.
Group N M SD MD t df
(2 Tailed)
Personality Related Postgraduate 220 6.78 2.58
0.50 2.200 458 0.028*
Behaviors Undergraduate 240 6.28 2.30
Job Related behaviors Postgraduate 220 5.41 2.03 1.01 5.407 458 0.000***
Undergraduate 240 4.40 1.99
Family & Postgraduate 220 3.21 1.09 0.14 1.380 458 0.168
Environment Attitudes Undergraduate 240 3.07 1.17 (ns)
Total Postgraduate 220 15.40 4.31 1.65 4.297 458 0.000***
Undergraduate 240 13.75 3.97
Note: *** p < .001, * p < .05, ns = not significant
Qualitative Findings
In asking question number seven, which is finding out their attitude of gender equality,
hundred percent of responses are agreed on the idea of gender equality. All participants
responded that both males and females should have equal opportunities.
Question number eight explored the factors that they want to modify from the culture of
Myanmar traditional, rules and regulations, the findings are presented as follows:
 Domestic chores are concerned with women, not with men.
 Men have to make important decisions.
 Unequal opportunities in religious affairs.
 Earnings are concerned with men.
 Giving priority to men in job related affairs.
 Women are being felt guilty on humiliating possibility.
 Discrimination in matriculation exam marks.
 Too much veneration on men.
 Surroundings are trying to influence on women conduct.
 Women are being prohibited in some areas of paying homage to Buddha.
 Feeling disappointed on the idea of ‘Ladies First’.
 Women are unnecessary to educate.

Discussion
The findings of research question one: Do the student teachers from the Universities of
Education have gender awareness of personality related behaviors? indicated that 70% of
postgraduate student teachers and 45% of undergraduate student teachers have gender
awareness of personality related behaviors. The amount of percentages is different. Generally
student teachers have gender awareness however it is necessary to provide gender awareness and
attitude among citizens. Detailed findings of gender awareness of personality related behaviors
tables expressed that both postgraduate and undergraduate student teachers assume gentleness,
kindness and patience are girls’ behavior and preventing, creativity sound mind and
responsiveness are boys’ behavior.
The findings of research question two: Do the student teachers from the Universities of
Education have gender awareness of job related behaviors? revealed that 56% of postgraduate
student teachers and 49% of undergraduate student teachers have gender awareness of job
related behaviors. Having the attitude of job related behaviors; it is less than personality related
behaviors. Postgraduate student teachers said that driving, selling and buying car, construction
career and volunteering are not girls’ behaviors and domestic (chores), doing community welfare
and volunteering are not boys’ behaviors. Undergraduate student teachers said that cooking,
domestic (chores), parenting and nursing are girls’ behavior and carrying heavy things, driving,
doing community welfare, selling and buying cars and construction career are boys’ behaviors.
The findings of research question three: Do the families or environment of the student
teachers from the Universities of Education have positive attitudes towards gender equality?
showed that 78% of postgraduate student teachers and 74% of undergraduate student teachers’
family or environment have the attitude of gender equality. These findings pointed out that
Myanmar culture and family do not have gender discrimination.
The findings of research question four: Is there a significant difference between
postgraduate and undergraduate student teachers awareness and attitudes towards gender
equality? revealed that there are significant differences between two groups of student teachers
on personal related behaviors and job related behaviors. However, there is no significant
difference on family and environment attitude towards gender equality. Generally, the mean
scores of postgraduate students is higher than undergraduate students in each dimension. It can
be easily seen that education or learning experiences of student teachers can deduce gender bias
attitude.
The findings of research question five: What are the expectations and attitudes of the
Universities of Education student teachers in terms of treating the issue of gender equality?
revealed twelve issues about the expectations and attitudes of the Universities of Education
student teachers who want to change in the Myanmar traditional or cultural views. Some
respondents mentioned that there is unequal opportunities in religious affairs. This can be their
perceptions. It is assumed that this perception cannot generalize for the whole country. It is
obvious that people are free to hold their religious affairs respectively in Myanmar. Some
respondents said that discrimination in matriculation marks between boys and girls.
Discrimination in matriculation marks between boys and girls is the case of the past. At present,
the admission process to Yangon University of Education is based on the proportional system. It
means half of student teachers is boy and another half is girl. It is not based on the discrimination
of exam marks. Some respondents mentioned that women are being prohibited in some areas of
paying homage to Buddha. This perception is related to Myanmar traditional culture. But in most
places, men and women have equal opportunities to pay homage to Buddha.
Nevertheless, research findings revealed that student teachers love and accept the idea of
human rights and gender equality.
Suggestions
Myanmar commitments to gender equality can be easily seen by respecting the
commitment of CEDAW, Beijing Declaration, Constitution of the Union of Myanmar (2008), and
implementation of NSPAW, and Sustainable Development Plan. Moreover, it is education
transformation period of Myanmar. At this time, ownership and commitment by all stakeholders
is necessary for mainstreaming. All should involve in gender mainstreaming. With this view, the
following points are suggested.
 Responsibility persons (every citizens) should pay attention to the unique needs of
females, valuing their perspectives, respecting their experiences, understanding
developmental differences between girls and boys, women and men and ultimately
empowering girls and women.
 In addressing unequal access to and inadequate educational opportunities, Government
and other sectors should promote a visible policy of mainstreaming a gender perspective
into all policies and programmes.
 Education policies should be aware of and address gender equality.
 A gender sensitive educational system should be created in order to ensure equal
educational opportunities and full and equal participation of women in educational
administration and decision making.
 Educational programmes should be gender responsive.
 Human right education programmes that incorporate the gender dimension should be
developed at all levels of education.
 Training programmes and materials for teachers and educators to raise awareness of their
own role in the educational process with a view to providing them with effective
strategies for gender sensitive teaching.
 The awareness of gender issues is necessary for teaching profession so these topics
should be integrated into the curriculum of teacher training programmes.
 The mass media are a powerful means of education. As an educational tool the mass
media should be used for promoting gender awareness in the public.
 Research should be conducted on gender issues and information dissemination should be
made in the entire nation.
 This study dealt with only student teachers’ gender awareness and attitude toward gender
equality. Future studies should be conducted how to impart (ways and means) gender
awareness among Myanmar citizens.
Finally, it is sure that society without full participation of women will never reach its full
potential.
Conclusion
Education is often considered to be one of the key factors that should be addressed in
order to promote equal opportunities and mainstream gender equality. On the one hand,
education and school are informed by the values and attitudes that are prevalent in the society. At
the same time, education is a powerful tool for changing the societal attitudes and empowering
the next generation. Therefore, it is important to mainstream gender equality in the curricula,
school culture, teaching materials and methods in order to prevent the reproduction of gender
stereotypes that influence the well-being of pupils. Successful mainstreaming of gender equality,
therefore, cannot be achieved without having among today teachers the necessary knowledge,
tools and teaching methods to understand and tackle gender stereotypes and mainstream gender
equality.
The United Nations (UN) declares that they firmly believe in the ideas of human dignity
and gender equality. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar, a member country of UN, has
responsibility to deal with gender equality. Especially, the schools are mainly concerned to
spread out the ideas of gender equality. To fulfill this requirement, the teachers have to believe
and give the student value on the ideas of human dignity and gender equality.
This study is mainly aimed to explore the University of Education student teachers’
understanding on gender equality. Although the student teachers who are both in-service and pre-
service, are not weak in the ideas of gender equality, the responsible persons have to cooperate in
implementing the gender equality affairs. In this way, a society in which no gender
discrimination and serving gender equality will be created.
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20of%20terms%20and%20concepts%20.pdf
THE EFFECT OF MASTERY LEARNING STRATEGY ON STUDENTS’

MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL
Yu Zar Ni Zaw1, Khaing Khaing Lwin2
Abstract
The main purpose of the study was to study the effect of mastery learning strategy on students’
mathematics achievement at the middle school level. Mixed-method, QUAN-Qual model was
used to investigate the effect of mastery learning strategy. For quantitative research method, an
experimental study was carried out to compare the students’ achievement between experimental
and control group. The design used in the study was one of the true experimental designs, viz,
posttest only control group design. The instrument used in the study was a posttest. Two sample
schools, No. (4) BEHS Kamayut and No. (2) BEMS Yankin were selected by a simple random
sampling method. The subjects were (60) Grade Eight students from each school. There were two
experimental groups and two control groups. The students from experimental groups were taught
by using mastery learning strategy and the students from control groups were taught by using
formal instruction. After the treatment, the posttest was administered to two groups. The
independent samples t-test was used to compare the differences between two groups. The results
showed that there were significant differences between two groups in No. (4) BEHS Kamayut
(t = 3.02, p < .01) and No. (2) BEMS Yankin (t = 4.72, p < .001). For qualitative research method,
the students in the experimental groups from two selected schools were given a questionnaire. The
questionnaire consists of 18 items. 15 items of these are coded with five-point Likert-scale and
3 items are open-ended questions. The results showed that the students had positive attitude
towards learning, retention of learned materials and involvement in instructional activities. Thus
mastery learning strategy had positively contributed to the improvement of mathematics teaching
and learning at the middle school level.
Keywords: Mastery learning, Mastery Learning Strategy
Introduction
Changes always happen in everything, everywhere and every situation. Society’s thinking
changes from decade to decade, generation to generation and century to century. Education
depends on society. Since society changes, the vision for education must change. So the teaching
and learning also change. The vision of the people on education should be accommodated with
society (Underhill, 1981).
In relation to the development of society’s thinking in the 21st century, mathematics
occupies a crucial and unique role in the human’s societies and represents a strategic key in the
development of the whole mankind (Fatima, n.d.).
At every level, learning mathematics should be a natural outgrowth from the children
themselves. Learning should be interesting for the children, should challenge their imagination
and should beget creative solutions. Learning mathematics should be devoid of boredom,
meaninglessness and coercion (Cruikshank & Shieffield, 1988).
Bloom contended that mastery learning is the theory that suggests that virtually all
students can attain high degree of learning if given the needed time and appropriate learning
conditions and that if teachers could provide these appropriate conditions, all students could
reach a high level of achievement and their differences in their level of achievement would
vanish (Guskey, 2007).
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, B.E.H.S (Khayan) Thanatpin Township, Bago
2
Associate Professor, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education

Mathematics has been considered as a difficult subject matter by the students in school
practically all levels from primary to higher education. Students who have low aptitude typically
thought that mathematics was very difficult subject and they have been discouraged by the
teachers who are unable to deliver the subject matter due to the lack of Mathematics (United
Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organizations [UNESCO], 2012).
Mastery learning is an innovative method providing the opportunity to all students who
are taking mathematics with plenty of time to understand any topic in mathematics course based
on their ability and capacity to learn mathematics at their own pace within the realm of their
levels. Thus the researcher believes that attaining mastery in respective subjects for students is
one of the important factors to promote mathematics education in Myanmar.
The main purpose is to study the effect of mastery learning strategy on students’
mathematics achievement at the middle school level.
The specific purposes are as follows:
 To study the theoretical foundation of mastery learning strategy in teaching mathematics
 To investigate the effect of mastery learning strategy on students’ mathematics
achievement
 To investigate the students’ attitude towards mastery learning strategy
 To give suggestions for improving mathematics teaching and learning at the middle
school level
Research Hypotheses
 There is a significant difference between mathematics achievement of the students who
are taught with mastery learning strategy and those who are not.
are taught with mastery learning strategy and those who are not in performing knowledge
level questions.
are taught with mastery learning strategy and those who are not in performing
comprehension level questions.
are taught with mastery learning strategy and those who are not in performing application
level questions.
 The students who learned with mastery learning strategy have positive attitude towards
learning, retention of learned materials and involvement in instructional activities.

Mastery learning: mastery learning is a group-based, teacher-paced approach to mastery
instruction wherein students learn, for the most part, cooperatively with their classmates. (Block
& Burns, 1976)
Mastery learning strategy: A formative assessment strategy that involves the use of
specific interventions, called correctives to address the specific comprehension needs of the
learner (Bloom, 1968).
Scope of the Study
 Subjects in this study are (60) Grade (8) students from the selected schools within the
school-year (2018-2019).
 This study is limited to the content areas of Chapter (10) Equations with Literal
Coefficients, Chapter (11) Formulae and Change of Subject and Chapter (12) Formulae
Points in Rectangular Co-ordinates from Grade (8) mathematics textbook Volume I and
Chapter (5) Areas and Volumes from Grade (8) mathematics textbook Volume II
prescribed by the Department of Educational and Planning and Training, Myanmar, 2013.
 Mastery learning: mastery learning is a group-based, teacher-paced approach to mastery
instruction wherein students learn, for the most part, cooperatively with their classmates.
(Block & Burns, 1976)
 Mastery learning strategy: A formative assessment strategy that involves the use of
specific interventions, called correctives to address the specific comprehension needs of
the learner. (Bloom, 1968)
Learning is the active process. It is not achieved in any single way but through a variety
of activities and is approached through a variety of avenues. All of these activities need to
involve thinking. These activities need to be so planned that they will bring the learners along the
path toward understanding and mastery of the subject at their levels of achievement (Highet,
1965).
(1973) and Bloom (1974) proposed that learners with high ability learn quickly and
learners with low ability learn slowly. This conceptualization of learning give rise to the concept
of mastery learning instead of formal instruction. In formal instructional environments, time to
learn was held constant and the levels of performance varied. In mastery learning, the situation is
reversed. Performance is held constant and time to learn is allowed to vary. In mastery learning,
the learners are compared on the basis of amount learned during a certain period of time. In other
words, the goals are changing from achieving some specified objectives in a given time period, to
achieving all the objectives in a varying time period (Underhill, 1981).
Importance of Mathematics
Mathematics comprises different topical strands, such as algebra and geometry, but these
strands are highly interconnected. The interconnections should be displayed prominently in the
curriculum and in instructional materials and lessons. A coherent curriculum effectively
organized and integrates importance mathematical ideas so that students can see how the ideas
build on, or connect with other ideas thus enabling them to develop new understandings and
skills (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000). To implement the
curriculum effectively, the teachers use variation of teaching methods and variations of
instructional activities to close the children’s achievement gaps (Guskey, 2007).
Teaching mathematics well involves creating, enriching, maintaining and adapting
instruction to move towards mathematical goals, capture and sustain interests and engage
students in building mathematical understanding. Teachers establish and nurture an environment
conducive to learning mathematics through the decisions they make, the conversation they
orchestrate, make the physical setting they create. In effective teaching, worthwhile mathematical
tasks are used to introduce important mathematical ideas and to engage and challenge the
students intellectually. Effective teaching involves observing students, listing carefully to their
ideas and explanations, having mathematical goals and using the information to make
instructional decisions. To improve their mathematics instruction, teachers must be able to
analyze what they and their students are doing and consider how those actions are affecting
students’ learning (NCTM, 2000). Thus Bloom (Guskey, 2010) suggested that although students
vary widely in their learning rates if teachers provide the necessary time and appropriate learning
conditions, nearly all students could reach a high level of achievement.
Mastery learning
The theory of mastery learning is based on the belief that all students can learn when
provided with conditions that are appropriate for their learning.
Steps in Mastery Learning
Bloom has suggested that the steps for effective mastery learning.
1. Defining the Mastery
The teacher should first define what materials students will be expected to learn or what
is meant by mastery of the subject. They are also explained the concepts involved, the processes
to be followed and adopted, the skills to be employed and the amount of time to be taken for the
mastery of a particular content area. The teacher also prepares a summative test by covering all
objectives and decides the standard. Suppose a teacher decides that scoring at least 80% to 90%
in the examination would indicate mastery of the standard would be regarded as ‘masters’ and
those who do not would be regarded as ‘non-masters’ (Block, 1971; Block & Burns, 1976).
2. Planning for mastery
Planning must be consistent with the way in which mastery has been defined. Especially
the plan must include activities, materials related to the unit objectives and also include
additional supplementary activities and materials for those students who fail to attain the
performance standard on the unit formative test (Block, 1971; Block & Burns, 1976).
Planning for mastery involve following tasks;
i. The teacher divides the course to be taught for mastery into a series of smaller
sequence learning units, each of which cover in two weeks time.
ii. For each unit, teacher constructs a formative test or a brief diagnostic progress test.
These tests are designed to provide specific information of feedback to both the
teacher and the student about how the student is changing as a result of group-based
instruction.
iii. Then the teacher specifies a score or performance standard on each formative test,
which will be indicative of unit mastery. Generally a score of 80-90% indicated
mastery.
If the instruction material is not followed, the teacher develops a set of alternative
instructional material or correctives for each unit to master the content, and to overcome the
learning problems before proceeding to the next step or subsequent learning (Block, 1971; Block
& Burns, 1976).
3. Orienting for Mastery
After planning for mastery, the teacher is now ready to teach. But the students are not
accustomed to mastery learning. So before the teacher starts teaching for mastery. It is essential
that the teacher should explain to the students what they are going to learn, how they are going to
learn, what should be the outcome for learning and what standard of attainment is expected of
them. This will provide the necessary orientation and motivation to the students for learning
(Block, 1971).
4. Teaching for Mastery
After proper orientation and motivation the teacher teaches the 1st learning unit using the
group based teaching methods. After teaching one unit of the lesson, the teacher administers the
unit’s formative test to the entire class. On the basis of the test scores, the teacher identifies those
who have achieved the unit mastery standard and those who have not. For non-master the teacher
follows the alternative instructional material and corrective formative test till the achievement of
mastery. The masters are engaged either in enrichment activities or serve as tutor for non-
masters. This procedure continues till the completion of all the units (Block, 1971; Block &
Burns, 1976).
5. Grading for Mastery
The final step and major task is grading for mastery. After teaching all the units, the
teacher administers the summative evaluation test and awards grades. The teacher awards ‘A’
grade whose scores are at or above the predetermined mastery performance standard and scores
below this level are awarded grades appropriate to the level they have achieved (Block, 1971).
Evaluation of Mastery Learning
An effective mastery learning requires two types of evaluation.
(1) Formative evaluation
Formative evaluation is used to provide information useful for directing students study
and teacher practice. Formative tests have two purposes.
(a) To find out how much the pupils have learned in a restricted area of content at the end
of a unit of instruction.
(b) To diagnose pupils difficulties.
(2) Summative evaluation

Achievement test at the end of periods of instructions are summative test and its attempt
to sum-up total achievement in a course. In mastery learning, the primary purpose of
summative evaluation is to grade students according to their achievement of the aims of
the course or the criteria (Block, 1971).
Mastery Learning Instructional Process
Through this process of formative classroom assessment combined with the systematic
correction of individual learning difficulties, Bloom (Guskey, 1987, 2005) believed that all
students could be provided with a more appropriate quality of instruction than the traditional
instruction. As a result, nearly all learn well and truly master the unit concepts or learning goals.
This also drastically reduce the variation in achievement levels and eliminate the achievement
gaps.
Enrichment
activities Unit
(B)
Unit Formative U
(A) assessment
(A) Correctives Formative
assessment
(B)
Figure 2.2 Mastery Learning Instructional Process (Guskey, 1987).
Unit A: Mastery learning starts teaching by asking the previous knowledge of the students.
Mastery learning stresses the importance of administering a quick and targeted pre-assessment to
all students before beginning instruction to determine whether they have the perquisite
knowledge and skills for success in the upcoming learning sequences. Some teachers pre-assess
students orally by asking them about previous learning experiences or understanding.
Pre-assessing makes the teacher to ensure the conditions for success before the instruction begins
(Guskey, 2010).
Formative assessment (A): The use of regular formative assessments systematically monitor
student progress and give students prescriptive feedback. These brief classroom assessments
measure the most important learning goals from the instructional unit and typically are
administered after a week or two of the instruction. They reinforce precisely what the students
were expected to learn, identify what they learned well and describe what they need to learn
better.
Formative assessments vary in form depending on the subject area, the grade level and
the learning outcomes involved. They may be short quizzes, written assignments oral
presentations, skill demonstration or performances. The important feature of formative
assessments are that the teachers use them to gather evidence of students learning. Formative
assessments provide the basis for all programs that emphasize assessment “for” learning as
opposed to assessment “of” learning (Guskey, 2010).
Corrective instruction: After the formative assessment (A), corrective instruction was followed
to remedy whatever learning problems the assessment identified. Corrective instruction is not the
same as reteaching. Mastery learning teachers use corrective instruction that accommodate
differences in students’ learning styles, learning modalities or types of intelligence. Corrective
instruction can also be used as peer tutoring or cooperative learning groups. Corrective
instruction might last one or two days. Corrective instruction guarantees that students have the
learning perquisites for subsequent units, initial instruction in later units can proceed more
rapidly (Guskey, 2010).
Formative assessment (B): In mastery learning, assessment is an ongoing effort to help the
students learn. So after corrective instruction, mastery learning teachers give students a second,
parallel formative assessment that helps to determine the effectiveness of the corrective
instruction and offers students a second chance to demonstrate mastery and experience success.
Mastery learning teachers make a point of recognizing those who do well on the second
formative assessment have learned just as much and deserve the same grades as those who scored
well on the first try (Guskey, 2010).
Enrichment activities: Mastery learning teachers offer effective enrichment activities that
provide valuable, challenging and rewarding learning experiences for learners who have
mastered the material and do not need corrective instruction. These activities should enable
successful learners to explore in greater depth a range of related topics that keenly interest them
but lie beyond the established curriculum. Many teachers draw from activities developed for
gifted or talented students when planning enrichment activities including academic games and
peer tutoring.
Students engaged in enrichment activities gain valuable learning experiences without
necessarily moving ahead in the instructional sequence. This makes it easier for other students
who have been doing corrective work to resume their place in the regular instructional sequence
when they are done (Guskey, 2010).
Unit B: Unit B means the next lesson or the next topic. If the students achieve 80% and above
for Unit A in summative evaluation test, the teacher continues to Unit B.
Research Design
The design used in this study was one of the true experimental design, viz, posttest only
control group design.
This study was to investigate the effect of mastery learning strategy on Grade Eight
students’ achievement in mathematics in Yangon Region. Students were divided into two groups
in each school; the experimental and control groups by using simple random sampling method.
There were (30) students in each group. In each school, the control group was provided a
treatment by using formal instruction and the experimental group was provided by using mastery
learning strategy. The posttest was administered at the end of the treatment period. All the
participants have to take a posttest.
Instruments
The instrument used for this study was the posttest and attitude questionnaire. To examine
the students’ attitude towards learning, retention of learned materials and involvement in
instructional activities, a questionnaire was constructed. It consists of (18) items. (15) items of
these are coded with five-point Likert-scale and (3) items are open-ended questions. The
statements of the (15) items were described by five responses: strongly disagreed, disagreed,
undecided, agreed and strongly agreed. Arbitrary scoring weight (1,2,3,4,5) was assigned for the
responses. Moreover, the participants were allowed to express their attitude freely towards
mastery learning strategy through three open-ended questions.

This study was geographically restricted to Yangon Region. The required sample schools
were selected by using simple random sampling method. The sample schools were BEHS (4)
Kamayut and BEMS (2) Yankin. BEHS (4) Kamayut was selected from West District in Yangon
Region and BEMS (2) Yankin was selected from East District in Yangon Region. The population
in this study was (105) students in Grade Eight at BEHS (4) Kamayut and (69) students in Grade
Eight at BEMS (2) Yankin. Only (60) students from each school were selected by using a simple
random sampling method.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS)
with descriptive statistics, mean and standard deviation.
Research Findings
For quantitative research findings, the data were recorded systematically. These data were
analyzed by using the independent samples t-test to compare the differences between the
experimental and the control groups (Gay & Airasian, 2003).
Table 1 t-Values for Posttest Mathematics Achievement Scores
Sig.
School Group N Mean SD MD t df
(2-tailed)
BEHS(4) Experimental 30 34.87 9.10
6.2 3.02 58 .004**
Kamayut Control 30 28.67 6.64
BEMS Experimental 30 35.50 9.67
9.53 4.72 58 .000***
(2)Yankin Control 30 25.97 6.58
Note: **p < .01 ***p < .001
The means of the experimental group were significantly higher than that of the control
group in each school. It showed that there was a significant difference between students who
were taught by using mastery learning strategy and those who were taught as formal on the
overall scores of mathematics achievement in both selected schools.
Table 2 t-Values for Scores on Knowledge Level Questions

Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS(4) Experimental 30 1.70 .70 .458
0.13 .75 58
Kamayut Control 30 1.57 .68 (ns)
BEMS Experimental 30 1.83 .86 .716
0.26 1.42 58
(2)Yankin Control 30 1.57 .77 (ns)
Note: ns = not significant
Results of knowledge level questions showed that the means of the experimental groups
were not significantly higher than that of the control groups in both selected schools. It showed
that there was no significant difference between the experimental and the control groups for the
scores on knowledge level questions in both selected schools.
Table 3 t-Values for Scores on Comprehension Level Questions
Sig.
(2-tailed)
4.44 3.20 58 .000***
4.70 4.36 58 .000***
Note: ***p < .001
According to the scores on comprehension level questions, the means of the experimental
groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in both selected schools. It
showed that there was a significant difference between the experimental and the control groups
for the scores on the comprehension level questions in both selected schools.
Table 4 t-Values for Scores on Application Level Questions

Sig.
(2-tailed)
4.90 3.27 58 .002**
5.93 3.96 58 .000***
Note: **p < .01 ***p < .001
As regards with the scores on the application level questions, the means of the
experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in both selected
schools. It showed that there was a significant difference between the experimental and the
control groups for the scores on application level questions in both selected schools.

The attitude, feelings, experiences and opinions of students that were found in the study
were presented in this part. A qualitative study was carried out with a questionnaire. It consists of
(15) items in (3) dimensions; attitude towards learning, retention of learned materials and
involvement in instructional activities and (3) open-ended questions. (15) items are coded with
five-point Likert-scale. For (15) items, the percentages of students’ positive and do not have
positive attitude towards each dimension are as follows.
Table 5 Percentages of Students’ Attitude towards Each Dimension
Do not have
Positive Attitude
No. Dimension Positive Attitude
(%)
(%)
1. Attitude towards Learning 93% 7%
2. Retention of Learned Materials 94% 6%
Involvement in Instructional
3. 94% 6%
Activities
According to the above results, most of the students have positive attitude towards each
dimension. But some of the students do not have positive attitude. This is because they have no
experience in solving problems in this new way. They have no confidence to solve the problems
themselves and so they don’t fully understand the concepts in mathematics. And they’ve never
seen this type of teaching. They always solve the problems by following the teacher’s instruction.
In new strategy, they solve the problems themselves so they can’t learn well the problems.
Moreover, they have no experience in learning by doing activities to solve the problems and to
derive the formulae. They thought that learning by doing is time-consuming. They are solely
interested to solve the problems with teacher’s help.

Discussion
In quantitative study, the posttest was administered after the treatment period. When the
posttest means are compared, the results showed that the means of the experimental group were
significantly higher than that of control group in each school. Thus teaching with mastery
learning strategy has significant effect on students’ mathematics achievement when compared
with formal instruction.
According to the comparison of means on knowledge level questions in two selected
schools, the results pointed out that there is no significance between the control groups and the
experimental groups. It can be said that the students can learn well knowledge level questions
when the teacher uses either mastery learning strategy or formal instruction. It can be concluded
that formal instruction is effective to some extent in mathematics teaching and helps the students
to achieve lower cognitive skills.
When the means of comprehension level questions are compared, the results showed that
there were significant difference between the two groups. This results claimed that the
achievement of students who are taught with mastery learning strategy was higher than the
achievement of students who are taught with formal instruction.
Moreover, when the means of application level questions are compared, the results
showed that there were significant difference between the two groups. The results contended that
the students in experimental group show their ability in solving problems by using previous
learned materials in new situations.
In qualitative study, the questionnaire was administered for the students in experimental
groups. The questionnaire included three dimensions. The students explore their opinions for
each dimension openly.
For dimension 1 - attitude towards learning, most of the students showed that they have
positive attitude towards mastery learning strategy. They can solve the problems more easily and
using various methods according to their background knowledge.
For dimension 2 – retention of learned materials, most of the students positively
responded the questions. They can use their own ideas and their classmates’ ideas to solve
problems. They have sufficient time to learn and they receive immediate feedback for their
learning.
For dimension 3 – involvement in instructional activities, it can be found that most of the
students revealed that they have positive attitude towards involvement in instructional activities.
This is because they can solve the problems cooperatively with their classmates rather than
solving the problems by following the instruction of the teacher.
For (3) open-ended questions, the students responded that they feel happy in learning
mathematics more and more with this new strategy. They revealed that the relationship between
the teachers and the students are better than previous teaching and so they learn mathematics
more easily. This is because they can ask the teacher when they have difficulty in solving
problems. They are more interesting new learning strategy because their role changed from
passive learners to active learners. They participate in learning activities and can solve the
problems themselves. Thus they contended that learning mathematics with mastery learning
strategy is really effective.
Suggestions
In this study, the researcher studied the effect of mastery learning strategy by using
quantitative and qualitative methods. According to quantitative results, the students’
achievements are not varied at the knowledge level questions but are varied at the comprehension
and application level questions. This is because new learning strategy is more effective than
formal instruction. These results suggested that mathematics teaching should not solely
emphasize on getting solution but it should focus on the general mental operations or problem
solving process that can be used and applied to any problems. Thus the teachers should try to
promote their teaching strategies. They should teach the mathematics concepts by doing
activities. They should train the students to be able to solve the problems themselves. The role of
the teachers should be as a facilitator and be always dynamic.
According to the qualitative results, most of the students showed that they have positive
attitude towards new learning strategy. They are more likely to solve the problems as a group
activity. Thus the teachers should provide opportunities for the students to work together in a
group. It is clear that working together in a small group is essential to improve the achievement
of the students. The teachers should adopt the various methods of teaching to promote the
students’ attitude towards mathematics and should create positive learning environment for their
students’ learning. Classroom climate is related to some extent in the achievement of the
students. The learning environment should be designed to promote students’ thinking skills. The
teachers should create the learning environment where the students can apply their own
knowledge to solve the problems. So that the students can become independent learners.
Conclusion
The main purpose of the study is to study the effect of mastery learning strategy on
students’ mathematics achievement at the middle school level. Both quantitative and qualitative
studies were conducted to obtain the required data. For the quantitative study, one of the true
experimental design, viz., posttest only control group design was adopted to compare the
students’ mathematics achievement between two groups: control group and experimental group.
For qualitative study, a questionnaire was used to interpret the students’ attitude towards
learning, retention of learned materials and involvement in instructional activities.
In each school, students were randomly divided into two groups. The experimental group
was given the treatment by using mastery learning strategy and the control group was treated by
formal instruction.
In experimental group, the students were taught with small groups. The instructional
process begins to learn a unit by adopting appropriate teaching methods. After teaching each unit,
students’ performance is assessed by giving an assessment in order to provide information or
feedback on their learning. Students must exhibit and achieve mastery one unit before moving on
next unit. Students who fail to achieve mastery are subjected to receive remediation through
additional activities like peer tutoring, learner-centered activities or additional assignments. The
students who are mastered the first assignment are provided with enrichment activities. And then
all the students are administered a summative evaluation test. Sufficient time for learning is
provided for these students. Students continued the cycle of studying and testing until mastery is
achieved and then move to the next unit.
In control group, the students were taught learning materials under the whole class
instruction. The students solve the problems under the control of the teacher. And the students
follow the teachers’ instruction. They rely on the information provided by the teacher to solve the
problems.
Conclusion can be drawn on the basis of the results of research findings. In terms of the
statistical results, students’ performance between control and experimental groups had significant
difference on overall mathematics achievement, comprehension level questions and application
level questions. All the students showed that they have positive attitude towards mastery learning
strategy.
Today, modern society demands high quality teaching and learning from teachers.
Teachers have to possess a great deal of knowledge and skills with regard to both teaching and
assignment practice in order to meet those demands and standards of quality education. Teaching
with high quality teaching tend to do and find out more about their own craft, pushing out the
boundaries of their learning and teaching, looking for the new topics and ways teach.
Mastery learning provides the teachers a strong sense of personal responsibility for
students’ learning. Students do not compete against each other but rather work together to attain a
shared goal. Thus, the teachers help the students to reach high standard of learning. The students
in mastery learning classes are able to learn abstract ideas related to particular subjects, they can
apply these ideas to new problems and they retain these ideas longer. Thus the drop-out rate
among students has been cut off in learning with mastery learning strategy (Guskey, 1985).
It can be concluded that teaching by mastery learning strategy has positively contributed
to the improvement of mathematics teaching and learning at the middle school level. Thus using
mastery learning strategy in the classroom will promote the students’ achievement, participation
in learning activities and develop problem solving skills. Thus the research on mastery learning
strategies supports both quantitative and qualitative effects on mathematics teaching and
learning. And attaining mastery in respective subjects for students is one of the important factors
to promote mathematics education in Myanmar.
Acknowledgements
and Head, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education for her invaluable guidance and
suggestions throughout M.Ed program. We also want to express our thanks to all participants in our study. We are
References
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doi/abs/ 10.3102/0091732X004001003?journalCode- rrea
Crucikshank, D.E. & Sheffield, L.J. (1988). Teaching mathematics to elementary school children: A foundation for
the future. London: MEEEILL PUBLISHING COMPANY
Fatima, R. (n.d.). Role of mathematics in the development of society. Retrieved September 30, 2018 from,
http://www.ncert.nic.in/pdf_files/finalarticlerole%20of%20mathematics%20in%0the%20%developme
nt%20ofsociety-ncer-pdf
Gay, L.R., & Airasian, P. (2003). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application (7th ed.). New
Guskey, T.R. (1985). Bloom’s mastery learning: A legacy for effectiveness. Educational Horizons, 63(2), 90-92.
Retrieved July 26, 2018 from, https://www.jstor.org/stable/42926963
Guskey, T.R. (1987). The essential elements of mastery learning. The Journal of ClassroomInteraction, 22(2), 19-
22. Retrieved July 26, 2018 from, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23869735
Guskey, T.R. (2005). Formative classroom assessment and Benjamin S.Bloom: Theory, research and implications.
Retrieved July 14, 2018 from, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED490412
Guskey, T.R. (2007).Closing achievement gaps: Revisiting Benjamin S. Bloom’s learning for mastery. Retrieved
Aug 28, 2018 from, https://tguskey.com/wp.content/uploads
Guskey, T.R. (2010). Lessons of mastery learning. Retrieved June 11, 2018 from,www.ascd.org/publications/
educational-leadership/oct-10/vol68/num02/lessons-of-Mastery-learning-aspx
Highet, G. (1965). The act of teaching (4th ed.). London: METHUEN & CO LTD.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics.
Retrieved December 21, 2017 from https://www.fayar.net/east/teacher.web/Math/ Standards/
document/chapter2/htm
Underhill, B. (1981). Teaching elementary school mathematics (3rd ed.). London: Merrill.
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001917/191776e.pdf
Appendix (A)
Achievement Test
2x 3y y
A. ax + bx = abc B. 3x + 4 = 5 C. + =9 D. 4 = 3
3 4
4
(2) v = 3
3
πr 
3r 4v 4r3 3v
A. B. 3r3 C. D. 4r3
π 3v
A. k = 1000x + 50 B. k = 50x + 1000 C. k = 1000 - 50x D. k = 50x – 1000
A. B. C. D.
4
A. 2πr B. 2πr2 C. 3 πr2 D. 2πr2 h
∆ABC ADC
B
A. 14 B. 25 C. 28 D. 36 cm 7cm
A C
D
4cm D
4cm
A. 15.24 cm2 B. 14.7 cm2 C. 12.56 cm2 D. 11.22 cm2
A=
1
A. πr2 h B. πr2 h C. πdh D. πr2 h2
2
A. 704 B. 352 C. 1408 D. 88 cm3

A=
1 1 1 1
A. 2 bp B. 2 hp C. 2 bh D. 4 bh
d
f h
1 1 1
(2) + v= f
u
A(1,3), B(-6,-1), C(2,-2)

90° 3 ½ cm
14cm 5cm
n m
p
n R (2n-4)
(a) n
(b) R = 10 n
(c) n = 20 R
(0, 3), (-6,-1), (2,-2),(0,0), (-2,2)
100m
6.
70m
100m 70m
7.
(𝑖) (𝑖𝑖)
3m
3m
3m
5m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Appendix (B)
Attitude Questionnaires
Mastery Learning Strategy
THE EFFECT OF VAN HIELE’S INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL ON

STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENTIN GEOMETRY
May Di San1, Khaing Khaing Lwin2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study was to study the effect of van Hiele’s instructional model on
students’ achievement in geometry. This study was conducted with both quantitative and
qualitative research methods. For quantitative research, an experimental study was used to study
the effect of van Hiele’s instructional model. In this experimental study, the subjects were Grade
seven students selected from No. (7), BEMS, Hlaing and No. (9), BEMS, Insein. The experimental
designed adopted in this study was a true experimental design, namely, posttest only control group
design. For this study, (60) Grade Seven students from No. (7), BEMS, Hlaing and (62) Grade
Seven students from No. (9), BEMS, Insein were selected by random sampling method. These
students were divided into two groups: control and experimental. The experimental group was
treated with van Hiele’s instructional model and the control group was taught with formal
instruction. After that, a posttest was administered to two groups. Independent samples t-test was
used to compare the differences between the two groups. The results showed that the students who
received a treatment by van Hiele’s instructional model demonstrated significantly better than
those who received by formal instruction in No. (7), BEMS, Hlaing (t = 12.776, p < .001) and in
No. (9), BEMS, Insein (t= 11.778, p < .001). The qualitative data also supported the findings from
the experimentation. For this research study, students of the experimental groups were given a
questionnaire. It consists of (15) items five-point Likert-scale and (3) open ended questions. The
results showed that the students expressed their willingness to learn in van Hiele’s instructional
model and they had positive attitudes towards van Hiele’s instructional model. Research findings
proved that van Hiele’s instructional model has positive contribution to the geometry teaching at
Keywords: van Hiele levels, van Hiele’s instructional model, geometric thinking
Introduction
Geometry is an important branch of mathematics and it has been identified as a basic
mathematical skill. It is also applied in other branches of mathematics. According to National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000; cited in Ozcakir, 2013), geometry provides
describing, analyzing and understanding the world around. Regarding the learning of geometry,
students should be able to analyze characteristics and properties of geometric shapes, develop
mathematical arguments about geometric relationships, use visualization spatial reasoning and
geometric modeling to solve problems.
Many students in various part of the world have been facing difficulties in learning
geometry. Pierrer van Hiele and Dian van Hiele-Geldof (1985, cited in Noparit, 2005) formulated
a model to explain why students had those difficulties. Because of the importance are of
geometry in the daily life of students and the emphasis on the topic of geometry in the
mathematics curriculum, the process of teaching and learning geometry should be made more
meaningful and should be emphasizing hands-on exploration, creative thinking and the ability to
argue and generate conjectures about geometry. The geometry instruction is suggested to be
organized according to van Hiele model. So, van Hiele’s instructional model can be used to guide
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, B.E.HS (4), Pathein, Pathein Township, Ayeyarwaddy
2
instruction as well as assess students’ abilities. The importance of learning action between
students and teacher is emphasized within van Hiele’s instructional model. According to this
model, students’ thinking in geometry progresses sequentially through levels.
Many studies have attempted to develop students’ geometric thinking, the statistical data
shows that students still lack behind in geometry in comparison to national and international
averages. Before, many studies have found that students have difficulties in learning geometry.
Usiskin (1982, cited in Abulyasas, 2016) said that if students have their geometric thinking lower
than level 2, then they will not be successful in learning geometry in high school or at other
higher levels. This failure to the students’ weakness in geometric thinking and the teachers’
failure to use effective and appropriate teaching methods that can help them overcome the
difficulty of teaching geometry. In the traditional class room, the teacher’s role is to introduce
geometric concepts and theorems on the board and in the front of the class without any active
contributions from students in formulating new knowledge. This does not show appreciation for
their minds and abilities. Therefore, how to progress the process of teaching and learning
geometry is a real problem for current mathematics teachers in order to get high level of
achievement in geometry among their students. The van Hiele model related to teaching and
learning of geometry and this instruction shows it has been successful in developing students’
geometric thinking. Thus, the teachers can give the opportunities and environment which
encourages students to think independently as much as possible by emphasizing van Hiele’s
instructional model in order to enhance students’ geometric thinking.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to study the effect of van Hiele’s instructional model on
students’ achievement in geometry. The specific objectives are as follows:
 To study the theoretical foundation of van Hiele’s instructional model in teaching
geometry.
 To investigate the effect of van Hiele’s instructional model on students’ achievement in
geometry.
 To investigate the attitudes of students from experimental groups on teaching of geometry
with the van Hiele’s instructional model.
 To give suggestions for the improving of geometry teaching and learning at the middle
school level.
Research Hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference in the achievement of van Hiele geometric thinking
levels between students who are taught by using van Hiele’s instructional model and
those who are not.
2. There is a significant difference in the achievement of visualization level of van Hiele
geometric thinking between students who are taught by using van Hiele’s instructional
model and who are not.
3. There is a significant difference in the achievement of analysis level of van Hiele
geometric thinking between students who are taught by using van Hiele’s instructional
model and who are not.
4. There is a significant difference in the achievement of informal deduction level of van

Hiele geometric thinking between students who are taught by using van Hiele’s
instructional model and who are not.
5. The students who learnt with van Hiele’s instructional model have positive attitudes,
experiences and opinions learning geometry topics.
Scope of the Study

1. In terms of geographical area, this study is geographically restricted to Yangon Region.
2. Participants in this study are (120) Grade-7 students from the selected school within the
school-year 2018-2019.
3. This study is limited to the content areas of Chapter (6) and Chapter (7) from
Mathematics Textbook Volume II prescribed by the Department of Educational Planning
and Training, Myanmar.
4. According to the nature of content, this study is limited to visualization level, analysis
level and informal deduction level from the van Hiele geometric thinking levels.
van Hiele levels: The levels of geometric thinking range from level 0 to 4 which are
Visualization (level 0), Analysis (level 1), Informal Deduction (level 2), Deduction (level 3) and
Rigor (level 4) (Burger & Shaughnessy, 1986, van Hiele, 1986).
van Hiele’s Instructional Model: The instruction proposed by van Hiele in order to make the
students’ geometric thinking levels way up. It has five steps which are Information (step 1),
Guided Orientation (step 2), Explicitation (step 3), Free Orientation (step 4) and Integration
(step 5) (van Hiele, 1986).
Geometric thinking: The ability to think reasonably in geometric context which have five levels
of thinking as seen through the van Hiele levels of geometric development defined by van
Hiele’s model (Walle, 2004).
Geometry is an important branch of mathematics, requires abstract thinking and it has
been identified as basic mathematical skill. Geometrical skills have a wide application in other
fields of life. According to Serkoak (1996, cited in Abulyasas, 2016), when students have an
understanding of geometric concepts, they will be able to learn geometry at the higher level
without difficulties and have good attitude towards learning geometry. Nowadays, traditional
instruction does not seem effective in developing students’ geometric thinking. Teachers need to
consider and improve their teaching well because in today’s world, the needs and interests of
children are very different from the children in the past decades. For effective, all children should
be encouraged to express their views, ideas, and feelings. The present teaching method
emphasizes only on lecture method which leads to rote learning. Higher level thinking such as
reasoning, problem solving, critical thinking, and creative thinking are still weak as Learner
Centered Approach is not used in teaching.
In geometry, teachers need to plan classroom activities in a way that can help the learners
understand the nature and the concepts of geometry. Teachers can give the opportunities and
environment which encourages students to think independently as much as possible by
emphasizing van Hiele’s instructional model in order to enhance students’ geometric thinking.
This model indicates that effective learning takes place when student’s activity experiences the
objects of study in appropriate contexts. This model provides an opportunity for students to solve
problems by their own geometric thinking as well as to see a variety of solution from other
students. The steps in the model, particularly the fourth step which is “free orientation” will
encourage students in solving problems. Teachers can assess their students’ levels of thought and
provide instruction at those levels. Therefore, teacher should provide experience organized
according to the steps of van Hiele’s instructional model to develop each successive level of
understanding.
Moreover, a research for studying the effect of van Hiele’s instructional model on
students’ achievement in geometry is necessary.
Importance of Teaching Geometry
In the past, most elementary and middle grades teachers spent very little time on
geometry. Possibly they felt uncomfortable with the topic themselves or did not regard the topics
as important. Traditional norm-referenced tests did not give a lot of weight to geometric thinking.
Thanks to the increased NCTM emphasis on geometry and its inclusion in state testing programs,
more geometry is being taught. Here are a few reasons that come to mind.
1. Geometry can provide a more complete appreciation of the world. Geometry can be found
in the structure of the solar system and in geological formations.
2. Geometric explorations can develop problem solving skills. Spatial reasoning is an
important form of problem solving, and problem solving is one of the major reasons for
studying mathematics.
3. Geometry plays a key role in the study of other areas of mathematics. E.g. fraction
concept of similarity. Measurement and geometry are clearly related.
4. Geometry is used daily by many people. Scientists of all sorts, architects and artists,
engineers, and land developers are just a few of the professions that use geometry
regularly.
5. Geometry is enjoyable. If geometry increases students’ fondness for mathematics more in
general, that makes the effort worthwhile.
The van Hiele Model
Constructivists claim that both mathematical truths and the existence of mathematical
objects must be established by constructive methods. This means that mathematical constructions
are needed to establish truth or existence, as opposed to methods relying on proof by
contradiction. Constructivists will no longer expect a mathematical problem to have only one
solution strategy, and they will expect solution explanation from the learners. There are many
elements in the van Hiele model that are consistent with constructivist ideas about teaching and
learning (Arebe, 2008).
In mathematics education, the van Hiele model is a theory that describes how students
learn geometry. The theory originated in 1957 in the doctoral dissertations of Dina van Hiele-
Geldof and Pierre van Hiele (wife and husband) at Utrecht University, in the Netherlands. The
Soviets did research on the theory in the 1960s and integrated their findings into their curricula.
The van Hiele model was created to provide geometric understanding and to develop geometric
understanding in learners (Erdogan et al, 2009). This model provides useful empirically-based
descriptions of what are likely to be relatively stable and qualitatively different states of
understanding in learners. The van Hiele model has three aspects: the existence of levels, the
properties of the levels, and the progress from one level to the next level.
The best known part of the van Hiele model is the five levels which the van Hieles
postulated to describe how children learn to reason in geometry. Students cannot be expected to
prove geometric theorems until they have built up an extensive understanding of the systems of
relationships between geometric ideas. These systems cannot be learned by rote, but must be
developed through familiarity by experiencing numerous examples and counterexamples. Each
of the five levels describes the thinking processes used in geometric contexts. These levels
describe how learners think about geometric ideas. The five van Hiele levels are sometimes
misunderstood to be descriptions of how students understand shape classification, but the levels
actually describe the way that students reason about shapes and other geometric ideas.
In general, these levels are a product of experience and instruction rather than age. A
child must have enough experiences with those geometric ideas to move to a higher level of
sophistication. The levels are as follows:
Level 0: Visualization
Level 1: Analysis
Level 2: Informal Deduction
Level 3: Deduction
Level 4: Rigor
Visualization: At this level, the objects of thought are shapes and what they “look like”. The
products of thought are classes or groupings of shapes that seem “alike”. Students recognize and
name figures based in the global visual characteristics of the figure. Because appearance is
dominant at this level, appearances can overpower properties of a shape. The focus of a child’s
thinking is on individual shapes, which the child is learning to classify by judging their holistic
appearance. Children at this level often believe something is true based on a single example.
Analysis: At this level, the objects of thought are classes of shapes rather than individual shapes
which the child has learned to analyze as having properties. The shapes become bearers of their
properties. Students operating may be able to list all the properties of squares, rectangles, and
parallelograms but may not see that these are subclasses of one another. The properties are more
important than the appearance of the shape. Properties are not yet ordered at this level. Children
can discuss the properties of the basic figures and recognize them by these properties, but
generally do not allow categories to overlap because they understand each property in isolation
from the others.
Informal Deduction: Children at the informal deduction level not only think about properties
but also are able to notice relationships within and between figures. Children are able to
formulate meaningful definitions. As students begin to be able to think about properties of

geometric objects without the constraints of a particular object, they are able to develop
relationships between and among these properties. At this level, properties are ordered. The
objects of thought are geometric properties, which the student has learned to connect deductively.
The student understands that properties are related and one set of properties may simply another
property. Students can reason with simply arguments about geometric figures.
Deduction: Students at this level understand the meaning of deduction. The object of thought is
deductive reasoning (simply proofs), which the student learns to combine to form a system of
formal proofs (Euclidean geometry). The student at this level is able to work abstract statements
about geometric properties and make conclusions based more on logic than intuition. There
students build on a list of axioms and definitions to create theorems. They also prove theorems
using clearly articulated logical reasoning. They understand how to do a formal proof and
understand why it is needed. They understand the role of undefined terms, definitions, axioms
and theorems in Euclidean geometry.
Rigor: At this level, geometry is understood at the level of a mathematician. Children at this
level can think in terms of abstract mathematical systems. Students understand that definitions
are arbitrary and need not actually refer to any concrete realization. The object of thought is
deductive geometric systems, for which the learner compares axiomatic systems. There is an
appreciation of the distinctions and relationships between different axiomatic systems. Learners
can study non-Euclidean geometries with understanding.
van Hiele believes that the level of an individual is influences by learning rather than by
age, attended grade or biological maturity (van Hiele, 1957; cited in Fuya, Geddes & Tischer,
1988). van Hiele emphasized the importance of experience; he stated that students cannot operate
properly on some level, if they have no experience, allowing them to think at this level. Each
level uses its own language and symbols. Students pass through the levels “step by step”. This
hierarchical order helps them to achieve better understanding and results. A significant difference
between one level to the next level is the objects of thought- what they are able to think about
geometrically. The products of thought at each level are the same as the objects of thought at the
next.
Properties of the van Hiele Levels
The van Hiele added the properties: sequential, intrinsic and extrinsic, linguistics,
separation, and advancement to clarify certain presumptions that they had about the levels of
thought. These properties and a short discussion using comments of the seminal authors are given
below.
Sequential (Fixed sequence): According to van Hiele, the levels are sequential and learners
must pass through and acquire the lower levels before proceeding to next level (Walle, 2004).
Due to the sequential nature, learners cannot skip a level. A student cannot be at level N without
having gone through level (N-1). Therefore, the student must go through the levels in order as
their understanding increases (except for gifted children). Although, if the learners receive
instruction that it may allow them to progress more quickly.
Intrinsic and extrinsic (Adjacent): Properties which are intrinsic at one level becomes extrinsic
at the next level. To move from one level to the next, children need to have many experiences in
which they are actively involved in exploring and communicating about their observations of
shapes, properties, and relationships. Concepts that are implicitly understood at one level become
explicitly understood when learners reach the next level.
Linguistics (Distinction): For learning to take place, language must match the child’s level of
understanding. Each level has its own language or linguistic symbols and way of thinking (van
Hiele, 1986; cited in Steyn, 2016). The meaning of a linguistic symbol is more than its explicit
definition; it includes the experiences which the speaker associates with the given symbol. If the
language that the teacher uses is at a higher level than the level of the learner, the learner will not
be able to follow the thought processes and there will be a lack of communication.
Separation: Two persons at different levels cannot understand each other. A teacher who is
reasoning at one level speaks a different “language” from a student at a lower level, preventing
understanding. When a teacher speaks of a “square” she or he means a special type of rectangle.
A student at level 0 or 1 will not have the same understanding of this term. The student does not
understand the teacher, and the teacher does not understand how the student is reasoning,
frequently concluding that the student’s answers are simply “wrong”.
Advancement (Attainment): In order to advance from one level to the next requires “direct
instruction, exploration and reflection” by the learner (Pegg, 1992; cited in Steyn, 2016). This is
one of the differences between the theories of van Hiele and Piaget. In Piaget’s theory,
development is age dependent whereas in van Hiele progress to the next level depends more on
the content and method of instruction than on the age of the learner.
The van Hiele’s Instructional Model
van Hiele believed that cognitive progress in geometry can be accelerated by instruction.
The progress from one level to the next one is more dependent upon instruction than on age or
maturity. He gave clear explanations of how the teacher should proceed to guide students from
one level to the next level. The instructional steps were made up of five steps which were to
ensure that students move from one van Hiele learning level to a higher one in their geometric
thinking. These steps are given below.
i. Information: The first step is the step in which the geometric thinking levels of students
are determined. In this step, the students’ geometric thinking levels are determined
through communication between the teacher and the student. Students get the material
and start discovering its structure. The teacher holds a conversation with the pupils, in
well-known language symbols, in which the context he wants to use becomes clear.
ii. Guided Orientation: In this step, students deal with tasks which help them to explore
implicit relationships. The teacher suggests activities that enable students to recognize the
properties of the new concepts. The relations belonging to the context are discovered and
discussed. The teacher gives instructions and assignments related to the studies which
will be done in the light of the answers he gets from the students. The purpose of the
teacher giving assignments is to make students explore the structures about the topic by
means of research.
iii. Explicitation: Teacher introduces the topic to students in this step and students combine
their experiences with the words they used related to the topic. In this step, it is important
for the teacher to arouse students’ interests. Students formulate what they have
discovered, new terminology is introduced. They share their opinions on the relationships
they have discovered in they activity. The van Hieles thought it is more useful to learn
terminology after students have had an opportunity to become familiar with the concept.
iv. Free Orientation: Students work on different solutions of multiphase problems in this
step. The effect of the van Hiele Model based among the various objects of the structure
in the topic they work on. The teacher should guide students in their thinking about
different solutions. Students solve more complex tasks independently. It brings them to
master the network of relationships in the materials. They know the properties being
studied, but they need to develop understanding of relationships in various situations.
This type of activity is much more open-ended.
v. Integration: This step is the step in which students summarize and gather what they
learned. Students internalize what they learned as a new thinking structure. The teacher
should give to the students an overview of everything they have learned. It is important
that the teacher does not present any new material during this phase, but only a summary
of what has already been learned.
The teacher has different roles in various stages: task planning, directing a student’s
attention to geometric properties of shapes, introducing the terminology, fostering students to use
appropriate terminology, and promoting student’s explanations and problem solving. The major
relevance of the van Hiele learning steps is their link with the level descriptions. The description
of the van Hiele steps given above appears to be consistent with constructivism as a theory of
instruction in education.
Research Design
The design used in this study was one of the true experimental designs, known as the
posttest only control group design.
Procedures
In exploring the effects of van Hiele’s instructional model on student’s achievement in
teaching geometry, one of the experimental designs, the posttest only control group design was
adopted. Participants were first selected by random assignment and then they were divided into
groups an experimental group and a control group by using their mid-term grades. The
experimental group was taught by using van Hiele’s instructional model and the control group
was taught by using formal instruction. The treatment period was from November 12, 2018 to
December 7, 2018. At the end of the treatment period, all the selected students will to sit for
posttest. The allocated time for posttest was (45) minutes and given marks were 30 marks. A
questionnaire was used to explore students’ attitude towards learning through van Hiele’s
instructional model.
Instruments
In this study, a posttest for students’ achievement of van Hiele geometric thinking levels
and questionnaire for students’ attitude towards van Hiele’s instructional model.
(a) Posttest
A posttest was constructed to measure students’ achievement of van Hiele geometric
thinking levels. They were (30) multiple choice items. Test items were constructed based on the
content areas of Chapters (6) and (7) from Grade Seven Mathematics Textbook Volume II with
the advice and guidance of the supervisor. The students had to answer all the questions there
were no choice of items. This test was constructed based on van Hiele geometric thinking levels:
visualization, analysis and informal deduction. In order to get validation, the posttest questions
were distributed to six experienced mathematics teachers. According to their suggestions, test
items were modified again and its marking scheme was also presented.
(b) Questionnaire
A questionnaire was used to observe the students’ attitudes, experiences and opinions
towards learning through the van Hiele’s instructional model. It consists (15) items five-point
Likert-scale and (3) open ended questions (see Appendix D). The questionnaire was constructed
according to the advice and guidance of the supervisor. In order to get the validation, the copies
of questionnaire were modified again.
This study was geographically restricted to Yangon Region. There are four districts in
Yangon Region. Two districts (North and West) were randomly selected. One township from
each district was selected by using a randomly sampling method. The required sample schools
were selected by using a randomly sampling method. The sample schools were No. (7) BEMS,
Hlaing and No. (9) BEMS, Insein. The population in this study was (106) students who were
learning mathematics in Grade Seven at No. (7) BEMS, Hlaing and (62) students who were
learning mathematics in Grade Seven at No. (9) BEMS, Insein. To obtain the required data, (60)
students from No. (7) BEMS, Hlaing and (62) students from No. (9) BEMS, Insein were selected
by using a random sampling method.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and
independent sample ‘t’ test. The independent sample ‘t’ test was used to compare the
achievement of students who learned by van Hiele’s instructional model and that of students who
learned by formal instruction at virtualization, analysis and informal deduction levels.
Research Findings
The researcher provided the treatment to the experimental groups in the selected schools.
At the end of the treatment period, the posttest was administered to measure the geometric
achievement of students. The data were analyzed by using the Statistical Package of Social
Sciences (SPSS). In order to compare geometric achievement, the t-test of independent samples
was used. The results are presented in Table (4.1).
Table 4.1 t-Values for Students’ Geometric Achievement on Posttest
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEMS (7) Experimental 30 24.73 2.765
Hlaing Control 30 17.10 1.748 7.63 12.776 58 .000***
Insein Control 31 17.45 2.433 7.68 11.778 60 .000***
Note: ***p < .001
The results showed that there were significant differences between the experimental and
control groups for the scores on the geometry achievement on the posttest in each school. It
means that the scores of the experimental group were significantly higher than that of the control
group on posttest in each school.
It can be shown that there were significant differences between the experimental and
control groups for the scores on the geometry achievement on the posttest in each school. It
means that the use of van Hiele’s instructional model had positively contributed to the geometric
teaching and learning at the middle school level.
In order to compare the students’ achievement at visualizing level between the
experimental and control groups. The results are presented in Table (4.2).
Table 4.2 t-Values for Scores on Visualization Level Questions
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEMS (7) Experimental 30 8.33 .758
Hlaing Control 30 7.07 1.337 1.26 4.513 58 .000***
BEMS (9) Experimental 31 8.42 .764
Insein Control 31 7.35 .914 1.07 4.971 60 .000***
Note: ***p < .001
The results showed that there were significant differences between the achievement of
experimental and control groups on visualization level questions in each school. It means that the
scores of experimental group were significantly higher than that of control group on visualization
level questions in each school.
It can be interpreted that students of experimental groups could recognize and name figures
based in the global visual characteristics than students of control groups.
In order to compare the students’ achievement at analysis level between the experimental
and control groups, the independent samples t- test was used. The results are presented in
Table (4.3).
Table 4.3 t-Values for Scores on Analysis Level Questions
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Hlaing Control 30 5.53 1.252 3.54 10.457 58 .000***
Insein Control 31 5.22 1.359 3.33 9.445 60 .000***
Note: ***p < .001
control groups for the scores on analysis level questions in both schools. It means that the scores
of the experimental group were significantly higher than that of control group on analysis level
questions in each school.
The results of the two selected schools can be interpreted that students’ ability to list all
the properties of figures and discuss the properties of the figures and recognize them by these
properties than the use of formal instruction.
In order to compare the students’ achievement at informal deduction level between the
experimental and control groups, the independent samples t- test was used. The results are
presented in Table (4.4).
Table 4.4 t-Values for Scores on Informal Deduction Level Questions
Sig.
(2-tailed)
2.83 8.268 58 .000***
Hlaing Control 30 4.50 1.042
3.35 9.229 60 .000***
Insein Control 31 4.87 1.688
Note: ***p < .001
control groups for the scores on informal deduction level questions in both schools. It means that
the scores of the experimental group were significantly higher than that of control group on
informal deduction level questions in each school.
The results of the two selected schools can be interpreted that the use of van Hiele’s
instructional model in geometry teaching could bring about more improvement of students’
ability to formulate meaningful definitions and develop relationships of between these properties
than the use of formal instruction. Students of experimental groups could understand that
properties are related and one set of properties may simply another property. They could
understand necessary and sufficient conditions and could write concise definitions.
The following table is constructed to describe only the percentage of students’ positive
and negative attitude towards each dimension.
Table 4.5 Percentage of Students’ Positive and Do Not Have Positive Attitude towards
Each Dimension.
Percentage of Do
Percentage of
No. Dimension Not Have Positive
Positive Attitude
Attitude
1 Attitude towards Learning 98% 2%
2 Experience towards Learning 95% 5%
3 Opinion towards Learning 95% 5%
According to the results of (15) items five Likert-scale, (96%) of the students have
positive attitudes and (4%) do not have positive attitudes towards experimental learning towards
van Hiele’s instructional model.
In this research, the qualitative study for students from the experimental group of two
selected schools was carried out with a questionnaire. It consists of (15) items five-point Likert-
scale and (3) open ended questions. In this study, it was found that learning by doing increase
students’ conceptual understanding. Moreover, this learning also developed students’ self-
reliance and self-confidence. Most of students expressed that they were very excite and happy by
using hands-on activities. They gained the habit of cooperation with others. By relating previous
experiences with the new experiences, it can promote their logical thinking skills. Moreover,
students learned geometric concepts with extra activities that are related to the lesson. Therefore,
they have mastered their learning. Moreover, students expressed that their knowledge was
increased and they have willingness to learn more from experience than as usual. Some students
do not have positive attitudes because they have had no experience in that kind of asking
questions and discussion in the classroom. Therefore, experiential learning has positive
contribution to the geometry teaching and learning at the middle school level.

Discussion
In this study, the geometrical thinking levels of experimental groups which were given
instruction according to the van Hiele’s instructional model and of control groups which were
given instruction according to the formal instruction. In this context, when the post test results of
geometry achievement test of the participants were examined, a significant difference was found
in favor of experimental group. In other words, it was found that the instruction given according
to the van Hiele’s instructional model was more effective than the formal instruction in
developing geometrical thinking levels of students. Therefore, this result supports the first
hypothesis. It can be claimed that the instruction given according to van Hiele’s instructional
model was effective in developing geometrical thinking levels of students. This finding of the
study is consistent with the other research (Siew, Chong & Abdukkah, 2013).
According to the comparison of means on visualization level in two selected schools, the
results pointed out that there were significant differences between the control and experimental
groups. The result supports the second hypothesis. By using concrete or virtual models, using
models to focus on defining properties, making properties lists, and discussing sufficient
conditions to define a shape and classifying using properties of shapes were used in this study for
analysis level. The result generalized that van Hiele’s instructional model provided students with
an opportunities to recognize and identify certain geometric shapes based on the overall entity of
the objects. They had the opportunity to participate actively in the instructional process.
Besides, there were a significant between the experimental group and the control group in
two selected schools for the mean scores on Analysis Level. The result supports the third
hypothesis. The result generalized that students of experimental groups had adequate
understanding regarding the identification of the geometric shapes using their properties and their
orientation in space. In this study, the students shared their idea and opinion when they were at
the information, explicitation, and integration steps. They had the opportunity to participate
actively in the instructional process.
Moreover, the results of mean scores of the informal deduction level were also
significantly higher of experimental group than of control group in two selected schools. The
result supports the fourth hypothesis. The result indicates that the implementation of van Hiele’s
instructional model assisted students in achieving better levels of geometric thinking as compared
to those students who learned the topics conventionally. The students change to the higher level
is based on the open approach. This finding of the study is consistent with the other research
(Chew Chew Meng, 2009). So, the van Hiele’s instructional model takes the Learner Centered
Approach such as cooperative learning, learning by doing, and experience as the basis.
In this study, (15) items five-point Likert-scale and (3) open ended questions for
analyzing of Grade Seven students’ attitudes towards van Hiele’s instructional model was used.
According to the results of (15) items five Likert-scale, (96%) of the students have positive
attitudes and (4%) of the students do not have positive attitudes towards experimental learning
towards van Hiele’s instructional model. According to the findings of students’ attitude survey,
most of the selected students from each experimental group expressed that they enjoyed their
learning by using van Hiele’s instructional model. In this study, students must cooperate together,
questioning, researching, analyzing and finding solution to problems. Some students do not have
positive attitudes because they have had no experience in that kind of asking questions and
discussion in the classroom. On the other hand, they have no experiences in solving problems in
this new way and they’ve never seen this type. They always solve the problems by following the
teacher’s instruction. So, they have no confidence to solve problems themselves.
The study has also found that improvement from one level of geometric thinking to a
higher level of geometric thinking depends on the lesson taken by the students and not on their
maturity. Therefore, the method and learning organization and also the contents and teaching aids
used are the important elements of the pedagogy. In this study, the students went through all the
five steps in their first learning session to assist them to advance from first level of geometric
thinking, visualization to the second level of geometric thinking, analysis. The van Hiele’s
instructional model is dynamic and not static. It focuses on students’ actively participation.
Students can apply their learning experiences, concepts and ideas in real world. Therefore,
successful learning can be achieved by using the van Hiele’s instructional model.
Suggestions
Findings and discussion in the research will contribute to the development of geometry
teaching at the middle school level in Myanmar. Geometry teachers should strive to use van
Hiele’s instructional model in order to reinforce student’s logical reasoning and deductive
thinking for modeling abstract problems. Besides, teachers should consider the importance of the
strategies which can be used to encourage effective participation by all members in the group.
Students should be developed reasoning and thinking powers more and demanded less from
memory. Students should come to realize that thinking makes successful students of all the
subjects. According to Locke, cited in Sidhu, 1995; “Mathematics is a way to settle in the mind a
habit of reasoning”. Therefore, mathematics teachers should build new mathematical knowledge
through problems and introduce most mathematical concepts through problem solving. Teachers
should create students to explore ideas and think problems.
The van Hiele model of geometric thought can be used to guide instruction as well as
assess student abilities. The van Hiele’s instructional model indicates that effective learning take
place when students actively experience the objects of the study in appropriate contexts.
Therefore, it is suggested that by using van Hiele’s instructional model, the geometry teachers
should provide experiences organized according to the steps of learning to develop each
successive level of understanding. Teachers should be to refine the steps of learning develop van
Hiele based materials and philosophies in the classroom setting. Students should be accessible
geometric thinking.
Learning through memorization without understanding is considered not achieving the
levels of van Hiele model. Therefore, the teaching of geometry should be done systematically to
help students move from one level to another. Furthermore, the presence of various educational
technologies can facilitate the process of teaching and learning geometry in the classroom. The
geometric thinking level of the students should be identified before the teaching program. To
improve geometry teaching, teachers should be to develop tasks or activities that help them better
understand the nature of their students’ geometric reasoning and they also should have an
understanding about research concerning such reasoning.
Changes in the instructional practices should be coupled with the changes in the
curriculum to observe the efforts on students’ achievement. Constructive activities should be
encouraged. Learners should be made familiar with the techniques of drawing and folding for
enhancing their geometric thinking. Higher levels of geometric thinking can be attained by the
implementation educator guided, learner centered, hands on instructional programme. The
process of gradually moving from the concrete to abstract and from passive to active learning
under the guidance of the teachers would make objectives should be to help students to gain
insight and understanding of the subject matter and consolidate their conceptual understanding.
In this study, the researcher used van Hiele’s instructional model. According to the
research, time was an issue. It is difficult for the teacher to apply van Hiele’s instructional model
in a short period of time. Therefore, teachers should carefully arrange sets of guiding activities
designed to be performed actively by the students to reduce time constraints. Class size was also
a factor. If the class size is large, the students can miss the main points about the topic, lack of
chance to answer the teacher’s question, lack of opportunity the teaching aids independently, and
low chance to discuss with the teacher. Therefore, the class size should be (30) students to grasp
the merits of van Hiele’s instructional model. Furthermore, the emphasis of instruction and
assessment should be based on the exploration of students’ ideas and reasoning rather than on
factual information.
This research was conducted to develop the teaching of geometry at the middle school
level. However, no study is perfect in a single effort. As this study had to be carried out in four
weeks duration for each group, the time was too short to be able to yield reliable and valid
results. So, further research studies require necessary with long time duration. This study was
dealt with the efforts of van Hiele’s instructional model on students’ achievement in geometry at
the middle school level. Further research should be carried out at primary and high school levels.
Moreover, further study should be used the van Hiele’s instructional model to carry out in other
levels and areas. Therefore, mathematics teachers should use the van Hiele’s instructional model
in teaching geometry at all level.
Conclusion
This study found that van Hiele’s instructional model can be used to help students to
move from shape properties to geometrical properties, namely relationship among shapes and
their properties. These activities may help students progressing from shape properties to
geometrical properties. Therefore, students can easily explore and analyze how the shapes change
or what measures change when manipulating, and they can understand the relationships among
shapes which is the basic requirement for van Hiele geometric thinking levels.
The van Hiele’s instructional model develops students’ geometric thinking and learners to
be more independent, resourceful, interactive and cooperative as well as enabling them to build
interpersonal relationships. This model produces learners that think creatively to solve problems,
mange themselves and others, and possess independence skills. The van Hiele’s instructional
model fosters cooperation then competition. Thus, students develop a sense of responsibility and
can transfer the learned skills into real life situations. Therefore, van Hiele’s instructional model
can encourage the improvement of the students’ higher order thinking skills, social skills,
communication skills, and reasoning skills in learning geometry.
According to the posttest scores for geometric achievement, there were significant
differences between van Hiele’s instructional model and formal instruction on the geometric
achievement in each school. Conclusions can be drawn on the basic of the results of research
findings. In terms of the statistical results, students’ achievement between van Hiele’s
instructional model and formal instruction had significant difference on overall geometric
achievement. It can be concluded that van Hiele’s instructional model had positively contributed
to the improvement of geometry achievement and can promote the students’ geometric thinking
levels.
A qualitative study was done to study the students’ feelings, attitudes, experiences and
opinions about geometry teaching with van Hiele’s instructional model. Most of the students
described that they were very happy and satisfied by using the van Hiele’s instructional model. It
also promoted their conceptual understanding. They also felt that they wanted to learn geometry
by doing experiments and activities. Thus, students’ interest and attitudes are very important for
geometry learning. According to this research, the qualitative research findings indicated that the
attitudes, experiences and opinions of students towards learning of geometry were positive.
Therefore, van Hiele’s instructional model is a useful strategy in the school system.
Finally, using statistical analysis and findings of the study the conclusions drawn were as
follows:
1. The van Hiele’s instructional model has positive impact on teaching geometry.
2. The van Hiele’s instructional model plays an important role in teaching of geometry.
3. The geometric thinking levels of students who were taught by van Hiele’s instructional
model were better than that of students who were not taught by formal instruction.
4. The van Hiele’s instructional model helps students to develop their levels of geometric
thinking. Moreover, their problem solving skills and their academic achievement also
developed.
In teaching and learning of mathematics at the basic education level in Myanmar,
teaching-learning process needs to be transformed: from the current teacher-centered approach to
learner-centered approach. The students should become active and independent learners in the
active learning classroom with the help and guidance of their mathematics teachers. So, if
possible, van Hiele’s instructional model should be used in teaching geometry. There is no one
best way of teaching for all kinds situations. Each teacher must decide for himself what strategies
work best for him with his students. Although this model cannot manipulate all the issues that
found in the teaching and learning environment of geometry, it is hoped that this study can be
beneficial to some extent for geometry teaching in Myanmar.
It can be concluded that van Hiele’s instructional model brings positive contributions to
the geometry teaching at the middle school level. It is essential in teaching geometry. It can also
develop geometric thinking, the core of teaching geometry. So, further researches are
recommended to explore the effect of van Hiele’s instructional model in all levels for the
improvement of geometry teaching.
Acknowledgements
and Head, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education for her invaluable guidance and
suggestions throughout M.Ed. program. We also want to express our thanks to all participants in our study. We are
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AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISCOVERY

LEARNING IN TEACHING LOWER SECONDARY SCIENCE
Thida Wai1 and Soe Than2
Abstract
The major purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of discovery learning in
teaching lower secondary science. The study was conducted with both quantitative and qualitative
research methods. Firstly, a descriptive study was made to explore whether there is a link between
the junior assistant science teachers’ teaching-learning activities and the six stages of discovery
learning cycle. The subjects for this study were selected from the Yangon City Development Area
by using a stratified random sampling method. A total of (198) junior assistant science teachers
from (36) schools were selected for the study. According to the results, the activities of the junior
assistant science teachers are strongly linked with the engagement and readiness stage, but weakly
linked with the exploration and discovery stage of the discovery learning cycle. Secondly, an
experimental study was used to investigate the effectiveness of discovery learning. In this
experimental study, the subjects were Grade Six students selected from the schools where there
have moderate teachers' teaching-learning activities on discovery learning in each strata. The
experimental design adopted in this study was one of the quasi-experimental designs, namely,
nonequivalent control group design. The experimental group was treated with discovery learning
and the control group was taught by using teacher-centered method. After that, a posttest was
administered to two groups. Independent samples t-test was used to test whether there were
significant differences between the two groups. Findings indicated that those who received a
treatment by using discovery learning demonstrated significantly better than those who do not
received it. Findings proved that discovery learning has positive contribution to the science
teaching at the middle school level and could encourage the improvement of students’ higher order
thinking skills.
Keywords: Effectiveness, Discovery Learning, Science
Introduction
Today, the world is passing through rapid changes. In such a world, education cannot
resist to change. Memorizing facts and information is not the most important skill in today's
world. The important point is an understanding of how to get and make sense of the mass of data.
In a society in which education has focused on transmitting "what we know," it is a challenge to
develop a widespread view that "how we come to know" is very important in modern society.
The teacher’s role was to help raise the interest of learners, guide them in discovery and ensure
relevance of the exercises.
Schools need to go beyond data and information accumulation and move toward the
generation of useful and applicable knowledge. The child should make them his own, and should
understand their application here and now in the circumstances of his actual life. From the very
beginning of his education, the child should experience the joy of discovery. The discovery
which he has to make is that general give an understanding of that stream of events which pours
through his life, which is his life. Of course, education should be useful, whatever the aim of life
(Whitehead, 1967).
1
2 Dr, Retired Professor, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
Education is the acquisition of the art, of the utilization of knowledge. This is an art very
difficult to impart. In education, the broad primrose path leads to a nasty place. This evil path is
represented by a book or set of lectures which will practically enable the student to learn by heart
all questions likely to be asked at the next examination. It contains within itself the problem of
keeping knowledge alive, of preventing it from becoming inert, which is the central problem of
all education.
Instruction is geared toward helping the students to develop learning and thinking
strategies that are appropriate for working within various subjects domains. In the discovery
learning process, learners always personally construct their understanding. The key notion is that
people learn best by actively constructing their own understanding. It is a very personal
endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules and principles may consequently be applied in a
practical real-world context.
Purposes
The purposes of this study are as follows:
1. To explore whether junior assistant science teachers’ teaching-learning activities are
linked with discovery learning.
2. To develop an instructional design for science teachers to apply discovery learning in
science teaching.
3. To investigate the effectiveness of discovery learning in Grade Six students, whose
science teachers’ teaching learning activities are linked with discovery learning.
4. To give suggestion for improving middle school science teaching based on the data
obtained from this study.
Research Questions
This study is intended to answer the following research questions:
1. What degree do junior assistant science teachers use the activities that are linked with
discovery learning?
2. Do students from the discovery learning group perform better than those from the
teacher-centered learning group on the overall science achievement test?
3. How do students and teachers feel towards discovery learning in science teaching?
Effectiveness
Effectiveness (effective) means having power to produce, or producing, a desire result
(Times-Chambers, 1992).
Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is the act of finding out something that before was unknown to
mankind, including all forms of obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one’s own mind
(Bruner, 1997).
Discovery learning is the mental process of assimilating concepts and principles.
Discovery learning occurs when an individual is mainly involved in using his mental process to
mediate (or discover) some concept or principle (Trowbridge & Bybee, 1990).
Limitations
(1) This study is geographically restricted to Yangon Region.
(2) For the descriptive research design, participants are only junior assistant science teachers
from the selected schools.
(3) For the experimental research design, participants are chosen from Grade Six students in
the four selected schools in which junior assistant science teachers’ teaching learning
activities are linked with discovery learning.

Theoretical Foundation of Discovery Learning
In developing the discovery learning for science teaching, constructivism is deeply taken
into consideration. Constructivism is a way of teaching and learning that intends to maximize
student understanding. Constructivism is defined as teaching that emphasizes the active role of
the learner in building understanding and making sense of information (Cruickshank & Jenkins,
2006). Constructivists believe that to gain understanding requires students to engage in group
experiences in which they learn through active involvement, by doing. Constructivists believe
that the role of the teacher is to facilitate active involvement and to support groups and
individuals to increase their likelihood for success. Social constructivists view the classroom as a
community charged with the task of developing knowledge. Social constructivists view learning
as an active process where learners should learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for
themselves. Bruner’s definition of “discovery” was not restricted to “the act of finding out
something that before was unknown to mankind, but rather included all forms of obtaining
knowledge for oneself by the use of one’s own mind” (Bruner, 1977).
According to Dewey, education should not be separate from life itself that education
should be child-centered, guided by a well-trained teacher who is grounded in pedagogical and
subject knowledge. He advocated that child-centered learning must be based on real-world
experiences. In his book “Democracy and Education”, Dewey argued that it was critical for
teaching to go beyond the presentation of facts. In the discovery learning process, students
interact with the environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with the
questions and controversies, or performing experiments, solving the problems and making
decision. Discovery learning is a forerunner to constructivist thinking of learning and recognizes
that knowledge is constructed by the learner in their own mind.
Developing Discovery Learning for Science Teaching

Today, science teaching is an important and vital topic in modern education. Science is
the system of knowing about the universe through data collected by observation and controlled
experimentation. It is a way of thinking, a way of understanding the world (Carin & Sund, 1989).
Ways of thinking in science are called the process skills. In the discovery learning process, the
learner uses the mind in logical and mathematical ways to organize and internalize concepts and
principles of the world.
In 1962, Robert Karplus and J. Myron Atkin developed the three-phase learning cycle for
discovery learning. Originally, the three phases of the cycle were referred to as exploration,
invention, and discovery (see Figure 1).
1. EXPLORATION
2. CONCEPT 3. DISCOVERY
INVENTION
(teacher-
Figure 1: The Three-phase Discovery Learning Cycle

Sources: From Carin & Sund, (1989), p. 99
In the late 1980s, Rodger Bybee modified the learning cycle to include additional phases
such as engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation (see Figure 2).
Sources: From Moyre, Hackett & Everett, (2007), p. 12

Figure 2 The 5E Discovery Learning Cycle
In 2008, Page Keeley formulated the science assessment, instruction, and learning cycle
consists of engagement and readiness, eliciting prior knowledge, exploration and discovery,
concept and skill development, concept and skill transfer, and self-assessment and reflection.
Based on the above consideration factors of discovery learning, researcher develops the proposed
discovery learning model for science teaching in basic education.
Learning Process
Identifying Engagement and Readiness

Content
Eliciting Prior Knowledge
Instructional Exploration and Discovery

Objectives
Concept and Skill Development
Concept and Skill Transfer
Self-assessment and Reflection
No Feed-back
Evaluatio
n Yes
Next Content
Figure 3 Proposed Discovery Learning Model for Science Teaching in Basic Education
Methodology
The study was conducted with both quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Quantitatively, it consists of both descriptive study and experimental study.
Quantitative Research Method

Descriptive Study
Subjects
The subjects for this study were selected from the Yangon City Development Area by
using stratified random sampling method.
Table 1 Selected Townships and Subjects from Yangon City Development Area
Strata No.of No.of No.of No. of Selected
Townships Selected Subjects from Subjects from
Townships Each Each Strata
Township
Inner City 8 2 22 44
Inner Suburb 9 2 22 44
Outer Suburb 6 2 22 44
Satellite 10 3 22 66
Total 33 9 88 198
Instrument
For this study, a set of questionnaires was used to find out whether junior assistant
science teachers’, especially Grade Six science teachers’ teaching-learning activities were linked
with the six stages of the discovery learning cycle. The six stages of the discovery learning cycle
are (1) Engagement and Readiness (ER), (2) Eliciting Prior Knowledge (EPK), (3) Exploration
and Discovery (ED), (4) Concept and Skill Development (CSD), (5) Concept and Skill Transfer
(CST), (6) Self-Assessment and Reflection (SAR). It was developed by Page Keeley, (2008). The
questionnaire include (44) items of questions to describe teachers' teaching-learning activities in
science teaching comprising (42) items of five-point Likert-scale and two open-ended questions.
Procedure
First, literature study concerning with discovery learning was explored and a
questionnaire was constructed based on the six stages of discovery learning cycle for junior
assistant teachers’ teaching- learning activities under the supervision of the supervisor and co-
supervisor. For the validation of the research instrument, questionnaires were sent to teacher
educators and junior assistant science teachers. Necessary modifications were made under the
supervision of the supervisor and co-supervisor. After getting the validation, a pilot test was
conducted with (50) junior assistant science teachers from schools in Sanchaung Township in
June, 2013. After the pilot test, the major survey was conducted in July, 2013. Questionnaires
were distributed to (198) junior assistant science teachers from selected schools. After collecting
the questionnaires, data were analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the Social Science
(SPSS 20).
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation,
frequency, percentage) and one way ANOVA (analysis of variance).
Experimental Study
Subjects
In the experimental study, the subjects were Grade Six students selected from the schools
in which the teachers' teaching-learning activities are moderately linked to discovery learning.
Table 2 Sample Size from Four Selected Schools
No. of Subjects
Strata Name of School
Control Experimental Total
Inner City BEMS (1),Mingalartaungnyunt 47 47 94
Inner Suburb BEMS (4), Hlaing 50 50 100
Outer Suburb BEMS (5), Mingalardon 43 43 86
Satellite BEHS (3), North Okkalapa 56 56 112
Experimental Design
The experimental design adopted in this study was one of the quasi-experimental designs,
namely, nonequivalent control group design.

No. of Subjects
Group Pretest Treatment Posttest
BEMS(1) BEMS(4) BEMS(5) BEHS(3)
Control 47 50 43 56 BSK Teacher-Centered SA
Experimental 47 50 43 56 BSK Discovery Learning SA

Note: BSK= Basic Science Knowledge, SA= Science Achievement
Instrument
(a) Pretest
The pretest consists of (30) multiple choice items. Test items were constructed based on
Grade Five Basic Science textbook.
(b) Posttest
The posttest consists of two sections. Section (A) consists of (30) multiple choice items
and section (B) consists of (10) short-answer items. Test items were constructed on Chapter (4),
“Energy” from Grade Six General Science textbook.
Procedure
In order to measure the prerequisite knowledge of the selected sample students, a pretest
was administered before the treatment was provided. All the selected students had to take it.
After that the experimental group was treated with discovery learning and the control group was
taught as usual. Posttest was conducted in order to identify whether there is any significant
difference between those who did discovery learning and those who did not.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics, the independent samples t-test to
compare the differences between the control group and experimental group.
Qualitative Research Method
A qualitative study was conducted to collect the information that could not be observed
directly such as students’ attitudes, feelings, experiences, and opinions towards discovery
learning.
Subjects
To obtain the necessary qualitative data, students were selected from the experimental
groups of four schools (see Table 4).
Table 4 Sample Size from Four Selected Schools
Strata Name of School No. of Subjects
Inner City BEMS(1), Mingalartaungnyunt 47
Inner Suburb BEMS (4), Hlaing 50
Outer Suburb BEMS (5), Mingalardon 43
Satellite BEHS (3), North Okkalapa 56
Instrument
To examine the students’ attitudes, feelings, experiences, and opinions, a questionnaire
was constructed with (15) items of four-point Likert-scale and (5) open ended questions. For four
science teachers from the four selected schools, ten open-ended questions were also constructed
to interview their attitude towards discovery learning.
Findings
Findings of Descriptive Study
According to the finding, the mean score of the engagement and readiness stage is the
highest and the mean score of the exploration and discovery stage is the lowest in the six stages
of discovery learning (see Table 5). It can be interpreted that, the activities of the junior assistant
science teachers are strongly linked with the engagement and readiness stage but weakly linked
with the exploration and discovery stage of the discovery learning cycle.
Table 5 Mean and Standard Deviation of Junior Assistant Science Teachers’ Teaching-
Learning Activities on Six Stages of Discovery Learning Cycle
No. of Standard
Teaching Stage Mean
Subjects Deviation
Engagement and Readiness (ER) 198 4.33 .470
Eliciting Prior Knowledge (EPK) 198 4.01 .609
Exploration and Discovery (ED) 198 3.67 .621
Concept and Skill Development (CSD) 198 3.89 .739
Concept and Skill Transfer (CST) 198 3.84 .733
Self-Assessment and Reflection (SAR) 198 3.90 .685
Total 198 3.89 .488
Findings of Experimental Study
Findings of Posttest
The mean score of the experimental group was significantly higher than that of the
control group in each school (see Table 6). It can be interpreted that the use of discovery learning
has significant effect on the overall science achievement of the students
Table 6 t-values for Posttest Science Achievement Scores from Four Selected Schools
School Group N M SD MD t df Sig(2tailed)

BEMS (1) Control 47 24.98 5.52
Mingalar ̶ 11.74 ̶ 13.91 92 .000***
taungnyunt
BEMS (4) Control 50 26.44 3.67
̶ 9.32 ̶ 13.54 .000***
Hlaing Experimental 50 35.76 3.19 98
BEMS (5) Control 43 25.07 4.41
̶ 9.46
Mingalardon Experimental 43 34.53 3.00 ̶ 11.63 84 .000***
BEHS (3) Control 56 27.82 3.71
North Okkalapa Experimental 56 37.68 2.26 ̶ 9.86 ̶ 16.96 110 .000***
Note: ***p<.001
There was a significant difference between the control group and experimental group in
No. (4) BEMS Hlaing. But there was no significant difference between the control group and the
experimental group in three schools. It can be interpreted that teacher-centered technique can also
bring about the improvement of students’ ability to remember previously learned materials as
discovery learning (see Table 7).
Table 7 t-values for Scores on Knowledge Level Questions
Sig
(2tailed)
BEMS (1) Control 47 3.72 0.54
Mingalar- ̶ 0.15 ̶ 1.60 92 .112
taungnyunt Experimental 47 3.87 0.34
BEMS (4) Control 50 3.08 0.77
̶ 0.62 ̶ 4.72 98 .000***
Hlaing Experimental 50 3.70 0.50
BEMS (5) Control 43 3.47 0.79
̶ 0.18 ̶ 1.21 84 .238
Mingalardon Experimental 43 3.65 0.62
BEHS (3) Control 56 3.79 0.45
̶ 0.07 ̶ 0.93 110 .356
North Okkalapa Experimental 56 3.86 0.35
Note: ***p<.001
On the comprehension level questions, the mean score of experimental group was
significantly higher than that of control group in each school (see Table 8). It can be interpreted
that discovery learning can encourage the improvement of students’ conceptual understanding.
Table 8 t-values for Scores on Comprehension Level Questions
Sig
(2tailed)
BEMS (1) Control 47 7.23 1.56
Mingalar-
Experimental 47 9.51 0.62 ̶ 2.28 ̶ 9.28 92 .000***
taungnyunt
BEMS (4) Control 50 7.60 1.37
Hlaing
Experimental 50 9.02 0.94 ̶ 1.42 ̶ 6.05 98 .000***
BEMS (5) Control 43 7.49 1.50

Mingalardon Experimental 43 8.79 1.08 ̶ 1.30 ̶ 4.61 84 .000***
BEHS (3) Control 56 7.73 1.24
North
Experimental 56 9.32 0.92 ̶ 1.59 ̶ 7.70 110 .000***
Okkalapa
Note: ***p<.001
On the application level questions, the mean score of experimental group was
significantly higher than that of control group in each school (see Table 9). It can be interpreted
that discovery learning can bring about the improvement of students’ ability to apply science
concepts in new situations.
Table 9 t-values for Scores on Application Level Questions

Sig
(2tailed)
BEMS (1) Control 47 6.11 1.68
Mingalar-
Experimental 47 9.17 0.95 ̶ 3.06 ̶ 10.95 92 .000***
taungnyunt
BEMS (4) Control 50 6.64 1.27

Hlaing Experimental 50 8.56 1.21 ̶ 1.92 ̶ 7.71 98 .000***
BEMS (5) Control 43 6.40 1.61

BEHS (3) Control 56 5.96 1.38
North
Experimental 56 8.57 0.65 ̶ 2.61 ̶ 12.71 110 .000***
Okkalapa
Note: ***p<.001
On the analysis level questions, the mean score of experimental group was significantly
higher than that of control group in each school (see Table 10). It can be interpreted that
discovery learning can enhance the ability of students’ analytical understanding of science
concepts.
Table 10 t-values for Scores on Analysis Level Questions
Sig
(2tailed)
BEMS (1) Control 47 7.28 2.09
Mingalar-
Experimental 47 10.68 1.20 ̶ 3.40 ̶ 9.67 92 .000***
taungnyunt
BEMS (4) Control 50 8.06 1.79
BEMS (5) Control 43 7.05 1.86
BEHS (3) Control 56 8.41 1.42
North
Experimental 56 11.18 1.08 ̶ 2.77 ̶ 11.59 110 .000***
Okkalapa
Note: ***p<.001
On the synthesis level questions, the mean score of experimental group was significantly
discovery learning can enhance the students’ ability to synthesize their science concepts and
ideas.
Table 11 t-values for Scores on Synthesis Level Questions

Sig
(2tailed)
BEMS (1) Control 47 0.98 0.49
Mingalar-
Experimental 47 1.89 0.31 ̶ 0.91 ̶ 10.82 92 .000***
taungnyunt
BEMS (4) Control 50 1.04 0.40
BEMS (5) Control 43 1.33 0.61
BEHS (3) Control 56 1.27 0.56
North
Experimental 56 1.93 0.26 ̶ 0.66 ̶ 8.06 110 .000***
Okkalapa
Note: ***p<.001
On the evaluation level questions, the mean score of experimental group was significantly
discovery learning can bring about the improvement of students’ evaluation skill.
Table 12 t-values for Scores on Evaluation Level Questions
Sig
(2tailed)
BEMS (1) Control 47 0.87 1.01
Mingalar-
Experimental 47 2.60 0.65 ̶ 1.73 ̶ 9.82 92 .000***
taungnyunt
BEMS (4) Control 50 0.80 0.88
BEMS (5) Control 43 0.30 0.51
BEHS (3) Control 56 0.88 0.83
North
Experimental 56 2.82 0.43 ̶ 1.94 ̶ 15.53 110 .000***
Okkalapa
Note: ***p<.001
In summary, there was a significant difference between the control and experimental
groups for the scores on the overall science achievement in all the selected schools. It can be
interpreted that the use of discovery learning has significant effect on the overall science
achievement of the students.
In this research study, the qualitative study for the students from the experimental group
of four selected schools was carried out with a questionnaire. It consists of (15) items four-point
Likert-scale and five open ended questions. In this study, it was found that learning by doing
makes the students develop their self-reliance and self-confidence. Most of the students
expressed that they were very happy by using teaching learning materials in the discovery
learning. They learned their classmates’ opinions during discussion. They gained the habit of
cooperation with others. Moreover, this learning was really new experiences as they had never
worked in groups, they had a good chance to cooperate with their classmates in doing the
activities.
For the qualitative study for the teachers from the experimental group of four selected
schools, ten open-ended questions were constructed to interview their attitudes towards discovery
learning. Most of the science teachers described that the discovery learning has many advantages
for students, science lessons become very alive by using teaching aids effectively in this learning.
Students can understand the learning materials very easily and clearly. But, some of the science
teachers mentioned that there were some difficulties to perform this learning because of the
limitation of time, over-crowded students in a classroom, the limitations of the space of
classroom and shortage of teaching aids. Although there are some difficulties to perform the
discovery learning effectively, most of the science teachers mentioned that the use of discovery
learning had significant effect on the overall science achievement of the students. Thus,
discovery learning has positive contribution to the science teaching and learning at the middle
school level.
Discussion and Suggestions
Science teaching is an important and vital topic in modern education. In science teaching,
teacher’s role expands to helping students use various strategies to understand how well they are
learning. When students are challenged by something they want to learn, they try to consider any
incoming data in the light of related information from previous experiences. The more they are
involved in solving problems, the more likely they are to learn to generalize what they have
learned into a style of discovery that serves them best. In the discovery learning process, the
students draw on their past experiences and existing knowledge to discover facts and
relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and
manipulating objects and performing experiments.
According to the descriptive results, the mean score of the engagement and readiness
stage is the highest and the mean score of the exploration and discovery stage is the lowest in the
six stages of discovery learning. It can be interpreted that, the activities of the junior assistant
science teachers are strongly linked with the engagement and readiness stage but weakly linked
with the exploration and discovery stage of the discovery learning cycle.
According to the experimental results, there was no significant difference between the
control and the experimental groups for the pretest in each school. It can be interpreted that, the
students from the control group and experimental group in each school had the same prior
knowledge before the treatment was provided. The posttest mean score of the experimental
groups was significantly higher than that of the control group in each school. The findings point
out that the discovery learning has significant effect on the science achievement of the students.
This finding supports the research report of Holfwolt (1984): discovery learning produces
significant learner achievement in science learning that compared to more traditional teacher and
textbook centered.
In the responses of open-ended questions, most of the students describes that they were
pleased when they could find the answer by doing the activities in the discovery learning. It can
be interpreted that, most of the students want to learn the science lessons by doing the activities
themselves. Bruner (1977) suggested that students are more likely to remember concepts if they
discover them on their own. He stated that students could be more successful learners by working
in environments that facilitated discovery, actively exploring information in order to find

connections with what they already know and forming conclusions from this exploration.
The students expressed in the responses of open-ended questions that they were very
happy in learning by using discovery learning, because they did not need to memorize everything
in that learning. They gained the habit of self-reliance and self-confidence by answering the
questions that are based on their own experiences. Some students (20%) from No. (4) BEMS
Hlaing and (15%) from No. (3) BEHS North Okkalapa did not strongly agree to the item that
learning by asking questions, answering questions and discussing their opinions make the
students develop their desire to learn. Some of the students described that they had worries in
asking questions and discussing their opinions because this experience was unusual for them. It is
one of the responsibilities of the science teachers to cultivate the students to develop their
interpersonal skill by making discussion, asking questions, expression and sharing their own
opinions with others.
In the responses of open-ended questions, some science teachers mentioned that they
realized that discovery learning is of great value for the teachers and students for science
teaching and learning, but there were some difficulties to perform this learning because of the
limitation of time, over-crowded students in the classroom, the limitations of the space of
classroom and shortage of teaching aids. It is suggested that the arrangement of the space should
be made easy and natural for the students to work together and talk to each other.
During the observation, it was found that there are not enough classrooms in some
schools. The space of the classroom is also one of the difficulties for doing activities. If the
schools have enough teaching learning materials, classrooms and teachers, discovery learning
can be appropriately and effectively used in science classrooms. The trend towards hands-on
learning cannot take place in science classroom in the absence of equipment and supplies. It is
suggested that teachers should be encouraged to use a variety of instructional materials and
resources. Moreover, the Ministry of Education should provide greater support for science
education, particularly in terms of equipment and supplies budget.
At the last stage of the discovery learning cycle, reflection and self-assessment, the
students from the experimental group were given the opportunity to think about how ideas have
changed and how well one understands the concept and skills. Some students have difficulties to
perform at this stage because this experience was unusual for them. Therefore, science teachers
have to cultivate the students to develop this self-assessment and reflection skills. This skill is
very important for students to successful learning in the discovery learning. Moreover, one of the
difficulties of the teachers is that the content of the syllabus is to be taught for the final exam and
all become exam-centered, that can hinder the use of discovery learning in science teaching.
Another important issue is that the students’ outcomes are associated with memorization of facts
without understanding the concepts. Therefore, it is suggested that the focus of instruction and
assessment should be changed from factual information to exploration of students’ ideas and
reasoning that emphasize understanding of science concepts. In doing so, teachers should
evaluate students’ understanding of cognitive processes by asking students “What, How, Why”
questions related to the targeted skill.
The examination oriented system that determines the students’ grade may not be the most
appropriate and fair assessment of students’ abilities and is conducive to rote learning. Therefore,
it is suggested that the assessment system should be changed to the continuous assessment of the
practical or activity based work and the weightage for continuous assessment be added to the
final examination to calculate final grade or score to be awarded to a student. In the responses of
open-ended questions, most of the teachers expressed that they have so many tasks to perform in
the time available. They feel overloaded especially for monthly tests. Therefore, it is suggested
that teachers need enough time to prepare the materials for their science activities. The degree to
which teachers have preparation time positively influences the degree to which they use hands-
on, minds-on, interactive teaching approaches to achieve students’ science process skills. When
curriculum is implemented, sufficient emphasis should be placed on the development of students’
understanding, process skills and high level cognitive outcomes.
It is hoped that by using discover learning in the classroom, students can be well prepared
to meet the challenges of their future in a rapidly changing world. Although discovery learning
cannot solve all the problems faced by the teachers in teaching and learning science today, it is
hoped that this learning can be useful to some extent for science teaching.
Conclusion
The main purpose of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of discovery learning
in teaching lower secondary science. Both quantitative and qualitative studies were conducted to
obtain the required data. Firstly, a descriptive survey was made to explore whether there was a
link between the junior assistant science teachers’ teaching-learning activities and the six stages
of discovery learning cycle. Data were collected through a questionnaire. According to the
descriptive results, the activities of the junior assistant science teachers are strongly linked with
the engagement and readiness stage of the discovery learning cycle, but weakly linked with the
exploration and discovery stage of the discovery learning cycle. Moreover, one way ANOVA
was also used to examine the differences among the strata. It was found that there were no
significant differences among the strata concerning junior assistant science teachers’ teaching-
learning activities on discovery learning cycle.
Secondly, an experimental research design was used to investigate the effectiveness of
discovery learning. Posttest results showed that there was a significant difference between the
control group and experimental group on the overall science achievement in each school.
Generalization can be drawn on the basis of the results. In terms of the statistical results,
students’ performance had significant difference on the overall science achievement and
achievement of comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation level questions.
Teacher and textbook centered techniques can also bring about the improvement of lower levels
of cognitive domain as discovery learning. It can be interpreted that discovery learning can
encourage the improvement of the students’ higher order thinking skills.
The results of qualitative findings indicate that the attitude and values of students towards
the subjects, towards themselves and towards others were also developed. Students described that
they could express their own opinions in the discovery learning. Moreover, they learned their
classmates’ opinions during discussion. They gained the habit of cooperation with others. Some
of the students described that they were afraid at the beginning and later became happy. They
were pleased when they could find the answer by themselves.
Most of the science teachers described that the discovery learning has many advantages
for students, science lessons become very alive by using teaching aids effectively in this learning.
Students can understand the learning materials very easily and clearly. It can be interpreted that,
student become very active participant by using teaching aids effectively in discover learning.
Most of the science teachers mentioned that the use of discovery learning had significant effect
on the overall science achievement of the students. The qualitative data also supported the
findings of the quantitative data.
To sum up, this study showed that discovery learning can provide teachers with many
insights into how students can learn about and appreciate science. Moreover discovery learning is
useful not only in improving achievement but also in helping students to construct their views
about science and develop thinking ability. The effective use of discovery learning has significant
effect on the overall science achievement of the students. Discovery learning surely has positive
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my respectful gratitude to Dr. Khin Zaw, Retired Rector, Yangon University of
Education, Dr. Htoo Htoo Aung, Retired Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education, Daw Khin Aye Myint,
Retired Professor and Head, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education, Daw Khin Hla Than,
Retired Professor, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education, and Daw Aye Aye Kywe, Retired
Associate Professor, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education for their valuable support and
precious advice during the study. I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Soe Than, Retired
Professor and Head, Methodology Department, Sagaing University of Education for his precious advice, valuable
guidance, continuous encouragement throughout the study, reviewing and editing my dissertation to complete
successfully.
References
Bruner, J. S. (1997). The process of education. New York: Harvard University Press.
Carin, A. A. & Sund, R. B. (1989). Teaching science through discovery. New York: Macmillan Publication, Inc.
Cruickshank, D. R., Jenkins, D. b. & Metcalf, K. K. (2006). The act of teaching. New York: Mc Graw Hill.
Dewey, J. (2004). Democracy and education (6th ed.). New York: Dover Publication, Inc.
Keeley, P. (2008). Science formative assessment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Moyer, R. H., Everett S. A., & Hackett, J. K. (2007) Teaching science as investigations. New Jersey: Pearson Press.
Times-Chambers. (1992). Learners’ dictionary. Singapore: Federal Publication.
Torwbrigre, L.W. & Bybee, R.W. (1990). Becoming a secondary school science teacher. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company.
Whitehead, A. N. (1967). The aims of education and other essays. New York: The Free Press.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ADVANCE ORGANIZER MODEL ON

STUDENTS’ SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT AT THE MIDDLE
SCHOOL LEVEL
Swe Zin Thant1 and Thida Wai2
Abstract
The major purpose of this research was to study effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model on
students’ science achievement at the middle school level. This study was conducted with both
quantitative and qualitative research methods. For quantitative research, an experimental study
was used to study effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model. In this experimental study, the
subjects were Grade Eight students selected from No (1) BEHS Latha and No (4) BEHS
Pazundaung. The experimental designed adopted in this study was a true experimental design,
namely, posttest only control group design. For this study, (120) Grade Eight students were
selected from both schools by random sampling method. These students were divided into two
groups: control and experimental. The experimental group was treated with Advance Organizer
Model and the control group was taught with formal instruction. After that, a posttest was
administered to two groups. Independent samples t-test was used to test whether there was
significant difference between these two groups. Examination of the means and t-test at No (1)
BEHS Latha (t=11.99, df =58, MD=7.94, p=.000) and No (4) BEHS Pazundaung (t=13.90, df=58,
MD=8.30, p=.000) indicated that students who were taught by Advance Organizer Model
demonstrated significantly better than those who were taught with formal instruction. The
qualitative data also supported the findings from the experimentation. For this research study,
students from the experimental group from two selected schools were given a questionnaire. The
results showed that the students expressed their willingness to learn in Advance Organizer Model
and they had positive attitudes towards this Advance Organizer Model. Research findings proved
that Advance Organizer Model has positive contribution to the science teaching at the middle
school level.
Keywords: Effectiveness, Advance Organizer Model, Science, Achievement
Introduction
Education is a continuous and lifelong process. The aim of education is not to prepare
people only for the present, but also to prepare them for the future and to train them in such a
manner that they can meet the challenges of the future in an appropriate manner. In addition,
education is a foundation for socioeconomic development of a country. In national education
strategic plan (NESP), the purpose of Myanmar’s national education system is to equip students,
youth and adult learners with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in the 21st century
(Ministry of Education [MOE], 2016).
In 21st century, the world has dramatically changed and many challenges have been
emerged. In order to keep up with and to confront them, teaching demands a complicated activity
that requires creative thinking and a commitment to lifelong learning. Thus, teachers must not
give a fish to students and they must teach them how to get a fish. Teachers must decide wisely
which teaching methods are the best suitable for their students like painters and sculptors. In
making decisions for teaching methods, learners’ needs and societal needs will be taken into
1
Senior Assistant Teacher,No. (1) Basic Education High School Dagon Seikkan Township,Yangon Region
2
Dr, Lecturer, Methodology Department,Yangon University of Education
account. Accordingly, teaching methods used in the classroom must be aligned with 21st century
skills. Nevertheless, the purpose of teaching is to facilitate learning.
Learning should be meaningful to prepare students for confrontation with the challenges
st
of 21 century. Ausubel (2000) described that meaningful learning occurs when material is
related to existing cognitive structure in nonverbatim and nonarbitrary manner. In rote learning,
students have to overlearn for retrieval of learned information from the memory. They have to
put more effort into their learning without understanding the relationships between concepts,
rules and propositions. In this way, learning becomes a burden for students. Rote learning gives
boredom to students and locks their thinking skills. Teachers should have a key to unlock this
door for students’ thinking skills. Only meaningful learning encourages thinking, creativity and
innovation. Not to occur rote learning in students, teachers can use Advance Organizer Model
which is based on meaningful verbal learning. The purpose of this research is to investigate the
effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model (AOM) on students’ science achievement at the
middle school level.
The major purpose of this study is to study the effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model
on students’ science achievement at the middle school level.
The specific purposes are as follow:
 To compare science achievement between students who are taught by Advance Organizer
Model and those who are not
 To investigate students’ attitudes towards Advance Organizer Model
 To make suggestions for improving science teaching based on the data obtained from this
study
Research Hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference in the achievement on science learning between Grade
Eight students who are taught by Advance Organizer Model and those who are not.
2. There is a significant difference in performing knowledge level questions on science
learning between Grade Eight students who are taught by Advance Organizer Model and
those who are not.
3. There is a significant difference in performing comprehension level questions on science
those who are not.
4. There is a significant difference in performing application level questions on science
those who are not.
5. The students who learned with Advance Organizer Model have positive attitudes toward
learning, interest in inquiry, and habits of precise thinking.
 Effectiveness is a measure of the match between stated goals and their achievement
(Fraser, 1994, as cited in Harvey, 2018).
 Advance organizer can be defined as introductory material presented ahead of the

learning task and at a higher level of abstraction and inclusiveness than the learning task
itself (Ausubel, 1968, as cited in Joyce & Weil, 2003).
 Science can be defined as an interconnected series of concepts and conceptual; schemes
that have developed as a result of experimentation and observation (Conant, 1951).
 Achievement can be defined as the students’ grasp of some body of knowledge or
proficiency in certain skills (Tinambunan, 1988).
Scope of the Study
The following points are the scope of the study.
 No (1) BEHS Latha and No (4) BEHS Pazundaung are selected for this study.
 Participants of this study are (120) Grade Eight students from selected schools in the
academic year (2018-2019).
 The content area is limited to chapter five: The Earth and Space from Grade Eight
General Science Textbook.
The philosophy of education is the most important aspect of teacher training because it
explains how educational theories arise. By examining the philosophy of education, teachers are
able to see why and how theories complement or oppose each other. Educational theories are
backbones of successful teaching and learning processes. If teachers understand and avail them
effectively, they can bring meaningful learning to students.
Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory focuses on how people attend to environmental events,
encode information to be learned and relate it to knowledge in memory, store new knowledge in
memory, and retrieve it as needed (Shuell, 1986 as cited in Schunk, 2012). According to Mayer
(1996), humans are processors of information. The mind is an information-processing system.
Cognition is a series of mental processes. Learning is the acquisition of mental representations.
Learners are active seekers and processors of information. If teachers understand how learners
process information, they can design learning experiences that optimize this activity.
Meaningful Reception Learning Theory
The acquisition of new meanings from presented learning material makes meaningful
reception learning. To be meaningful, there are two requirements: a meaningful learning set and
the presentation of potentially meaningful materials to the learner. Meaningful learning and the
learning of meaningful material are not same. First, the learning material is only potentially
meaningful. Second, a meaningful learning set must be present. Learning material may consist of
already meaningful components, but each component of the learning task and the learning task as
a whole is not logically meaningful. If the learner’s learning set is not meaningful, even logically
meaningful material may be learned by rote (Ausubel, 2000). Three kinds of meaningful
reception learning may be distinguished: representational learning, concept learning and
propositional learning.
Like all learning, reception learning is meaningful when the learning task is related in
nonarbitrary and nonverbatim fashion to relevant aspects of what the learner already knows.
Meaningful reception learning is inherently an active process because it requires at the very least
(i) the kind of cognitive analysis necessary for ascertaining which aspects of existing cognitive
structure are most relevant to the new potentially meaningful material; (ii) some degree of
reconciliation with existing ideas in cognitive structure; and (iii) reformulation of the learning
material in terms of the idiosyncratic intellectual background and vocabulary of the particular
learner.
Advance Organizer Model
Advance Organizer Model was based on meaningful verbal learning theory developed by
David Ausubel. This theory deals with some concerns: how knowledge is organized, how the
mind works to process new information, and how teachers can apply these ideas about
curriculum and learning when they present new material to students. In other words, they are
curriculum, learning and instruction. Primary goal is to help teachers organize and convey large
amounts of information as meaningfully and efficiently as possible.
Advance organizers were “an introductory material presented ahead of the learning task
and at a higher level of abstraction and inclusiveness than the learning task itself” (Ausubel,
1978). The heart of Ausubel’s definition of an advance organizer is its ability to provide
ideational scaffolding. The aim of the advance organizer is not only to provide ideational
scaffolding for the specifics in the learning passage, but also to increase discriminability between
the new ideas and the previously learned ideas by pointing out explicitly the principal similarities
and differences between them (Ausubel, 1978).
Guidelines for Constructing an Advance Organizer
Constructing an advance organizer is the task of the teacher. The teacher determines the
structure of the discipline, content, or subject to be mastered and then develops the organizer.
Some guidelines for this process may be helpful.
1. Short set of verbal or visual information.
2. Presented prior to learning a larger body of to-be-learned information.
3. Containing no specific content from the to-be-learned information.
4. Providing a means of generating the logical relationships among the elements to be
learned information.
5. Influencing the learner’s encoding process (Mayer, 1979).
The specific construction of advance organizer will depend on subject matter, learners,
and the desired learning outcome.
Characteristics of Advance Organizer Model
Advance Organizer Model has the following characteristics.
(i) Syntax of Advance Organizer Model
Advance Organizer Model consists of three phases: the presentation of the advance
organizer, the presentation of the learning task or learning material and the strengthening of
cognitive organization. Phase one includes of three activities: clarifying the aims of the lesson,
presenting the advance organizer, and prompting awareness of relevant knowledge. In phase two,
the learning material is presented in the form of lectures, discussions, films, experiments, or
reading. Phase three tests the relationship of the learning material to existing ideas to bring about
an active learning process. The purpose of phase three is to anchor the new learning material in
the students' existing cognitive structure. It will strengthen the student's cognitive organization
(Joyce & Weil, 2003).
Table 1 Syntax of Advance Organizer Model
Phase One: Presentation of Advance Organizer
Clarify the aims of the lesson.
Present organizer:
 Identify defining attributes.
 Give examples or illustrations where appropriate.
 Provide context.
 Repeat.
Prompt awareness of learner's relevant knowledge and experience.
Phase Two: Presentation of Learning Task or Material
Present material.
Maintain attention.
Make organization explicit.
Make logical order of learning material explicit.
Phase Three: Strengthening Cognitive Organization
Use principles of integrative reconciliation.
Promote active reception learning.
Elicit critical approach to subject matter.
Clarify ideas (such as by testing them).
Source: From Joyce & Weil (2003)
(ii) Social System

In this model, the teacher retains control of the intellectual structure, since it is
continually necessary to relate the learning material to the organizers and to help students
differentiate new material from previously learned material.
(iii) Principles of Reaction
The teacher's solicited or unsolicited responses to the learners' reactions will be guided by
the purpose of clarifying the meaning of the new learning material, differentiating it from and
reconciling it with existing knowledge, making it personally relevant to the students, and helping
to promote a critical approach to knowledge. Ideally, students will initiate their own questions in
response to their own drives for meaning.
(iv) Support System
Well-organized material is the critical support requirement of this model. The
effectiveness of an advance organizer depends on an integral and appropriate relationship
between the conceptual organizer and the content. This model provides guidelines for building
(or reorganizing) instructional materials.
(v) Application
Advance Organizer Model is especially useful to structure extended curriculum sequences
or courses and to instruct students systematically in the key ideas of a field.
The model can also be shaped to teach the skills of effective reception learning. Critical thinking
and cognitive reorganization can be explained to the learners, who receive direct instruction in
orderly thinking and in the notion of knowledge hierarchies. This model can increase
effectiveness in reading and watching films, and in other "reception" activities.
(vi) Instructional and Nurturant Effects
The probable instructional values of this model seem clear because the ideas themselves
that are used as the organizer are learned, as well as information presented to the students. The
ability to learn from reading, lectures, and other media used for presentations is another effect, as
are an interest in inquiry and precise habits of thinking.
Method
Two Basic Education High Schools in Yangon Region were selected as the sample
schools for experimental design by using simple random sampling method. These sample schools
were No (1) BEHS Latha and No (4) BEHS Pazundaung. All the participants in the sample were
Grade Eight students. In both schools, only 60 students were selected by random sampling
method from Grade Eight in the academic year 2018-2019.
Name of School No. of Population No. of Student
BEHS (Latha) 235 60
BEHS (Pazundaung) 172 60
Research Design
The design adopted in this study was one of the true experimental designs, namely, the
posttest only control group design (Gay & Airasian, 2003).
No. of Students
Assignment Group BEHS BEHS Total Treatment Posttest
(Latha) (Pazundaung) (X) (O)
Advance Organizer
Random Experimental 30 30 60
Model SA
(R)
Control 30 30 60 Formal Instruction
Total 60 60 120
Note: SA = Science Achievement
Instrument
The instrument used for this study was a posttest (Achievement test). To establish the
reliability of the instrument, a pilot study was conducted with Grade Eight students at No (2)
BEHS Dagon Seikkan. Before the test, validation related to the achievement test was asked from
(5) experienced teachers. And then, the teacher gave instruction which was based on Advance
Organizer Model to students. And these students were given enough time to answer the questions
of the test. The reliability coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha was computed to show the internal
consistency of the test. Its value was 0.72. The instrument was constructed in line with the first
three levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. The allocate time for the posttest was (45) minutes and the
given marks were (25). To examine students’ attitudes, feelings, experiences and opinions, a
questionnaire was constructed with the advices and guidance of the supervisor. It consists of
(15) items four point Likert-scale.
Procedure
This study was to investigate the effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model on science
achievement of Grade Eight students. Students were divided into two groups in each school: the
control group and the experimental group. There were 30 students in each group. For the control
group, the teacher taught as usual in the classroom. The experimental group was provided a
treatment by using Advance Organizer Model. For the experimental group, the teacher used the
phases in Advance Organizer Model. At the end of the treatment period, all the selected students
had to sit for the posttest in both schools. And then, a follow up program was found out by a
questionnaire to interpret students’ attitudes, feelings, experiences and opinions about Advance
Organizer Model.
Data Analysis
The independent samples “t” test was used to compare the achievement of students who
learned by Advance Organizer Model and that of students who learned by formal instruction.
Findings
This section is concerned with findings of the selected students’ achievement on the
posttest questions, the summary of the findings and interpretations of the study.
Table 4 t Values for Posttest Science Achievement Scores

7.94 11.99 58 .000***
(Latha) Control 30 14.43 3.33

8.30 13.90 58 .000***
(Pazundaung) Control 30 14.10 2.29
Note: ***p < .001
The mean scores of the experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the
control groups in each school (see Table 4). It showed that there was a significant difference
between students who were taught by Advance Organizer Model and those who were taught with
formal instruction on the overall scores of science achievement in each school.

Sig.
(2-tailed)
1.54 5.85 58 .000***
1.67 7.00 58 .000***
Note: ***p < .001
groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in each school (see Table 5). It
showed that there was a significant difference between students who were taught by Advance
Organizer Model and those who were taught with formal instruction on the scores of knowledge
level questions in each selected school.
Sig.
(2-tailed)
2.36 6.81 58 .000***
2.56 8.63 58 .000***
Note: ***p < .001
According to the scores on comprehension level questions, the mean scores of the
school (see Table 6). It showed that there was a significance difference between students who
were taught by Advance Organizer Model and those who were taught with formal instruction on
the scores of the comprehension level questions in the selected schools.
BEHS Experimental 30 9.47 0.81 3.90 11.57 58 .000***
BEHS Experimental 30 9.77 1.92 4.34 8.60 58 .000***
Note: ***p < .001
As regards with the scores on the application level questions, the mean scores of the
experimental groups were significantly higher than that of the control groups in each school (see
Table 7). It showed that there was a significant difference between students who were taught by
Advance Organizer Model and those who were taught with formal instruction on the scores of
the application level questions in each selected school.
Students’ Attitudes towards Advance Organizer Model

The attitudes, feelings, experiences and opinions of students were examined by a
questionnaire which consists of 15 items four point Likert-scale. For (15) items, strongly agreed,
agreed, disagreed and strongly disagreed percentage were shown in two selected schools such as
No (1) BEHS Latha and No (4) BEHS Pazundaung.
(1) The first item deals with learning by Advance Organizer Model increase students’ interest
in the lesson. In both schools, (48%) of the students strongly agreed and (52%) agreed to
this item.
(2) The second item deals with learning by the use of advance organizer at the start of the
lesson enhance students’ interest. In both schools, (34%) of the students strongly agreed
and (66%) agreed to this item.
(3) The third items deals with activities in the science classrooms bring happy mode to
students. In both schools, (35%) of the students strongly agreed, (58%) agreed and (7%)
disagreed to this item.
(4) The fourth items deals with learning science make students use time efficiently. In both
schools, (48%) of the students strongly agreed and (52%) agreed to this item.
(5) The fifth item deals with seeing pictures and photographs clearly increase students’ better
understanding in the lessons. In both schools, (53%) of the students strongly agreed,
(43%) agreed and (4%) disagreed to this item.
(6) The sixth item deals with guidance of learning by the use of asking questions during
teaching learning periods promote students’ attention. In both schools, (42%) of the
students strongly agreed and (58%) agreed to this item.
(7) The seventh item deals with listening to other students’ discussion and explanation create
an atmosphere to get new ideas. In both schools, (38%) of the students strongly agreed,
(8) The eighth item deals with students who can apply their experience during discussion and
explanation. In both schools, (43%) of the students strongly agreed, (55%) agreed and
(2%) disagreed to this item.
(9) The ninth item deals with students who can enhance logical thinking. In both schools,
(40%) of the students strongly agreed, (57%) agreed and (3%) disagreed to this item.
(10) The tenth item deals with students who want to investigate other events that are related
to the lesson. In both of schools, (55%) of the students agreed, (42%) disagreed and (3%)
disagreed to this item.
(11) The eleventh item deals with learning by making a connection with environment make
students’ better understanding. In both schools, (40%) of the students strongly agreed,
(12) The twelfth item deals with students who like to read scientific newspapers and articles.
In both schools, (37%) of the students strongly agreed, (47%) agreed, (5%) strongly
disagreed and (11%) disagreed to this item.
(13) The thirteenth item deals with allowing students express their ideas and thinking develop
self-confidence. In both schools, (48%) of the students strongly agreed, (47%) agreed,
(2%) strongly disagreed and (3%) disagreed to this item.
(14) The fourteenth item deals with lessons taught in science classroom are useful in outside
of the school. In both schools, (50%) of the students strongly agreed, (45%) agreed and
(5%) disagreed to this item.
(15) The fifteenth item deals with students who become more interest in science subject and
improve their respect on science learning. In both schools, (60%) of the students strongly
agreed, (38%) agreed and (2%) strongly disagreed to this item.
According to the results of (15) items four-point Likert-scale, (97%) of the students have
positive attitudes and (3%) do not have positive attitudes towards Advance Organizer Model (see
Figure 4.7). Some students do not have positive attitudes because certain attitudes are not easy to
change within a shorter time frame. Furthermore, they have had no experience in that kind of
asking questions and discussion in the classroom. The following figure shows percentage of
students’ attitudes towards Advance Organizer Model.
Percentage of Attitudes
3%
Positive attitude
97% Do not have positive attitude
Figure 1 Percentage of Students’ Attitudes towards Advance Organizer Model
Summary of Findings
From the experimental findings, the following results were found.
 There was a significant difference between students’ science achievement of experimental
groups and control groups.
groups and control groups on the scores of knowledge level questions. It can be
interpreted that Advance Organizer Model can improve students' knowledge retention rate
and recall the information more easily.
groups and control groups on the scores of comprehension level questions. It can be
interpreted that Advance Organizer Model could bring about the improvement of
students' ability to understand logically the structure behind the subject or content area.
groups and control groups on the scores of application level questions. It can be
interpreted that Advance Organizer Model can bring about the development of students'
ability to apply their learning in new situation. Therefore, Advance Organizer Model has
positive contribution to science teaching at the middle school level.
According to the questionnaires, the following results were found.
 Learning by the use of Advance Organizer Model increases students’ retention and
conceptual understanding.
 Students developed habits of precise thinking and interest in inquiry.
 Most of students expressed that they were very interested in advance organizers presented
by the teacher.
 Learning science is a joyful activity.
 Students expressed that their knowledge was increased and they have willingness to learn
more from experience than as usual.
Discussion
In this study, it was found that AOM has significant effect on the science achievement of
the students. The findings point out that the mean scores of students who were taught by AOM
were significantly higher than those who were taught with formal instruction. Thus, this findings
support the research of David Ausubel (197): the mean scores of the experimental were higher
than control groups in the use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful
verbal material.
According to the results, there were significant differences between the experimental and
control groups according to the comparison of the mean scores on knowledge, comprehension
and application level questions for two selected schools. The mean scores of science students
who were taught by AOM were significantly higher than that of students who were taught with
formal instruction in each achievement level. It can be concluded that students who were taught
by AOM improve knowledge retention, interest in inquiry and conceptual understanding.
Moreover, it can be interpreted that knowledge retention rate of the students is increased with the
help of advance organizers presented by the teacher. Additionally, they develop the habits of
precise thinking.
At the first phase of AOM, students were exposed to an advance organizer, which has
higher level of abstraction and inclusiveness of the lesson. Owing to the fact that the advance
organizer links the previously learned material with new learning material, students could learn
meaningfully. Although advance organizers include concepts and abstractions, they do not
include in details of the lessons. In this study, three types of organizers were used alternately not
to be boredom of lessons for students. All the students described that they were interested in
advance organizers presented by the teacher. Thus, providing advance organizers in ahead of the
lessons enhances students’ attention and interest to the lessons. This step is a distinct feature
between AOM and other methods of teaching. In fact, the first step makes students desire to learn
the lessons. In other word, it prepares the learners to have readiness to learn.
At the second phase of AOM, the learning material was presented in the form of lectures,
discussions, experiments, or reading. In this study, content area was chapter five: The Earth and
Space, so lectures and discussions were mainly used in this phase. The teacher also used
questions to guide the direction of the learning and to provoke students’ thoughts. Learning
materials were organized explicitly in order to be meaningful and easy to learn. In this phase,
meaningful learning occurs by linking the previous advance organizer and the critical points of
the lesson.
The final phase of AOM strengthens students’ cognitive organization deeply and learning
is an interactive process in which students are come alive with many questions and comments.
They had to relate the advance organizers and the lessons. They had to summarize the lessons all
they had learned and pick up the critical points. Finally, they had to generate their own ideas and
opinions for real situations in which they faced. This step is called “clarify ideas” and ideas and
opinions were tested by orally or writing either individual or group. And it was a climax of
AOM. During the first few days of the study, students in the experimental groups were
unfamiliar to it, but after three periods of teaching, they had the ability to clarify their ideas.
Thus, thinking could be nurtured like a habit. In this way, active reception learning was promoted
and the teacher could give feedback to the lessons if necessary. After studying lessons, the
teacher assigned students to read newspapers dealing with lessons as a supplementary activity for
this teaching model.
To know students’ attitudes, feelings, experiences and opinions about AOM, a
questionnaire was used. Students expressed openly their opinions about this teaching model. It
was amazing that all the students agreed that AOM increase students’ interest in the lesson. The
reason was that the use of advance organizer at the start of the lesson enhances students’ interest.
With the help of advance organizers they could easily learn and their knowledge retention rate
was increased without rote learning. Therefore, all students assumed that learning in science class
was interesting and this kind of learning made their time efficiently. In addition, they all
responded to positive attitude toward teacher’s questions during teaching periods. The teacher’s
questions promoted their attention, interest and led them to the aim of the lesson.
According to the findings of research, this study indicated that AOM had positive effect
in learning general science. However, no study is perfect in an effort. Thus, a need for further
research is quite necessary. After treatment, only knowledge, comprehension and application
level questions were used as the posttest. Hence, analysis, synthesis and evaluation questions can
also be expanded for further researches. This research was done at the middle school level. It
provides useful results and many suggestions to improve science education at the middle school
level. As a result, a large number of researches should be carried out at all levels such as primary
and high school levels.
Moreover, this AOM is applicable to the other subject areas. So, further researches should
also be carried out in other subjects. In this study, simple texts, pictures, and concept maps were
used as advance organizers, so other types of advance organizers should be investigated in
further studies. In addition, this study was done in the Yangon Region. Therefore, further
researches in this line should be carried out in other States and Regions and are needed for the
improvement of science teaching.
Conclusion
Today’s education system is characterized by a gap between how students live and what
they learn and how they learn. Thus, improvement of science education is concerned with
development of education. Science is recognized as being a subject of great importance both in
school and in wider society. Its concepts and processes are essential in a wide range of
disciplines, professions and areas of life. Moreover, science can be used as a tool for solving the
problems of hunger, poverty, insanitation, illiteracy, superstition, deadening custom and tradition.
Improvements of science teaching are fruitful to development of a nation. Thus, AOM was
investigated to study its effectiveness on students’ science achievement at the middle school
level.
In addition, Advance Organizer Model is compatible with every lesson and every subject.
With technology or without technology it is also compatible again in the classrooms. Thus, this
model can also be used not only in urban schools but also in rural schools. This flexibility of
AOM can attract many teachers to apply this model in their real classroom setting. According to
the results of the study, students’ learning with AOM was more effective than formal instruction.
This study has also contributions to curriculum planners. The effective use of AOM has
significant effect on the overall science achievement of students. Therefore, AOM certainly has
positive contribution to the science teaching at the middle school.
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express our respectful gratitude to Dr. Khin Mar Khine, Associate Professor and
Head, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education and Dr. Thida Wai, Lecturer, Department of
Methodology, Yangon University of Education for their invaluable guidance and suggestions throughout MEd
program. I also want to express my thanks to all participants in this study.
References
Ausubel, D. P. (1978). In defense of advance organizers: A reply to the critics. Review of Educational Research.
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Conant, J. B. (1951). Science and common sense. New Heaven: Yale University Press.
Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2003). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications (7th ed.).
New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Harvey, L. (2018). Analytic quality glossary. Retrieved September 29, 2018 from http://www.quality
researchinternal.com/glossary/
Joyce, B., & Weil, M. (2003). Models of teaching (5th ed.). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India.
Mayer, R. E. (1996). Learners as information processors: Legacies and limitations of educational psychology’s
second metaphor. Educational Psychologist, 31, 151–161.
Ministry of Education. (2016). National education strategic plan 2016-21 summary. Yangon: Ministry of
Education.
Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories. (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.
Tinambunan, W. (1988). Evaluation of student achievement. Jarkarta: Depdikbud.
A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS’ SPATIAL

ABILITY AND THEIR GEOMETRICAL PERFORMANCE IN
MATHEMATICS AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL
Phyo Khin Khin1 and Wai Wai Oo2
Abstract
The main purpose of this research is to study the correlation between students’ spatial ability and
their geometrical performance in mathematics at the middle school level. Especially, this study
aims to study students’ spatial ability in terms of visualization, spatial relation, closure speed,
flexibility of closure and perceptual speed. A descriptive research design was used for this study.
Four townships were randomly selected from four districts in Yangon Region. Two high schools
were chosen in each township. A total of eight basic education high schools were included in this
study. The participants in this study were (600) Grade Seven students. As the research
instruments, a test for spatial ability and a test for geometrical performance test were used. To
obtain the reliability of these instruments, a pilot test was administered. The internal consistency
(Cronbach’s Alpha) of the test for students’ spatial ability was (.682) and the test for students’
geometrical performance was (.625). In order to address the research questions, a descriptive
statistics (percentage) and Pearson product-moment correlation were used. The percentage of
low, moderate and high levels of students’ spatial ability were 12.67% (N=76), 75% (N=450) and
12.33% (N=74) respectively. The percentage of low, moderate and high levels of students’
geometrical performance were 7% (N=42), 84.17% (N=505) and 8.83% (N=53) respectively. So,
the students’ spatial ability and geometrical performance were found the highest in moderate
level. According to the Pearson product-moment correlation result, there was a positive
correlation between students’ spatial ability and their geometrical performance (r = .685, p < .01).
This means that a high level of students’ spatial ability will bring about a high level of their
geometrical performance in mathematics.
Keywords: spatial ability, spatial visualization, spatial relation, closure speed, flexibility of
closure, perceptual speed, geometry, performance
Introduction
Nowadays, education plays a critical role in the development of any nation since it is
fundamental to the expended human capabilities which lie at the heart of the meaning of
development. Mathematics is an indispensable part of education. It is a very useful subject for
many vocations and higher specialized courses of learning. The ability to visualize mathematical
relationships is an essential part of knowledge of mathematics and communicating ideas about
mathematics. Especially, spatial ability is one of the necessary factors for achievement of
mathematics as it helps to recognize symbols such as numbers and operation signs or visualize
mental images. Spatial ability is the capacity to understand and remember the spatial relations
among objects. Spatial visualization is necessary for interpreting, understanding, and
appreciating the geometric world (NCTM, 1989). Students with strong spatial ability can
imagine a shape from different view points, or they can easily comprehend drawings by
visualizing spatial patterns quickly and solve problems by thinking in different ways. This study
focused on the correlation between students’ spatial ability and geometrical performance in
mathematics and it is also essential to improve mathematics teaching and learning at the middle
school level.
1
Assistant Lecture, Methodology Department, Yankin Education College
2
Dr, Associate Professor and Head of Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education

The main purpose of this research is to study the relationship between students' spatial
ability and their geometrical performance in mathematics at the middle school level. The specific
purposes of this research are as follows:
- To investigate students' spatial ability in the selected schools
- To assess students' geometrical performance in mathematics in the selected schools
- To explore the relationship between students' spatial ability and their geometrical
performance in mathematics
- To give suggestions for improving spatial ability in mathematics at the middle school
level
Research Questions
1. To what extent do students possess spatial ability?
2. To what extent do students perform geometrical tasks in mathematics?
3. Is there any significant relationship between students' spatial ability and their
geometrical performance in mathematics?

Computation is a vital component of mathematics. But, students need to focus on more
than just accuracy in calculation. The cognitive abilities like numerical reasoning ability,
sequential ability and spatial ability together comprise as necessary factors for achievement of
mathematics. Teaching mathematics is not only for problem-solving but also for enhancing
higher cognitive abilities. The ability to make mental representations of number and space is one
of the most critical cognitive abilities for mathematics learning. Spatial aspect of mathematics is
one of the important mental representations for children. Mental representations include the
characteristics of objects, relative positions of objects, rotations of objects as the same object,
composition and decomposition of objects, recognition of symbols, spatial orientation, and
interpretation of drawings and even some concepts of time.
Spatial Ability: It plays an important role in ones’ lives and it is used unconsciously. Spatial
perception accompanies man from birth. Its development is connected not only with the cognitive
processes but also with education. According to Linn and Peterson (1985), spatial ability refers to
skill in representing, transforming, generating, and recalling symbolic, non-linguistic
information. It is not a unitary construct, but it is a combination of sub-skills such as using maps,
solving geometry questions and recognizing two dimensional representations of three-
dimensional objects.
Visualization in mathematics is the kind of reasoning activity based on the use of visual
and spatial elements, either mental or physical, performed to solve problems or prove properties.
According to Olkum (2003), spatial ability is used for mental the abilities related to the use of
space. Spatial ability has been an area of study for decades as a collection of cognitive skills that
enable one interact with his environment. For academic and vocational training programs, spatial
ability tests correlate with course grades in mechanical drawings, shop courses, art, mathematics,
physics and mechanics. High levels of spatial ability have frequently been linked to creativity,
not only in the arts, but in science and mathematics.
Classifications and Subdivisions of Spatial Ability: McGee (1979) stated that spatial ability
has two of principal factors; spatial visualization and spatial orientation. Spatial visualization
refers to the ability to mentally rotate, manipulate and twist two or three dimensional stimulus
objects. Spatial orientation involves the comprehension of the arrangement of elements within a
visual stimulus pattern. Early research made by Linn and Petersen (1985), they classified spatial
test into three categories as spatial perception, spatial visualization and mental rotation or spatial
manipulation. They defined spatial perception as the ability to determine spatial relation despite
distracting information; spatial visualization as the ability to manipulate complex spatial
information when several stages are needed to produce correct solution and mental rotation as the
ability to rotate, in imagination quickly or accurately two or three dimensional figures.
Lohman (1979) identified two main aspects of spatial ability; spatial orientation and
spatial visualization. Spatial orientation involved the ability to imagine how a given object or sets
of objects would appear from a spatial perspective different form that in which the objects are
shown. Lohman, Pelegrino, Alderton, and Regian (1987) proposed the existence of (10)
significant subdivisions of spatial abilities. Table 1 lists these (10) distinct and minor spatial sub-
factors.
Table 1 Lists of Spatial Subdivisions
Factor Label Factor Name Test that define the factor
Vz Visualization Paper Folding, Paper Form board,
Surface Development
SO Spatial Orientation Card Rotation, Cube Comparison,
Water Level
CF Flexibility of Closure Embedded Figures, Hidden Figures,
Copying, Hidden Patterns
SR Speeded Rotation Cards, Flags, Figures
SS Spatial Scanning Maze Tracing, Choosing a Path, Way
Finding
PS Perceptual Speed Comparing Figures and Symbols
SI Serial Integration Successive Perception, Picture
Identification
CS Closure Speed Gestalt Completion, Concealed words
VM Visual Memory Location memory, Memory for Design
K Kinesthetic Hands
Source: From Lohman, 1987.
Carroll's Five Major Factors of Spatial Ability: Carroll (1993) analyzed more than
(140)datasets and detected five major clusters: Visualization (Vz), Spatial Relations (SR),
Closure Speed (CS), Flexibility of Closure (CF), and Perceptual Speed (PS).Carroll's definition
of Vz factor does not differ from than that of other researchers mentioned. Spatial Relations
factor (SR) can be considered as another name for the Speeded Rotation factor defined by
Lohman (1987) for three dimensional objects. Closure Speed (CS) factor concerns individual
differences in ability to access spatial representations in long-term memory when incomplete or
obscured cues to those representations are presented. The subjects are not told what to look for in
a given representation.
Flexibility of closure (CF) is the ability to identify a visual figure or pattern embedded in
a complex distracting or disguised visual pattern or array, when knowing in advance what the
object is. Perceptual Speed (PS) factor is characterized by the speed in finding a given
configuration in a mess of distracting material. The task may include comparing pairs of items,
locating a unique item in a group of identical items, or locating a visual pattern in an extended
visual field. According to French (1951), cited in Carroll, (1993), perceptual speed is the speed in
scanning figures, or symbols and comparing them or carrying out other very simple tasks
involving visual perception.
Spatial Ability and Mathematics Education: Children's early mathematics ability is an
important predictive factor to later mathematics achievement. So, how to promote children's early
mathematics competency is of critical importance. It is a save report that there is a positive
correlation between spatial ability and mathematics achievement (Battista, 1990). Furthermore,
according to Van Garderen (2003), spatial ability is a significant factor in specific areas of
mathematics such as geometry and in particular complex problems.The National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (2000) emphasize the importance of spatial abilities in mathematics
education and recommend that mathematics instruction programs should pay attention to
geometry and spatial sense so that all students use visualization and spatial reasoning to solve
problems both within and outside of mathematics. Therefore, spatial sense or imagery is an
important part of geometry and mathematics learning.
Spatial ability especially spatial visualization is an important component in solving many
types of mathematics. Especially, the way to improve pupils' problem-solving ability is to
encourage students to use imagery and visualization strategies. A creative problem solving is
depending on combining spatial relations, classifications, transforming, and rotation and
visualization activities together. So, many researchers supported that spatial ability is important
to the development of mathematical thinking and mathematics education.
Spatial Sense and Geometric Reasoning: Geometry is a "network of concepts, ways of
reasoning and representation systems" used to explore and analyze shape and space (Battista,
2007 cited in Walle et al., 2013). Geometry provides a rich context for learners to experience
mathematical activity and the communication of this activity. Geometry is an important domain
of purely mathematical activity.
It is useful to think about the geometry objectives in terms of two related frameworks: (1)
spatial sense and geometric reasoning and (2) the specific geometric content. The first frame has
to do with the way students think and reason about shape and space. The second framework is
content in the more traditional sense _ knowing about symmetry, triangles, parallel lines, and so
forth (NCTM, 2000). Spatial sense can be defined as the intuition about shapes and the
relationships between shapes and is considered a core area of mathematical study, like number
(Sarama & Clements, 2009, cited in Walle, et al., 2013). Spatial sense includes the ability to
mentally visualize objects and spatial relationships to turn around in our mind. It includes a
comfort with geometric description of objects and position. People with well-developed spatial
sense appreciate geometric form in art, nature, and architecture and they use geometric ideas to
describe and analyze their world. Mathematics instruction programmes should pay attention to
geometry and spatial sense so that all students use visualization and spatial reasoning to solve
problems both within and outside of mathematics.
Research Method
Research Design
The research design for this study was a descriptive research design, in which the
researcher sought to determine whether and to what degree, a relationship exists between five
variables (students’ visualization, spatial relation, closure speed, flexibility of closure and
perceptual speed) and geometrical performance in mathematics. In this study, the data were
collected through a quantitative method. A quantitative method is a research technique that is
used to gather quantitative data-information dealing with numbers and anything that is
measurable (Gay & Airasian, 2003).
Sample of the Study
The total of (600) Grade Seven students were randomly selected from eight basic
education high schools from four townships (Yankin, Dagon, Twantay and Mingalardon) in
Yangon Region during (2017-2018) as participants for this study.
Instruments
In this study, a test for students’ spatial ability and a test for measuring students’
geometrical performance were used as the instruments. A test for students’ spatial ability was
mainly based on Carroll’s five major factors of spatial ability (Visualization, Spatial Relation,
Closure Speed, Flexibility of Closure and Perceptual Speed). A test for students’ geometrical
performance was constructed based on van Hiele’s model of geometric thought.
Procedures
First, the related literature about the study was explored and then constructed the spatial
ability test that is based on Carroll’s five major factors and geometrical performance test that is
based on the first three levels of Van Hiele’s model of geometric thought. Expert review was
conducted for the validation of the tests by five experienced mathematics teacher educators of
Methodology Department in Yangon University of Education. After getting the validation, a pilot
test was conducted with (50) Grade Seven students from B.E.H.S (3) Sanchaung in December,
2017. The data obtained from the pilot study was used to calculate Cronbach’s alpha coefficient.
The internal consistency of the test for spatial ability was (0.682) and the test for geometrical
performance was (0.625). The real data collection was done in the first week of January 2018.
After that, students’ answer sheets for both spatial ability and geometrical performance were
scored manually based on the marking scheme. All the data were organized in the computer data
file. Then, the data were systematically analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS 23) as it is widely used in quantitative research.
Research Findings
(1) Findings of Students’ Visualization in Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools
Table 1 described the means of students’ visualization in spatial ability in the selected
schools.
Table 2 Means of Students’ Visualization in Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools

School No. of Mean Standard Minimum Maximum
Student Deviation
BEHS (1) Yankin (S1) 75 6.37 1.514 3 10
BEHS (2) Yankin (S2) 75 7.03 1.414 5 10
BEHS (1) Dagon (S3) 75 6.88 1.506 3 10
BEHS (2) Dagon (S4) 75 6.69 1.355 5 10
BEHS (1) Twantay (S5) 75 6.11 1.921 2 10
BEHS (2) Twantay (S6) 75 6.81 1.343 5 9
BEHS (1) Mingalardon (S7) 75 6.93 1.446 5 10
Total / Average 600 6.77 1.474 4.125 9.875
According to the results, the lowest mean and the highest mean were (6.11) and (7.37)
respectively. Therefore, students’ visualization in Basic Education High School No. (1), Twantay
was the lowest and students’ visualization in Basic Education High School No.(2), Mingalardon
was the highest among the selected schools. students’ visualization in the selected schools (see
Figure 1).
Students' Visualization 7.37
8 7.03 6.88 6.81 6.93
6.37 6.69
6.11
6
Mean
0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
School
Figure 1 Comparison of Means of Students’ Visualization in Spatial Ability in the
Selected Schools
(2) Findings of Students’ Spatial Relation in Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools
Table 3 described the means of students’ spatial relation in spatial ability in the selected
schools.
Table 3 Means of Students’ Spatial Relation in Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools
No. of Standard
Student Deviation
BEHS (1) Yankin (S1) 75 5.08 1.136 4 8
BEHS (2) Yankin (S2) 75 5.63 1.292 3 9
BEHS (1) Dagon (S3) 75 5.67 1.446 4 9
BEHS (2) Dagon (S4) 75 5.09 1.210 3 9
BEHS (1) Twantay (S5) 75 4.53 1.119 2 8
BEHS (2) Twantay (S6) 75 4.87 1.143 4 8
Total / Average 600 5.29 1.268 3 8.75
respectively. The students from Basic Education High School No.(1), Twantay have the lowest
spatial relation and the students from Basic Education High School No.(2) Mingalardon have the
highest spatial relation among the selected schools. Moreover, Figure 2 illustrated the
comparison of the means of students’ spatial relation in the selected schools.
Students' Spatial Relation

8
5.63 5.67 5.71 5.76
6 5.08 5.09 4.87
4.53
Mean
4
2
0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
School
Figure 2 Comparison of Means of Students’ Spatial Relation in Spatial Ability in the Selected
School
(3) Findings of Students’ Closure Speed in Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools
Table 4 described the means of students’ closure speed in spatial ability in the selected
schools.
Student Deviation
BEHS (1) Yankin (S1) 75 6.51 1.554 3 9
BEHS (2) Yankin (S2) 75 6.87 1.735 3 10
BEHS (1) Dagon (S3) 75 6.84 1.748 3 10
BEHS (2) Dagon (S4) 75 6.85 1.768 3 10
BEHS (1) Twantay (S5) 75 6.52 1.727 3 10
BEHS (2) Twantay (S6) 75 5.87 1.571 2 9
Total / Average 600 6.68 1.702 3 9.75
Based on the results, the lowest mean and the highest mean were (5.87) and (7.44)
respectively. The students from Basic Education High School No.(2) Twantay have the lowest
closure speed while the students from Basic Education High School No.(2) Mingalardon have the
highest closure speed among the selected schools (see Figure 3).
Students' Closure Speed

8 6.87 6.84 6.85 7.44
6.51 6.52 6.56
5.87
6
Mean
4
2
0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
School
Figure 3 Comparison of Means of Students’ Closure Speed in Spatial Ability in the

Selected Schools
(4) Findings of Students’ Flexibility of Closure in Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools
Table 5 described the means of students’ flexibility of closure in spatial ability in the
selected schools.
Table 4 Means of Students’ Flexibility of Closure in Spatial Ability in the Selected
Schools
School No. of Standard
Mean Minimum Maximum
Student Deviation
BEHS (1) Yankin (S1) 75 5.07 1.742 1 9
BEHS (2) Yankin (S2) 75 4.51 1.455 2 8
BEHS (1) Dagon (S3) 75 4.69 1.365 2 8
BEHS (2) Dagon (S4) 75 4.69 1.507 2 8
BEHS (1) Twantay (S5) 75 4.47 1.388 2 7
BEHS (2) Twantay (S6) 75 4.68 1.629 1 8
Total / Average 600 4.87 1.591 1.875 8.375
Based on the results, the students who have the lowest flexibility of closure were from
Basic Education High School No.(1) Twantay and the students who have the highest flexibility
of closure were from Basic Education High School No.(2) Mingalardon respectively (see
Figure 4).
Students' Flexibility of Closure

8
5.8
6 5.07 4.51 4.69 4.69 4.47 4.68 5.05
Mean
4
2
0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
School
Figure 4 Comparison of Means of Students’ Flexibility of Closure in Spatial Ability in the

Selected Schools
(5) Findings of Students’ Perceptual Speed in Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools
Table 6 Means of Students’ Perceptual Speed in Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools
No. of Standard
Students Deviation
BEHS (1) Yankin (S1) 75 8.33 1.288 4 10
BEHS (2) Yankin (S2) 75 8.53 1.473 1 10
BEHS (1) Dagon (S3) 75 8.64 1.181 6 10
BEHS (2) Dagon (S4) 75 8.85 1.182 6 10
BEHS (1) Twantay (S5) 75 8.04 1.511 4 10
BEHS (2) Twantay (S6) 75 8.51 1.349 6 10
Total / Average 600 8.58 1.300 4.875 10
Based on the results, the lowest mean and the highest mean were (8.04) and (9.07)
respectively. The students from Basic Education High School No.(1) Twantay have the lowest
perceptual speed while the students from Basic Education High School No.(1) Mingalardon have
the highest perceptual speed (see Figure 5).
Students' Perceptual Speeed

9.5
9.07
9 8.85
8.64 8.65
8.53 8.51
Mean
8.5 8.33
8.04
8
7.5
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
School
Figure 5 Comparison of Means of Students’ Perceptual Speed in Spatial Ability in the Selected
Schools
(6) Findings of Students’ Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools

Table 6 described the means of students’ spatial ability in the selected schools.
Table 7 Means of Students’ Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools

Student Deviation
BEHS (1) Yankin (S1) 75 31.35 3.981 22 40
BEHS (2) Yankin (S2) 75 32.43 4.205 25 42
BEHS (1) Dagon (S3) 75 32.91 4.765 23 43
BEHS (2) Dagon (S4) 75 31.96 4.388 22 42
BEHS (1) Twantay (S5) 75 29.84 4.520 20 39
BEHS (2) Twantay (S6) 75 30.72 3.754 24 39
Total / Average 600 32.18 4.512 23.5 41.5
Based on the results, the mean of Basic Education High School No.(1) Twantay was the
lowest and the mean of Basic Education High School No.(2) Mingalardon was the highest. This
means that the students from Basic Education High School No.(1) Twantay have the lowest
spatial ability and the students from Basic Education High School No.(2) Mingalardon have the
highest spatial ability. In addition, Figure 6 illustrated the comparison of the means of students’
spatial ability in the selected schools.
Students' Spatial Ability

40
35
35 32.49 32.91 33.25
31.35 31.96
Mean
29.84 30.72
30
25
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
School
Figure 6 Comparison of Means of Students’ Spatial Ability in the Selected Schools
It is necessary to examine the percentage of the students (600) who have low, moderate
and high spatial ability. Therefore, a descriptive statistics (percentage) was used. The total score
of spatial ability test was (50) marks. The means and standard deviation of all the participants
were (32.18) and (4.512) respectively. By using one standard deviation, students who possessed
marks above (37) were defined as high achieving in spatial ability. Students who possessed
marks between (28) to (37) were defined as moderate achieving in spatial ability and students
who possessed marks under (27) were defined as low achieving in spatial ability. Table 8
described the percentage of low, moderate and high levels of students’ spatial ability.
Table 8 Students’ Spatial Ability Level
Students’ Spatial Ability Level Score No. of Student Percentage (%)
Low 0-27 76 12.67
Moderate 28-37 450 75
High 38-50 74 12.33
Total 600 100
Figure 7 obviously demonstrated the percentage of the students according to their spatial
ability level.
0% Students' Spatial Ability Level
12.33%
12.67% Low
Moderate
75% High
Figure 7 Students’ Spatial Ability Level
(7) Findings of Students’ Geometrical Performance in the Selected Schools

In order to examine the students’ geometrical performance, a test for geometrical
performance was administered. It covered three parts: visualization that includes ten multiple
choice items, each scoring (1) mark, analysis that includes ten multiple choice items, each
scoring (2) mark and informal deduction that includes four problems, each scoring (5) mark. The
total score was (50) marks. Table 8 described the comparison of the means of students’
geometrical performance in each selected school.
Table 9 Means of Students’ Geometrical Performance in the Selected Schools

No. of Standard
Student Deviation
BEHS (1) Yankin (S1) 75 30.36 3.733 21 39
BEHS (2) Yankin (S2) 75 30.91 3.912 21 43
BEHS (1) Dagon (S3) 75 33.97 5.112 25 47
BEHS (2) Dagon (S4) 75 32.60 3.572 25 45
BEHS (1) Twantay (S5) 75 29.92 3.344 20 39
BEHS (2) Twantay (S6) 75 31.47 2.762 27 39
Total / Average 600 32.29 4.367 24.125 43
respectively. Based on the results, students’ geometrical performance in Basic Education High
School No.(1), Twantay was the lowest and students’ geometrical performance in Basic
Education High School No.(2) Mingalardon was the highest among the selected schools.
Additionally, Figure 8 illustrated the comparison of the means of students’ geometrical
performance in the selected schools.
Students'Geometrical Performance
40 36.56
33.97 32.6 31.47 32.49
30.36 30.91 29.92
30
Mean
20
10
0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
School
Figure 8 Comparison of Means of Students’ Geometrical Performance in the Selected

Schools
Moreover, it is necessary to investigate the percentage of the total students (600) who
have low, moderate and high geometrical performance. Therefore, a descriptive statistics
(percentage) was used. The total score of geometrical performance test was (50) marks. The
means and standard deviation of all the participants were (32.29) and (4.367) respectively. By
using one standard deviation, students who possessed marks above (39) were defined as high
achieving in geometrical performance. Students who possessed marks between (28) to (38) were
defined as moderate achieving in geometrical performance and students who possessed marks
under (27) were defined as low achieving in geometrical performance. Table 10 described the
percentage of low, moderate and high levels of students’ geometrical performance.
Table 10 Students’ Geometrical Performance Level

Students’ Geometrical
Score No. of Students Percentage (%)
Performance
Low 0-27 42 7
Moderate 28-38 505 84.17
High 39-50 53 8.83
Total 600 100
Figure 9 obviously illustrated the percentage of the students according to their
geometrical performance level in mathematics.
Students' Geometrical Performance Level
8.83% 7%
Low
Moderate
84.17%
High
.
Figure 9 Students’ Geometrical Performance Level
(8) Finding the Correlation between Students’ Spatial Ability and their Geometrical
Performance in Mathematics in the Selected Schools
To investigate the correlation between students’ spatial ability and their geometrical
performance in mathematics, Pearson product-moment correlation was used. According to Gay
& Airasian (2003), correlation coefficient below plus or minus (.35) was interpreted as low or no
relation, correlation coefficient between plus or minus (.35) and (.65) was interpreted as
moderate relation and correlation coefficient higher than plus or minus (.35) and (.65) was
interpreted as high relation.
By using Pearson product-moment correlation, the correlation between students’ spatial
ability and their geometrical performance was studied. Based on the results, there was a
significant correlation (r (6) = .685, p < .01) between students’ spatial ability and their
geometrical performance at the 0.01 level. Table 11 described the correlation between students’
spatial ability and their geometrical performance in mathematics.
Table 11 Correlation between Students’ Spatial Ability and their Geometrical
Performance in Mathematics in the Selected Schools
Correlation
Students’ Students’
Spatial Geometrical
Ability Performance
Students’ Spatial Pearson Correlation 1 .685**
Ability Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 600 600
Geometrical Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Performance N 600 600
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
It was found that the direction of correlation was positive and students’ spatial ability and
their geometrical performance were highly correlated. This means that if the students are good at
spatial ability, they will get high marks in geometrical performance.

Discussion
Children’s early mathematics ability is an important predictive factor to later mathematics
achievement. Understanding and promoting children’s spatial ability improves children’s early
mathematics competency. Mulligan (2015) defined spatial ability as the process of recognizing
and manipulating spatial properties of objects and the spatial relations among objects. It is very
important and necessary to improve students’ spatial ability in mathematics classrooms as it
helps students develop mathematical thinking and perform better in mathematical activities. So,
how to assess spatial ability is an educational priority. With this view, this study seeks to address
this demand by investigating the relationship between students’ spatial ability and their
geometrical performance.
The percentage of low, moderate and high levels of students’ spatial ability were 12.67%
(N=76), 75% (N=450) and 12.33% (N=74) respectively. So, these findings reveal the answer to
the first question: To what extent do students possess spatial ability?
The percentage of low, moderate and high levels of students’ geometrical performance
were 7% (N=42), 84.17% (N=505) and 8.83% (N=53) respectively. So, these findings reveal the
answer to the second question: To what extent do students perform geometrical tasks?
The correlation between students’ spatial ability and their geometrical performance was
(r (6) = .685, p < .01). This result showed that the direction of correlation was positive and a high
correlation. It pointed out that if the students’ spatial ability was high, their geometrical
performance was also high or if the students’ spatial ability was low, their geometrical
performance was also low. So, this finding revealed the answer to the third question: Is there any
significant relationship between students’ spatial ability and their geometrical performance in
mathematics?
The finding of the correlation between students’ spatial ability and their geometrical
performance in mathematics supports the finding of Hassan (2002): there was a significant
relationship between visual perception of geometric shapes and achievement of secondary school
students in geometry. According to Tsutsumi et al., (2005), spatial thinking was also an effective
means of enhancing students’ mathematical thinking.
Spatial ability is not a unitary construct, but it is a combination of sub-skills such as using
maps, solving geometry questions and recognition of two dimensional representations of three-
dimensional objects. However, spatial ability is often deprioritized within the classroom because
it is rarely assessed. In an age of accountability where students and teachers are being held to
higher standards for teaching and learning, educators and policy makers need to take a broad look
at the measures and expectations for students’ achievement. Grades, standardizes test scores, and
cognitive skill assessments such as spatial skill, should all be taken into account when looking at
students’ learning outcomes.
Additionally, the researcher noticed that students were good at perceptual speed rather
than the other spatial performance because they can scan figures and symbols well. They are
weak in flexibility of closure because they have few experiences in finding embedded figures.
So, the teacher should use instructional strategies to encourage the development of spatial ability.
Some specific classroom learning activities should be used to enhance spatial ability such as
paper folding, mental rotation tasks, and creating virtual reality environments to make students
see virtual buildings from different position and using the tridio learning material. The tridio
learning material consists of cubes, with white, black and green sides, mosaic pieces (rhombuses
and triangles) in the same color and a board to place the cubes on.
According to the results of the research, a generalization can be drawn that students’
spatial ability significantly influenced the students’ geometrical performance. Therefore, it can be
realized that it is very crucial to enhance students’ spatial ability for improving their geometrical
performance in mathematics.
Suggestions
Teaching students to become spatial thinkers is increasingly recognized as a goal of
education. Spatial ability is found as an important component of success in a variety of scientific,
technical and mathematical related occupations. Visual-spatial ability is increasingly important
for everyone in rapidly changing technologically oriented world. So, it is necessary to enhance
students’ spatial ability to face the challenges of 21st century. Teachers’ role, students’ role and
classroom activities for improving spatial ability, assessment for promoting spatial ability and
suggestions for further study are given as suggestions.
(i) Teachers’ role, students’ role and classroom activities for improving spatial ability:
Visualization level is where students use imaginary movements in three-dimensional place. In
order to develop visualization, the students should understand the arrangements of spatial
patterns and several stages to produce the correct solution. And also, the teachers should probe
students, act as resource and guide students in direction of outcomes. Moreover, in order to
improve students’ visualization, the teachers should carry out classroom activities such as paper-
based exercises: paper folding, paper form board and surface development tasks.
Spatial relation is where students mentally rotate spatial objects fast and correctly. In
order to develop spatial relation, the students should be good at thinking about how an object will
look when rotated. This skill can be improved with practice. So, the teachers should integrate
some specific activities such as card rotation, flag rotation and cube rotation tasks in mathematics
classrooms.
Closure speed is where students quickly identify a familiar meaningful visual object from
incomplete visual stimuli without knowing in advance what the object is. To develop this skill,
the students must understand gestalt completion and be good at concealed words and figures.
This skill can also be improved with practice. So, the teachers should use such learning materials
as tangram puzzle and tridio to understand gestalt completion and find concealed words and
figures.
Flexibility of closure is where students identify a visual figure or pattern embedded in a
complex distracting visual pattern. In order to develop flexibility of closure, the students must be
good at noticing embedded figures and hidden patterns. And also, the teachers should provide
such learning experiences as finding hidden figures, patterns in teaching-learning process.
Perceptual speed is where students compare figures or symbols or carry out very simple
tasks involving visual perception. In order to develop perceptual speed, the students must
visualize figures and symbols fast and correctly. And also, the teachers should provide students
such learning experiences as comparing figures, scanning symbols and maze tracing in
mathematics classrooms.
(ii) Assessment for promoting spatial ability: Multiple-choice items are mostly used in
assessment of spatial ability. For this reason, the researcher studied spatial ability using multiple-
choice items based on different spatial tasks. Different researchers used spatial ability tests for
different purposes. Soma spatial tests are non-verbal tests, perceptual tests for career selection.
Teachers should adopt different assessment methods such as paper-based exercises that allow
students to visualize spatial patterns fast and correctly. And also, teachers should use games and
puzzles that allow students gestalt completion and find hidden figures correctly.
(iii) Suggestions for further study: With this view, some suggestions are provided for further
research. In the 21st century, spatial ability is essential in specific areas of engineering, science
and mathematics. This research study contributed to the improvement of students’ spatial ability
in mathematics in the middle schools.
However, no study is perfect in a single effort. In this study, the sample schools were
randomly selected from Yangon Region. So, future research should be carried out for the other
States and Regions for replication. Moreover, this research is concerned with only the middle
school students. That is so, other studies with the primary and the high school students and also
the college and the university students should be conducted. In addition, this study was dealt with
the students’ spatial ability such as visualization, spatial relation, closure speed, flexibility of
closure and perceptual speed from Carroll’s five major factors of spatial ability. Therefore, future
studies should be conducted with other spatial skills. Moreover, future studies should be
conducted with other assessments which measure the spatial ability of students.
Conclusion
Education is important because it gives people the baseline skills to survive as adults in
the world. These skills include basic literacy and numeracy, problem-solving skill, critical
thinking skill and communicating skill. Spatial ability is essential in problem-solving skill and
ability to see the relations. People with strong spatial ability can imagine a shape from different
view-points or they can quickly understand the spatial patterns. Spatial thinking has a significant
role in many school subjects, in everyday life, and in many occupations.
Spatial perception accompanies man from birth. Its development is connected not only
with the cognitive processes but also with education. The effective use of spatial information is
one aspect of human cognition .Promoting spatial ability in mathematics classes is crucial in the
development of successful students. Mathematics teachers should be aware that students must be
provided with maximum opportunity of participation to develop their fullest potential.
When students think spatially in mathematics, they easily recognize the relations between
geometrical figures, perform better in mathematical activities. Moreover, spatial ability can be
improved with practice. Teachers must use classroom activities and games that allow students to
improve their spatial ability. Tangram puzzle, a game in which smaller shapes must combine
form a larger shape enhances students’ spatial thinking.
Finally, the researcher concluded that there was relationship between students’ spatial
ability and their geometrical performance in mathematics. According to the literature, spatial
ability is important not only in daily lives but also in academic life. It can lead to the
development of students’ ability to recognize the relations, students’ performance in geometry
and students’ problem-solving skill. Additionally, spatial ability supports the students’ vocational
outcomes. Three major components of spatial ability: space, tools of representation and process
of reasoning are helpful for encouraging children in grasping the world and developing
mathematical thinking. So, every teacher should create a learning environment in which students
think spatially rather than memorizing facts. Although this study cannot fulfill the aim of
teaching and learning mathematics in the middle schools, it can be a support for teachers to foster
the middle school students’ spatial ability in Myanmar.
Acknowledgements
We would like to offer respectful thanks to Dr. Aye Aye Myint, Retired Rector, Yangon University
of Education, Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung, Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education and
Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing, Pro-Rector, Yangon University of Education who give us permission to fulfill our
dream of doing this thesis. We wish to express our deepest gratitude to our teacher, Dr Soe Than, Professor and
head of Department, Methodology Department, Yangon University of Education for his intellectual resources.
References
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Tsutsumi, E., et al. (2005). Evaluation of students' spatial abilities in Austria and Germany. Journal for Geometry
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York: Pearson.
AN EXPLORATION OF INFLUENCING FACTORS ON TEACHER

TRAINING PROGRAMMES IN EDUCATION COLLEGES
San San Myint1
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to study the exploration of influencing factors on teacher
training programmes in education colleges. The three factors such as social factors, technical
factors and managerial factors are examined to know what extent they effect, which are the highest
and lowest influence and the interrelationships among them for the improvement of quality
transformation in education colleges. A quantitative research method and descriptive research
design were used in this study. This study was conducted in fourteen education colleges. The
samples education colleges for this study were randomly selected. The (561) teacher educators
were administered to obtain the required data. A Questionnaire was used as instruments. To
measure the reliability of the instrument, a pilot test was conducted to (66) teacher educators from
two education colleges. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) of Questionnaire was (.844).
The data were analyzed by using the descriptive analysis techniques and Pearson product moment
correlation. The research findings revealed that the influencing level of social factors had the
(71%), the technical factors had the (69%) and the managerial factors had the (72%). It showed
that these factors were moderately influenced on the pre-service teacher training programmes.
Among the three factors, the social factors have greater average means (82.27) than the technical
factors (72.40) and the managerial factors (72.46). The relationship between social factors and
technical factors was r (12)=.435, p< .01, between social factors and managerial factors was
r (12)= .454, p< .01 and between the technical factors and managerial factors was r (12)= .734,
p< .01. They were significant positively relationships.
Keyword: Quality Assurance, Quality of teacher Education, Teacher Training
Introduction
Education shifts from product-oriented to process-oriented trend by using the energy from
environment as innovation according to the view point of system approach. The education system
must produce the educated persons who have sound body and healthy mind with qualitative
attitudes of education. Mukhopadhyay (2001) classified the outcome of the education in four
levels such as informed, cultured, emancipated and self-actualized. Education development
should provide individual’s values, knowledge, skills and competencies for living and
participation in quality society. So, the aim of education for sustainable development is to
empower people to participate in shaping a future. Everywhere in the world, reforms and
innovation are jointly presented among the most urgent preoccupations of educational system
circle (Porter & Goble, 1977). Therefore, the current formal educational trend requires for this
purpose and calls for the innovation.
According to Bishop (1986), the innovation will be essential to bring about qualitative
change in education. These changes are needed to increase efficiency and improve the quality
and equity of learning opportunities. Efficiency means the balance between input resources
invested and the output in term of student’s performance in quality and equity. All systems
cannot exist in vacuum; respond to their environment and have vulnerable to change
(Bertalanffy, 1972). These changes are needed to increase efficiency and improve the quality and
equity of learning opportunities. Matei and Iwinska (2016) pointed out that quality in higher
1
Principal, Taungoo Education College
education and quality assurance are important for Myanmar during the current period of
transformations in the country. Especially education colleges need to innovate not only in
product but also in process in cyclic quality improvement.
National Education Strategic Plan (NESP) is a comprehensive, widely-owner and
evidence-based roadmap intended to reform the entire education sector over the next five years
for the period of 2016-2021. MOE has identified nine transformational shifts that will
collectively contribute to achievement of the NESP goal (NESP, 2016). Therefore, the MOE has
prioritized and integrated a comprehensive approach to teacher education and which has
conducted three strategies having ten components. This includes the component two of second
strategies of NESP. There will be some needs as the problems of teacher training programmes for
innovation. This study tries to explore the influencing factors on the component of teacher
training programmes in education colleges.
According to NESP report, MOE is facing a number of challenges in deploying qualified
teachers to all schools. There are three major challenges such as to ensure development and
retention of quality teachers in the education management mechanisms and access to quality in
both in-service and pre-service teacher education. In education colleges, it is essential to
implement feasible management strategies that can attract new entrances with considerable
potential to become quality teacher. In-service teachers training requires quality as continuous
professional development programmes. During pre-service teacher training, teacher trainees need
more opportunities to practice their new knowledge skill and pedagogic skills. Thus, pre-service
teacher training needs to be redesigned.
Education colleges seek more effective system to address the restructuring the
organization with the performance of higher education system. In educational terms, there has
been a shift away from formal mode in which most students might have been viewed as passive
recipients of teaching, absorbing information in an uncritical way, to a growing enthusiasm for
active independent learning which encourages deep rather than superficial processing of
information. In responses to the necessity for reforming education colleges, teaching programmes
require to be in line with the needs and expectations of quality development in new dimensions.
Thus, based on the finding, three factors have been translated into actual situations in
social, technical and managerial sub-system of education colleges for changing in quality
development of the teacher training programmes.
The main purpose of this study is to explore the influencing factors on teacher training
programmes in education colleges. The specific objectives are as follows.
 To investigate the social factors, the technical factors, and the managerial factors that
influence on pre-service teacher training programmes in education colleges.
 To examine the highest and lowest factors that influence on pre-service teacher training
programmes in education colleges.
 To study the interrelationships between the three factors that influence on pre-service
teacher training programmes in education colleges.
Research Questions
Q1: To what extent do the social factors, technical factors, the managerial factors influence on
pre-service teacher training programmes in education colleges?
Q2: Which factors are the highest and lowest influencing on pre-service teacher training
programmes in education colleges?
Q3: Are there interrelationships between the three factors that influence on pre-service teacher
training programmes in education colleges?
Scope of the Study
The first limitation is selecting the sample education colleges. There were twenty five
education colleges in Myanmar out of them, fourteen education colleges from fourteen state and
region of Myanmar (Education Colleges  Myintkyina, Loikaw, Hpaan, Haktha, Mawlamying,
Kyaukphyu, Lashio, Monywa, Dawei, Taungoo, Magway, Mandalay, Yankin, Pathein) were
selected randomly. The second limitation dealt with the participants who were selected randomly
from the selected education colleges. The third limitation is that this study was based on systems
concept although the subsystem process is especially emphasized and was only concerned with
three factors (social, technical and managerial) that influence on teacher training programmes.
The final limitation is the selected programme. Education colleges conduct both pre-service and
in-service, teachers training program. This study focuses only on the pre-service teacher training
programmes, Diploma in Teacher Education Training Programme and Pre-service Primary
Teacher Training programme.

Quality assurance (QA)
Quality assurance is the processes that seek to ensure the learning environment (including
teaching and research) reaches an acceptable threshold of quality (QQI, 2016).
Quality of teacher education
Quality of teacher education means combining the excellence, threshold, improvement
and fitness for purposes (Venkataiah, 2011).
Teacher training
Teacher training refers to professional preparation of teachers, usually through formal
course work and practice teaching (Darling-Hammond & Lieberman, 2013).
Quality in Education
The concept of quality has been defined in several ways (Campell & Rozsnayi, 2002,
cited in Mizikaci, 2006). Adams (1993) claimed that the terms efficiency, effectiveness, equity
and quality have often been used synonymously in quality education. Establishing a
contextualized understanding of quality means including the relevant stakeholders. Quality is
indeed a multi-layered and complex word. So, the integration of the four sub layers will be
summited as quality in education such as defining the quality, quality assurance and principles,
excellent characters of educational institution. So, the definition of quality has been opened and
altered in not only probabilistic system but also deterministic system nature. Teacher Education
is neither mere pedagogy nor acquisition development of the younger generation. It is inculcation
of commitment and generation to contribute at the highest level of efficiency through a quality
based approach (Venkataiah, 2011).Thus quality of teacher education means combining the
excellence, threshold, improvement and fitness for purposes.
Quality Assurance and Principles
According to an integrated agency for Quality and Qualification in Ireland (QQI, 2016)
quality assurance guide line defined that the quality assurance (QA) is the processes that seek to
ensure the learning environment (including teaching and research) reaches an acceptable
threshold of quality. A fundamental ASEAN’s national qualification framework principle stated
that quality assurance of higher education is the quality primarily rests with it education
institutions themselves. The statements provide ten guidelines on the quality assurance processes
systems through which higher education institutions demonstrate the accountability and
safeguard the interests of stakeholders including students and society.
The Importance of Quality in Education Colleges
In the 21st century, qualitative transformation is required in higher education institutions
which are functionally interdependent because the world workforce markets needs qualified
person. The higher education sector, comprising various professional institutions should be
venues where quality teaching, learning and training are conducted, quality researches
undertaken and quality service rendered. This is because of society’s needs and expectations
towards higher education. It depends ultimately on the quality of its staff, students, teachers,
programme, infrastructure and academic environments (Thein Myint, n.d., MOE, 2016).
Reasons for Requirement of Quality Assurance in Teacher Education
Quality assurance system needs to be transparent and provide sufficient information to the
public and relevant stakeholders (Matei & Iwinska, 2016). Therefore, teacher training
programmes should aspire to satisfy the requirement of their stakeholders and society. All the
indicators for quality assurance are provided in the design and implementation of the programme
for its proper assessment, which could bring out the problems faced in its implementation and for
affordable corrective measures (Umar, 2007). Mizikaci (2006) proved that the implementing
model has shown effective in encouraging cross-departmental and cross-institutional strategies
for highlighting awareness of common issues, expectations of performance, facilitating
communication and collaboration among, and within the branches, based on a common
understanding of key values and concepts. Therefore, quality can be assumed a system approach
or systematic plan and applied especially in the context of education colleges.
Systems Approach
The word “system” rooted from Greek origin systema, derives from syn meaning together
and histemi meaning to set. A system is simply an assemblage or combination of things or parts
forming a complex whole (Jenkins, n.d.). A concept and definition of the systems approach is a
methodology for solving problem (Chen, 1975). The systems approach can assist in studying the
structure and functions of education colleges and has been utilized as the inter-relations in
various functions.
Educational Institution as a Sub-system

Bertalanffy (1972) verified that the overall system can be designed, fitted, checked and
operated by the sub-systems to achieve the overall objective efficiently. So, educational
institution is a system or sub system- it has inputs like students, infrastructure, financial
resources, instructional resources, etc. The processes are admission, instruction, evaluation, etc.,
and outputs are the graduates - their behavioral, academic and physical qualities. Mukhopadhyay
(2001) said that these components as inputs, processes and outputs are dependent on one another,
in a systemic framework. Mizikaci (2006) proposed a model based on Tribus’ model and which
is preceded by establishing social, technical and managerial systems simultaneously. There are
some adaptionss of this model for the transformative nature of education colleges.
Source: Adaptive From Mizikaci (2006).
Figure 1 Pre-service Teacher Training Programme in Education Colleges
Research Design
The research design for this study was a descriptive design.
Researcher found out the related literature after formulating the problems and shooting
the research questions. After that, the set of questionnaires was developed under the guidance of
supervisor and discussions were taken with teacher educators from the methodology department
to iron out the problem of questionnaire before sending to field expert persons. After preparing
the instruments in order to get validation, expert review was conducted by nine experienced
teacher educators from the education colleges. When ambiguities were found in the questionnaire
and test, some changes were made in the questionnaire and test after consulting with the experts.
To find the reliability of the instrument a pilot test was administered with (66) teacher educators
from Hlegu education college and Thingangyun education college in January second week. The
same procedures of data collection was conducted in all state and regions to reduce the bias of
study in collection the data. The data were collected with the help of principals and participants
and then data were both input and analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS 20).
Instrument
A questionnaire was used to investigate the influencing factors on pre-services teacher
training programmes. The questionnaire was constructed based on The European Union
Programme for Human Resources Development, on improving the institutional capacity of the
Education and Teacher Training, Agency's (ETTA) assessment of the needs for teacher straining.
The questionnaire consisted of Likert-type scale and open-ended questions. The total items were
(60) on five point Likert-type scale from (1) to (5). In this questionnaire, Likert-type scale were
composed into the three sections: social factors, technical factors and managerial factors. Twenty
items for each factor were used. For items, the score closer to (1) indicated “Never/Strongly
Disagree” and “Always/ Strongly Agree” was indicated by the score closer to (5).
Among twenty five education colleges out of them fourteen education colleges from
respective state and region of country (Myintkyina, Loikaw, Hpaan, Haktha, Mawlamying,
Kyaukphyu, Lashio, Monywa, Dawei, Taungoo, Magway, Mandalay, Yankin, Pathein) were
selected rondomly. There were randomly selected teacher educators (561) who were participated
from five academic department and finance managements departments.
Data Analysis
The data were systematically analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS20). The descriptive analysis techniques were used to calculate the means, the
standard deviation and the percentage. Moreover, Pearson product- moment correlation was used
to describe the relationship between three factors.
Research Findings
Findings of Influencing Factors on Teacher Training Programmes in Education Colleges
The categories and subcategories of influencing factors were adapted from Mizikaci’s
(2006) proposed an evaluation model for the quality implementations in higher education which
was used to explore the influencing factors on teacher training programmes in education colleges
in this research. The three main categories are: (1) social factors, (2) technical factors, and (3)
managerial factors.
Findings of Influencing Factors in terms of Social Factors
In order to find out the influencing factors in terms of social factors, (20) items were used.
The mean was (82.27) and the standard deviation was (8.606). According to the results, the
lowest mean and the highest mean were (77.38) and (87.16) respectively. Figure 2 presents the
comparison of the means of all the selected education colleges.
Social Factors
90 87.16 86.07
83.6 81.91 82.84 81.58 80.14
Mean 85 80.92 79.63 81.68 82.54 81.9 81.93
80 77.38
75
70
Education College
Figure 2 Means of Influencing Factors in terms of Social Factors on Teacher Training

Programmes in the Selected Education Colleges
Besides, it is necessary to find out the percentage of the influencing levels for the social
factors which are influencing on pre-service teacher training programmes. The full score for
questionnaire of social factors was (100). The sample mean and the standard deviation in
influencing social factors were (82.27) and (8.606) respectively. Based on the scores of the
questionnaire of social factors the score below (74) were identified as low influencing level, and
the score between (91) and (74) were considered as moderate influencing level, and the score
above (91) were identified as high influencing level. These scores refer to the performance scores
of participants.
Table 1 Influencing Level of Social Factors
Influencing Level of Social Factors Score (x) Percentage (%)
Low x <74 18
Moderate 74≤ x ≤ 91 71
High x >91 11
Total 100%
Findings of Influencing Factors in terms of Technical Factors

In order to find out the influencing factors in terms of technical factors, (20) items were
used. The mean is (72.40) and the standard deviation is (11.280). According to the results, the
lowest mean and the highest mean were (67.08) and (77.38) respectively. Figure 3 presents the
comparison of the means of all the selected education colleges.
Technical Factors
80 77.38
74.4
72.33 70.69 71.25 72.34 73.27 70.08 71.79 73.98 73.6 73.58 70.61
Mean
75
70 67.08
65
60
Education College
Figure 3 The comparison of the means of all the selected education colleges
The full score for questionnaire of technical factors was (100). The sample mean and the
standard deviation in influencing technical factors were (72.40) and (11.280) respectively.
Based on the scores of the questionnaire of technical factors which are influencing on pre-
service teacher training programmes, the score below (61) were identified as low influencing
level, and the score between (84) and (61) were considered as moderate influencing level, and the
score above (84) were identified as high influencing level. These scores referred to the
performance scores of participants. The (99) participants had low level of performance so
influencing level 18% was the low influencing level , (388) participants had moderate level of
performance so influencing level 69% was the moderate influencing level , and (74) participants
had high level of performance so influencing level 13% was the high influencing level.
Table 2 Influencing Level of Technical Factors
Influencing Level of Technical Factors Score (x) Percentage (%)
Low x <61 18
High x >84 13
Total 100%
Findings of Influencing Factors in terms of Managerial Factors
In order to find out the influencing factors in terms of managerial factors, (20) items of
questionnaire were used. The mean is (72.46) and the standard deviation is (12.141).
respectively. Figure 4 presents the comparison of the means of all the education colleges.
Managerial Factors
80
77.4
78
76 74.26 74.5 74.02 75.13
74 71.73 72.37 73.08
72 71.08 71.08 71.26 70.91
Mean
70 67.59
68 66.66
66
64
62
60
Education College
Figure 4 The Comparison of the Means of All the Education Colleges
The sample mean and the standard deviation in influencing managerial factors were
(72.46) and (12.141) respectively. Based on the scores of the questionnaire of managerial factors
which are influencing on pre-service teacher training programmes, the score below (60) were
identified as low influencing level, and the score between (85) and (60) were considered as
moderate influencing level, and the score above (85) were identified as high influencing level.
These scores refer to the performance scores of participants.
Table 3 Influencing Level of Managerial Factors
Influencing Level of Managerial
Score (x) Percentage (%)
Factors
Low x <60 15
High x >85 13
Total 100%
Findings of Total Influencing Factors on the Pre-service Teacher Training Programmes in
Education Colleges
In order to find out the influencing factors: the social, technical and managerial factors on
the pre-service teacher training programmes, (60) items of questionnaire were used. The mean is
(227.14) and the standard deviation is (26.998). The score for influencing social factors ranged
from (124) to (290).
Total Influencing Factors

245 241.53
240
235 230.39230.49230.28
230 227.65 226.39
228.89
226.24 227.4 229.12
Mean
225 221.96 221.66

220
214.72215.59
215
210
205
200
Education College
Figure 5 The Comparison of the Means of Total Influencing Factors on Teachers Training
Programmes in the Selected Education Colledges
The sample mean and the standard deviation in influencing factors were (227.14) and
(26.998) respectively. Based on the scores of the questionnaire of all influencing factors which
are influencing on pre-service teacher training programmes, the score below (200) were
identified as low influencing level, and the score between (254) and (200) were considered as
moderate influencing level, and the score above (254) were identified as high influencing level.
These scores referred to the performance scores of participants.
Table 4 Influencing Level According to Three Factors

Influencing Level of All Three Factors Score (x) Percentage (%)
Low x <200 16
Moderate 200≤ x ≤ 254 69
High x >254 15
Total 100%
Findings of Interrelationships of Three Factors on Teacher Training Programmes of

Education Colleges
Further analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among the influencing
factors on pre-service teacher training programmes of education colleges: social factors, technical
factors and managerial factors. The Pearson product-moment correlation was used to determine
the interrelationships, of three categories of influencing factors (see Table 5).
Table 5 The Interrelationships between the Three Influencing Factors on Teacher
Training Programmes of the Selected Education Colleges
Correlation
S T M
Social Factors (S) 1 .435** .454 **
Technical Factors (T) 1 .734**
Managerial Factors (M) 1
It was significant high relationships. The direction of the relationships were positive. This
means that if one of the influencing factors is high, the other influencing factors are likely to be
high or if one of the influencing factors is low, the other influencing factors are likely to below.

Discussion
Under the guidance of NESP strategic seven, all education colleges have implemented to
achieve the quality improvement and quality assurance. The dynamic aspect of quality system,
such as the outputs and the process perspective refer to the teacher education and its quality is
easy to revert to managerial concepts such as quality mechanisms (Hudson, Brian, Zgaga, Pavel
& Åstrand, Björn, 2010). At the view point of system approach there is transforming into open
system to achieve the quality by pragmatists who are more willing to put that belief into practice
(Ozmom, 1986).
Thus social factors moderately influenced on teacher training programmes. The social
system of teacher training programmes possessed adequate judicious environment, reasonable
service and innovated working method to support the pre-service training programmes. The
physical aspects of the learning environment can affect psychological and social behavior (Moos,
1979). The Influencing of social factors confirmed that adequate learning environment can
provide the quality improvement. So, influencing factors, social system influenced as hallmarks
of education colleges and its training programmes. These potentiality should be driven force as
energetic input for others sub-systems (technical and managerial factors) development in cyclic
process.
Secondly, according to the findings, the technical factors moderately influenced on

teacher training programmes. Technical factors demented strengthening in its component sub
factors. So, most of teacher educators comprehended in pedagogical delivery although not all
utilize effectively in technical transforming process. Navaratnam (1997) pointed out that in case
of input and output, it is necessary to identify various processes in the school with qualitative
attributes. So, teacher educators should have potentially adopted and adapted in the technical
transformation process in the professional field. Effective training program recognized the
teachers’ quality and requested to teacher competency frame work for professional development.
So, there are essentially demands for upgrading in those factors of quality transformation.
Thirdly, according to the findings, managerial factors are moderately influenced on
teacher training programmes. Mukhopadhyay (2001) said that recognize the management
profitability is essential to future success. Participatory management and team work are natural
associates of total quality management Mukhoadhyay (2001).Thus managerial factors as
cooperative structures and adaptive systems, which governed the steady state for open system
nature. So, moderate level of management considered there was participatory management
provided exposure and engaged the pre-service teacher training programmes.
Fourthly, the social factors were the most influenced among the others factors. the
technical factors were the lowest influenced among the others factors on teacher training. This
finding showed that the managerial factors were nearly similar to the technical factors. Therefore,
it is assumed that not only the managerial factors but also the technical factors were less
influence than social factors.
The system point of view those three sub system were composed as pre-service teacher
training programmes, in which the social sub-system had the tendency to confine sociological
observations to the positive contribution to system and most of teacher educators have the
dysfunctions. Although technical sub - system, managerial sub - system had manifest function in
more contribution to adjustment and adaptation of system development and quality improvement.
Pre-service teacher training programme of education colleges should try to be more open system
nature and should be improved by more supporting in resources, technical, finical, physical and
psychosocial-environment and other supports.
This finding proved that Bertalanffy (1972) viewed as a system as a set of elements
standing in interrelation among themselves and with the environment. The research findings were
in line with system thinking, all system; physical or soft must have predetermined objective that
the interrelated components strive to achieve (Patton & McCalman, 2000, cited in
Mukhopadhyay, 2001). To sum up, the pre-service teacher training programmes of education
colleges were influenced by moderate level in the social factors, technical factors and
managerial factors among them, the social factors were the highest and technical factors were
lowerest. Besides, three factors had intercorrelation as well as significantly positive relationships.
Thus proved Bertalanffy’s systems theory, is that the whole is more than the sum of its parts that
the whole determines the nature of the parts, and the parts are dynamically interrelated and
cannot be understood in isolation from the whole.
Suggestions for Social System
Education colleges having the sound environment, health and safety and access to their
stakeholder, should be more established and implemented. (eg: electronic library, health care
center, recreation center, information and news center). That suitable maintenance staff should be
trained or appointed to improve the physical conditions and resources. That the relationship
among education colleges, education institutes, other university, basic education schools and
community should be more continued and improved where necessary.
Suggestions for Technical System
System to redesign, develop, review and approve curricula for the teacher training
programmes and contents with relevant and up-to-date for educational innovation. That a long
term action plan for curriculum renewal should be designed and implemented. Teacher
competences in the various level of categories should be identified and legally prescribed. Key
performance indicators and targets should be established to measure the performance of teachers’
competency and strategic goals of the programmes. The appropriate incentive schemes should be
developed to attract the most competence teacher educators into the education colleges. Making
the research and using the results in educational training programmes should be reflected and
encourage for quality improvement of education colleges. The process of student assessment
including the grading criteria should be documented and communicated to students on
commencement of a programme and employability. Employability of graduates of the training
programmes should be established the probation and tenureship process for monitoring and
examining.
Suggestions for Managerial System
The mission of education colleges should be more cascaded and demonstrated for
implementation under the. Full strength of staff capacity should be urgently appointed. Each
college should prepare staff development plans which incorporate reflective research activities
for each staff member’s. External relations, networks and partnerships should be established and
improved to achieve the strategic goals of the education colleges. Funds should be established
available for education colleges to pursue research and areas of interest and relevance to improve
the quality for teacher training programmes of education colleges.
Conclusion
The study for the exploration an influencing factors on teacher training programmes has
been conceived as a tool to introduce the system perspective to all aspects of pre-service teacher
training programmes, notably, social system, technical system and managerial system for quality
improvement. It was recognized teacher training programmes, sub –system of teacher education
system should have the nature and the character of open system for quality development. It was
teacher training programmes reflected the overall expectation of quality education open system
and faced ever-increasing demand for equifinality of the system.
All teacher educators should sustain and strengthen the existing positive factors of the
programmes and establish not only the quality system but also the local networks in regions and
states. These network can serve as platforms to exchange information and good practice,
disseminate knowledge, increases the understanding of development and challengences as well as
professional expertise of teachers’ educators. This study can take parts as the small corner point
of view for quality improvement in pre-service teacher education. The finding reveal that there
are positive influencing factors and a clear understanding of what needs to be done to improve
pre-service teacher training programmes. In addition these factors have translated into actual
situations for changing in quality development of the teacher training programmes. The findings
should be taken account in prioritization and transforming process to try and generalize these
positive influencing factors across the system as a whole. Therefore, to improve the quality of
teacher education programmes further studies should be conducted to evaluate both in-service
and pre-service teacher training programmes of education colleges.
References
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practices. New York:Taylora & Francis group.
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J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020Vol. XVIII. No.9C
A STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT ON

THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OFHIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Htay Lwin1 and Sann Cho2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of classroom environment on the
academic achievement of high schools students. Questionnaire survey method was used and six
sample schools were selected by a simple random sampling method. A total of (360) Grade Nine
students (140 male students and 220 female students) from three high schools and three high
school (branch) from Taze Township participated in this study. In order to get the required data,
the questionnaire having 40 items with five points Likert scale was used. The questionnaire was
based on five dimensions: school climate, communication, teachers' performance, classroom
management and opportunity for learning. The reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was
0.879. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t test, one-way ANOVA and Pearson product
moment correlation were applied to analyze each research question. The results showed that
female students more positively perceived their classroom environment than male students. The
results of the ANOVA showed that there was no significant difference in the students' perceptions
among the six schools. Pearson correlation revealed that the classroom environment was
significantly related to the students' academic achievement. Therefore, students' academic
achievement can be predicted by examining their classroom environment.
Keywords: classroom environment, achievement, academic achievement
Introduction
Importance of the Research
Education is an essential factor for effective development of any country and plays a vital
role in the development of human resources. The quality of education is a central theme in
education systems and is linked with an individual’s well-being and opportunities for better
living. The quality of education not only depends on the teachers as reflected in the performance
of their duties, but also in the effective coordination of the school environment.
In any school setting, whether it is elementary, secondary, or higher education, classroom
environment is specially regarded as one of the most critical determinants of students learning
outcomes. Classroom Environment is included in school climate or educational climate, part of
the larger focus on school environment. Classroom environment identifies relationships among
students with each other, the teacher and how this translates into learning. So, it is important to
determine classroom environment and then to use the results as part of the comprehensive plan
for school environment.
Classroom and social environment factors were found to be particularly important
influences on student outcomes, even when a number of other factors were controlled. Classroom
practices and developments have indicated that a positive classroom climate is needed for
effective learning. International relationships, student-teacher relationship, peer relationships,
teachers’ beliefs and behaviors, teachers’ communication style, classroom management and
group processes are themes that can be considered to be included in the concept of the social
climate of learning environments. That is why this study investigates classroom environment
1
Lecturer, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
2
Senior Teacher, No. (1) B.E.H.S, Homalin, Sagaing Region
400 J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020Vol. XVIII. No.9C
considering school climate, student-teacher relationship, peer relationships, teachers’

performance and communicate style in class, classroom management and opportunity for
learning.
Classroom Environment can influence students’ academic outcomes. Creating a positive
classroom environment is an important aspect of effective teaching. By creating positive
classroom environment, teachers are provided the opportunity for better classroom discipline and
management. A positive classroom environment is essential in keeping behavior problems to a
minimum. It also provides the students with an opportunity to think and behave in a positive
manner. Positive classroom environment helps to enhance, promote and encourage students’
learning in all academic settings.
In Myanmar, male and female students are significantly different in academic
performance especially for early adolescents. Similarly, there is also a great variation of students’
performance among schools or learning environments. So, this study will examine the differences
to improve the classroom environments and leaning outcomes of Myanmar Education. It is hoped
that this study will provide information for parents, educators and school administrators to reflect
upon various factors that help students in achieving their academic goals.
Purpose
The main purpose of the research is to investigate the influence of classroom environment
on the academic achievement of high school students.
Objectives
The specific objectives of the research are as follows:
1. To identify the difference in students’ perceptions on their classroom environment by
gender.
2. To identify the difference in students’ perceptions on their classroom environment in
terms of school.
3. To explore the relationship between the classroom environment and the academic
achievement of students.
4. To give suggestions and recommendations based on the results of the study.
Research Questions
1. Is there any difference in the students’ perceptions on their classroom environment in
terms of gender?
2. Is there any difference in the students’ perceptions on their classroom environment in
terms of school?
3. Is there any relationship between the classroom environment and the high school students’
academic achievement?

Classroom Environment - Classroom environment encompasses a broad range of educational
concepts, including the physical setting, the psychological
environment created through social contexts, and numerous
instructional components related to teacher characteristics and
behaviors (Miler & Cunningham, n.d.).
J. Myanmar Acad. Arts Sci. 2020Vol. XVIII. No.9C 401
Achievement - Achievement is defined as a product which can be measured by

means of achievement tests (Annie & Stoker, 1996).
Academic Achievement - Academic achievement is the extent to which students, teachers or
institutions have achieved their short or long-term educational
goals (Annie& Stoker, 1996).
Scope of the Study
The researcher selected three hundred and sixty Grade Nine students from six high
schools by using a systematic sampling method. To investigate the influence of the classroom
environment on the academic achievement of high school students, this study was organized with
five dimensions such as school climate, communication, teachers’ performance, classroom
management, and opportunity for learning.

Classroom Environment
Classroom environment encompasses a broad range of educational concepts, including
the physical setting, the psychological environment created through social contexts, and
numerous instructional components related to teacher characteristics and behaviors. The study of
classroom environment has been widespread across nearly all sub-specializations of educational
psychology. Researchers are interested in relationships between environment constructs and
multiple outcomes, including learning, engagement, motivation, social relationships, and group
dynamics. Early researchers recognized that behavior is a function of people’s personal
characteristics and their environment (Miler & Cunningham, n.d.).
The classroom is an environment in which educational goals such as concern for
community and concern for others must be promoted and modeled if they are to be acquired.
This learning environment contains learners with their own personal histories, values,
assumptions, beliefs, rights, duties, obligations and learning styles, for whom the learning task is
a mean of perceiving and using linguistic affordances as appropriate, fostered by a climate of
cooperative social interaction which produces new, elaborate, advanced psychological processes
that are unavailable to the organism working in isolation (Vygotsky, 1986, cited in Finch, 2001).
Classroom environment within the school is a major influence in the development of
students’ self-concept. Landis (1972, cited in Persad, 1980) suggested that the classroom
environment is an important aspect of the student’s frame or reference. Landis found that
students who achieve well in school exhibit higher self-concepts than do those who achieve
poorly. Combs (1962, cited in Persad, 1980) indicated that the child learns about himself not only
through his own success and failure, but also from the reactions of people toward him. He
suggested that classroom environments should be more flexible, thus providing opportunity for
students to explore and expand on their learning preferences.
Classroom has great impact on academic achievement. Teacher's attitude and behaviors
are vitally important, and genuine involvement of student in class activities, flexibility of rules by
teachers, communication, competition, staff morale also playacrucial role. The use of new
techniques, planning various activities and assignments, encouraging creative thinking in student,
affiliation between classmates and teacher are various factors which influence academic
achievement of students (Ranka, 2016).
The classroom learning environment has a strong influence on students’ outcomes and
plays an important role in improving the efficiency of learning in all levels of classrooms
(Arisoy, 2007). Classroom environment has two aspects: one is the physical environment (the
material setting of the classroom such as furniture, lighting, spaces, desks, chairs) that affects the
safety, the comfort of students, and learning and personal development of students. The other is
the psychological environment referring to the social quality of the school and classroom. It is
concerned about the perceptions and feelings about social relation among students and teachers
(Arisoy, 2007).
To conclude, the classroom environment is a reflection of students’ opinions concerning
their academic performance. This includes students’ perceptions of the rigor of the class, their
interactions with their instructor and class peers, and their involvement in the class. Although
each student will develop his or her individual sense of the classroom environment, there is also a
common sense among the students and the instructor. Classroom learning environment has a
strong influence on students, outcomes and plays an important role in improving the efficacy of
learning in all levels of classrooms.
Concept of Academic Achievement
Educational institutions are mandated to use education as a tool for social transformation.
The success of a school is measured by the quality of students it produces. The success of any
institution is measured by the performance of its students in both academic and non-academic
tests. Academic achievement is the educational goal that is achieved by a student, teacher or
institution achieves over a certain period. The academic achievement of students heavily depends
upon the parental involvement in their academic activities to attain the higher level of quality in
academic success (Lemessa, 2015).
Academic achievement is commonly measured by examinations or continuous
assessment but there is no general agreement on how it is best tested or which aspects are most
important. According to Annie, Howard, Stoker and Mildred (1996, cited in Oldeh, et al., 2015)
academic achievement is the outcome federal the extent to which a student, teacher or institution
has achieved their educational goals.
Bossaert, Doumen, Buyse and Verschueren (2011, cited in Oldeh, et al., 2015) defines academic
achievement as student’s success in meeting short or long term goals in education in the big
picture. According to the authors, academic achievement means completing high school or
earning a college degree. Lassiter (1995, cited in Oldeh, et al., 2015) looks at students’ academic
achievement as referring to a students’ strong performance in a given academic area. A student
who earns good grades or awards in science has achieved in the academic field of science. In
classrooms, students perform their potentials efficiently, as a result of it, learning takes place and
the learning outcome changes the behavior pattern of the student through different subjects.
To summarize, academic achievement is often used as an indicator of school quality
because it is easily measurable using standardized tests. In this study, academic achievement was
defined according to how well a student accomplishes work in all subjects. It was assessed by the
students’ total scores of all subjects in October Examination.
Factors Influencing Students’ Academic Achievement in the Classroom Environment

Classroom Environment is very important for students so as to learn happily and freely in
it and to improve their academic achievement. There are many essential factors that can influence
students’ academic achievement in the Classroom Environment. Some of them are;
School Climate
School climate is determined by the prevailing attitudes of teachers and administrators.
School climate suggests level of teacher and administrator expectations of learners. It defines
pattern of interaction among learners, teachers and administrators. When teachers, learners and
principals all believe that academic achievement is possible, the school climate is conducive to
learning, and achievement tends to be higher than otherwise would be predicted (Good and
Brophy, 1986, cited in Armstrong, Henson & Savage, 1989).
School climate can be a positive influence on the health of the learning environment or a
significant barrier to learning. The school environment can affect many areas and people within
schools. A positive school climate has been associated with fewer behavioral and emotional
problems for students.
Communication
Communication is an important form of interpersonal interaction and its forms can really
help teachers improve their teaching style, strengthening the bound between them and their
students (Babonea&Munteanu, 2012). Communication has helped to build relationships, and the
extent to which students have liked and respected one another has been shown to impact the level
of academic performance. Students who have been accepted by their peers and liked them in
return, have felt better about being in the classroom. The effectiveness of the teaching and
learning in the classroom environment is determined by the quality of the communication
process.
Teachers' Performance
Teacher performance is the most crucial input in the field of education. Whatever policies
may be laid down, in the ultimate analysis these have to be interpreted and implemented by the
teachers, as much as through their personal examples as through teaching-learning process.
Performance refers to an act of accomplishing or executing a given task (Owei, 1999, cited in
Adejumobi, 2013).
The term teaching performance is referring to the conduct of instruction: posing
questions, providing explanations, giving directions, showing approval, engaging in the myriad
instructional acts that a teacher performs in the classroom. Performance could be described: an
act of accomplishing or excuting a given task, the ability to combine skillfully the right behavior
towards the achievement of organizational goals and objectives, the ability to combine relevant
inputs for the enhancement of teaching and learning process (Adeyemi, 2010).
Classroom Management
One major aspect of the classroom climate that has fallen under the control of the teacher
is that of classroom management and discipline. Classroom management refers to actions taken
to create and maintain a learning environment conducive to successful instruction. According to
Dugguh (2007, cited in Kedir, 2015), classroom management is the action a teacher takes to
create an environment that supports and facilitates instructions, academic, social and emotional
learning.
Classroom management is a critical part of effective and successful instruction. Effective
classroom management, which initiates with well-organized and efficient lesson planning
preparation, helps a teacher to teach and students to learn. Classroom management includes these
activities which impact academic achievement: management of curriculum planning,
management of student behavior and procedure. Classroom management enhances students’
questioning and exploration only if the learning environment is conducive. Effective learning
depends completely on a well-managed classroom. If a classroom is not well-managed, it may
have disordered and disruptive, and carelessness and poor learning may result. It is obvious that
classroom management is important in student academic achievement (Kedir, 2015).Classroom
management is the heart of teaching and learning in school setting. A well-managed classroom
can provide an exciting and dynamic experience for everyone involved.
Opportunity for Learning
The achievement of students depends on the teachers' effort and preparation or creation of
learning environments. There are so many factors that make a positive learning environment. In
creating learning environment, teachers should considered the following factors:
 Teachers should have the feeling of connectedness
 Address learners' needs
 Keep it possible
 Provide feedback
 Celebrate success
 Safety
 Employ interactive games and activities.
There are ten characteristics of a highly effective learning environment.
 Encourage students to ask questions.
 Pay more emphasis on questions, not the answers.
 Be open to ideas.
 Mix up teachers' learning techniques.
 Teacher teaching reaches beyond the classroom walls.
 Personalize teachers' learning.
 Do away with a clinically based assessment plan.
 Ensure that students understand the criteria for success.
 Relearn learning habits.
Developing Positive Classroom Environments
Creating a positive classroom environment is an important aspect of effective teaching.
By creating positive classroom environments, teachers are provided the opportunity for better
classroom discipline and management. A positive classroom environment is essential in keeping
behavior problems to a minimum. It also provides the students with an opportunity to think and
behave in a positive manner. Positive classroom environments help to enhance, promote, and
encourage students’ learning in all academic settings. The classroom environment can be defined
in terms of the students’ and teachers’ shared perceptions in that environment (Fraser & Pickett,
2010).
There are a number of ways in which teachers can create positive classroom
environments. Some suggestions for creating a positive classroom environment includes: starting
the year with high expectations, encouraging student involvement, making the classroom visually
appealing, getting parents involved, and using effective praise and effective feedback.
A positive classroom environment is an important tool for establishing a successful and
effective school year. There are numerous factors that may have an influence on positive
classroom environments. However, it is critical that teachers create a positive classroom
environment to encourage the students’ growth. A positive classroom environment enhances the
students’ ability to learn and to be productive in and out of the classroom.
Research Method
Participants
Six Basic Education High Schools in Taze Township were selected by using a random
sampling method. Grade Nine students in these selected schools were considered as the sample
of the study. A sample of (360) high school students from these schools were selected by using a
systematic sampling method.
Instrument
As an instrument, a questionnaire to explore the influence of classroom environment on
the academic achievement of high school students was constructed on the basis of the
questionnaires of Mcghee, Lowell &Lemire (2007). The questionnaire included five-point Likert-
scale items for five dimensions as follows:
1. School Climate
2. Communication
3. Teachers’ Performance
4. Classroom Management
5. Opportunity for Learning
Procedure
First of all, the researcher explored the relevant literature concerning with the research.
Secondly, in order to get the required data, the researcher constructed an instrument. For the
validation of the instruments, the questionnaire was distributed to three experience teachers in
Sagaing University of Education. The instruments were modified before the preliminary survey.
The preliminary survey was conducted on 18th November, 2017 with forty Grade Nine students
at No.(2), BEHS, Shwebo. For the internal consistency reliability, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
was used. The reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was 0.879.
And then, the major survey (main study) was conducted on 27th November, 2017. Finally,
the data obtained from the survey were analyzed. The academic achievement scores of Grade
Nine students from October first semester examination were used as the criterion measure of
students’ academic achievement in the present study.
Analysis of the Data

The data were analyzed by using a descriptive statistics (mean, percentage and standard
deviation), independent samples t-test and one-way ANOVA. The independent samples t-test
was applied to compare the differences in Grade Nine students’ perceptions on classroom
environment by gender. One-way ANOVA was applied to compare the differences in students’
perceptions on their classroom environment by each school. Moreover, Pearson product moment
correlation was used to determine the interrelationship between Grade Nine students’ perceptions
on classroom environment and their academic achievement.
Research Findings
Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Perceptions on Classroom Environment
In order to examine the Classroom Environment, students’ perceptions on classroom
environment were surveyed with the use of the Classroom Learning Environment (CLE)
Questionnaire is based on questionnaires of Mcghee, Lowell &Lemire (2007).
Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Students’ Perceptions on Classroom
Environment
Components N Minimum Maximum M SD
School Climate (SC) 360 22 40 34.75 3.459
Communication (C) 360 18 40 33.76 4.390
Teachers’ Performance (TP) 360 18 38 29.81 3.721
Classroom Management (CM) 360 18 39 30.11 4.062
Opportunity for Learning (OL) 360 8 40 29.38 5.205
Total 360 20 39 31.65 2.931
It can be found that Grade Nine students’ perceptions on their classroom environment
were satisfactory. In studying the means related to school climate, communication, teachers’
performance, classroom management, and opportunity for learning, it was found that the students
positively perceived school climate because it has the highest mean of 34.75 and students’
perception was the least in opportunity for learning because it has the lowest mean of 29.38.
Then, learning opportunities and activities for students should be promoted in schools, while
physical environment for students was favorable to some extent.
Comparison of Students’ Perceptions on Classroom Environment by Gender

In order to explore the gender differences in students’ perceptions on classroom
environment, the independent samples t-test was used. The results were shown in Table 2.
Table 2 The Results of t-test for Students’ Perceptions on Classroom Environment by

Gender
Components Gender N M SD t df Sig.(2-tailed)
SC Male 140 33.91 3.887
-1.375 358 .000***
Female 220 35.28 3.048
Male 140 32.68 4.668
C -1.771 358 .000***
Female 220 34.45 4.006
Male 140 29.44 3.392 .137
TP -5.98 358
Female 220 30.34 3.570
Male 140 28.26 4.187
CM -2.031 358 .000***
Female 220 30.90 3.783
Male 140 28.26 5.605
OL -2.568 358 .000***
Female 220 30.83 4.679
Male 140 30.63 3.058
Overall -5.474 358 .000***
Female 220 32.30 2.634
Note: ***p<.001
As shown in Table 2, there were significant gender differences in all the components of
classroom environment, except for the component of teachers’ performance. It can be found that
female students were more highly perceived their classroom environment than the male students.
But, the mean of male students did not differ significantly from that of female students on
teachers’ performance in classroom environment. So, there was no significant gender difference
in the students’ perceptions on teachers’ performance.
However, in general, it was statistically significant in the students’ perceptions on
classroom environment, based on means, that female students had higher perception than male
students. Analysis of the group statistics indicated that the average perception mean on classroom
environment for female students (32.30) was higher than the mean of male students (30.63). This
finding can be interpreted that girls perceived on their classroom learning environments more
positively than boys did.
In comparing the means of male and female perceptions on classroom environment and
their academic achievement, it was found that these two variables are related. In other words, the
academic achievement scores of female students became high when their perceptions on the
classroom environment were favorable. On the other hand, the males’ achievement scores
became low when their perceptions on the classroom environment were unsatisfied (see Table 3).
Table 3Mean Comparison of Students’ Perceptions on Classroom Environment and their
Academic Achievement
Perceptions on Classroom
Student Academic Achievement
Environment
Male 30.63 186.85
Female 32.30 195.12
In order to determine whether there was any significance in Grade Nine students’
perceptions on their classroom environment in terms of school, sample analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used to analyze the data.
Table 4 ANOVA Results of Students’ Perceptions on Classroom Environment in terms of

School
Component Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 63.158 5 12.632
SC Within Groups 4232.840 354 11.957 1.056 .384
Total 4295.997 359 44.877
C Within Groups 6693.069 354 18.907 2.374 .039*
Total 6917.456 359
TP Within Groups 4934.048 354 13.983 .513 .767
Total 4969.775 359
CM Within Groups 5840.585 354 16.499 1.011 .411
Total 5923.989 359
OL Within Groups 9486.190 354 26.797 1.790 .114
Total 9726.000 359
Between Groups 1006.817 5 201.363
Total Within Groups 76093.672 354 214.954 .937 .457
Total 77100.489 359
Note: *p <.05
The result of Table 4 indicated that students’ perceptions on classroom environment did
not differ significantly, except for the component of communication. It meant that
communication behaviors are different among the schools. Generally, it can be interpreted that
the classroom environments of the six schools differed a little but had no significance.
Relationship between Classroom Environment and Students’ Academic Achievement
After examining students’ perceptions on the classroom environment, it was continued to
investigate the relationship between classroom environment and the academic achievement of
Grade Nine students. Pearson product moment correlation was also calculated to know this
relationship.
Table 6 Relationship between Classroom Environment and Students’ Academic
Achievement
Variable Classroom Environment AcademicAchievement
Classroom Environment 1 .191**
Academic Achievement .191** 1
**. Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
The result showed that the students’ perceptions on classroom environment were
significantly related to their academic achievement at the 0.01 level. The strength of correlation
coefficient was low (r=.191). However, there was a positive relationship between students’
perceptions on their classroom environment and their academic achievement. This meant that if
students’ perceptions on their classroom environment are favorable, their academic achievement
will be high. In other words, the two variables were positively correlated. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the good and favorable classroom environments are likely to have higher
students’ academic achievement.
Conclusion
Discussion
The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between the
classroom environment and the students’ academic achievement within a theoretical framework
of classroom environment. The academic achievement scores of Grade Nine students from
October first semester examination were used as the criterion measure of students’ academic
achievement in the present study. This study explored to examine the male and female students’
perceptions on their classroom environment. Moreover, this study focused on the comparison of
students’ perceptions on their classroom environment in terms of school.
According to the results of descriptive statistics, it was found that the students’
perceptions on their classroom environment were satisfactory. By comparing the means related to
each component of classroom environment, the students’ perceptions related to school climate
was the highest because it had the highest mean among the five components of classroom
environment. However, students’ perceptions related to the opportunity for learning was the
lowest because it had the lowest mean among the five components. It pointed out that the
physical environment of the selected schools was favorable and satisfactory for students.
Secondly, independent samples t-test was used to examine the gender differences in
students’ perceptions on their classroom environment. According to the results of t-test, there
was a significant difference in male and female students’ perceptions on overall components of
classroom environment. However, there was no significant difference in male and female
students’ perceptions on the component of teachers’ performance. It can be interpreted that
teachers performed their actions fairly for both male and female students. So, it can be generally
seen that female students more positively perceived their classroom environment than male
students did. This finding was in consistent with the results of Goh& Fraser (1996) which
indicated that girls perceived their classroom learning environments more positively than boys
did. Girls were more involved, more affiliated and more cooperative with classmates than boys
were. Therefore, gender is a key predictor of learning environment.
Finally, it was found that the Grade Nine students’ perceptions on their classroom
environment did not differ significantly among the six schools. And then, it was continued to
investigate the relationship between the classroom environment and the students’ academic
achievement. Therefore, Pearson product moment correlation was used to analyze this
relationship. Consequently, it was found that students’ perceptions on their classroom
environment had the significant relationship with their academic achievement. It can be
concluded that the more favorable school climate, communication, effective teachers’
performance, systematic classroom management and much opportunity students receive, the
higher academic achievement they tend to get. This finding was in agreement with the results of
Fraser & Fisher (1982) which indicated that students’ perceptions on the learning environment
appears to correlate to student outcomes and also the classroom environment had the predictive
ability for students’ cognitive and affective learning outcomes.
Suggestions
According to the results of the present study, female students more positively perceived
their classroom environment than male students did. It is because girls are more likely to
participate whereas boys tend to respond more often if they feel the class is interesting and less
often if the class is perceived as boring. So, the teachers should utilize different techniques for
male students to enhance their perceptions of feeling as a class participant. Therefore, the
classroom teachers should place importance on the entire school performance to demonstrate
school success in terms of annual academic progress of students. Parents should involve in the
progress of classroom environment and should work in contact with the school authorities for the
welfare of the students. Furthermore, teachers should determine which environments are most
suitable for positive impact on students’ achievement because higher academic achievement is
influenced by positive and favorable classroom environments. Based on the results of the study,
the following suggestions were made:
 Parents should involve actively in school activities not only for the better development of
classroom environment but also for the improvement their children’s achievement.
 As there are still many other variables affecting on classroom environment, the
developmental history of each member of the group, age, personality variables, affective
variables, socio-economic status, parents’ educational status of the children should be
taken into account in further studies.
 Further research is needed to determine whether there is a similarity or a difference
between the actual classroom environments and that preferred by the students in
preschool, primary and middle schools, college and university students in various areas.
Conclusion
The classroom has become an important place for educational research because most
learning takes places there. The importance of classroom learning environment has been
increasingly recognized all over the world. Classroom learning environment is a place where
learners and teachers interact each other and use a variety of tools and information resources in
the pursuit of learning activities. According to the results of findings, classroom environment is
closely related to students’ academic achievement and it had a positive influence on their
achievement. Therefore, it is needed to create good and favorable classroom environments for
students so as to improve their learning outcomes.
Acknowledgements
First of all, we are indebted to Dr. Saw PyoneNaing (Rector, Sagaing University of Education) and Dr.
MyatMyat Thaw (Pro- Rector, Sagaing University of Education) for their administrative supports. Secondly, we
would like to express our heartfelt respect and gratitude to Associate Professor Dr. WaiWaiOo (Head of
Methodology Department, Sagaing University of Education).
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INTEGRATION OF EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

(ESD) INTO MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHING THROUGH
LESSON STUDY
San Aye1 and Yin Mar Win2
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to introduce the integration of Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD) concept into middle school science lessons through lesson study. Four
teacher educators from Sagaing University of Education and Sixteen middle school teachers from
four basic education schools in Sagaing Township participated in this study. Using adapted
Dudley (2014)’s lesson study cycle process, lesson study of science lessons from Grade Six
science textbooks was conducted. Both Qualitative and Quantitative methods were used and data
collecting instruments were semi-structured interview, observation and achievement test. Results
of the initiated lesson study significantly indicated that there are improvements of science teaching
learning process in terms of teachers’ content knowledge, teaching methodology, and student
achievement. As part of participating in interactive lesson study cycles, teachers became more
aware of ESD concepts in science lessons and began openly reflecting on students’ participation
around science activities during their post-lesson discussions. Although lesson study improves
teachers’ professional development with teacher collaboration and student achievement, on the
other hand, the teachers are still unfamiliar with ESD themes and they need to understand ESD
concepts more clearly. Therefore integration of ESD concepts into science lessons is a difficult
task for teachers and there are many challenges for implementing the integration of ESD into
science teaching.
Keywords: education for sustainable development, middle school teachers, lesson study
Introduction
Education is an essential tool for achieving sustainable development and the role of
teachers, in turn, is central to implement Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). The
teachers therefore need to understand the ESD concepts and have ESD practices. With regards to
ESD concept, there is a difference between education about sustainable development and
education for sustainable development. The former is an awareness lesson or theoretical
discussion and the latter is the use of education as a tool to achieve sustainability (Mckeown,
2002). Development is a holistic approach in which people systematically enhance their capacity
to solve their own problems while promoting their cultural, social and economic well-being.
Sustainable development occurs when this process is conducted in a manner that can be sustained
over a long term (Wiltshire, 2008). Young people are the future and teachers play a key role in
the appropriate socialization of young people for sustainable development. To equip teachers to
function effectively for the appropriate socialization of young people, they have to understand
what ESD is and how it can be implemented. ESD is a complex and evolving concept. It is
therefore impossible to attempt to understand ESD by providing a simple definition. Moreover,
different cultures and societies perceive sustainable development in many different ways. A more
meaningful way to understand ESD is to examine its rules, principles and value, and methods
used in its delivery (NZAID, 2009). ESD is already a part of the formal education. Depending on
each country’s historical background and educational perspectives, various approaches or
strategies exist around the world to integrate ESD into formal education. Approaches vary from
1
2
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
more conventional, for example integrating ESD concept and SD issues in existing school
subjects, to more innovative one, for example adopting a whole school approach to ESD and SD
issues (Wals, 2009). According to the previous baseline survey research, the teachers still require
to understand more ESD concepts and to do ESD practice with ESD teaching approaches.
Therefore this study aimed at introducing the conventional approach, i.e. integrating ESD into
existing middle school science subject.
Aim and Objectives of the Research
The aim of this study is to introduce the integration of ESD concepts into teaching middle
school science teaching and specific objectives are:
 To integrate ESD concepts into existing middle school science topics through Lesson
Study
 To investigate the middle school science teachers’ teaching skills addressing ESD
 To investigate the improvement of students’ science achievement
 To suggest the teachers to use Lesson Study in their science teaching

Sustainable Development - development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (UNESCO, 2012)
Education for Sustainable Development - the process that seeks to integrate values and
perceptions of sustainability into not only education systems but one’s everyday personal and
professional life (Wals, 2009)
Lesson Study - An approach in which groups of teachers collaboratively plan, teach/observe and
analyze their teaching (Dudley, 2014)

Sustainable Development and Sustainability
In 1987, the Bruntland Commission Report described the concept of sustainable
development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The sustainability is a paradigm for
thinking about a future in which environmental, social and economic considerations are balanced
in the pursuit of development and an improved quality of life (UNESCO, 2012).
The New Zealand Parliamentary Commission for the Environment (UNESCO, 2010)
explains that: Sustainability is the goal of sustainable development and it is an unending quest to
improve the quality of people’s lives and surroundings, and to prosper without destroying the
life-supporting systems on which current and future generations of humans depend. Like other
important concepts, such as equity and justice, sustainability can be thought of as both a
destination and a journey. To live sustainably means finding ways of developing which will
improve everyone’s quality of life without damaging the environment and without storing up
problems for future generations or transferring them to people in other parts of the world. It
requires an understanding that inaction has consequences and we must find ways to innovate and
change at all levels within society.
Concepts of Sustainable Development

UNESCO has also described the concepts of sustainable development which are
important concepts to include in education systems oriented towards sustainable development as
follows:
Interdependence: People are an inseparable part of the environment. We are part of a system
that connects individuals, their culture, their social and economic activities and their natural
surroundings.
Diversity: The Earth and all its inhabitants are characterized by great variety – biologically,
culturally, linguistically, socially and economically. We need to understand the importance and
value of each of these forms of diversity to the quality of human life and the health of
ecosystems.
Human rights: Everyone has an inalienable human right to freedom of beliefs, speech, assembly
and protection under the law, as well as to the conflicts that enable them to act on these rights
such as access to basic education, food, shelter, health and equal opportunity.
Global equity and justice: This principle is called intra-generational equity and emphasizes that
the rights and needs of others are met so that a fair and abundant quality of life is provided for
everyone around the world.
Rights of future generations: This principle is called inter-generational equity. It emphasizes
that the lifestyle choices we make today always affect the capacity of future generations to have
the same range of choices we have.
Conservation: The natural world contains a range of renewable and finite resources that humans
can develop to satisfy their needs. The lifestyle choices we make need to respect the long-term
sustainability of these resources, and the need for conservation of nature for its intrinsic worth,
not only its utilitarian value.
Economic vitality: Economic growth depends upon a dynamic state of economic vitality in
which everyone has the opportunity and skills to access the resources required for a satisfying
quality of life, within a framework of sustainable development.
Values and lifestyle choices: Values that reflect concern for human well-being, economic
vitality and the quality of the environment are required to ensure that we make lifestyle choices
that contribute to a sustainable future for everyone.
Democracy and civic participation: People are more inclined to care for others and the
environment when they have the right, the motivation and the skills to participate in the decisions
that affect their lives.
Precautionary principle: Sustainable development issues are complex, and scientific advice on
an issue is often incomplete or divided. In situations of such uncertainty, there is a need to act
judiciously and with an awareness of potential unintended consequences.
Therefore the role of Education for Sustainable Development is to integrate these
concepts and abilities into education, training and public awareness systems at all levels and in
all sectors of society.
Education for Sustainable Development

According to the many reports on ESD providing a variety of definitions which share
common elements but are subtly different, Wals (2009) defined ESD as:
- a means of empowering people with new knowledge and skills to help resolve common
issues that challenge global society’s collective life now and in the future;
- a holistic approach to achieve economic and social justice and respect to all life;
- a means to improve the quality of basic education, to reorient existing educational
programmes and to raise awareness.
In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio
de Janeiro, resulted in a publication Agenda 21. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 on education identifies
four major thrusts: Improving quality of education;Reorienting existing curriculum to address
sustainability; Increasing public understanding and awareness of sustainability; Providing
training to all sectors of the workforce towards sustainability (Mckeown, 2002).
Components of ESD
ESD is more than a knowledge base related to environment, economy, and society. It also
addresses learning skills, perspectives, and values that guide and motivate people to seek
sustainable livelihoods, participate in a democratic society, and live in a sustainable manner. ESD
also involves studying local and, when appropriate, global issues.
Knowledge: Sustainable development encompasses environment, economics, and society.
Therefore, people need basic knowledge from the natural sciences, social sciences, and
humanities to understand the principles of sustainable development, how they can be
implemented, the values involved, and ramifications of their implementation. Some basic
knowledge people need to have:
- Rates of use of renewable resources do not exceed their rates of regeneration.
- Rates of use of nonrenewable resources do not exceed the rate at which sustainable
renewable substitutes are developed.
- Rates of pollution emission do not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment.
- Minimize the use of nonrenewable resources.
- Prevent erosion of renewable resources and so on.
Issues: ESD focuses largely on the major social, economic, and environmental issues that
threaten the sustainability of the planet. Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro identified the key issues
in Agenda 21. Some are:
- Population and sustainability, Protecting and promoting human health, Changing
consumption patterns,
- Combating deforestation, Protecting the atmosphere, Conservation of biological diversity,
- Strengthening the role of farmers and so on.
Skills: To be successful, ESD must give people practical skills that will enable to continue
learning after they leave school, to have a sustainable livelihood, and to live sustainable lives.
The types of skills pupils need as adults are:
- The ability to communicate effectively (both orally and in writing).

- The ability to think about systems (both natural and social sciences).
- The ability to think critically about value issues.
- The capacity to move from awareness to knowledge to action.
- The ability to work cooperatively with other people (McClaren, 1989, as cited in
Mckeown, 2002).
Perspectives: ESD carries with it perspectives that are important for understanding global issues
as well as local issues in a global context. Every issue has a history and a future. Looking at the
roots of an issue and forecasting possible futures based on different scenarios are part of ESD.
Some of the perspectives associated with ESD students understand are:
- Social and environmental problems change through time and have a history and a future.
- Contemporary global environmental issues are linked and interrelated between and
among them.
- Humans have universal attributes (e.g., they love their children).
- Considering differing views before reaching a decision or judgment is necessary.
- Technology and science alone cannot solve all of our problems, etc.
Values: Values are also an integral part of ESD. Understanding values is an essential part of
understanding one’s own worldview and other people’s viewpoints. Understanding one’s own
values, the values of the society he lives in, and the values of others around the world is a central
part of educating for a sustainable future. For example, Respect and care for the community of
life, Ecological integrity, Social and economic justice, etc.
Therefore, these five must all be addressed in a formal curriculum that has been reoriented to
address sustainability (Mckeown, 2002).
Integrating ESD in Teacher Education
The guide book (UNESCO, 2018) describes that ESD empowers learners to take
informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability and a
just society, for present and future generations, while respecting cultural diversity. It is about
lifelong learning, and is an integral part of quality education. ESD is holistic and transformational
education which addresses learning content and outcomes, pedagogy and the learning
environment. It achieves its purpose by transforming society. To integrate ESD,
Learning content: Integrating critical issues, such as climate change, biodiversity, disaster risk
reduction (DRR) and sustainable consumption and production (SCP), into the curriculum;
Learning outcomes: Stimulating learning and promoting core competencies, such as critical and
systemic thinking, collaborative decision-making, and taking responsibility for present and future
generations;
Pedagogy and learning environments: Designing teaching and learning in an interactive,
learner-centered way that enables exploratory, action oriented and transformative learning.
Rethinking learning environments – physical as well as virtual and online – to inspire learners to
act for sustainability;
Societal transformation: Empowering learners of any age, in any education setting, to transform
themselves and the society they live in:
- Enabling a transition to greener economies and societies, i.e., equipping learners with
skills for green jobs and motivating people to adopt sustainable lifestyles.
- Empowering people to be global citizens who engage and assume active roles, both
locally and globally, to face and to resolve global challenges and ultimately to become
proactive contributors to creating a more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and
sustainable world.
In UNESCO guide book, the earlier attempts at integrating ESD in schools and
educational instructions at all levels have been described.
Examples of current curriculum mainstreaming practices are:
- Creating a standalone ESD-specific subject;
- Embedding ESD in existing subjects or across the curriculum;
- Adopting a thematic, issue or problem-based approach like climate change, air pollution,
- deforestation etc., based on the local realities;
- Incorporating the use of teaching and learning methodologies consistent with ESD
principles of learner-centered and participatory approaches, such as field trip;
- Conducting ESD-based co-curricular or extra-curricular activities, such as the use of
student clubs and associations and activities;
- Engaging with the local community, often through project-based learning opportunities.
In this study, integrating ESD into middle school science topics was implemented through
Lesson Study.
Lesson Study (LS)
Lesson Study is a highly specified form of classroom action research focusing on the
development of teacher practice knowledge. Lesson Study involves groups of teachers
collaborative planning, teaching/observing and analyzing teaching and learning in research
lessons. It blends all the features of professional learning that improve learning and teaching: the
professional learning takes place over time; it happens in real classrooms with real group; it
involves an element of collaborative enquiry or experiment between teachers who are trying to
solve a problem or improve an approach (Dudley, 2014). He also argues that lesson study helps
teachers to:
- See pupil learning occurring in much sharper detail than is usually possible.
- See the gaps between what they had assumed was happening when pupils learned and
what it is actually happening.
- Find out how to plan learning which is better matched to the pupils’ needs as a result.
- Do all this in the context of a supportive teaching learning community which is strongly
committed to helping pupils to learn and to the professional learning of the members of
the group.
- Change their teaching to better support learning as a result.
A Lesson Study consists of a cycle of at least three research lessons that are jointly planned,
taught/observed and analyzed by a Lesson Study group as shown in Figure 1.
First Lesson Study Cycle
Initial meeting of Teach/ Post RL 1

Joint Interview
LS group to observe discussion and
planning pupils
determine what it RL1 initial plan for RL2
of RL1
is that you want
to improve
Second Lesson Study Cycle
Post RL 2 discussion Joint
Interview Teach/
and initial plan for planning of
pupils observe
RL3 RL 2
RL 2
Third Lesson Study Cycle
Joint Teach/ Post RL 3 discussion
planning observe Interview and agree overall
of RL3 RL3 pupils findings
Source: Dudley (2014) Write up/present what we

have discovered. Conduct
a public research lesson.
Figure1 The Lesson Study Process
Although Dudley’ Lesson Study process consists of three research lessons, this study was
conducted with two research lessons. Using the following adapted balanced focus on pupil
learning research lesson, Lesson Study groups jointly plan, teach /observe and analyze the
science lessons.
Pupil learning to be
improved /developed
Curricular
content to be Teaching approach to
taught, ESD Jointly plan be developed, refined
concept to be teach/observe or innovated
developed analyze, plan
Focus on pupil’s learning

(not teachers’ teaching)
Case pupil’s
Source: Dudley (2014) needs
Figure 2 The adapted balanced focus on pupil learning in ESD research lesson
Materials and Method

Method
In this study, Qualitative (Case study) and Quantitative methods were used.
Participants
Four teacher educators from Sagaing University of Education and sixteen junior teachers
from four basic education schools in Sagaing Township participated voluntarily in this study.
Instruments
Data collecting instruments were semi-structured interview, observation and
achievements test items. Four semi-structured interview questions were for focus group teachers
and two questions for post lesson interview with the case pupils. Three questions were for
observation in the classrooms and 20 items for grade six students’ academic achievement.
Procedure
The relevant literatures were studied and referred to explain ESD concepts, to introduce
examples of good practices on ESD, and to help in preparing lesson study activities which the
teachers can use to enhance their understanding of the topics in ESD such as the importance of
trees/plants for survival, interdependence, renewable energy, and environmental pollution, etc.
Lesson Study group consisted of four teacher trainers from Sagaing University of Education, and
sixteen junior teachers from four basic education schools. Among them, four teachers did not
participate in observing the classroom teaching because they had to teach primary classes in
parallel. In conducting lesson study, Dudley (2013, as cited in Dudley, 2014)’ lesson study cycle
process: Plan;Teach; Observe and Reflect/ Post lesson discussion, was used. In planning step,
teacher educators facilitate the participants in formulating goals to be achieved or identifying
problems to be solved, selecting science lesson topics, identifying lesson objectives, preparing
teaching learning materials and creating learning activities, constructing post-test questions,
observation sheets. Lesson study group members selected two model teachers to teach the
research lessons and the rests were observers, and also identified the case pupils who were might
typify different groups of learners in the class (pupils who are making good, average or below
average progress in academic achievement). The case pupils were interviewed at the end of
lesson. Finally, the lesson study group members conducted post lesson discussion and reviewed
the research lesson, refined it and taught as lesson study cycle 2 to the next class. The lesson
study group members agreed to conduct the lesson study by the following schedule as in Table 1.
Table 1: Lesson Study Program for Middle School Science Lessons integrating with ESD
Learning objectives:
The teachers will be able to plan and teach the science lessons integrating with ESD
Day 1 1)Reflecting workshop experiences: ESD themes; knowledge, attitude, skills,
perspective and value and identifying issues to be concerned in their teaching-
learning situation
2)Selecting science topics based on the monthly plan prescribed in teacher’ manual
3)Diving the participants into two groups
1)Identifying learning objectives for science contents and as well as for ESD
Day 2 2)Constructing items for student assessment at the end of the lesson
3)Identifying teaching/learning materials and activities to be used during the lesson
4)Preparing observation checklist
1)Preparing teaching/learning materials

Day 3&4
2)Reviewing to the learning objectives, materials, activities, assessments worksheets
Implementing research lessons in two classes by each group

3rd& 4th
week
Findings
Research results are presented in four parts: results for lesson study planning, student
academic achievement, post lesson focus group discussion, and post lesson case pupil interview.
Lesson Study Planning Step
Teachers in the schools involved in this study were deeply concerned about the issues
such as lack of student interest in learning, lack of creating learning activities which encourage
student participation and being not enough teacher questions that prompt student’s critical
thinking. Therefore, as their overall goal for Lesson Study, the teachers identified the following:
“To create learning activities and materials which stimulate student interest, and
help the improvement of student participation”
The teachers noted that their traditional teaching techniques: explain the text content orally; ask
students to read the text, and then give the exercises already existed in the textbook need to be
changed. One teacher said that they never ask any questions that evoke the student thinking.
Within the meeting, teachers agreed on the following over-arching goal:
“To make questions that prompt student critical thinking”
Keeping these goals in their mind, the teachers planned their research lesson of the topics which
have been selected in accordance with their monthly plan for this academic year. They identified
the learning objectives for each science lesson integrating with ESD. The selected topics and the
respective learning objectives are described in Table 2.
Table 2 Selected topics of Middle School science lessons integrating with ESD
Grade/Topic Learning Objectives
Grade six - Students understand the concepts by experimenting themselves
Malleability and and reflect on how these properties of metals can be utilized in
Ductility of their daily lives.
Matters
The lesson Study groups referred to the suggested questions(Shuilleabhain, 2015) to be

used for observation and for post lesson case pupil interview and the posttest questions.
Questions for focus group discussion at the end of the research lesson
1. Was the flow of the lesson coherent and did it support student’s learning of the concept?
2. Were the activities and the materials helpful in achieving the goal of the lesson?
3. Did the group discussion help promote student understanding?
4. Did the teacher’s questions engage and facilitate student thinking?
Questions for post lesson interview with the case pupils
1. What did you enjoy most about that lesson?
2. What did you learn? (What can you do now that you could not do? What can you do
better? How is it better?)
Post-test items were based on the textbook exercises.
During the lesson (physical properties of metals: malleable and ductile), three main
activities were provided Grade six students to:
1) Study the physical properties of objects by hammering and identify them metal or non-
metal
2) Experiment on the concepts ‘malleable and ductile’ with metals such as Copper wire
(which is pulled into thin and longer one), and a piece of Lead (which is hammered into
thin sheet).
3) Classify the given objects into metals and non-metals and then students had to give things
made of metals which are used in their daily lives (e.g., Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, etc.).
Student Achievement
After the lesson, post-test (Grade six) was administered immediately.
The students’ learning outcomes from the post-test are as indicated in Table 3.
Table 3 Evaluation of student learning outcomes for Grade six
Student Achievement Day 1 (N=35) Day 2 (N=48)
Mean (Total) 68.9% 76.4%
Case pupils (High achiever) 92.5% 90%
Case pupils (Average) 75% 76%
Case pupils (Low achiever) 62.5% 82.5%
As indicated in Table 3, average students’ academic achievement being immediate

assessment, are above 65% in cycle 1, and in cycle 2 their achievement improved to over 75%.
These achievement values were the worth of Lesson Study, collaborative planning, teaching/
observing and freely, productive suggestions. In particular, Pupils in low learning groups were
discovered to be making an academic success even above the level of average groups in cycle 2
(Day 2).
Post Lesson Focus Group Discussion
During the lesson, each teacher had to observe each case pupil to get information about
three events on the questions: (1) How many times did the case pupil ask questions to their
teacher or themselves? (2) How many times did the case pupil answer their teacher’s questions?
(3) How did they participate in the group activity?
From the teacher’s observation, it was found that some pupils asked questions to their teacher.
For example, one common question is “Sayagyi, what is this?” (Given materials) They then
answered themselves what they thought. And the teachers observed that there is no pupil who did
not answer their teacher’s question although the numbers of time are not the same.
The common utterance of the observer teachers was,
“They measure the length of wire themselves…stretch it with plier…then they
measure the wire again…I can see their satisfaction on conceptual understanding
of the science concept ‘ductility of metal’ themselves.”
The teachers interpreted that they could make their students interested in learning experiences
and participated in activities. One of the observer teacher said that almost all students answered
their teacher’s questions.
In post lesson discussion, one of the teacher, less experienced junior teacher commented,
“Collaborative planning makes me more confident in and satisfied with teaching and
learning situation.”
One experienced teacher, who was selected as a model teacher said,
“We usually teach the content as prescribed by the textbook… and rarely prepare
science activities… this is because I thought it would be time consuming…Now I
realize that planning, collaborative planning is worth.”
Also he said openly,
“I don’t know some chemicals and simple laboratory apparatus, and I’ve never
seen them”
These results indicated that the middle school science teachers’ content knowledge and
pedagogical knowledge need to be improved.
Post Lesson Pupil Interview

The post lesson pupil interview was conducted at the end of the lesson individually. It
took about five minutes. For the question, “what did you enjoy most about that lesson?”
Generally the students answered that they enjoyed learning the lesson because they had
opportunities to do practical. This means that they learned actively because of hands on activity
(learning by doing).
Specifically, one case pupil replied,

“I am very excited in pulling the wire because I think it will be cut, but it become
longer.”
Another common response was that “I did answer all questions correctly without doing
homework.” Another question, “What did you learn? (What can you do now that you could not
do? What can you do better and how is it better?)” Every student replied that they had learned a
lot of and they want to do like this next time. However, they could not give the answers clearly
on the question of how it is better.
Discussion
In group work, allowing the student time to examine the materials using their senses and
to brainstorm ideas of what they find out about the attributes of the materials and asking them to
write the properties of the materials, lead to the improvement of student’s critical thinking skill
and make the students feel the result of group accomplishment. Critical thinking competency is
one of the key competencies for sustainability: the ability to question norms, practices and
opinions; to reflect on one’s own values, perceptions and actions; and to take a position in the
sustainability discourse. Moreover the student gets collaborative competency. It is also the key
competency for sustainability the student must possess. Collaboration competency is the ability
to learn from others; to understand and respect the needs, perspectives and actions of others
(empathy); to understand, relate to and be sensitive to others (empathic leadership); to deal with
conflicts in a group; and to facilitate collaborative and participatory problem solving (UNESCO,
2017).
From case pupil post discussion, the case pupil’s responses (particularly, low achiever but
not slow learner) indicated that he could participate in the activities, share his ideas with others in
the discussion and do successfully group work. It was found that he was satisfied with his
achievement. As a consequence, the students have a sense of self-worth combined with a respect
for other individuals and cultures. This quality is also essential for the student who is educated
for sustainability (NZAID, 2009).
The teachers participated in this study become realized that they need to help their
students have qualities for being a sustainable person. This is because the student who is
educated for sustainability has such qualities as a sense of responsibility to the environment, to
other people and to the future of both; the will, knowledge and skills to translate this
responsibility into action in both personal and public life and a capacity to see the links between
individual and group actions and external events (NZAID, 2009). They become understood how
ESD teaching strategies (learner-centered) are different from their traditional methods (teacher-
centered) and rote learning. Generally, the learning objectives and the overall goals identified
during the planning have been achieved. The teachers accepted that they could create the lively
learning environment where students discover new things (students did not know before), share
ideas, etc. The teachers observed the student interest in learning science
Conclusion
In science teaching, there are many topics related to ESD themes. In this study, the topic,
the properties of metals is not directly related to ESD. Even though the topic selected in this
study is not directly related to ESD themes such as ecology, health, water, pollution, etc., the
teachers could make research lesson for improving students’ competencies for sustainability. The
aim of this study is to introduce how teachers can integrate ESD concepts into science teaching.
It is therefore impossible for the expectation that the teachers will have sufficient teaching
competency for sustainability. It would be challenged to implement ESD practices, reorienting
education towards quality education. The challenges that Myanmar education system is facing
are multi-dimensional, and most of them deal with key concepts in education reform, such as
access, quality and equity (MOE, 2016). However, the result of this study was evidence that the
teachers could make the science lesson plans which improve the students’ competencies for
sustainability and that ESD concepts can be integrated into science teaching through Lesson
Study. Accordingly, the students will develop key competencies for sustainability which are the
essential skills for developing citizens of 21st century.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was supported by the JSPS Core-to-Core Program “Formation of
International Center of Excellence to Promote Teacher Education on ESD”. Moreover it would not be possible to do
this research without the generosity of the junior teachers who gave so freely of their time, expertise, and knowledge
through the study.
References
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Gay, L. R. &Airasian, P. (2003).Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications (7thed.). Ohio:
Merrill Publishing Company.
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San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mckeown, R.(2002). Education for sustainable development toolkit.Retrieved from http://www.esdtoolkit.org
MOE (2016).National education strategic plan 2016-21 summary. Ministry of Education, The Government of
the Republic of the Union of Myanmar.
NZAID (2009).Education for sustainable development: Teacher training manual. Port Vila: Live& Learn
Environmental Education.
Shuilleabhain, A.N.(2015). Lesson study as a form of in-school professional development: Casestudies in two post-
primary schools.Technical report. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment.
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UNESCO (2012).Education for sustainable development: Sourcebook. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved from
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002163/216383e.pdf
UNESCO (2017).Education for sustainable development goals: Learning objectives. Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2018).Integrating education for sustainable development (ESD) in teacher education in South-EastAsia:
A guide for teacher educators. Bangkok: UNESCO.
Wals, A. (2009). Review of contexts and structures for education for sustainable development. Paris:UNESCO.
Wiltshire,W. (2008).Teachers’ guide for education for sustainable development in the Caribbean.Santiago, Chile:
UNESCO
A STUDY OF THE ACADEMIC SELF-CONCEPT OF HIGH SCHOOL

STUDENTS AND ITS EFFECTS ON THEIR ACHIEVEMENT
Soe Soe Thein1 and May Moe Thu2
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to determine the academic self-concept of high school students
and its effects on their achievement. Quantitative research design was chosen for this study. In this
study, (600) Grade Ten students from five Basic Education High Schools in Urban and five Basic
Education High Schools in Rural were involved. A questionnaire based on the dimensions of
Reynolds’ Academic Self-concept Scale was used to find the academic self-concept in English,
Mathematics and Physics. Independent Samples t-test was used to investigate whether there were
significant differences in the academic self-concept and achievement of high school students in
terms of gender and location of school. The results revealed that there were significant differences
in the academic self-concept and achievement of high school students in terms of gender. And
there were significant differences in the academic self-concept of high school students in Physics
but not in English and Mathematics in terms of location. Then, there were significant differences in
the achievement of high school students in terms of location. Pearson Product Moment Correlation
was used to investigate the relationship between the academic self-concept of high school students
and their corresponding achievement. The result revealed that there was a significant correlation
between the academic self-concept and achievement. In addition simple regression was used to
find out the effect of the academic self-concept of high school students on their achievement. The
result of simple regression (R2 = .11) revealed that there was a positive small effect of the
academic self-concept of high school students on their achievement. Although there was a small
effect, the academic self-concept was one of the important factors for increasing the achievement
of students. Therefore, teachers and parents need to know the ways of improving the academic
self-concept and should create an environment that allow for successive approximations leading
toward the end goal.
Keywords: academic self-concept, achievement, effect
Introduction
The future of a nation depends largely on the quality of the citizens. If the citizens of a
country are educated, they can easily grow up the national growth and development. Therefore,
there must be cultivated educated and successful people for the national growth and
development. To become the successful and educated persons, the teachers and parents must be
cultivated the students to become all round developed persons since they were in high schools.
Academic achievement plays a vital role in all round development. Academic achievement is
important because it directly decides the positive outcomes of the students after graduating.
Therefore, it is necessary to find out the factors increasing the academic achievement of students.
Students’ academic achievement plays a significant role in producing the best quality
graduates who will become grate leader and manpower for the country thus responsible for the
country’s economic and social development. Academic self-concept, broadly defined, can be
thought of as a student’s self-perception of academic ability formed through individual
experiences and interactions with the environment (Valentine, DuBois& Cooper, 2004).
1
2
Senior Teacher, Branch of Basic Education High School, PyinnKhoneGyi, Kalay Township
Academic self-concept, on the other hand, refers to mental representations of one’s abilities
within school or academic settings, or in relation to one’s academic progress.
Many researchers have conducted research and offered explanations as to increase the
academic performance and achievement of students. Several factors impact the educational
achievement of students, including school curriculum, student learning style, and teacher
expectations (Kunjufu, 1989). Therefore, it is necessary to study the level of academic self-
concept of Myanmar high school students in terms of gender and location of school and whether
there is a relationship between academic self-concept and achievement of students. And it is
needed to study whether the academic self-concept of students effect on their achievement and to
what extent that effect on their achievement.
The main purpose of the research was to study the academic self-concept of high school
students and its effects on their achievement.
The specific objectives of the research were:
1. To explore the academic self-concept and achievement of high school students in English,
Mathematics and Physics
2. To compare the academic self-concept and achievement of high school students in terms
of gender and location of school
3. To find out the relationship between the academic self-concept of high school students
and their corresponding achievement
4. To investigate the effects of academic self-concept of high school students on their
corresponding achievement
5. To give suggestions for improving students’ academic self-concept and achievement.
Research Questions
1. To what extent do high school students have academic self-concept and achievement in
English, Mathematics and Physics?
2. Is there any difference in the academic self-concept and achievement of high school
students in terms of gender and location of school?
3. Is there any relationship between the academic self-concept of high school students and
their corresponding achievement?
4. Is there any effect of the academic self-concept of high school students on their
corresponding achievement?
This study will provide the classroom teacher and educators with knowledge of the
relationship between the academic self-concept and achievement of high school students.
Knowing the correlation between academic self-concept and achievement, they will try ways to
improving students’ academic self-concept and appropriate teaching methods suitable for their
students.
And this study will provide the effects of academic self-concept on achievement of high
school students and the findings will be of value to parents, teachers, educators and responsible
persons in identifying possible causes of poor academic achievement. Supporting a student’s

academic self-concept is important to improve academic achievement because the beliefs and
feeling that students have are the key components of academic success.
Academic self-concept : Academic self-concept is defined as the degree of an
individual’s perception of his or her own proficiency in
academic subjects (Bong &Skaalvik, 2003).
Academic Achievement : Academic achievement may be defined as the performance of
the students in the subjects they study in the school (Pandey,
2008).
Effect : A change that is caused by an event, action etc.
Scope
This research is geographically restricted to Kalay Township, Sagaing Region.
Participants were chosen from Grade Ten Students from the five Basic Education High Schools
in urban and five Basic Education High Schools in rural. This research mainly focused on the
dimensions of academic self-concept as academic confidence, academic interest, academic effort,
and self-evaluation. In this research, academic self-concept was identified with self-concept in
Mathematics, English and Physics.

Theoretical Background of the Study
According to Rogers (as cited in Mangal, 2010),every individual possesses the desire to
become a perfect human by means of self-control and with his own autonomy. In this respect, he
is also endowed with intrinsic motivation to allow him to move towards the direction of
achieving self-perfectness and excellence. Furthers, experiences and knowledge acquired from
the environment will enable him to form his own self- concept, whether positive or negative,
depends on the characteristics of elements which affect the environment. However, every
behavior which has been exhibited by an individual usually reflects his self-concept as well as his
own beliefs. An individual’s personal experience is unique and distinctive, as well as different
from other individuals. Such experience is also, to a large extent, affected by the environment
which he interacts.
Valentine, DuBois and Cooper (2004) described a positive academic self-concept should
lead to gains in academic achievement. Specifically, students with positive views of their
academic abilities are likely to engage in more achievement-related behaviors, which might
include completing homework, studying for tests, and participating in class activities. Guilford
(1966, as cited in Shavelson, Hubner& Stanton, 1976) stated four aspects of self-concepts: (1)
how a person perceives himself, (2) what he thinks of himself, (3) how he values himself and (4)
how he attempts through various actions to enhance or defend himself.
Academic confidence is the student’s belief about performing a task at a particular level
in order to attain a specific academic goal. It reflects a strong belief or sure expectation of
success in an academic field. Generally, students perform those task and activities in which they
feel competent. And then, they who perceive himself confident has a high level of academic
achievement (Shaukat& Bashir, 2004).
However, academic interest is also a valence linked to a specific topic, task, or activity
which as a driving force. Schiefele and Csikszentmibalys (1994) described that there was a
relationship between academic interest and academis achievement (as cited in Corbiere,
Fraccaroli & Mbekou, 2006).
Besides, student’s effort is strongly related to students learning. The results achieved by
the learner through a process of learning depend heavily upon his basic potential. A learner’s
readiness and power to learn is a great deciding factor of his results in learning. Certainly, if he
has a will to learn a thing, then automatically, he will himself find ways for effective learning.
The effort and results, which provid a success experience to an individual (Mangal, 2010).
Self-evaluation is also the principal method of assessing progress or success. Self-
evaluation is one of the characteristics of Roger’s experiential learning. The learner himself is
interested in evaluating the results and outcomes of such learning by applying it to the realization
of learning objectives (Mangal, 2010).
The Model Used in the Study

The theoretical underpinning of the notion self-concept as used in this study is based on
the hierarchical model of Shavelson, Hubner and Stanton (1976) who were the first researchers to
create an empirically testable hierarchical self-concept model (Byrne, 1996). The model has been
expanded and changed, although the basic structure has stayed similar. The hierarchical model,
as represented in Figure 1 can be described as a pyramid with a global self-concept at the apex.
Intermediate level self-concepts, such as academic self-concept and social self-concept, follow
beneath the apex. Beneath each of the intermediate level self-concepts, further specific self-
concepts are found, such as subject-specific academic self-concepts like mathematics and first
language self-concepts. Although the components of hierarchical models can differ, the
pyramidal description applies for all hierarchical models. The self-concepts are found
increasingly differentiated from the top to the bottom in the model.
Figure1The hierarchical model (Shavelson, Hubner& Stanton, 1976).

Academic Self-concept and Academic Achievement

According to Marsh (2003), the major research question in the study of academic self-
concept is: whether academic self-concept causes academic achievement or academic
achievement causes academic self-concept. In the voluminous literature on self-concept, there are
three major theoretical models regarding the causal ordering between academic self-concept and
academic achievement: the self-enhancement model, the skill development model, and the
reciprocal effects model.
The self-enhancement model posits that the primary causal path is from academic self-
concept to academic achievement. It maintains that as improvement in self-concept will lead to
improve academic performance and that achievement does not influence self-concept. In the skill
development model, academic self-concept is a consequence of prior achievement. The skill
development model maintains that past achievement whether successful or unsuccessful
influences the formation of self-concept but self-concept does not influence achievement. The
reciprocal effects model assumes self-beliefs predicts increase in academic achievement (i.e. later
achievement, after controlling for prior achievement), and, conversely, higher levels of
achievement predict improvements in self-beliefs.
Many researchers have suggested that the causal direction of academic self-concept and
achievement vary with age. The academic self-concept of younger students is more likely to be
influenced by school performance. As they enter higher grades, academic self-concept and
achievement are more likely to influence each other. Although most researchers concur that the
relation between the two variables is reciprocal, there is still a lack of a conclusive answer on
when the effect is stronger in one direction or the other or whether the effects one variable on the
other is stronger (Liu, 2009). Based on the above literature, this study was conducted.
Research Method
A quantitative research design was chosen for this study. The sample of this study was
(600) Grade Ten students from ten Basic Education High Schools in Kalay Township. The
participants were selected by using a simple random sampling method.A questionnaire was
developed on the basis of the dimensions of Academic Self-concept Scale of Reynolds (1988) to
explore the academic self-concept of students in English, Mathematics and Physics. A
questionnaire was comprised of four dimensions as academic confidence, academic interest,
academic effort and self-evaluation. There were 5 items for each dimension. Therefore, there
were 60 items for three subjects. There were five possible responses to each question to indicate
the responses of “Strongly Disagree” (1), “Disagree” (2), “Undecided” (3), “Agree” (4),
“Strongly Agree” (5). After preparing the instrument, validity was determined by the expert
judgments. And then, pilot study was conducted with (60) Grade Ten students in BEHS (Branch)
No. (23) BEMS, Pyi Gyi Tagon Township, Mandalay Region. And achievement in each subject
was taken from October monthly test scores by teacher made tests. Finally, the obtained data
were analyzed. The researcher computed descriptive statistics such as mean and standard
deviation for each subscale to investigate academic self-concept and achievement. After that
Independent Samples t-test was computed to find out the differences in the academic self-concept
and achievement of students in terms of gender and location of school. Then, the Pearson Product
Moment Correlation was computed to find out the relationship between the academic self-
concept and achievement. Finally, simple regression was computed to investigate the effect of
academic self-concept on the achievement.
Research Findings
Findings of the Academic Self-concept of High School Students in Each Subject
In order to examine the academic self-concept of high school students in English,
Mathematics and Physics, a statistical descriptive procedure was used. The mean and standard
deviation for students’ academic self-concept in each subject was shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Students’ Academic Self-concept in Each
Subject
Variable N M SD Mini Max
English Self-concept 600 70.38 10.647 30 100
Mathematics Self-concept 600 72.89 12.041 36 100
Physics Self-concept 600 70.68 11.941 32 100
The mean of Mathematics self-concept was highest and the mean of English self-concept
was lowest. This result revealed that students had the highest self-concept in Mathematics.
Generally, the means of academic self-concept of high school students in Kalay Township were
greater than the theoretical mean. Therefore, it was concluded that high school students in Kalay
Township were likely to have good academic self-concept.
Findings of the Achievement of High School Students in Each Subject
In order to examine the academic achievement of high school students in English,
Mathematics and Physics, a statistical descriptive procedure was used. The means and standard
deviations for students’ achievement in each subject were shown in Table 2.
Table 2Means and Standard Deviations of Students’ Achievement in Each Subject
Variable N M SD Mini Max
English Achievement 600 15.51 5.735 0 25
Mathematics Achievement 600 17.70 5.501 0 25
Physics Achievement 600 17.56 6.409 0 25
According to Table 2, mathematics achievement had the highest mean and the lowest
standard deviation. Therefore, it was concluded that high school students in Kalay Township
were likely to have better achievement in Mathematics than English and Physics.
Findings of the Academic Self-concept of High School Students in terms of Dimension

To explore the differences in students’ English self-concept, Mathematics self-concept
and Physics self-concept in each dimension, descriptive statistics was used. In Table 3, the means
and standard deviations for students’ Academic self-concept in each dimension were shown.
Table 3 Means and Standard Deviations of Students’ Academic Self-concept in terms of

Dimension
Subject Dimension N M SD Mini Max
Academic Confidence 600 16.63 3.474 5 25
Academic Interest 600 18.51 2.980 10 25
English Academic Effort 600 16.56 3.379 7 25
Self-evaluation 600 18.68 3.085 7 25
Mathematics
Academic Effort 600 18.31 3.528 5 25
Self-evaluation 600 18.96 3.228 5 25
Physics
Academic Effort 600 17.34 3.492 5 25
Self-evaluation 600 18.53 3.264 5 25
According to the means of students’ academic self-concept in terms of dimension, it was
found that academic effort in English, academic confidence in Mathematics and Physics had the
lowest mean and self-evaluation in three subjects had the highest mean. Therefore, it was
concluded that high school students in Kalay Township were good at self-evaluation in each
subject and weak in effort in English, weak in confidence in Mathematics and Physics.
Findings of the Academic Self-concept of High School Students in terms of Gender
Independent samples t test was used to compare the differences in the academic self-
concept of students in terms of gender. The results of t test which showed the comparison of
means between male and female students were shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Means, Standard Deviations and t Value of Students’ Academic Self-concept in
terms of Gender
Variable Gender N M SD MD t df p
English Male 240 67.18 10.240
Female 360 72.51 10.388 -5.336 -6.199 598 .000***
Self-concept
Mathematics Male 240 70.62 12.406
Female 360 74.41 11.563 -3.787 -3.817 598 .000***
Self-concept
Physics Male 240 68.18 12.122
-4.164 -4.243 598 .000***
Self-concept Female 360 72.35 11.538
Note: ***p<.001
Table 4 showed that there were significant differences in academic self-concept between
male and female students among the selected schools at .001 level. This means that female
students had higher academic self-concept than male students in English, Mathematics and
Physics in Kalay Township.
Findings of the Academic Self-concept of High School Students in terms of Location
Independent samples t test was used to compare the differences in the academic self-
concept of students in terms of location. The results of t test which showed the comparison of
means between urban and rural students were shown in Table 5.
Table 5 Means, Standard Deviations and t Value of Students’ Academic Self-concept in

terms of Location
Variable Location N M SD MD t df p
English Urban 300 70.45 10.180
.153 .176 598 .860
Self-concept Rural 300 70.30 11.111
Mathematics Urban 300 73.04 11.625
.293 .298 598 .766
Physics Urban 300 69.71 11.899
-1.950 -2.005 598 .045*
Note: *p<.05
Table 5 showed that there were no significant differences in English self-concept and
Mathematics self-concept but Physics self-concept had significant difference between urban and
rural schools at .05 level. This means that urban and rural students had nearly the same academic
self-concept in English and Mathematics, and rural students had better self-concept than urban
students in Physics.
Findings of the Achievement of High School Students in terms of Gender
Independent samples t test was used to compare the differences in the achievement of
students in terms of gender. The results of t test which showed the comparison of means between
male and female students were shown in Table 6.
Table 6 Means, Standard Deviations and t Value of Students’ Achievement in terms of
Gender
Variable Gender N M SD MD t df p
English Male 240 14.38 5.672
-1.892 -4.007 598 .000***
Achievement Female 360 16.27 5.660
Mathematics Male 240 16.54 6.335
-1.936 -3.663 598 .000***
Physics Male 240 16.65 5.438
-1.519 -3.343 598 .001**
Note: **p<.01, ***p<.001
Table 6 showed that there were significant differences in English achievement and
Mathematics achievement at .001 level and Physics achievement at .01 level between male and
female students. This means that female students had better achievement than male students in all
three subjects in Kalay Township.
Findings of the Achievement of High School Students in terms of Location
Independent samples t test was used to compare the differences in the achievement of
students in terms of location. The results of t test which showed the comparison of means
between urban and rural students were shown in Table 7.
Table 7 Means, Standard Deviations and t Value of Students’ Achievement in terms of

Location
Variable Location N M SD MD t df p
English Urban 300 16.89 4.680
2.753 6.052 598 .000***
Achievement Rural 300 14.13 6.340
Mathematics Urban 300 20.27 5.143
5.140 10.72 598 .000***
Physics Urban 300 18.57 5.319
2.017 4.564 598 .000***
Note: ***p<.001
Table 7 showed that there were significant differences in English achievement,
Mathematics achievement and Physics achievement between urban and rural students at
.001 level. In detail, urban students had higher academic achievement than rural students in all
three subjects in Kalay Township.
Findings of the Relationship between Academic Self-concept and their Corresponding

Achievement
To investigate the relationship between academic self-concept and their corresponding
achievement, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient between two variables was
calculated. The result of correlation between academic self-concept and their corresponding
achievement was mentioned as follow in Table 8.
Table 8 Correlation between Academic Self-concept and their Corresponding Achievement
Variable EA MA PA A
Pearson Correlation .392**
ESC
Sig (2-tailed) .000
MSC
Sig (2-tailed) .000
PSC
Sig (2-tailed) .000
ASC
Sig (2-tailed) .000
** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2- tailed). N=600
Note: ESC = English Self-concept EA = English Achievement
MSC = Mathematics Self-concept MA = Mathematics Achievement
PSC = Physics Self-concept PA = Physics Achievement
ASC = Academic Self-concept A = Achievement
There was a significant correlation between English self-concept and English

achievement, Mathematics self-concept and Mathematics achievement, Physics self-concept and
Physics achievement, and total academic self-concept and achievement at the .01level (r =.334).
The result shows that the direction of correlation was positive. This means that if the academic
self-concept is good, the achievement of students will be high or if the academic self-concept is
bad, the achievement of students will be low.
Findings of the Effects of Academic Self-concept on their Corresponding Achievement

In order to investigate the effect of academic self-concept of students on their
corresponding achievement, simple regression was calculated. Table 9 presented the results of
simple regression for academic self-concept and their corresponding achievement.
Table 9 Simple Regression for Students’ Academic Self-concept and their Corresponding
Achievement
Adjusted
Variable R R square F p B Beta
R square
ESC .392 .153 .152 108.3 .000*** .665 .392
EA .211
MSC .292 .085 .084 55.71 .000*** 6.38 .292
MA .155
PSC .203 .041 .040 25.83 .000*** 10.9 .203
PA .094
ASC .334 .112 .110 75.23 .000*** 15.5 .334
A .165
Note: ***P<.001
ESC = English Self-concept EA = English Achievement
MSC = Mathematics Self-concept MA = Mathematics Achievement
PSC = Physics Self-concept PA = Physics Achievement
ASC = Academic Self-concept A = Achievement
Table 9 showed that there was an effect by English self-concept on English achievement,
Mathematics self-concept on Mathematics achievement, Physics self-concept on Physics
achievement. The results were statistically significant (F = 75.229, p<.001) for academic self-
concept and achievement. The adjusted R square value was .11. This indicated that 11% of the
variance in achievement was explained by academic self-concept. According to Cohen (1988),
this is a small effect. Therefore, it was interpreted that high school students’ academic self-
concept had slightly positive effect on their achievement.
Discussion
As Mathematics self-concept had the highest mean in three subjects, high school students
were likely to have better academic self-concept in Mathematics than English and Physics.
Mathematics achievement had the highest mean in three subjects. Therefore, it can be concluded
that high school students had better achievement in Mathematics than English and Physics.
Generally, students are familiar with Mathematics than English and Physics since they were
young, easier to use in daily life and have little memorizing in learning. Therefore, they are
active and more interest in learning Mathematics, so they had positive self-concept and better
achievement in Mathematics than English and Physics.
According to the results, the high school students had the highest mean in self-evaluation
in three subjects and the lowest mean in effort in English, confidence in Mathematics and
Physics. Generally, high school students are happy to learn three subjects, well-prepared to take
these exams and satisfied with their effort in learning these subjects. So, they had the highest
self-evaluation in English, Mathematics and Physics. And they should give more time to study
English than Mathematics and Physics; because they are weak in effort in English. Then, they are
weak confidence in solving problems in Mathematics and Physics although they are interest and
take effort in these subjects.
Moreover, there was significant difference in the academic self-concept of high school
students in three subjects in terms of gender. Female students had higher academic self-concept
in three subjects than male students. Rosenberg and Simmons (1975) noted that adolescence girls
are more concerned about being well-liked, more affected by others’ opinion of them, and more
eager to avoid behavior that elicits negative reaction and Lau and Leung (1997) commented that
girls are higher in their need for affection and affiliation (cited in Liu & Wang, 2005).
Accordingly, girls will have more willingness to get appraisals from others and to try hardly in
academic situations. For these reasons, girls can be assumed to be high effort in academic tasks
and then they have high academic confidence, which may result high academic self-concept and
achievement.
Besides, there was significant difference in Physics self-concept of high school students
in terms of location but not in English and Mathematics. Urban and rural students had nearly the
same academic self-concept in English and Mathematics. And, rural students had better academic
self-concept than urban students in Physics. This is because of the high level of principal’s
administration and strong effort of physics teachers.
In addition, there was significant difference in the achievement of high school students in
three subjects in terms of gender. Female students had higher achievement in three subjects than
male students. Greenfield (1996) discussed that statistically significant differences in
achievement were found among students on the basis of gender. In the study of Mirza and Malik
(2000), they found that overall performance of girls were better than that of boys at all levels of
education starting from primary to college level in Pakistan (cited in Rizwan&Zafar, 2005).
Then, there was significant difference in the achievement of high school students in three
subjects in terms of location. A possible explanation for this finding could be the socio-economic
status of the parents of the students. Generally, the parents of students in urban had higher
education level than parents of the students in rural. According to their level of education, it
could be that parents of students in urban high schools were more conscious of the benefits of
education, communicated this knowledge to their school going children, and strive to improve
the achievement of their children. And, it could be uneven distribution of resources, poor
facilities, problem of qualified teachers refusing appointment or not willing to perform well in
isolated villages and poor communication.
According to the research findings, there was a significant relationship between academic
self-concept of high school students and their corresponding achievement. Therefore, it can be
concluded that if the academic self-concept of high school students is high, the achievement of
students will be high.
From this research, there is an effect of academic self-concept of high school students on
their corresponding achievement. The result revealed that general academic self-concept can
explain 11% of the variance in achievement. In the study of Dramanu & Balarabe (2013),
academic self-concept can explain 9% of the variance in academic achievement. In the study of
Cokley (2000), academic self-concept can explain 21% of the variance in academic achievement.
So, this study agreed with the studies of Dramanu & Balarabe (2013) and Cokley (2000).
Many research studies had been developed the factors affecting the academic
achievement of students as student’s characteristics, parent’s characteristics and teacher’s
characteristics. There were the key factors of student’s characteristics as self-efficacy,
motivation, attitudes and behavior, academic competency, communication skills, collaboration,
academic self-concept, time management and engagement in class activities, and parent’s
characteristics as the education level of the parent, family income, parent support and educational
expectation, and then, teacher’s characteristics as teaching experience, qualification, workload,
teacher’s behavior and personality that affect the students’ academic achievement. Therefore, the
academic self-concept of students affects 11% on their achievement. So, teachers and parents
should try to improve the academic confidence, interest, effort and self-evaluation of children in
order to increase their achievement.
Suggestions
Gender difference in the academic self-concept and achievement of high school students
was found in the study. This finding by implication is that, male and female students differed in
the views they hold about their academic competence and capabilities. Therefore, to increase the
level of the academic self-concept and achievement of male students, the teachers and parents
should try the male students take more effort and interest in the academic subjects and feel
confident in their abilities and capabilities.
From the results, urban and rural students had nearly the same academic self-concept in
English and Mathematics. This finding by implication is that, both urban and rural students in
Myanmar high schools did not differ in the views they hold about their academic competence and
capabilities in English and Mathematics. But, rural students had higher academic self-concept in
Physics than urban students. So, the physics teachers in urban schools should do the students feel
confident in their abilities and capabilities by praising even their small successes in order to
increase the academic self-concept in Physics.
According to the research findings, urban students had better achievement than rural
students. So, it is recommended that the Government should bridge the gap between the rural and
urban locations by providing adequate learning resources, facilities and good communication.
Then, adequate incentives provided to rural area teachers to encourage them to put their effort in
teaching.
The results of the study showed there was a positive effect of academic self-concept of
high school students on their achievement. This finding suggests that the views that students hold
about their academic competence and capabilities are valuable variables that have the potential to
facilitate the realization of students’ goals in a range of settings including the school. This finding
underscores the importance of how students feel about their competence and ability to be
successful in their educational programs. Students who are convinced that they are good and
have the ability to succeed or control their educational experiences are likely to make efforts to
excel in school works.
Therefore, it was important to increase the academic self-concept of students in order to
increase the achievement. The role of teachers is significant to improving students’ academic
self-concept. Sang (2003) discussed that the formation of self-concept is based on perceptions of
one’s self and others towards him. He also stated that school influences and changes an
individual’s behavior through aspirations and interactions of peers group and teachers. According
to him, the important role of classroom teachers can be seen in the formation of academic self-
concept. Others’ perceptions towards a person also impact his self-perceptions. Teachers’
behavior, attitudes, words and values shape the self-concept students because they are role
models for students. So, teachers should care their words and behavior in treating students.
Marsh and Craven (1997) discussed that academic achievement is substantially affected
by academic component of self-concept (cited in Rizwan & Zafer, 2005). Because academic self-
concept is students’ perceptions of their own strengths and weaknesses in academic situation
themselves, it may be one of the most important things in learning. A student who perceives
himself as a person who always needs help in mathematics class always feels not to solve
problems in mathematics and he does not try to solve any problem, and then gets help from
others accordingly, his skill of mathematics will decline and his mathematics achievement will be
low gradually. Again, a students who perceives himself as a learner who enjoys studying for
mathematics will try to solve every problem in mathematics class and he feels happy in solving
mathematics problems if so, he will get high skills at mathematics and high achievement.
According to this, it can be assumed that a change in academic self-concept will impact on a
change in achievement. So, the class teachers need to improve students’ self-concept in specific
subjects in every class time.
And, teachers should create an environment that is rich with successful opportunities, and
allow for successive approximations leading toward the end goal. As students acquire confidence
that they can successfully complete the range of individual steps leading to the end goal, the
more confident they will feel. So, teachers should train the students feel academically capable in
easy tasks and, it sure that they have academic self-concept, then teachers should go to the
difficult tasks.
Then, teacher should avoid blaming the students for their weaknesses by comparing with the
abilities of others and should give appraisal words to them in their successful tasks. If so,
students develop satisfaction and confidence in their abilities and competencies and then they put
more effort in their learning process. As a result, academic achievement will increase.
In summary, the results of the present study prove academic self-concept is significantly
correlated with academic achievement. Many empirical studies support this relationship. So,
teachers and educators need to emphasize academic self-concept of learners and need to strive to
help them to build up high positive academic self-concept.
Conclusion
Academic self-concept is the perception of an individual about his or her ability and
capability in academic subjects they study in the school. Students’ self-perceptions about their
academic capabilities form an important part of their adjustment in school. These perceptions
play a significant role in directing students’ efforts towards their academic work.
The result of the study showed that there was a positive effect of academic self-concept of
high school students on their achievement. Individuals with high academic self-concepts are
more likely than those with low academic self-concept to study hard in order to perform well
academically. The actions and reactions of teachers, parents and significant others towards
students should be such they are intended to encourage, suggest, assure and reinforce students
that they are academically capable and can do well if they work harder. These words of
encouragement are likely to have an impact on the self-belief of the students making them see
themselves as academically competent and capable, and thus strive to study hard in order to
perform well academically.
Therefore, it is indispensable to take efforts to improve the academic self-concept of students.
Academic self-concept is an important factor in improving a student’s achievement. Teachers
and parents should be offered adequate and sufficient training in the areas of children’s personal
and social competence (self-concept, self-esteem, social abilities, personal development, etc.,) as
an avenue to improve academic performance as well as achievement of learners.
This study is provided the effects of academic self-concept on achievement of high school
students and the findings are valuable to parents, teachers, educators and responsible persons in
identifying possible causes of poor academic achievement. And, this research is provided the
ways of improving the academic self-concept of children to teachers and parents. Therefore, this
paper is expected to give a support for increasing the academic self-concept and achievement of
high school students.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. Saw Pyone Naing, Rector, Sagaing University of
Education for his kind permission to do this study. Our special thanks go to Professor Dr. Soe Than (Retired) and
Dr. Wai Wai Oo, Associate Professor, Head of Department, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of
Education for their invaluable guidance, precious advice, kind support and encouragement throughout our study. We
are also grateful to all participants of Grade Ten students, respective teachers and headmasters for their cooperation
in this study.
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A STUDY OF THE PERSPECTIVE OF STUDENT TEACHERSON THE

TEACHING PRACTICE
Khin Thant Zin1 and Khin Mar Khine2
Abstract
The aim of the research is to study the perspective of student teachers on teaching practice. It was
intended to study the perspective of student teachers on teaching practice in Sagaing University of
Education. In this research, questionnaire survey method which is one of the descriptive methods
was used. The participants in this study were (340) fourth year (second semester) student teachers
from Sagaing University of Education. Descriptive statistics was used for the analysis of obtained
data. The mean score for the perspective of student teachers on teaching practice in planning was
93.1, the mean score for the perspective of student teachers on teaching practice in instruction was
43.02, the mean score for the perspective of student teachers on teaching practice in assessment
was 41.66 and the mean score for the perspective of student teacher on teaching practice in
classroom environment was 41.40. The result showed that the mean score for the perspective of
student teachers on teaching practice in planning was the highest and the mean score for the
perspective of student teachers on teaching practice in classroom environment was the lowest.
According to the result, the majority of student teachers possessed moderate level of perspective in
their teaching practice. And then, descriptive statistics (percentage) was used to examine the
perspective level of the student teachers who had the perspective high, moderate and low. The
number of student teachers who possessed high, moderate and low level of perspective were (55),
(234) and (51), respectively, in planning. The numbers of students who possessed high, moderate
and low level of perspective were (71), (228) and (41), respectively, in instruction. The numbers
of student teachers who possessed high, moderate and low level of perspective were (61), (228)
and (51), respectively in assessment. The number of student teachers who possessed high,
moderate and low level of perspective were (62), (236) and (42), respectively, in classroom
environment.
Keywords: perspective, student teacher, teaching practice
Introduction
Khin Zaw (2001) proposed that no educational system can be better than its teachers.
Achievement of educational aims and objectives cannot be met unless teacher have necessary
training where they are adequately equipped with teaching skills and competences Rao (2007,
cited in Ajileye, 2013). The teacher is the most important element in any educational program. It
is the teacher who is mainly responsible for implementation of the educational process at any
stage (Kilpatric, 2009). Teaching practice provides: an opportunity to gain confidence; chance to
put theories into practice; an opportunity to learn the skills and attitudes of a competent and
effective teacher; the chance to learn about children in real life; an opportunity to improve the
knowledge of subject matter; the chance to gain from the benefits of constructive criticism; an
opportunity for self-evaluation and to discover strengths and weaknesses; an opportunity for the
teaching institutions to evaluate it (Brown & Brown, 1990, cited in Bashir, Malik & Fatima,
2014).
1
2
Associate Professor, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education

1. To study the perspective of student teachers on the teaching practice
2. To investigate the perspective of student teachers on the teaching practice in planning,
instruction, assessment and classroom environment
3. To give suggestions for the improvement of teaching practice based on the result of the
study
Research Questions
1. What are the perspective of student teachers on the teaching practice?
2. What are the perspective of student teachers on the teaching practice in planning?
3. What are the perspective of student teachers on the teaching practice in instruction?
4. What are the perspective of student teachers on the teaching practice in assessment?
5. What are the perspective of student teachers on the teaching practice in classroom
environment?

Philosophical Perspectives in Education
Philosophy means ''love of wisdom''. Philosophy help teachers to reflect on key issues and
concepts in education, usually through such questions as: What is being educated? What is the
good life? What is knowledge? What is the nature of learning? And what is teaching? As teacher,
educational philosophy is his beliefs about why, what and how the teachers, whom he teaches,
and about the nature of learning. It is a set of principles that guides professional action through
the events and issues teachers face daily, sources for his educational philosophy are his life
experienced, his values, the environment in which he lives, interactions with others and
awareness of philosophical approaches (Carson, 2005).
Pragmatism
Pragmatism, is the only one that originated in the United States. Pragmatism, sometimes
called experimentalism or instrumentalism, was developed in opposition to the principles of
idealism. Ideas alone are not sufficient for reality, said the original pragmatists; action on these
ideas is necessary to determine their value. For the pragmatists, the only test of truth is what
works best and what ideas can be used to solve problems satisfactorily. The pragmatists were
oriented more toward the present than toward the past, which is prominent in idealism and
realism. They grounded their thinking in present actualities and used the scientific method to
solve present problems. If the idea ''works'' and the problem is solved, then the truth has been
revealed. Truth then, is relative to present conditions and circumstances, not an absolute as the
idealists and realists believed. For pragmatists, ''experience'' was the medium in which thought
ideas and action mix. They formulated the principles of interaction and continuity of experience.
Americans are a very pragmatic people who like to learn by doing, engage in practical tasks, and
determine the truth in each problem situation as it comes along. The pragmatists believed that
change is the only thing that is permanent and that truth, reality, and values are all relevant to
circumstances. Further-more, the pragmatists did not believe in absolutes and tended to doubt
that rules can be generalized over many specific situations. For the pragmatists, society and the
social aspects of culture were also very important.
What are the educational principles of current pragmatists? Pragmatists see education as
the reconstruction and reorganization of human experience. Educators should provide conditions
that allow students to grow. They see the student as an organism capable of solving problems.
The teacher, for the pragmatist, is also a continuous learner who aids and guides others in the
learning process without pretending to be the only source of knowledge. Teachers do not
abdicate their responsibilities, they arrange conditions for learning related to students' needs and
interests (Hessong, 1991).
According to professional ethics for education, Education, or pedagogy, or teaching or
whatever one chooses is a profession for may obvious reasons. For many teachers the realization
that their work is in a profession comes too late, if at all. This is a very unfortunate state of
affairs. The realization must develop early, in the preteaching or preparatory years. Teaching is
an important calling must come right at the start of teacher education or one's preparation for it
(Khin Zaw, 2017).
Importance of Teaching Practice
Teaching practice is important as it provides uptiming condition under which prospective
teachers can learn to analyse, evaluate and modify their behaviours in order to accomplish pre-
determined educational objectives (Adeniran, 1996, cited in Jekayinfa, 2001). Teaching practice
allows student teachers to have ample chance and the real life situations to apply theories and
principles of education they have been taught in their institutions. It helps student teachers to
identify objectives of teaching and see the relationship of a day's lesson to the long-range load for
a week or term (Olaitan & Agusiobo, 1981, cited in Jekayinfa, 2001). Teaching practice is to be
very important in teacher education programmes at university into an ability to actually teach in
real classrooms (Barasa, 2005, cited in Tuimur, Role, & Makewa, 2012).
Adelaide (1996, cited in Jekayinfa, 2001) and Adekunle (1996, cited in Jekayinfa, 2001)
also gave the significance of teaching practice by saying that it enables student teachers to
organize syllabus contents around major concepts and generalizations in the development of
sequential learning in a unit or course of study. It enables student teachers to become more
familiar with variety of instructional materials and resources, evaluate, and select those
appropriate for the objectives in a teaching unit or lesson. While teaching practice provided the
trainee an opportunity to acquire practical skills through direct experience, it also provides the
trainer the opportunity of both assessing and guiding the trainee for both formative and
summative evaluation purpose (Afolabi, 1996, cited in Jekayinfa, 2001). Teaching practice
enables the teacher educators to develop a degree of experience in understanding the student
teachers, their techniques and procedure of teaching, which they put into practice under
professional guidance and supervision of the teacher educator (Jekayinfa, 2001).
Teaching practice is important to prospective teachers for many reasons. First, it is a vital
avenue for developing the skills, attitudes and understanding of the teaching profession
(Adeniran, 1996, cited in Jekayinfa, 2001). Teaching practice offers and opportunity to test the
theoretical ideas which the student teachers have learnt and to determine what procedures are
appropriate for what categories of students and under what classroom conditions. Hence,
teaching practice is conceived by some teacher educators as a necessary laboratory experience
(Grim & Michealis, 1953, cited in Jekayinfa, 2001), an apprenticeship or internship (Martins &
Westcott, 1963, cited in Jekayinfa, 2001), which gives the student teacher an opportunity to gain
insight into teaching. This helps him/her to increase his/her professional competence and to test
the applicability of his/her theoretical experience in classroom situation. Shaplin (1962, cited in
Jekayinfa, 2001) gave a number of reasons to justify the inclusion of teaching practice in the
teacher education programme. These reasons include: teaching and learning being complete
processes, student teachers need some basic skills and understanding to analyze and appreciate
the difficulties of teaching (Jekayinfa, 2001).
It is therefore very necessary that a conducive educational environment be established for
student teachers to enable them gain confidence in themselves and to work effectively with
fellow students and the school personnel. In such an environment, student teachers will have the
opportunity to engage in profitable experiences in observing, sharing and in teaching with the
guidance and supervision of the students' supervisors or tutors. Teaching practice is a co-
operative venture involving the student teachers and their supervisors on one hand, and the staff
and pupils on the other hand. The programme includes teaching, demonstration, participation in
co-curricular activities and evaluation which is the final assessment of the student teachers. Being
as important as it is in the curriculum of the teacher training institutions, there are certain things,
which the student teachers should take cognizance of when preparing for teaching practice
(Jekayinfa, 2001).
Teaching practice is a situation where a student teacher is given the opportunity to try the
act of teaching before actually getting into the real world of the teaching profession (Njidi &
Sikaya, 2003, cited in Godwin & Issac, 2015). The new trends in teacher education programs
focus on the investigation of the problems associated with the training of student-teachers (Vick,
2006, cited in Hamaidi, Al-Shara, Arouri & Awwad, 2014). So, the study programs of teacher
education in the university level should include interesting activities that provide students with a
realistic experience for future teaching (Jusoh, 2011, cited in Hamaidi et al., 2014).
It is an important course undergone by students who are about entering the teaching
profession where they are expected to exhibit the theorietical skills obtained during the course in
the institution into practical situation in real life (Godwin & Issac, 2015). McNamara (1992, cited
in Hamaidi et al., 2014) noted that 80% of the teaching practice experience took place in the
school environment. This gives students the chance to act and make the right decision at the right
time. Consequently, teaching practice has a positive effect on student-teachers' attitudes towards
teaching profession (Hamaidi et al., 2014).
According to Dreeben (1970, cited in Andabai, 2013), this phase of training contributes
not only to the development of occupational norms but also to reducing anxiety about teaching
and to learning classroom techniques. It also seems to contribute most of discover workable
conduct, where ''workable'' becomes characteristically defined as classroom management,
following fixed schedules of instructions, simplifying lesson plans, getting through the material
and cutting back on the breadth and richness of the material presented.
Ajoku (2003, cite din Andabai, 2013) asserted that, performance during practice teaching
provide some basis for predicting the future success of the teacher outgoing popularity and
centrality of practice teaching is an important contributing factor towards the quality of teacher
education programmed. Edem (2003, cited in Andabai, 2013) confirmed that, during practice
teaching, working with students in schools provide a high degree of emotional involvement of a
mostly positive nature. Students teachers feel themselves grow through experience and they
being to link to a culture of teaching. It is an essential aspect of teacher education because it
prepares teachers for their future teaching roles and assignment. The main agents who implement
educational policies have to be properly organized and teaching practice also help in this function
(Hyon, 1999, cite din Andabai, 2013).
The opportunities provided by teaching practice are as follow:
1. An opportunity to gain confidence.
2. Chance to put theories into practice.
3. An opportunity to learn the skills and attitudes of a competent and affective teacher.
4. The chance to learn about children in real life.
5. An opportunity to improve the knowledge of subject matter.
6. The chance to gain from the benefits of constructive criticism.
7. An opportunity for self-evaluation and to discover strengths and weaknesses.
8. An opportunity for the teaching institutions to evaluate itself (Brown & Brown, 1990,
cited in Azeem, 2011).
Research Method
(i) Design
In this research, questionnaire survey method which is one of the descriptive methods was
used.
(ii)Subject
This research is intended to study the perspective of student teachers on the teaching
practice. Due to the limitations of time and resources, the research was conducted from Sagaing
University of Education. The subjects were 340 fourth year (second semester) student teachers
from the Sagaing University of Education within (2017-2018) academic year. This research is
comprised of four dimensions, namely planning, instruction, assessment and classroom
environment.
(iii)Instruments
As for the instrument, a questionnaire for the perspective of student teachers on the
teaching practice that would be attractive, brief and easy to respond as possible was constructed
on the basic of student teachers’ perspective questionnaire of Koross (2016) and Danielson
(2013). The questionnaire was divided into two parts. The first part of the questionnaire included
demographic data which sought to ascertain among student teachers such as gender and
specialization. The second part of the questionnaire included five points Likert-type items for
four dimensions: Planning, Instruction, Assessment and Classroom environment.
There were forty Likert-type items in this instrument including items 1 to 10 for first
dimension, 11 to 20 for second dimension, 21 to 30 for third dimension and 31 to 40 for the last
dimension. The questionnaire was prepared having five alternate options for each statement.
Student teachers' perceptions were rated from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The score
closer to 1 indicated strongly disagree and strongly agree was indicated by the score closer to 5
for positive questions.
In order to get validation, the copies of questionnaire were distributed to five experts from
Yangon University of Education in the field of Education. List of these experts was presented.
And then, these experts’ opinions were obtained. After that, items were modified again in
accordance with the advice of five experts.
(iv) Data Analysis
To analyze the quantitative data, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
version 21 was used. The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics. The responded rate
of perspective of student teachers were analyzed by descriptive statistics (percentage) for each
question.
Findings
I. Descriptive Statistics for the Perspective of Student Teachers in Teaching Practice on
each Dimension
In order to determine the mean scores and standard deviation of the perspective of student
teachers in teaching practice on each dimension, descriptive statistics was calculated. The results
are described in Table 1.
Table 1Mean Scores of the Perspectives of Student Teachers on each Dimension
No. of Std.
Dimension Mean Minimum Maximum
Participants Deviation
Planning 340 43.16 3.790 27 50
Instruction 340 43.02 3.359 32 50
Assessment 340 41.66 3.798 31 50
Classroom Environment 340 41.40 3.858 29 50
Table 1 shows that the mean scores of the perspective of student teachers on teaching
practice. There are 10 items for each dimension. The mean score for perspective of student
teachers on planning is 43.16, the mean score for perspective of student teachers on instruction is
43.02, the mean score for perspective of student teachers on assessment is 41.66 and the mean
score for perspective of student teachers on classroom environment is 41.40. Among them, it can
be observed that the mean scores for perspective of student teachers in planning is the highest
and that of student teachers on classroom environment is the lowest.
As the mean scores for each dimension are greater than the median score 30, it shows that
student teachers have positive view in teaching practice on each dimension. Medium score can be
obtained by the multiplication of the number of items and neutral score 3. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the student teachers from Sagaing University of Education have positive view in
teaching practice.
The comparison of mean scores on each dimension is shown in Figure 1.
43.16 43.02 41.66 41.4

45
40
35
Planning
30
Mean Instruction
25
20 Assessment
15 Classroom Environemnt
10
5
0
Planning Instruction Assessment Classroom
Environemnt
Dimension
Figure 1 Comparison of mean scores of student teachers' perspective for each dimension
II. Percentage of Student Teachers' Perspective on each and Overall Dimension

The student teachers' perspective level on teaching practice based on the mean scores of
their perspective is presented in Table 2. It is divided into three groups, namely, high, moderate
and low. The full score of student teachers' perspective on teaching practice is 200. The average
mean score and standard deviation is 169.24 and 12.059, respectively. If the average mean score
of student teachers is higher than 181.299, it would be defined as high perspective group. If the
average mean score is between 157.181 and 181.299, it would be defined as moderate
perspective group. If the mean score is below 157.181, it would be defined as low perspective
group.
The perceptive level of the student teachers based on the mean scores of teaching practice
was presented in Table 2. Therefore, descriptive statistics (percentage) was used to examine the
percentage of student teachers who had the perspective high, moderate and low. The numbers of
students who possessed high, moderate and low level of perspective were 55, 234 and 51,
respectively (see Table 2).
Table 2 Percentage of Student Teachers' Perspective on Teaching Practice
Perspective Level No. of Participant Percentage (%)

High 55 16.2
Moderate 234 68.8
Low 51 15.0
Total 340 100.0
The result shows that the percentages of perspective level of student teachers on teaching
practice are 16.2 %, 68.8 % and 15.0%, respectively. The following pie chart shows the
percentage of student teachers' perspective on teaching practice for each dimension.
15 16.2
High
Moderate
Low
68.8
Figure 2 Percentage of student teachers' perspective on teaching practice for each dimension
Finding of the Total Individual Response within each Dimension on Perspective of Student
Teacher on Teaching Practice
Descriptive statistics analyses were calculated to determine the percentages of total
individual responses.
SD=Strongly Disagree; D=Disagree; UD=Undecided; A=Agree; SA=Strongly Agree
The first dimension deals with the perspective of student teacher on planning. It consists
of ten items. The responses of student teacher for each item are as follows:
Table 3The Responses of Student Teachers' Perspective on Teaching Practice in Planning
Item Percentage (%)
Item
No. SD D UD A SA
1. Through practice teaching, it came to know that it is an effective .3 .9 1.2 45.6 52.1
preparation for our real-time teaching.
2. It helps us understand how to plan our lessons as students' .3 2.4 3.5 69.1 24.7
different learning styles are encountered during practice
teaching.
3. Using teaching aids make our teaching process easier to 0 .3 1.8 55.9 42.1
understand.
4. I realized which teaching methods should be used depending on 0 1.2 6.5 62.1 30.3
the class size, number of students, etc… (e.g. group discussion,..)
5. Practice teaching introduces us to students' different learning .3 1.8 2.9 64.1 30.9
styles.
6. The teaching process will be effective if lesson plans are made 0 2.1 6.2 55.6 36.2
before the actual teaching.
7. Lesson plans that would be accordance with each student's 0 1.8 5.3 61.2 31.8
learning abilities should be prepared
8. The questions that would cover learning objectives should be 0 .3 2.1 55.0 42.6
prepared in the lesson planning.
9. Time management should be taken care in the teaching steps. 0 .6 3.5 56.2 39.7
10. The teaching aids and materials should be cheap and easy to be .3 .6 2.6 47.9 48.5
used during the teaching- learning processes.
The second dimension deals with the perspective of student teacher on instruction. It
consists of ten items. The responses of student teacher for each item are as follows:
Table 4The Responses of Student Teachers' Perspective on Teaching Practice in Instruction

Item Percentage (%)
Item
No. SD D UD A SA
11. It is assumed that a good relationship between teachers and 0 0 .3 39.4 60.3
students make an effective teaching learning process.
12. It is known that a teacher should guide his/her students, to 0 .6 1.2 45.0 53.2
have the sense to apply the subject matters being taught in
their daily lives.
13. It is assumed that group discussion is the best method of .3 1.8 11.2 66.8 20.0
teaching students as it gives students a chance to share their
knowledge during the discussion time.
14. It is realized that asking students some questions help to get 0 1.8 3.8 60.0 34.4
their attention to the subject.
15. It is thought that different teaching method should be used in 0 1.5 2.9 51.5 44.1
order to achieve the learning objective.
16. It is assumed that encouraging the students to become 0 .3 .6 46.8 52.4
involved in the lesson being taught makes them to remember
the lesson longer.
17. Teaching aids should not be used all the time expect when 0 5.6 8.8 51.2 34.4
necessary.
18. Some important points should be noted down on the .6 6.8 7.1 52.1 33.5
whiteboard before starting to teach.
19. A teacher should give focus to no student and must treat all .3 2.1 .9 45.9 50.9
students in the same way.
20. A teacher must follow the lesson plan in order to complete .9 5.3 9.4 62.4 22.1
each teaching-learning process.
The third dimension deals with the perspective of student teacher on assessment. It
consists of ten items. The responses of student teacher for each item are as follows:
Table 5 The Responses of Student Teachers' Perspective on Teaching Practice in
Assessment
Item Percentage (%)
Item
No. SD D UD A SA
21. An assessment must be done every after teaching learning process in 0 1.2 2.1 65.3 31.5
order to test the achievement of the learning objectives.
22. Assessing the students' prior knowledge or background knowledge 0 .3 2.4 54.7 42.6
about the topic is an effective way of teaching.
23. Some questions concerning the important points of the subject .3 .3 3.2 59.4 36.8
matter must be asked orally during the process of teaching learning
process.
24. When asking for the questions, selecting certain students by calling 2.1 14.4 15.3 45.0 23.2
their names make the other students less interested in the questions
are noticed.
25. Setting all students listen to the questions first and then selecting the 0 3.5 5.9 37.9 52.6
certain students is the best.
26. Giving enough time for the answer to the questions is better than 0 4.4 8.2 49.1 38.2
asking for the respond immediately.
27. Correcting the students' exercises and giving feedback without fail is .3 .3 2.6 52.1 44.7
also essential.
28. Both kinds of subjective and objective questions must be asked at 0 1.8 7.6 60.0 30.6
the end of the class.
29. Peer correction helps to reduce the amount of class time that is 2.1 17.4 18.2 47.6 14.7
needed to spend on correcting the written test (or) question.
30. The questions being asked must be appear in accordance with the 0 2.6 3.5 67.6 26.2
objectives in order to get a good result.
The fourth dimension deals with the perspective of student teacher on classroom
environment. It consists of ten items. The responses of student teacher for each item are as
follows:
Table 6 The Responses of Student Teachers' Perspective on Teaching Practice in
Classroom Environment
Item Percentage (%)
Item
No. SD D UD A SA
31. A good relationship is built between our students and us 0 1.2 4.7 59.4 34.7
through teaching practice.
32. Other duties like registration should be done with our .6 3.8 7.1 63.8 24.7
teaching in the classroom.
33. If the students understand lesson well, then it can go on to 0 0 3.8 47.6 48.5
the new lesson.
34. Clear and rigid explanation is needed in correcting students' 0 .9 .9 54.4 43.8
bad habits and behaviours (eg., not doing homework)
35. Classroom environment should be the place where students .3 .3 2.4 46.2 50.9
can learn peacefully and safely. (eg., not near the market)
36. A teacher should train students to do the classwork 0 0 .6 53.5 45.9
individually or in group or by cooperating with others.
37. The school that I practice teaching practice has a good 4.1 15.3 3.5 49.7 27.4
classroom environment.
38. The school that I practice teaching practice provides all kinds 9.1 48.2 5.6 27.6 9.4
of teaching aids necessary for teaching learning process.
39. The school that I practice teaching practice supports all kinds .3 6.8 2.9 62.4 27.6
of facilities needed for the classroom (eg., table, desks,
charis,…)
40. It is necessary to praise the students who work hard. 0 .6 .6 42.4 56.5
Conclusion
This chapter consists of three parts. The first part is concerned with discussion in the
second part, suggestions are presented. At last conclusion is presented in the third part.
Discussion
The purpose of this study is to explore the student teachers' perspective on teaching
practice. This research was descriptive in nature. A questionnaire for the perspective of student
teachers in teaching practice was constructed on the basis of Koross (2016) and Danielson
(2013). The questionnaire included 40 Likert-type items for four dimensions: planning,
instruction, assessment and classroom environment. The sample of this study was 340 fourth
year (second semester) student teachers from Sagaing University of Education (2017-2018)
academic year. Descriptive statistics (percentage) was applied to analyze each dimension.
When statistical analysis of the data has been conducted, it shows that the mean scores of
perspective of student teachers in each dimension are 43.1, 43.02, 41.66 and 41.40, respectively.
Among them, it was found that the mean score for perspective of student teachers in planning is
the highest and that of student teachers in classroom environment is the lowest. As the mean
scores for each dimension are greater than the median score 30, it shows that student teachers
have positive view in teaching practice on each dimension. Medium score can be obtained by the
multiplication of the number of items and neutral score 3. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
student teachers from Sagaing University of Education have positive view in teaching practice.
On the basis of these research findings, the following conclusions were drawn.
1. According to mean comparison, the mean score of the perspective of student teachers in
planning was the highest and that of student teachers in classroom environment was the
lowest among four dimensions.
2. It was found that the perspective of 71 student teachers was at the high level on planning,
228 student teachers had the moderate level on planning and 41 student teachers had the
low level on planning. The percentages of high, moderate and low level of student
teachers' perspective on planning were 20.9%, 67.1% and 12.1%, respectively.
3. It was found that the perspective of 61 student teachers was at the high level on
instruction, 228 student teachers had the moderate level on planning and 51 student
teachers had the low level on instruction. The percentages of high, moderate and low
level of student teachers' perspective on instruction were 17.9%, 67.1% and 15.0 %,
respectively.
4. It was found that the perspective of 62 student teachers was at the high level on
assessment, 236 student teachers had the moderate level on assessment and 42 student
teachers had the low level on assessment. The percentages of high, moderate and low
level of student teachers' perspective on assessment were 18.2%, 69.4% and 12.4%,
respectively.
5. It was found that the perspective of 54 student teachers was at the high level on classroom
environment, 237 student teachers had the moderate level on planning and 49 student
teachers had the low level on classroom environment. The percentages of high, moderate
and low level of student teachers' perspective on classroom environment were 15.9%,
69.7% and 14.4%, respectively.
The result of open-ended questions pointed the student teachers state that the practice
duration is very short. They suggest that –the duration of teaching practice time should be taken
at least one month or more. Some of the teachers who they come teaching practice are like them
and some of the teachers are not. Some of the student teachers express that they have more
confidence for their profession. Some of the student teachers show that they know advantages
and disadvantages of their teaching skills from teaching practice. Some of the student teachers
state that they had good relationship between them.
According to the first dimension, planning, most student teachers agree that they came to
know practice teaching is an effective preparation for their real-time teaching. More than half of
student teachers agree that they understand how to plan their lessons as students' different
learning styles are encountered during practice teaching. A few student teachers cannot decide
which teaching methods should be used depending on the class size, number of students,
etc...(e.g group discussion).
According to the second dimension, instruction, most student teachers agree that a good
relationship between teachers and students make an effective teaching learning process. More
than half of teachers agree that group discussion is suitable method of teaching students as it
gives students a chance to share their knowledge during the discussion time. A few teachers
disagree that some important points should be noted down on the blackboard (or) whiteboard
before starting to teach.
According to the third dimension, assessment, most of the student teachers agree that
setting all students listen to the questions first and then selecting the certain students is the best.
More than half of student teachers agree that the questions being asked must be appear in
avoidance with the instructional objective in order to get a good result. A few teachers cannot
decide that peer correction helps to reduce the amount of class time that is needed to spend on
correcting the exercise in the classroom.
According to the last dimension, classroom environment, most student teachers agree that
it is necessary to praise (or) reward those students who are trying. More than half of student
teachers agree that other duties like registration should be done with our teaching in the
classroom. Less than half of student teachers disagree that the school they practice teaching
provides all kinds of teaching aids necessary for teaching learning process.
Pre-service teachers should be given more time to do teaching practice and less time on
content, as they need the application skills more than they need the content (Major & Tiro, 2012).
To become efficient and effective teaching practice in Universities of Education, the above
discussion should be taken into account by teacher educators.
To sum up, the result of this study state that the perspective of student teachers from
Sagaing University of Education is mostly positive. This result is consistent with the findings of
Koross (2016) who investigated the student teachers' experiences during teaching practice and its
impact on their perception of the teaching profession.
Suggestions
To raise the quality of education with efficient and effective teaching practice, teacher
educators should try to promote the teaching practice programme by implementing the above
discussions. This research studied the student teachers' perspective on teaching practice from
Sagaing University of Education. It can be seen that the majority of student teachers in this study
had positive view on teaching practice that it can benefit them in planning, instruction,
assessment and managing classroom environment when they create a teaching-learning process.
This is probably one of the reasons why teaching practice should be continued to regard as an
essential part of a teacher education programme. Interestingly, it should be noted that most
school could not provide all kinds of teaching aids for teaching-learning process. Nevertheless,
regardless of the supporting of the Ministry of Education and the school itself, a teacher (a
student teacher in this case) is responsible for effective teaching-learning process by using
creative teaching aids which are not costly.
Furthermore, as the saying goes ''Experience is the best teacher'', student teachers should
be employed in their teaching practice at least one month or more.
Moreover, the Department of Methodology, which takes all the responsibilities of
teaching practice for student teachers, should emphasize more on the teaching practice for the
benefits of student teachers as well as the education system. It is also suggested that the
limitations of the process should be noted and refined them for better outcomes.
However, research is not an ending process and every research work provides bases for
further research studies. With this view, some recommendations were provided for further
research.
 The research should also be conducted to study the student teachers' perspective in
teaching practice from Yangon University of Education.
 A comparative study of student teachers' perspective in teaching practice from all the
Education Colleges should be carried out.
 A comparative study of student teachers' perspective in teaching practice from Sagaing
University of Education and Yangon University of Education should be conducted.
Conclusion
In this research, the researcher investigated the perspective of student teachers on
teaching practice from Sagaing University of Education. A five-point Likert scale was used to
respond the perspective questionnaires. The sample of this study was 340 fourth year (second
semester) student teachers from Sagaing University of Education (2017-2018) academic year.
Descriptive statistics (percentage) was applied to analyze each dimension.
The purpose of this study is to explore the student teachers' perspective on teaching
practice. This research was descriptive in nature. A questionnaire for the perspective of student
teachers in teaching practice was constructed on the basis of Koross (2016) and Danielson
(2013). The questionnaire included 40 Likert-type items for four dimensions: planning,
instruction, assessment and classroom environment. The sample of this study was 340 fourth
year (second semester) student teachers from Sagaing University of Education (2017-2018)
academic year. Descriptive statistics (percentage) was applied to analyze each dimension.
And then, the collected data were analyzed in order to get the accurate results. The
perspective of student teachers in planning is the highest and that of student teachers in
classroom environment is the lowest. As the mean scores for each dimension are greater than the
median score 30, it shows that student teachers have positive view in teaching practice on each
dimension. Medium score can be obtained by the multiplication of the number of items and
neutral score 3. Therefore, it can be concluded that the student teachers from Sagaing University
of Education have positive view in teaching practice. The results showed that most of the student
teachers chose neutral score 3 in expressing their perspective of teaching practice. Therefore, it
may be assumed that the obtained results were deviated from the real teaching perspective of
student teachers in the classroom. In order to get more accurate information for the research, the
researcher should use four-point Likert scale instead of five-point Likert scale and should also
employ qualitative research.
Kasanda, (1995) indicates that during teaching practice, a student teacher is given the
opportunity to try the art of teaching before actually getting into the real world of the teaching
profession. Osuala, (2004) established that, teaching practice exposes the trainee teacher to the
realities of effective teaching and helps them to try out methods of teaching and gain practical
classroom experience under experts. According to Tuli File (2009) teaching practice allows
student teachers to discover their abilities and creativities that help them in their future teaching
processes. Marais and Meier (2004) argue that teaching practice is a challenging but important
part of teacher training, especially in developing countries. As it is commonly said that "theory
without practice is empty; practice without theory is blind" (Morrison & Werf, 2012, p.1).
Teaching practice enables student teachers to understand the real world of teaching and let them
know about problems and difficulties of teaching that may face them in the future.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Pyone Pyone Aung, Pro-rector, Yangon University of Education,
Dr. Kay Thwe Hlaing, Pro-rector, Yangon University of Education. Profound thanks are also due to Dr. Khin Mar
Khine, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Methodology, Yangon University of Education.
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5296/ije.v4i4.2491.
A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDE OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS IN

EDUCATION COLLEGES TOWARDS THEIR TEACHING PROFESSION
Bawi Kee1 and San Aye2
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to investigate the attitude of pre-service teachers in Education
Colleges towards their teaching profession. A sample was comprised of 1000 pre-service teachers
from selected Education Colleges. A descriptive survey method was used in this study. To get the
data for the attitude towards teaching profession, the questionnaire having the demographic data,
(40) five-point Likert items, was developed. Pre-service teachers’ attitude towards their teaching
profession was examined by five dimensions: attitude towards choosing teaching career, attitude
towards professional development during training period, attitude towards professional
commitment, attitude toward professional status/pride and attitude towards professional
expectation. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and independent samples t test.
The findings showed that most of pre-service teachers chose teaching as career accordance with
their own desire. They got fond of teaching during their training period due to their teachers’
guidance and practical teaching. They have a strong commitment as well as a high willingness
towards teaching profession. They also believe teaching profession as a noble job and that it will
bring a venerable position in society. According to gender, female pre-service teachers have more
positive attitude than males. On comparing teaching programs, the pre-service teachers who attend
pre-service primary teachers training program have more positive attitude than those who attend
diploma in teacher education program. However, pre-service teachers who are specialized in both
of arts and sciences subject combination have the same attitude towards teaching profession.
Therefore, it can be concluded that all of pre-service teachers have positive attitude towards
teaching profession although there was difference in the attitude in terms of gender and teaching
program.
Keywords: attitude, teaching profession, pre-service teacher
Introduction
Education is the background of any progressing nation and also the teachers are the pivot
in any system of education as she has a key role to perform in the whole progress. Teachers are
pillars of society. Moreover, they play a major role in serving society via manpower training,
providing peace of mind and social peace in society, culture, and values of society to be
transferred to young generations. If a teacher is committed and has a positive attitude, then it is
sure that his/her performance will be better her environment (Jain, 2012). Attitudes towards
profession are typically connected with enjoying the profession, complete dedication to their
profession, and being aware that profession is socially helpful and believing that they have to
enhance the profession (Shakir & Parvez, 2013). As well, teachers’ attitudes towards teaching
play a significant role in shaping the attitudes of students towards learning (Bichi & Musa, 2015).
As Myanmar raises the quality of the education system, it needs teachers with the right values,
skills, and knowledge to be effective practitioners. That is to say, teachers' positive attitudes
towards their profession have great importance in fulfilling the requirements of the profession
and bringing along professional contentment. Therefore, Myanmar needs a strong system of
teacher education, with programs that provide the theoretical foundations to produce graduates
1
Lecturer, Department of Methodology (Teaching of History), Mandalay Education College
2
with the kinds of professional knowledge, understanding, and skills associated with the role of
the teacher and the process of teaching (Aye Aye Myint & Myo Win, 2016).
Statements of the Problem
In Myanmar, the entrance system of university and college is only based on the students’
matriculation examination marks from high school. The entrance system is encouraging merely
getting high marks and overlooking the attitudes towards their teaching profession. There is a
challenge to consider changes in the entrance system of the universities because most of the
students wanted to join popular university and joined the institutions to study particular subjects
with the force of parents and societies without being much interested in those fields. As the
result, human resources are not in the right place(Mya Oo, 2013).
In Education College, there are two different types of pre-service teacher training
programs. The first one is a Diploma in Teacher Education (DTEd) program for those who
passed the matriculation examination with high marks. This program is accepted the candidates
not only with high marks in their matriculation examination but also the entrance selection board
for teacher training at Teacher Education Institution (MOE, 2017). The next program is Pre-
service Primary Teacher Training (PPTT) for those who are the first-degree holder and passed
the written entrance test. Accordingly, prospective teachers are selected in accordance with their
academic qualifications and without considering much about their attitudes toward the teaching
profession. This means that most of the admission system in a teacher training program focused
on students' academic qualification and placed very little emphasis on the importance of the
attitude development of pre-service teachers.
However, most of the developed European countries, prospective teachers are selected in
accordance with the criteria for selection. The main choice criteria area unit are those the
performance in higher educational activity, satisfactory performance in an examination
specifically for admission to teacher training, and interviews during which candidates are asked
regarding their reasons for embarking on coaching and desire to become teachers (Delhaxhe,
Forsthuber, García & Decoster, 2002). In Myanmar, however, the pre-service teachers’ attitudes
and wishes are ignored while choosing prospective teachers in Education Colleges.
Investigation of the pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards their teaching profession is so
important because student teachers in education colleges are trained to potentially take teaching
responsibilities after completion of their course. Therefore, the present study aimed at
investigation the attitudes of the pre-service teachers towards teaching profession who are
studying in Education Colleges.
The main purpose of the research is to investigate the attitude of pre-service teachers in
Education Colleges towards their teaching profession. The specific objectives of the research are
as follows:
1. To find out the attitude of pre-service teachers towards their teaching profession
2. To explore the attitude of pre-service teachers toward their teaching profession in terms
of gender
3. To investigate the attitude of pre-service teachers towards their teaching profession in
terms of subject combination
4. To examine the attitude of pre-service teachers toward their teaching profession in terms
of teaching program
5. To give suggestions and recommendations on the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards
teaching profession based on the results of the study
Research Questions
1. What are the attitudes of pre-service teachers toward their teaching profession?
2. Is there any significant difference in the attitude of pre-service teachers toward their
teaching profession in terms of gender?
3. Is there any significant difference in the attitude of pre-service teachers towards their
teaching profession in terms of subject combination?
4. Is there any significant difference in the attitude of pre-service teachers towards their
teaching profession in terms of teaching program?
Attitude
Attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting
a directive influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with it is related
(Allport, 1935).Attitude for this study is defined as the inclinations and feelings of the pre-service
teachers towards their teaching profession.
Teaching Profession
Teaching profession is an occupation which requires specialized intellectual study and
training, the purpose of which is to supply skilled service or advice to others for a definite fee or
salary (Manjula & Manichander, 2001).
Pre-service Teacher
The pre-service teachers are those who are getting in a training course to become teachers
and they have not undertaken any teaching.

The Importance of Attitude towards Teaching Profession
Attitude is that the broad coverage of virtually all the educational, social science and
psychological fields. The importance of perspective within the lifetime of a teacher is universally
well recognized. Teacher success within the teaching profession and in any work of life depends
on two things-his aptitudes and perspective without a positive perspective, he tends to stay an
inactive, dormant and sluggish state, despite all his capacities he achieves very little. The positive
perspective might evoke sensible and effective results whereas negative might convey the
diametrically opposite (Arjunan, 2014). Attitude towards teaching is a permanent sensory activity
organization of the teacher’s belief and learned tendency to react favorably or unfavorably in
several degrees that determines his response towards teaching.
The teachers play a very vital role in a society or community, because of their role in
social and individual upliftment that the teachers are referred to a professional and teaching as a
profession. Teachers are considered as professional because they have been trained to teach and
have acquired teaching skills (Manjula & Manichander, 2001).Attitude towards profession means
a person's feelings, behaviors, and commitment to the profession or job. Thus, the attitudes of
teacher are important to determine the level of commitment towards the profession. It is a pivotal
quality that determines a teacher's willingness to develop and grow as a professional. The
performances as well as commitment to their role and responsibilities are depended on the
attitude of teacher's towards their profession. The attitude towards teaching profession was
explored by the following five dimensions.
Teaching Career
Teaching career is an opportunity for teachers to study a far better understanding of
students and their environments as a teaching profession is incredibly complex, and demanding.
Pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards choosing teaching career relate to their orderly and
consistent manner of thinking, feeling, hoping and reacting with relation to their future
profession. Moreover, some folks or family have a bit influence on the schooling and career
choices of their children (Low, Hui & Cai, 2017). Gao (2008) expressed that parents play a vital
role in shaping students’ perspective toward schooling generally and better education in specific.
Students with folks who had school experiences and powerfully encourage the student to attend
school are additional seemingly to be progressing to attend college. Of course, parental
knowledge and expectations will be effective provided that the student will profit of this. Before
coming into education colleges, most of pre-service academics would have already got positive
attitudes towards teaching career which would are created by direct expertise or by implicitly
experience. Several researchers have investigated the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards
choosing teaching career with the understanding that their attitudes towards the teaching career
have a control on their subsequent professional development, commitment and quality of their
work when they become teachers. The research studied by Took (2012); Kaur & Gill (2017) and
Phargava & Pathy (2014) claim that having positive attitudes towards choosing teaching
profession is as necessary as developing knowledge, skills and value required in teaching.
Professional Development
Professional development is that the enrichment training provided to teachers over a
period of time to promote their development altogether subjects of content and pedagogy. It is
not merely a time-bound activity or series of events, however a continual process. Professional
development includes formal experiences (such as attending workshops and professional
conferences, mentoring, etc.) and informal experiences (such as reading professional
publications, observation television documentaries associated with an educational discipline,
etc.). It may have a positive impact on teachers’ pedagogic content knowledge as many teachers
feel challenged with the teaching of curricular subjects because of the dearth of interest to amass
the resources required to make applicable learning environments and lack of confidence (Manjula
& Manichander, 2001). It is a medium for teachers to develop their knowledge and skills in
teaching. It additionally suggests that to a process wherever teachers review, renew, and extend
their commitment as modification agents to the ethical functions of teaching, yet as acquire and
develop the information, skills, plan, and observe with kids, children, and colleagues through
every part of their teaching lives with ideas of learning, engagement, and improved apply (Day,
1999; Bredeson, 2002, as cited in Adnyani, 2015).
Teacher professional development ought to aim at enhancing the knowledge and skills of
teachers by suggests that of orientation, training, and support that contribute to the advance of the
standard of the educational and teaching method and that specialize in teacher core competencies
like improving teacher proficiency, understanding the scholars, managing observe of teaching
skills, comprehending the opposite branches of knowledge as well as knowing and appreciating
the teaching profession.
Professional Commitment
Professional commitment is defined as the degree of positive, effective bond between the
teacher and the institution. Professional commitment is the feeling of dedication among the
individuals of a group towards their profession. This commitment area involves two essential
components: namely, pride in one’s being in the teaching profession; and a strong desire for
professional development (Shashi, 2014). Professional commitment also indicates (1) the belief
and acceptance of goals and values of the profession, (2) the willingness to exert considerable
effort on behalf of the profession and (3) a definite desire to maintain membership in the
profession (Kaur& Gill, 2017).It is the feeling of dedication among the individuals of a group
towards their profession.
The Status of Teaching Profession
Teaching is actually one of the oldest professions. A profession is a high status and high
prestige occupation. Hoyle (2001) has proposed that the generic term ‘status’, as applied here, is
made up of three components - occupational prestige, occupational status, and occupational
esteem. Prestige relates to the public perception of the standing an occupation has in comparison
to others; status refers to how knowledgeable groups refer to an occupation (e.g. as a profession);
and esteem refers to the regard in which an occupation is held by the public due to the attributes
that members of that group are perceived to bring to the job. Guerriero (2017) stated that the
status or social standing of the teaching profession is difficult to define could be due to teaching
being placed more along the lines of a semi-profession than a profession. However, in Myanmar
society,teachers have traditionally been regarded as one of the “five gems” and considered on the
same plane as the Buddha (who himself was a teacher), the scriptures, monks and parents(Han
Tin, 2010). He also pointed out that the teaching profession has inadequate remuneration and that
leads many teachers in Myanmar to operate outside the formal public education system. The
status of teaching and the teaching profession is linked to the respect accord to the teachers and
the value ascribe to the teaching profession. If a society does not respect or value teachers, it will
not be able to attract and retain their best talents within the teaching profession, and teachers will
not be able to do their job in the classrooms.In many Asian societies, teachers are held in high
regards and have often been equated to the status of a “guru”, a “child’s first guide” or even a
father (Low et al., 2017).
Professional Expectation
All pre-service teachers are expected to demonstrate progressive development within the
domains of professional knowledge, practice and commitment. Because pre-service teachers are
expected to exhibit on going professional growth as they progress through their training
programs. They are expected to observe and involved in the whole activities when undertaking
professional experience. They also trust that they will enjoy and satisfy from teaching despite a
low paid job. They also believed that teaching profession has job security that can guarantee their
future life and it will bring a chance to supply the wellbeing of society.
Research Method
In this study, descriptive research design was used. Dada were collected through
questionnaires.
Subjects
This study was concerned to investigate the professional attitude of pre-service teachers
who are trained in Pakokku Education College, Monywa Education College, Sagaing Education
College, Mandalay Education College, and Meiktila Education College. The subjects were
confined to Diploma in Teacher Education (DTEd) second year and Pre-service Primary Teacher
Training (PPTT) trainees in 2018-2019 Academic Year. A sample of 1000 pre-service teachers
was selected for this study. Table 1 shows the simple size of the study.
Table 1 The Sample Size of the Study
PPTT DTEd
No. Colleges Total
Male Female Male Female
1. C1 50 50 50 50 200
2. C2 50 50 50 50 200
3. C3 50 50 50 50 200
4. C4 50 50 50 50 200
5. C5 50 50 50 50 200
Total 250 250 250 250 1000
Note: PPTT = Pre-service Primary Teacher Training, DTEd = Diploma in Teacher Education
Instrument
The Attitude Scale towards Teaching Profession (ASTP) developed by Malsawmi &
Renthlei (2015) and Tezci & Terzi (2010) was used in this study. The instrument used for the
data collection contained two sections: section A and B. Section A was used to obtain the
demographic information of pre-service teachers: gender, program, subject stream and college.
Section B contained (40) items related to five subscales, namely, choosing teaching career,
professional development, professional commitment, professional pride/status and professional
expectation. There are 8 items of each subscale. Each subscale was coded by using a five-point
Likert scale, with 1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree”. The scoring was reversed for
negatively stated items. ASTP questionnaire developed in English was translated into Myanmar
version.
Procedure
First of all, the literature review was explored in this study. Secondly, in order to get the
required data, the researcher constructed an instrument under the guidance of the supervisor. For
the validation of the instruments, the questionnaires were distributed to three experienced teacher
educators. The instrument was modified before the pilot survey according to the advice and
guidance of three experienced teacher educators. After that, the pilot survey was conducted on
the 25th of October, 2018. The pilot test was held with (100) pre-service teachers from Pakokku
Education College. Internal consistency reliability of the whole scale of ASTP revealed as .855.
This Cronbach’s alpha value indicated that the attitude scale towards teaching profession has
high reliability to measure pre-service teachers’ attitude towards teaching profession.
After administering the pilot, the instrument was revised according to the results of the
pilot. And then, the major survey was conducted on 5th December 2018. It was held with (1000)
subjects. The attitude questionnaires and demographic data were distributed to the pre-service
teachers with a request to complete and return as soon as possible. The respondents were asked to
decide about their agreement with the statements and mark the relevant response category
honestly. The questionnaire was returned (100%) from the pre-service teachers in five Education
Colleges under the research work. Then, the obtained data were analyzed.

After data collection, the data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics (means and
standard deviations) and independent samples t test. A mean score of 3 and above was regarded
as agreement with the item statement while 2.99 and below was regarded as disagreement. For
example, for the case of analysis the research questions 1, a mean of 3 and above was regarded as
a positive attitude while 2.99 and below was regarded as a negative attitude. Independent samples
t test was used to compare the pre-service teachers’ attitude towards teaching profession in terms
of gender, subject combination, teaching program and college.
Findings
The findings was based on the data resulted from the research study. The demographic
information of the participants is presented in Table 2. It comprises of 500 (50%) males and 500
(50%) female pre-service teachers. 500 (50%) PPTT pre-service teachers who had held a first
degree from universities and the rest 500 (50%) DTEd second-year pre-service teachers those are
direct intake program and they had passed matriculation examination with high marks. The
participants of the subject combination included 500 (50%) Arts and 500 (50%) Sciences pre-
service teachers. It comprises of 200 (25%) pre-service teachers from each college.
Table 2 Demographic Information of Participants
Male 500 (50%)
Gender Female 500 (50%)
Total 1000 (100%)
DTEd 500 (50%)
TeachingProgram PPTT 500 (50%)
Total 1000 (100%)
Arts 500 (50%)
SubjectCombination Sciences 500 (50%)
Total 1000 (100%)
College 1 200 (25%)
College 2 200 (25%)
College 3 200 (25%)
Colleges
College 4 200 (25%)
College 5 200 (25%)
Total 1000 (100%)
As shown in Table 3, the values of all items other than that of item 7 are positive. Most of pre-
service teachers have entered into teaching profession not because they have little options to
choose other professions but because they love children and teaching. Furthermore, they chose
the teaching profession not because it was easily available and low marks in matriculation
examination. Similarly, the mean of the attitude towards choosing teaching career is 3.75 and the
standard deviation is 0.571. Therefore, it can be interpreted that the attitude of pre-service
teachers towards teaching profession is moderately positive.
Table 3 Attitude towards Choosing Teaching Career

No Item Mean SD
1 I chose teaching profession owing to the compulsion of my relatives or
persuasion of my friends. 3.53 1.272
2 I chose teaching profession because I love children and teaching them
makes me feel pleased. 4.19 .753
3 I made a firm decision to be a teacher since my childhood. 3.48 1.255
4 *I chose to teach as my career because it is easily available. 3.68 1.167
5 I chose teaching profession because teaching is a respected profession like
4.03 .922
Medicine and Engineer.
6 *I had to choose teaching as my career because I had low marks in
matriculation examination. 4.12 .974
7 *I chose teaching career as my last resort. 2.96 1.320
8 I voluntarily choose teaching program I am currently attending. 3.89 1.069
Attitude towards Choosing Teaching Career 3.75 .571
Note:Negative items are marked with (*)
According to Table 4, the value of all items ranges from 4.12 to 4.41 which indicates that
pre-service teachers’ attitude towards professional development is strongly positive. Most pre-
service teachers are interested in and enjoy their training courses. Moreover, they believe that
knowledge and skills which they learned from the training will help them to become effective
teachers. As well, teacher educators' supervision and practical teaching make them be a more
positive attitude towards teaching profession.
Table 4 Attitude towards Professional Development during training period
No. Item Mean SD

When I become a teacher, I will apply professional teaching knowledge and
9 skill gained through the teacher training courses. 4.41 .595
10 It makes me happy to think that I will become a school teacher. 4.34 .678
11 I became fond of teaching profession after micro-teaching or practicum. 4.38 .673
When I become a teacher, I will equip myself with the latest technology of
12 teaching. 4.12 .653
I got fond of teaching because of teacher educators’ guidance and instruction.
13 4.25 .696
*I don’t think I will be able to apply pedagogic and academic knowledge I
14 gained from teacher training courses. 4.17 .821
15 I believe I will be a professional teacher. 4.18 .640
16 *I neither like nor interested in the teacher training courses offered. 4.23 .738
Attitude towards professional development 4.26 .445
Pre-service teachers’ attitude towardsprofessional commitments is shown in Table 5. The

value of all items is positive. Most of pre-service teachers' attitude is favorable regarding
professional obligation. Moreover, most of pre-service teachers' attitude is positive and they want
to work as a teacher anywhere, anyplace and any situation. According to the mean of
professional commitment, pre-service teachers dedicated themselves to become a good and
qualified teacher. Therefore, it can be said that pre-service teachers in education colleges had
strong commitment towards teaching profession.
Table 5 Pre-service Teachers’ Attitude towards Professional Commitment
No. Item Mean SD
17 I will try to be an honest and outstanding teacher when I become a teacher. 4.48 .549
When I become a teacher, I'll try not only to improve my students'
18 academic achievement but also to enhance their lives. 4.49 .550
I would like to keep working as a teacher even under any difficult
19 conditions. 4.20 .689
I will try to improve the education of underdeveloped areas especially
20 bordered and remote areas when I become a teacher. 4.13 .699
*I will look for a highly remunerative job if teaching career does not
21 satisfy me. 4.05 .868
22 I would like to work in any place when I become a teacher. 4.17 .739
23 I believe I will be a learned and qualified teacher. 4.43 .539
24 I find it honorable to guide people's lives by working as a teacher. 4.58 .575
Attitude towards professional commitment 4.31 .431
Table 6 showed that the value of all items is positive. Most pre-service teachers feel
proud to be a teacher and they also accepted that teaching as a noble and prestige profession.
Moreover, they do not regret entering into the teaching profession and they recommend that
teaching is a suitable job to choose as a profession.
Table 6 Attitude towards Professional Status/pride
No. Item Mean SD
25 Teaching is one of the most social prestigious profession 4.58 .573
26 *The teaching profession is a boring job. 4.27 .800
*I feel shy to identify myself as a teacher among my friends and
27 colleagues. 4.52 .746
28 Teaching is a noble job. 4.69 .520
29 *I regret having chosen the teaching profession. 4.44 .757
30 I am proud of my future job as a teacher. 4.37 .609
31 I think teaching is a suitable profession for me. 4.17 .731
32 I would recommend teaching to those who are to choose a profession 3.91 .853
Attitude towards professional status/pride 4.37 .421
According to table 7, pre-service teachers' attitudes towards professional expectation, the

statement in all items except that of item 38 are positive. Most pre-service teachers believe that
they will be treated respectfully by society. They also trust that they will enjoy and satisfy from
teaching despite a low paid job. They also believed that teaching profession has job security that
can guarantee their future life and it will bring a chance to supply the wellbeing of society.
Besides, they hope that their personality and character will be developed through
teaching. Moreover, the descriptive analysis showed that the mean score of professional
expectation is 4.06. Thus, it can be concluded that the attitude of the pre-service teachers’
towards teaching profession is favorable.
Table 7 Pre-service Teachers’ Attitude towards Professional Expectation
No. Item Mean SD
33 I believe teaching profession will bring me a prestigious status in society. 4.32 .599
34 I believe that working as a teacher can guarantee my future life. 4.24 .730
35 *I don’t think I will derive satisfaction from teaching. 3.98 1.03
36 Teaching profession will develop my personality and character. 4.41 .553
I believe that the teaching profession will bring me a venerable position in
37 society 4.26 .582
*Low rates of remuneration for teachers will make me remain financially
38 depressed 3.00 1.23
39 I think teaching will provide me with opportunities to be productive and creative 4.20 .604
40 I believe I will be sufficiently esteemed by society when I become a teacher. 4.07 .736
Attitude towards professional expectation 4.06 .424
As shown in figure, the mean score of 3.75 for “ Choosing Teaching Career”, 4.26 for
“Professional Development”, 4.31 for “Professional Commitment”, 4.37 for “Professional
Status/Pride” and 4.06 for “Professional Expectation” indicated that pre-service teachers’ attitude
was positive in all subscales. While comparing all subscales, the mean score for “Professional
Status/Pride” was found to be the highest and “Choosing Teaching Career” was the lowest.
4.5 4.37
4.4 4.26 4.31
4.3
4.2 4.06
4.1
Mean
4
3.9 3.76
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
CTC PD PC PS PE
Figure 1 Mean scores of pre-service teachers’ attitude towards teaching profession

Note: CTC = Choosing Teaching Career PS = Professional Status/Pride
PD = Professional Development, PE = Professional Expectation
PC = Professional Commitment
Table 8 reveals the mean scores for attitude of pre-service teachers towards the teaching
profession to be 4.14 out of a total score of 5 subscales. The minimum mean score rated by the
pre-service teachers is 3 and the maximum is 5. Based on the descriptive analysis, it can be
concluded that the pre-service teachers’ attitude towards teaching profession is positive.
Table 8 Overall Pre-service Teachers’ Attitude towards Teaching Profession

Variables N Mean SD Minimum Maximum
Attitude 1000 4.14 .363 3 5
Table 9 shows that the mean of female pre-service teachers are greater than that of male
pre-service teachers in their attitude towards teaching profession. According to the findings, there
was a significant difference in the attitude of male and female. It can be said that the female pre-
service teachers have a more positive attitude than male pre-service teachers towards teaching
profession.
Table 9 Pre-service Teachers’ Attitude towards Teaching Profession by Gender
Mean SD
Dimension t df p
Male Female Male Female
CTC 3.669 3.801 .5950 .5383 -3.692 998 .000***
PD 4.175 4.341 .4743 .3972 -6.027 998 .000***
PC 4.262 4.365 .4470 .4083 -3.814 998 .000***
PS 4.290 4.445 .4416 .4037 -5.793 998 .000***
PE 3.988 4.132 ..4232 .4133 -5.476 998 .000***
Note: *** p <.001
Table 10 shows that there was a statistically significant difference in the attitude of pre-
service teachers towards choosing teaching career subscale. However, there was no significant
difference in the attitude of pre-service teachers towards teaching profession between the arts and
sciences on the other four subscales of professional development, professional commitment,
professional status/pride and professional expectation.
In overall, the finding shows that there was no significant difference in the attitude of pre-
service teachers’ towards their teaching profession in terms of their subject combination.
Table 10 Pre-service Teachers’ Attitude towards Teaching Profession by Subject
Combination
Mean SD
Dimension t df p
Arts Sciences Arts Sciences
CTC 3.789 3.680 .5636 .5737 3.031 998 .003**
PD 4.273 4.243 .4400 .4501 1.092 998 .275 (ns)
PC 4.322 4.305 .4227 .4393 .633 998 .527(ns)
PS 4.380 4.356 .4353 .4246 .883 998 .378(ns)
PE 4.065 4.055 .4255 .4235 .396 998 .692(ns)
Overall 4.17 4.13 .372 .361 1.654 998 .098(ns)
Note: ** p <.01, ns = not significant
According to Table 11, the findings indicate that there was a statistically significant
difference between the attitude of the DTEd and that of PPTT pre-service teachers in terms of
teaching program. It can be interpreted that the PPTT pre-service teachers have a more positive
attitude than DTEd pre-service teachers towards teaching profession. On the other hand, it can be
said that the pre-service teachers of PPTT chose the teaching profession, not because of the force
of their parents and relatives but because they chose according to their own desire and wish.
Table 11 Pre-service Teachers’ Attitude towards Teaching Profession by Teaching

Program
Mean SD
Dimension t df p
DTEd PPTT DTEd PPTT
CTC 3.582 3.887 .6199 .4710 -8.761 998 .000***
PD 4.185 4.331 .4671 .4098 -5.245 998 .000***
PC 4.266 4.361 .4474 .4087 -3.533 998 .000***
PS 4.309 4.427 .4617 .3873 -4.360 998 .000***
PE 4.017 4.106 .4351 .4084 -3.453 998 .001**
Note: ** p <.01, *** p <.001
Discussion
In general, pre-service teachers in education colleges have a moderate positive attitude
towards their teaching profession. Regarding choosing teaching career, most pre-service teachers
chose teaching profession not only they love children and teaching but also they believed that
teaching is a respected profession. They chose teaching profession not because it was easily
available and low marks in matriculation. On the other hand, most of pre-service teachers
supposed their courses were interesting and enjoyable during their training period. They also
believed that the pedagogic and academic knowledge they received from the training course will
become beneficial to their teaching profession.
Moreover, most of pre-service teachers’ attitude was favorable regarding professional
commitment. They have a strong commitment on teaching profession. As the results, most pre-
service teachers want to work as a teacher anywhere, anyplace and any situation. The finding
supports U Han Tin’s interpretation that although pre-service teachers have to work under very
difficult circumstances with little remuneration or reward, most teachers do good work (Han Tin,
2010). They felt proud to be a teacher as a teaching profession was considered to be a noble job
and social prestigious profession.
In this studied, female pre-service teachers have significantly higher attitude than male
pre-service teachers towards teaching profession. This result might be consistent with that
women are seen as being responsible for home care and when a profession is taken into
consideration, teaching profession is seen as suitable since it involves taking care of young
children (Bademcioglu, Karatas & Alci, 2014; Shaheen et al., 2016; Ali & Ahmad, 2016). Min
ZawSoe et al. (2017) have also pointed out that, in teaching profession, because of disincentives
such as lower salaries, and insufficient accommodation and facilities, most male pre-service
teachers do not prefer teaching as their profession. It is not a surprising result since the teaching
profession is known as a more female dominant occupation as well as society orients females to
choose occupations that can help itself like the teaching profession (Lall et al., 2013). Therefore,
most of the researches show that the teaching profession is dominated by females.
The second component of this study was the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards
teaching profession in terms of subject combination. Pre-service teachers of arts subject
combination have significantly higher attitude than those of science subject combination in
choosing teaching career. It may be possible that pre-service teachers of science subject
combination might have more expectation on options to choose other professions like Medicine,
Technology, Computer sciences etc. than those of arts subject combination according to
University Entry Guidebook which was consistent with Han Tin (2010)’s results. However, there
was no statistically significant difference in the other subscales such as professional

development, professional commitment, professional status/pride and professional expectation.
Therefore, in general, there was no significant difference in the attitude of pre-service teachers
towards teaching profession in terms of their subject combination.
In third component of the attitude of pre-service teachers towards teaching profession in
terms of teaching program, PPTT pre-service teachers have a more positive attitude than DTEd
pre-service teachers towards teaching profession. PPTT pre-service teachers had more
experiences than DTEd pre-service teachers in other universities about four years. These
experiences may lead to developing a positive attitude towards teaching profession.
Suggestions
Positive attitudes not only promote learning but also create the climate which stimulates
effective learning. Therefore, the following points would be suggested with respect to this study.
 Selection of pre-service teacher candidates should be based on the consideration of not
only high marks in the matriculation exam but also interview process. The personal
interview can support the admission system to select the candidates who possess a
positive attitude towards teaching profession. This process can reduce the shortage of
teacher at primary level as well as for retention pre-service teachers from dropout during
their training period.
 The government needs to improve the salaries of teachers to the level where they will be
in harmony with the current economic trends in order to reduce the wastage of primary
teachers. This is because salary leads to a high level of job satisfaction and influences on
teachers' attitude towards their teaching profession.
 Teacher educators should observe practical teaching and give student teachers feedback
from their weak point and good point on the practical teaching and the student teachers
can correct their weakness. It can help the pre-service teachers' professional development
effectively and to support effective teachers for their teaching profession.
Recommendations for further Studies
Following are some of the recommendations for further research studies in the area of
professional attitude.
1. A longitudinal study that would measure the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards
teaching profession at the entry purpose and at the time when these students reach their
final year of study would be acceptable. This study would investigate whether or not pre-
service initiate teachers’ attitude towards teaching changes as they undergo the teacher
education course.
2. A comparative study should be concluded with both pre-service teachers and in-service
teachers’ attitudes towards teaching profession whether or not they could be differences
in attitudes towards teaching between those preparing to join the teaching profession and
those already in the teaching profession.
3. The study may be replicated using other standards instruments and other variables like
socio-economic status, residence, and level of satisfaction for choosing teaching
profession as a career.
Conclusion
The quality of education depends on the quality and effectiveness of its teachers.
Teachers' proficiency depends on the attitude they possess for his or her profession. The positive
attitude helps the teacher to develop a conductive learner-friendly atmosphere in the classroom
(Bhargava & Pathy, 2014). Today, the requirements of the teaching profession are progressively
changing. In contrast to different professions, teachers are generally loaded with many
expectations from society. Moreover, teachers are assigned as one of the "five gems" in
Myanmar society (Han Tin, 2010). The world is rapidly changing and information and
communication are developing splendidly. However, no machine or mechanism will replace the
role of teachers as a result of their own temperament is an academic model for students. In order
to achieve success within the teaching profession, one needs to love the profession and perform it
volitionally or enthusiastically.
For that reason, the teachers’ attitudes that are formed within the teacher training
programs towards the teaching profession should be organized in order to get a positive attitude
towards the teaching profession. This research may support the admission system of teacher
education program as well as education colleges to developing a positive professional attitude of
pre-service teachers. It may be helpful for policymakers, administrators and teacher educators to
enhance teacher training programs.
To conclude, the findings and results of this study indicate that the attitude of pre-service
teachers in education colleges towards teaching profession is moderately positive, however, there
is a pressing problem need to review the status of teachers in terms of remuneration like salaries
and fringe benefits, and also the admission system that can keep retention of pre-service teachers
throughout their training course.
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to express my respectful gratitude to Dr. Saw Pyone Naing (Rector,
Sagaing University of Education) and Dr. Myat Myat Thaw (Pro-Rector, Sagaing University of Education) for their
kind permission to do this study. I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Wai Wai Oo, Associate Professor
& Head of Methodology Department, SUOE, for her administrative support that assisted greatly in the preparation
for this study.
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AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF GRADE ELEVEN MYANMAR

TEXTBOOKS FOCUSING ON THEIR OBJECTIVES, CONTENTS
AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO MYANMAR LITERATURE
Thet Soe Htike1& Khin Thant Zin2
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to analyse the Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks (Selected
Myanmar Prose and Selected Myanmar Poetry) focusing on their objectives, contents and
contributions to Myanmar literature, and to explore the perception of the teachers who teach
Myanmar on these textbooks. The triangulation design, one of the mixed methods designs, was
used for this study. The researcher conducted content analysis plus survey questionnaires which
can be used to evaluate textbooks from the perspective of teachers, ensuring a higher level of
objectivity of the results and less subjective judgements. The checklists were developed for both
textbooks, in accordance with the nature of Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks and the survey
questionnaires for the perception of teachers who teach Myanmar, were developed in order to gain
both qualitative and quantitative data. All senior Myanmar language teachers (totally 70) from the
Basic Education High Schools and Sub-high Schools in Hsalingyi, Yinmarbin and Pale
Townships, were chosen as participants in this study. Results from the qualitative content analysis
showed that both textbooks can fulfil the goals and objectives of teaching Myanmar and Grade
Eleven Myanmar Syllabus though objectives themselves seem to be updated. Similarly, according
to the results of the quantitative data, the teachers satisfied the objectives. The researcher found
that both textbooks need to be updated in terms of contents. Despite the major satisfaction in
contents, the results described that the Myanmar language teachers did not satisfy the textbooks in
terms of exercises. It is found that both textbooks can highlight the brief history of Myanmar
literature and make several contributions to it. The teachers who used those textbooks also
confessed that statement. The findings of this study reveal the strengths and limitations of Grade
Eleven Myanmar textbooks designed for use in a Myanmar context.
Keywords: textbooks, analysis, perception
Introduction
According to Richards (2000, p. 125), “While the roles of teachers, teaching, and learners
have been the focus of a vast body of discussion and research over the years, much less attention
has been given to textbooks”. Being crucial materials in the teaching-learning process, textbooks
need to be written carefully and then, they also need to be analysed, evaluated and wisely chosen
to reach its great effectiveness. In some settings, teachers have a chance to choose the book
which they want to use in their classes. But in other settings, textbooks are prescribed by
administrators or committees of teachers. In Myanmar, it can also be seen that all the decisions
about curriculum and school textbooks taught at the basic education level are made by the
Ministry of Education. An analytical study of textbooks is, therefore, an educational necessity in
order to sure that those textbooks reflect the aims and objectives of the teaching programme,
fulfil the needs of intended students, and to reveal their strengths and limitations. Consequently,
how a textbook can be improved or adapted can be shown by such analysis.
The textbooks that are chosen to analyse are two of the Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks
(Selected Myanmar Prose and Selected Myanmar Poetry) published by Basic Education
Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbook Committee adopted for use in Myanmar Basic Education
1
Senior Teacher, Sub-BEHS, Thanmadaw, Hsalingyi Township, Sagaing Region
2
Schools. It is an undeniable fact that systematic analysis of the prescribed textbooks for Grade
Eleven students plus surveying perception of teachers who currently use these textbooks in their
classes is of great importance for effective teaching of Myanmar.
(1) To analyse the objectives, contents and contributions to Myanmar literature of the Grade Eleven
Myanmar textbooks based on predetermined checklists
(2) To examine the suitability of the Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks for the high school
students
(3) To highlight the strengths and limitations of the Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks
(4) To evaluate the Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks from the perspective of Myanmar
language teachers
(5) To be helpful in current curriculum reform
Research Questions
1. To what extent do Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks meet the characteristics of a good textbook in
terms of objectives, contents and contributions to Myanmar literature?
2. Are Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks appropriate to be studied at the high school level?
3. What are the strengths and limitations of Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks?
4. What is the overall perception of Myanmar language teachers on these textbooks?
Textbook : Textbooks are important medium of instruction throughout the world.
They are designed to communicate information by means of printed
words, numbers, pictures, diagrams and maps. They are a useful tool for
teaching students of any age how to acquire and use information.
Textbooks indicate what a teacher must teach and what the students have
to learn (Department of Methodology, 2017).
Analysis : The detailed study or examination of something in order to understand more
about it; the result of the study (Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, 2015).
Operational Definition
Grade Eleven Myanmar Textbooks : The Grade Eleven (Standard Ten) Myanmar Readers
published by the Basic Education Curriculum, Syllabus
and Textbook Committee (2018-2019 Academic Year).
Literature Review
Role of Textbooks in Education
Textbooks are crucially important in most education systems. The role of textbooks is
certainly recognized by both learners and teachers. Hutchinson & Torres (1994) stated that
learners see the textbook as a ‘framework’ or ‘guide’ that helps them to organize their learning
both inside and outside the classroom. Most teachers consider that using textbooks means saving
time, giving directions to lessons, guiding discussions, facilitating in giving homework, making
teaching easier, better organized, more convenient, learning easier, faster, better, and most of all,
it provides confidence and security.
Richards (2010) also described that textbooks are a key component in most language
programmes. The textbook may provide the major source of contact for learners apart from input
provided by the teacher. In the case of inexperienced teachers, textbooks may also serve as a
form of teacher training, suggesting ideas on how to plan and teach lessons as well as formats
that teachers can use. He added that language teaching through the world today are not likely to
occur without the extensive use of commercial textbooks and that is why learning how to use and
adapt textbooks is an important part of a teacher’s professional knowledge.
However, no textbook will be totally suited to a particular teaching situation. Cunnings
worth (1984) mentioned that textbooks are only an aid to the language-teaching process, which
also depends upon individuals, their needs and their relationships in the classroom. Teachers and
students find their own ways of using a textbook to suit these circumstances, and to suit their
methods of learning.
The Importance of Textbook Analysis
Teaching is a kind of partnership between teacher and materials such as textbooks.
Partnerships work best when each partner knows the strengths and weaknesses of the other and is
able to complement them (Hutchinson & Torres, 1994). Textbooks play a crucial role in students’
success or failure and that is why particular attention must be paid to analyse such materials
based on valid and reliable instruments.
There are many features of textbooks which have a significant impact on their target
audience. Such features can have positive or negative impacts on learning. Textbook analysis is a
means by which these features can be identified and the effectiveness of textbooks can be
established (Okeeffe, 2013). Textbook analysis and evaluation, moreover, is useful in teacher
development and helps teachers to gain good and useful insights into the nature of the material
(Cunningsworth, 1995).
A variety of methods regarding textbook analysis are used in practice and there are two
main categories of textbook analysis methods: qualitative and quantitative. These methods can be
used both independently from each other, as well as together, depending on the objective of the
analysis. A combined approach that involves both qualitative and quantitative data is frequently
used which ensures a higher level of objectivity of the results (Pingel, 1999 as cited in Musteaţǎ,
2011). However, selecting an appropriate textbook is not a wholly objective process. While many
guidelines are suggested, the individual subjective judgments of the teachers are central to it.
Textbook Analysis Criteria
The main purpose of textbook analysis is to identify its strengths and limitations, and to
eliminate negative features. “In evaluating any new book of a scholarly or technical nature, one
have to consider the purpose for which it was written, for it is all too easy to attack it for not
being something else” (Verhave& Sherman, 1967, p. 641).
Cunningsworth (1995) proposed four guidelines which underlie many of the specific
criteria for textbook analysis and evaluation. The first guideline is that textbooks should
correspond to learners’ needs and they should match the aims and objectives of the language-
learning programme. The second is that textbooks should reflect the uses which learners will
make of the language. The third guideline is to ensure that textbooks facilitate learning processes.
The last guideline is that textbooks should have a clear role as a support for learning. These
above-mentioned guidelines need to be considered in analysing and evaluating textbooks which

will be used, which are currently used, or which had been used in any teaching programme.
Harmer (2001) suggested that whether assessing or evaluating textbooks, student opinion
and comment should also be considered. He described the three-stage procedure which can help
teachers analyse and assess books on the basis of their own beliefs and their assessment of their
students’ needs and circumstances. The first stage is selecting areas for assessment in which the
desired features in textbooks are listed under consideration. This list can be reduced or expanded
according to the focused criteria in the light of teachers’ teaching situation. The second one is to
state belief statements about any or all of the areas that have been decided to concentrate on. This
can be done by a group of teachers writing their individual beliefs and then combining them into
an agreed set. The last stage is using statements for assessment in which the statements of beliefs
from the previous stage are ready to use as assessment items. Then, the predetermined list and
statements can be judged by using a simple tick and cross system to compare different books.
Research Method
(i) Design
The triangulation design, one of the mixed methods designs, was used for this study.
Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches by including both
quantitative and qualitative data in a single study (Gay & Airasian, 2012). In this study, the
researcher used the mixed methods research design; content analysis plus survey questionnaires
which can be used to evaluate textbooks from the perspective of teachers, ensuring a higher level
of objectivity of the results.
(ii) Subjects
The Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks, Selected Myanmar Prose and Selected Myanmar
Poetry, published by the Ministry of Education, Basic Education Curriculum, Syllabus and
Textbook Committee, 2018-2019 Academic Year, were chosen as the subjects for this study.
The predetermined checklists of textbook analysis based on a number of criteria for
textbook analysis and evaluation set by some researchers (Cunningsworth, 1995, Daoud&Celce-
Murcia, 1979, Williams, 1983) were developed, for qualitative data, in accordance with the
nature of the Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks.
In addition, the questionnaires targeted to all senior teachers who teach Myanmar from
the Basic Education High Schools and Sub-high Schools in Hsalingyi, Yinmarbin and Pale
Townships, Sagaing Region, were developed, for quantitative data, based on the above
predetermined checklists for each textbook. The total number of the study population is 70.
(iii) Instruments
As this research employed a mixed methods design, the predetermined checklists for
textbook analysis for content analysis and the survey questionnaires for the perception of
teachers who teach Myanmar, were developed in order to gain both qualitative and quantitative
data. The materials were composed of the following.
(a) The Grade Eleven Myanmar Textbooks; Selected Myanmar Prose and Selected Myanmar
Poetry, published by the Ministry of Education, Basic Education Curriculum, Syllabus and
Textbook Committee, 2018-2019 Academic Year.
(b) The predetermined checklists of textbook analysis were based on a number of criteria for
textbook analysis and evaluation set by some researchers (Cunningsworth, 1995,
Daoud&Celce-Murcia, 1979, Williams, 1983). The checklists were developed for both
textbooks; in accordance with the nature of Grade Eleven Myanmar textbooks.
(iv) Procedure
First of all, the researcher studied the relevant literature concerned with the research and
the research methodology in order to establish the most suitable research design. Second,
instruments were constructed under the guidance of the supervisor. These instruments were
distributed for validation to those who have special knowledge, two educators from Sagaing
University of Education and two senior teachers who have more than 30 years of experience of
teaching of Grade Eleven Myanmar. Next, the checklists and questionnaires were modified
according to their opinions. And then, pilot testing was administered followed by revising the
instruments according to the results of the pilot test. After that, major survey was conducted,
analysing the textbooks qualitatively at the same time as this study employed the triangulation
design. Finally, the obtained data were collected, analysed and presented.
(v) Data Analysis
Content analysis was used for qualitative data and descriptive statistics was used for
quantitative data. Content analysis is a method of data analysis and it is labelled as data
collection method (Mayring, 2014). It is a method of analysing written, verbal or visual
communication messages (Colc, 1988 as cited in Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). The textbooks were
analysed by this method in order to get their in-depth information.
In analysing survey data, a five-point Likert scale was used and the rating scales were
numerically coded as 1 - strongly disagree, 2 - disagree, 3 - undecided, 4 - agree, and 5 - strongly
disagree, which greatly facilitated the statistical analysis. The Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 21 was used to analyse the survey data.
Findings
I. Qualitative Content Analysis of the Textbook: Selected Myanmar Prose
Objectives
Contents
Contributions to Myanmar literature ( )
Other considerations
II. Quantitative Findings: Selected Myanmar Prose

The Results of the Per Statement Analysis
(i) Objectives
Table 1Percentage of Teachers’ Perceptions on Objectives
No. Statement SD D U A SA
The textbook fulfils the objectives of teaching
1 0% 1.4% 4.3% 90% 4.3%
Myanmar at the high school level.
The objectives meet the needs of Grade Eleven
2 1.4% 14.3% 22.9% 55.7% 5.7%
students.
The objectives are systematically organized in
3 0% 0% 4.3% 77.1% 18.6%
the textbook.
4 The objectives are clear and precise. 1.4% 8.6% 10% 68.6% 11.4%
5 The objectives are measurable. 2.9% 15.7% 27.1% 51.4% 2.9%
(ii) Contents
Table 2Percentage of Teachers’ Perceptions on Contents
The selection of topics is appropriate for Grade
1 0% 4.3% 5.7% 77.1% 12.9%
Eleven students.
The sequence of topics according to their era in
2 1.4% 2.9% 2.9% 70% 22.8%
which they were written is appropriate.
3 There is a wide variety of topics in the textbook. 1.4% 5.7% 1.4% 80% 11.5%
4 The topics interest Grade Eleven students. 0% 8.6% 7.1% 65.7% 18.6%
5 The topics are applicable in real life situations. 0% 5.7% 18.6% 61.6% 14.1%
There are topics which can improve the five
6 strengths (Physical, Intellectual, Moral, Friendship 1.4% 24.3% 7.1% 64.3% 2.9%
and Wealth) of Grade Eleven students.
Background information and summaries of each
7 0% 2.9% 4.3% 68.6% 24.2%
topic are helpful for both teacher and students.
There are enough glossaries for unfamiliar
8 4.3% 20% 15.7% 55.7% 4.3%
words.
There are enough exercises to be practised for
9 2.9% 40% 12.9% 37.1% 7.1%
fulfilling the objectives of each topic.
The textbook is compatible with the social and
10 0% 5.7% 14.3% 67.1% 12.9%
cultural contexts.
(iii) Contributions to Myanmar literature

Table 3 Percentage of Teachers’ Perception on Contributions to Myanmar Literature
The textbook is useful to see the brief history of
1 1.4% 8.6% 0% 67.1% 22.9%
Myanmar literature.
The textbook raises the students' interests in
2 Myanmar authors who are the main contributors to 0% 8.6% 7.1% 62.9% 21.4%
Myanmar literature.
The textbook encourages students to respect and
3 0% 2.9% 11.4% 65.7% 20%
value Myanmar literature.
The textbook is helpful for students to be aware of
4 0% 4.3% 5.7% 78.6% 11.4%
the relationship between literature and history.
The textbook enhances students’ further studies about
5 0% 12.9% 22.9% 51.4% 12.8%
Myanmar literature.
The Results of the Per Category Analysis

Table 4Mean Comparison for each Category
No. of Standard
No. Main Categories N Mean
Items Deviation
1 Objectives 5 70 18.77 1.965
2 Contents 10 70 38.24 5.622
3 Contributions to Myanmar Literature 5 70 19.63 2.391
On the per-category analysis, the observed means are more than the theoretical means,
respectively, in all categories. Accordingly, it is probable to assume that all the participants
satisfied the textbook.
Table 5 Percentage of Teachers’ Perception on Other Considerations
No. Statements Options
Much Not too A little No input
How much degree of teacher input
1 much at all
does the textbook require?
(75.7%) (24.3%) (0%) (0%)
Does the textbook aid teachers to Yes No
2
minimize their preparation time? (74.3%) (25.7%)
Is the textbook almost self-sufficient Yes No
3
for self-study? (40%) (60%)
Is the teacher’s guide helpful in Yes No
4
teaching? (84.3%) (15.7%)
A through Only the areas
Does the textbook require the teacher No need to
study is related with the
5 to have mastery of Myanmar study at all
required topics should be
language and literature? (0%)
(100%) studied(0%)
Literary Figures of speech Aesthetic
In addition to the text in the textbook,
6 quality
what else should be taught?
(34%) (100%) (100%)
Contents Physical Paper Binding
Which portions of the textbook
7 appearance quality
should be improved?
(68.6%) (60%) (30%) (30%)
III. Qualitative Content Analysis of the Textbook: Selected Myanmar Poetry

Objectives
Contents(
Contributions to Myanmar literature ( )
IV. Quantitative Findings: Selected Myanmar Poetry

The Results of the Per Statement Analysis
(i) Objectives
Table 6Percentage of Teachers’ Perception on Objectives
The textbook fulfils the objectives of teaching
1 0% 4.3% 7.1% 82.9% 5.7%
Myanmar at the high school level.
The objectives meet the needs of Grade Eleven
2 0% 15.7% 28.6% 48.6% 7.1%
students.
The objectives are systematically organized in
3 0% 2.9% 4.3% 81.4% 11.4%
the textbook.
4 The objectives are clear and precise. 0% 5.7% 8.6% 74.3% 11.4%
5 The objectives are measurable. 2.9% 12.9% 28.6% 52.9% 2.7%
(ii) Contents
Table 7Percentage of Teachers’ Perception on Contents
The selection of poems is appropriate for Grade
1 0% 4.3% 10% 75.7% 10%
Eleven students.
The sequence of poems according to their era in
2 0% 1.4% 5.7% 74.3% 18.6%
which they were written is appropriate.
3 There is a wide variety of topics in the textbook. 0% 7.1% 2.9% 74.3% 15.7%
4 The poems interest Grade Eleven students. 0% 8.6% 5.7% 64.3% 21.4%
5 The topics are applicable in real life situations. 1.4% 8.6% 21.4% 54.3% 14.3%
There are poems which can improve the five
6 strengths (Physical, Intellectual, Moral, Friendship 0% 35.7% 7.1% 50% 7.2%
and Wealth) of Grade Eleven students.
Background information and summaries of each
7 0% 4.3% 1.4% 75.7% 18.6%
topic are helpful for both teacher and students.
8 There are enough glossaries for unfamiliar words. 2.9% 30% 8.6% 52.9% 5.6%
There are enough exercises to be practised for
9 2.9% 45.7% 8.6% 38.6% 4.2%
fulfilling the objectives of each topic.
The textbook is compatible with the social and
10 0% 1.5% 17.1% 71.4% 10%
cultural contexts.
(iii) Contributions to Myanmar Literature
Table 8Percentage of Teachers’ Perception on Contributions to Myanmar Literature
The textbook is useful to see the brief history
1 1.4% 4.3% 4.3% 81.4% 8.6%
of Myanmar literature.
The textbook raises the students' interests in
2 Myanmar authors who are the main 0% 4.3% 10% 68.6% 17.1%
contributors to Myanmar literature.
The textbook encourages students to respect
3 0% 5.7% 5.7% 68.6% 20%
and value Myanmar literature.
The textbook is helpful for students to be
4 aware of the relationship between literature 0% 2.9% 4.3% 84.3% 8.5%
and history.
The textbook enhances students’ further
5 0% 11.4% 20% 52.9% 15.7%
studies about Myanmar literature.
The Results of the Per Category Analysis

Table 9Mean Comparison for each Category
No. of Standard
No. Main Categories N Mean
Items Deviation
1 Objectives 5 70 18.70 2.038
2 Contents 10 70 37.21 3.867
3 Contributions to Myanmar Literature 5 70 19.64 2.420
Table 10Percentage of Teachers’ Perception on Other Considerations
No. Statements Options
Much Not too A little No input
How much degree of teacher input
1 much at all
does the textbook require?
(84.3%) (15.7%) (0%) (0%)
Does the textbook aid teachers to Yes No
2
minimize their preparation time? (71.4%) (28.6%)
Is the textbook almost self-sufficient Yes No
3
for self-study? (34.3%) (65.7%)
Is the teacher’s guide helpful in Yes No
4
teaching? (84.3%) (15.7%)
A through Only the areas No need to
Does the textbook require the teacher
study is related with the study at all
5 to have mastery of Myanmar
required topics should be
language and literature?
(100%) studied(0%) (0%)
Literary Figures of speech Aesthetic
In addition to the text in the textbook,
6 quality
what else should be taught?
(34%) (100%) (100%)
Contents Physical Paper Binding
Which portions of the textbook
7 appearance quality
should be improved?
(80%) (57.1%) (34.3%) (34.3%)
Conclusion
Discussion
Objectives
Contents ( )
ʻ ʼ ʻ ʼ
ʻ ʼ
Contributions to Myanmar Literature ( )

Perceptions of Teachers on the Textbooks

According to the results of the study, the books satisfied the teachersʼ expectations
regarding to its objectives, contents and contributions to Myanmar literature.
Interestingly, there is only one statement that the teachers did not such satisfy, which
concerned exercises in the textbooks. They thought that the exercises in the textbooks are not
enough. Therefore, it would be noted that this section of the textbooks should be improved.
Furthermore, most of the teachers thought that the textbooks require a high degree of
teacher input. They admitted that the textbooks aid them to minimize their preparation time.
Next, they assumed that the textbooks are not self-sufficient for self-study. These reveal the
quality of the textbooks and current situations the teachers face these days. Most of the teachers
might consider that they are vital and they might not teach students with interactive teaching
methods. Or it may be because of the abilities of the students the teachers had to deal with.
Almost all of the teachers in this study confessed that they use teachersʼ guide and it was
helpful. But some teachers mentioned that their school did not provide teachersʼ guide and they
could not use it. Some said they have never seen it. Therefore, it may be suggested to sure that all
the teaching materials are provided to all schools.
Undoubtedly, all the teachers accepted that a teacher needs to study Myanmar language
and literature thoroughly in teaching with the textbooks. Besides, they assumed that figures of
speech and aesthetic should be taught to students while literary quality was not yet necessary at
the high school level. It is probable that the teachers did not want to go deeply about the fields of
writing techniques in teaching young learners.
Surprisingly, despite the major satisfaction, the teachers also suggested that the contents
and physical appearance of the textbooks should be improved. A fairy number of teachers
advised to improve paper quality and binding of the textbooks. Therefore, it may be seen that the
teachers wanted the textbooks to be excellent ones.
Suggestions
Based on the results of the study, there are several recommendations for future research.
First, some of the limitations outlined in this study may be minimized or eliminated in a revised
analysis of textbooks. A qualitative content analysis of textbooks by a group of experts should be
done in order to avoid subjective judgments. Next, in future research, it is necessary to
implement a larger sample size in surveying teachersʼ perceptions. With a larger sample size, it
would be more likely to arrive at a more comprehensive evaluation result. Second, this study did
not include studentsʼ perceptions on the textbooks. Harmer (2001) suggested that whether
assessing or evaluating textbooks, student opinion and comment should also be considered.
Future studies should employ a student survey or interviewing procedure to explore studentsʼ
perceptions on the textbooks. Finally, this study only focused on objectives, contents and
contributions to Myanmar literature of the textbooks. Future studies should be carried out in
other dimensions concerning the textbook evaluation beyond the scope of this research.
Conclusion
Interestingly, a critical finding from the qualitative analysis shows that both textbooks can
fulfil the goals and objectives of teaching Myanmar and Grade Eleven Myanmar Syllabus though
objectives themselves seem to be updated. Similarly, according to the results of the quantitative
data, the teachers satisfied the objectives. It can then be concluded that the textbooks are good in
terms of objectives.
From the analyzed data, it is evident that both textbooks need to be updated in terms of
contents. Although the textbooks consist of authentic writings of famous Myanmar authors, they
should also include the contemporary writings. Despite the major satisfaction, the teachers who
teach Grade Eleven Myanmar did not satisfy the textbooks in terms of exercises. They thought
that there are not enough exercises in the textbooks. In addition, the entire context in the
textbook should be up-to-date and no mistake is accepted. The textbook, as far as possible,
should be the latest edition.
Obviously, describing the authentic writings of famous Myanmar authors, both textbooks
can highlight the brief history of Myanmar literature and make several contributions to it. The
teachers who used these textbooks also confessed that statement.
The findings of this study reveal the strengths and limitations of Grade Eleven Myanmar
textbooks designed for use in a Myanmar context. It is important for textbook writers and
developers to be aware of the perceptions of teachers towards the use of Myanmar textbooks so
that they can help the teachers to use them more effectively. Textbook analysis and evaluation,
moreover, is useful in teacher development and helps teachers to gain good and useful insights
into the nature of the material (Cunningsworth, 1995).
The results of this study also provide useful information for policy makers. The Ministry
of Education is redesigning the basic education curriculum, and new curricula and new textbooks
are being written during these years. This study will be useful in producing excellent textbooks
based on the feedback and results about the current textbooks.
To sum up, it should also be noted that the quality of a textbook is dependent on the quality
and attitude of the people involved in the process. Textbooks are only an aid to the teaching-
learning process, which also depends upon individual teachers and students, their needs and their
relationships in the classroom (Cunningsworth, 1984). To avoid the deskilling effect for
textbooks, Richards (2000) suggested that teachers must be trained to have knowledge and skills
needed to evaluate and adapt textbooks. In this way, the potential negative effect of using
textbooks can be reduced and they are still in their right place in the educational system as
resources to support and facilitate teaching.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Saw Pyone Naing (Rector, Sagaing University of Education)
and Dr. Myat Myat Thaw (Pro-rector, Sagaing University of Education) for their permission to conduct this study.
Our special thanks go to Dr. Wai Wai Oo (Associate Professor & Head of Department, Department of Methodology,
Sagaing University of Education) for her expert guidelines, precious advice and long standing commitment during
this research. Finally, We wish to extend a word of thanks to the teachers from the Basic Education High Schools
and Sub-high Schools in Hsalingyi, Yinmarbin and Pale Townships, Sagaing Region, for their active participation
during the data collection.
References
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A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL CLIMATE

AND TEACHERS’ PERFORMANCEIN HIGH SCHOOLS
Hein Min Phyo Wai Thaw1 and San San Maw2
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between school climate and teachers’
performance in high schools. Descriptive survey method was applied for this study. There are nine
Basic Education High Schools in Pale Township. In this study, the samples were (9) principals,
(236) teachers and (712) students from all Basic Education High Schools. The questionnaires were
used as instruments to collect the appropriate data. There is one instrument for principals and
students and two instruments for teachers. The first instrument for teachers (Q1) includes
Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) developed by Haplin and Croft (1963,
cited in Chen, 1990). The second instrument for principals, students and teachers (Q2) is to
measure teachers’ performance developed by Raza (2010) in order to obtain information for the
study. In order to analyze the data obtained, Pearson-product moment correlation coefficient and
descriptive statistics were computed. The result of the study indicated that the perception of the
teachers on school climate was at high level. With regard to teachers’ performance, the perception
of principals, students and teachers were also high level. According to ANOVA result, there was
significant difference between principals, students and teachers’ perception on teachers’
performance. It was found that there was significant relationship between school climate and
teachers’ performance with Pearson r of .658 at 0.001 level. The effect size of r = .658 was
considered large effect size. According to simple linear regression, it can be concluded that 43%
of teachers’ performance can be predicted from school climate. These results indicate that school
climate is one factor that increases teachers’ performance in high schools.
Keywords: relationship, school climate, teachers’ performance
Introduction
Development of nation is primarily dependent on the education system available in the
country. Teachers are essential for the effective functioning of education system and for
improving the quality of learning process. The quality of educational process and its product is
unquestionably influencing by teachers’ performance. The entire edifice of education is shaky if
the performance of teachers is weak and ineffective. Therefore effective performance of teachers
is a must for educational improvement, which we are striving hard to bring about. School climate
is one of the most powerful and significant factor that contributes to effective teacher
performance. Teacher plays a pivotal role in ensuring achievement in school (Selamat, Semsu &
Kamaly, 2013). School organizational climate is well known to be a factor that affected teachers’
performance. In an organization with a high extent of humanistic relationship, collegiality, and
participation, the teaching effectiveness is high, triggering a higher success of education (Babu,
2013). Thus a positive school climate of a school is not only an important predictor of teachers’
performance but also a crucial factor in instruction.
(1) To study the perceptions of teachers on school climate at Basic Education High Schools
(2) To explore the levels of teachers’ performance rated by principal at Basic Education High Schools
1
Senior Teacher, BEHS Kandaung, Pale Township, Sagaing Region
2
Associate Professor, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
(3) To investigate the levels of teachers’ performance rated by students at Basic Education High
Schools
(4) To explore the levels of teachers’ performance rated by teachers themselves at Basic Education
High Schools
(5) To find out the relationship between school climate and teachers’ performance at Basic Education
High Schools, Pale Township, Sagaing Region
Scope
This study was confined to principals, teachers and students at basic education high
schools in Pale Township, Sagaing Region. The number of participants included in the study was
(9) principals, (284) teachers and (712) students. In this study, eight dimensions of school climate
questionnaires (aloofness, production emphasis, consideration, thrust, disengagement, hindrance,
intimacy and esprit) with (48) items were limited to inquire the perceptions of teachers on school
climate. For teachers’ performance questionnaires with (30) items were limited to inquire the
levels of performance for teachers.
Definitions of Key terms
Relationship : Relationship is the way in which two or more people or things are
connected, or the state of being connected (Oxford Dictionary).
School Climate: School climate refers to the result of the reciprocal effects of the
teachers’ behavior patterns as a group and the principal’s behavior
pattern as a leader (Halpin& Croft, 1963).
Teacher Performance: Teachers’ performance could be described as the duties performed
by a teacher at a particular period in the school system in achieving
organizational goals (Obilade, 1999, cited in Adeyemi, 2010).
Literature Review
School Climate and Teachers’ Performance
Halpin and Croft (1963) identified eight dimensions of the school climate such as
disengagement, hindrance, espirit and intimacy as reflected in the behavior of teacher and
aloofness, production emphasis, thrust and consideration as reflected in the behavior of the
principals. They reduced these eight dimensions to six broad and more comprehensive
dimensions or types of climates i.e. open, autonomous, controlled, familiar, parental and closed,
defining each of these with reference to the degree of presence or absence of the eight elements
or dimensions of the climate. They developed a tool OCDQ (Organizational Climate Description
Questionnaire) to measure these dimensions and types of the climate. The rationale underlying
OCDQ was first assumed that something actually exists which can properly be called
organizational climate. Further, it was also assumed that organizational climate is closely related
to the perceived behavior of teachers and principals.
The teachers are the most important factor of the teaching-learning process. The school’s
most important influence is the teachers. He sets the tone of the classroom and establishes the
mood of the group. He is the authority figure providing the direction for behavior. He is a model
and is consciously imitated (Bernard, 1972, cited in Akram, 2010).
The teacher performance is the most crucial input in the field of education. Whatever
policies may be laid down, in the ultimate analysis these have to be interpreted and implemented
by the teachers, as much as through their personal examples as through teaching-learning
processes. Performance refers to an act of accomplishing or executing a given task (Lindsay,
1995; Griffin, 1997; Owei, 1999, cited in Adejumobi, 2013).
The term teaching performance is referring to the conduct of instruction: posing
questions, providing explanations, giving directions, showing approval, engaging in the myriad
instructional acts that a teacher performs in the classroom. The term is not meant to encompass
the effects or products of instruction, such as student achievement or personal growth. Neither is
it meant to encompass such teacher characteristic as attitudes and expectations. Rather, teaching
performance is concerned, to use Dunkin and Biddle’s terms, with process variable rather than
presage or product variables. (cited in Raza, 2010)
Research Method
Design
In this study, questionnaire survey method which is one of the descriptive methods was
used to collect the information about school climate and teachers’ performance in high schools.
A questionnaire survey method and a descriptive research design were used. Descriptive research
involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or answer questions concerning the current
status of the subjects of the study (Gay, 1987).
Subjects
This study was carried out among principals, teachers and students in Pale Township,
Sagaing Region. There are nine basic education high schools. These schools were included in the
sample. So, principals, teachers and students from nine basic education high schools in Pale
Township were selected as the sample subjects in this study. The total number of principals in
this study was (9). The total number of teachers was (284) and the total number of students was
(712). Table 1 showed the number of sample schools and sample size in this study.
Table 1 The Sample Schools and Sample Size
Number of Participants
No. Name of Schools
(Principals) (Teachers) (Students)
1. BEHS Pale 1 45 100
2. BEHS Let TaungGyi 1 26 70
3. BEHS Pan Ywa 1 26 82
4. BEHS Mindaingpin 1 68 200
5. BEHS Chinpyit 1 25 50
6. BEHS Kandaung 1 26 100
7. BEHS PadaukKone (S) 1 22 50
8. BEHS Kyetyin 1 14 30
9. BEHS Wet Kya 1 17 30
Total 9 269 712
Instruments
In this study, the researcher used four questionnaires for school climate and teacher
performance in order to obtain data from principals, teachers and students. The questionnaire for
school climate was constructed on the basis of the questionnaire of Halpin and Croft (1963, cited
in Chen, 1990). The questionnaire for teacher performance was constructed on the basis of the
questionnaire of Raza (2010). The demographic variables such as gender, age, teaching
experience and qualification were firstly asked teachers before asking the items on school climate
and teacher performance.
Questionnaire for school climate included five-point Likert scale items for eight
dimensions: aloofness, production emphasis, consideration, thrust, disengagement, hindrance,
intimacy and esprit. There were 48 Likert scale items in this instrument including 6 items for
each dimension. The possible responses to each item to measure the perceptions of school
climate of teachers were ranged according to responses of “Never Occurs” (1), “Rarely Occurs”
(2), “Sometimes Occurs” (3), “Often Occurs” (4), and “Always Occurs” (5). Each individual’s
score was determined by adding the responses of each item on school climate. The higher scores
the teachers got, school climate is a positive climate.
Questionnaire for teacher performance included five-point rating-scale items. There are
30 items for principals, teachers and students. The possible responses to each item to measure the
performance of teachers were ranged according to responses of “Never” (1), “Rarely”
(2), “Sometimes” (3), “Often” (4), and “Always” (5). Each individual’s score was determined by
adding the responses of each item on teacher performance. The higher scores the teacher got, the
higher performance they had.
Instrument Validity
To get for questionnaire validation, the copies of questionnaires were distributed to the
experienced teachers in the field of education in Sagaing University of Education on 11 st,
September, 2018. For the suitability of each item, the correctness of the key, the clarity of the
language and the suggestions for improvement of the questionnaires, those teachers were
requested. After that, items were modified again according to their advice and guidance.
Pilot Survey
On 25th, September, 2018, a pilot survey was carried out with (37) teachers and (100)
students in BEHS – Ohm Taw, Sagaing Township. The main objective of the pilot study was to
determine the reliability of the main survey. The pilot questionnaire was prepared in the same
format as envisaged for the main survey; the same instructions were included as for the main
survey. Based on the finding of the pilot survey, internal consistency reliability of the
questionnaire is determined by Cronbach’s alpha. The Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency
reliability of school climate questionnaire was 0.90 and the Cronbach’s alpha internal
consistency reliability of teachers’ performance questionnaire was 0.847.
Procedure
First and foremost the researcher collected relevant data and information from several
available books, reports, theses and the Internet. Secondly, in order to get the required data, the
researcher constructed the instruments under the guidance of the supervisor. Thirdly, content
validity will be determined by experienced teachers. After the instruments had been validated, a
pilot testing was conducted. For the internal consistency reliability, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
was used.
After the pilot survey, the main survey was conducted in Basic Education High Schools
in Pale Township. The questionnaire and demographic data were distributed to principals,
teachers and students with the request to complete and return as soon as possible. All participants
were asked to decide their agreement with the statements and mark the relevant response
category honestly. A hundred percent of the questionnaires from principals and students, and
87.73 percent of the questionnaires from teachers were returned in the sample schools under
study. Finally, the obtained data were analyzed.
After collecting the required data, a quantitative data analysis was made by using the
Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 20. The data were analyzed by using
descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA and Pearson-product moment correlation. In order to
know mean and standard deviation for school climate and teachers’ performance by principals,
teachers and students, descriptive analyses were used. One-way ANOVA was used to compare
teachers’ performance in terms of principals, teachers and students. Then, Pearson-product
moment correlation was used to determine whether any relationship exists between school
climate and teachers’ performance in high schools. To examine how school climate can predict
teachers’ performance in high schools, simple linear regression was calculated.
Data Analysis and Findings

After the instrument had been developed for the research and applied for the data
collection, school climate and teachers’ performance were investigated. Data were analyzed by
using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics, One-way
ANOVA, Pearson-product moment correlation and simple linear regression were applied to
discuss findings and results.
Perceptions of Teachers on School Climate at Basic Education High Schools

Mean Comparison for Each Dimension of School Climate
The mean and standard deviations of each dimension of school climate were described in
Table 2.
Table 2 Comparison of Mean and Standard Deviation for Each Dimension of School
Climate for All Teachers in Nine Basic Education High Schools
Dimension of
School A B C D E F G H I Total
Climate (n=35) (n=21) (n=25) (n=55) (n=21) (n=26) (n=22) (n=14) (n=17) (n=236)
Mean 3.96 3.93 3.75 3.65 3.86 3.39 3.87 3.87 3.8 3.79
Aloofness
SD 0.48 0.43 0.56 0.46 0.24 0.48 0.39 0.35 0.35 0.42
Production Mean 4.44 4.11 4.20 3.99 4.62 3.96 4.49 4.74 4.73 4.36
Emphasis SD 0.48 0.63 0.71 0.7 0.39 0.69 0.43 0.31 0.39 0.53
Mean 4.64 4.01 3.89 4.11 4.69 3.46 4.55 4.77 4.62 4.30
Thrust
SD 0.47 0.91 0.70 0.67 0.45 0.74 0.35 0.21 0.55 0.56
Mean 4.27 3.29 3.71 3.85 4.21 3.11 3.87 4.33 4.09 3.86
Consideration
SD 0.71 0.83 0.79 0.73 0.45 0.79 0.55 0.46 0.66 0.66
Mean 2.92 2.71 2.97 3.13 2.76 3.00 3.00 3.15 2.96 2.96
Disengagement
SD 0.43 0.39 0.38 0.35 0.43 0.29 0.34 0.39 0.25 0.36
Dimension of School A B C D E F G H I Total

Climate (n=35) (n=21) (n=25) (n=55) (n=21) (n=26) (n=22) (n=14) (n=17) (n=236)
Mean 2.10 2.10 2.14 2.65 2.26 2.71 2.57 2.33 2.14 2.33
Hindrance
SD 0.75 0.71 0.58 0.68 0.71 0.48 0.65 1.01 0.66 0.69
Mean 4.10 3.76 4.23 3.96 4.48 4.10 4.23 4.36 4.45 4.19
Esprit
SD 0.64 0.62 0.52 0.56 0.37 0.59 0.27 0.35 0.41 0.48
Mean 3.92 4.1 3.39 3.88 4.29 3.97 4.25 4.20 4.32 4.04
Intimacy
SD 0.71 0.71 0.57 0.57 0.51 0.64 0.41 0.68 0.47 0.59
Mean 3.79 3.50 3.60 3.65 3.89 3.46 3.85 3.98 3.89 3.73
Total
SD 0.58 0.65 0.60 0.59 0.44 0.58 0.42 0.47 0.46 0.53
Note: 1-2.33 = Low, 2.34-3.67 = Moderate and 3.68-5 = High
Table 2 shows descriptive statistics for dimensions of school climate in Nine Basic
Education High Schools in Pale Township. According to the teachers’ perspectives, Aloofness
was mostly practiced by principal from School A, Production Emphasis was mostly practiced by
principal from School H, Thrust was mostly practiced by principal from School H, Consideration
was mostly practiced by principal from School H, Disengagement was mostly practiced by
teacher from School H, Hindrance was mostly practiced by principal from School F, Esprit was
mostly practiced by principal from School E and Intimacy was mostly practiced by principal
from School E. Among Nine Basic Education High Schools, School H is the highest used of
eight dimensions of school climate and School F is the lowest used of eight dimensions of school
climate on the perspectives of teachers.
Descriptive Statistics for Teachers’ Performance

The mean and standard deviations of teachers’ performance were described in the
following tables.
Table 3 Mean and Standard Deviation of Principals’ Perceptions on Teachers’
Performance in Nine Basic Education High Schools
Nine Basic Education High Schools (n=9)
Mean 4.18
Teachers’ Performance
SD 0.29
According to Table 3 shows that all teachers from Nine Basic Education High Schools
perceived by their principals as high level.
Table 4 Mean and Standard Deviation of Students’ Perceptions on Teachers’ Performance
in Nine Basic Education High Schools
A B C D E F G H I Total
(n=100) (n=70) (n=82) (n=200) (n=50) (n=100) (n=50) (n=30) (n=30) (n=712)
Teachers’ Mean 3.96 4.18 3.86 4.04 4.16 3.88 4.41 4.01 3.77 4.02
Performance SD 0.52 0.62 0.534 0.57 0.34 0.44 0.33 0.46 0.37 0.46
perceived by their students as high level; School A (𝑋̅=3.96), School B (𝑋̅=4.18), School C
(𝑋̅=3.86), School D (𝑋̅=4.04), School E (𝑋̅=4.16), School F (𝑋̅=3.88), School G (𝑋̅=4.41),
School H (𝑋̅=4.01) and School I (𝑋̅=3.77).
Table 5 Mean and Standard Deviation of Teachers’ Perceptions on Teachers’ Performance

in Nine Basic Education High Schools
A B C D E F G H I Total
(n=35) (n=21) (n=25) (n=55) (n=21) (n=26) (n=22) (n=14) (n=17) (n=236)
Teachers’ Mean 4.31 4.35 4.28 4.05 4.59 4.22 4.47 4.38 4.53 4.3
Performance SD 0.68 0.68 0.5 0.5 0.38 0.57 0.37 0.3 0.37 0.48
perceived by themselves as high level; School A (𝑋̅=4.31), School B (𝑋̅=4.35), School
C (𝑋̅=4.28), School D (𝑋̅=4.05), School E (𝑋̅=4.59), School F (𝑋̅=4.22), School G (𝑋̅=4.47),
School H (𝑋̅=4.38) and School I (𝑋̅=4.53).
Comparison of Teachers’ Performance by Principals, Teachers and Students
There are Nine Basic Education High Schools in this variable. To compare teachers’
performance by principals, teachers and students, descriptive statistics was first used. Table 15
displayed mean and standard deviations for teachers’ performance from principals, teachers and
students.
Table 6 Comparison of Mean and Standard Deviations for Teachers’ Performance by
Principals, Teachers and Students
Variable Types of Person N Mean SD
Principals 9 4.18 0.29
Teachers’ Teachers 236 4.3 0.48
Performance Students 700 4.02 0.46
Total 945 4.19 0.41
According to table 6, teachers had the highest mean (𝑋̅=4.3) on teachers’ performance
and students had the lowest mean (𝑋̅=4.02) on teachers’ performance.
In order to determine where there is a significant difference between the perceptions of
principals, teachers and students, the collected data were analyzed by using one way analysis of
variance (ANOVA). The results of ANOVA are presented in Table 7.
Table 7 ANOVA Results of Principals, Teachers and Students’ Perceptions for Teachers’
Performance
Mean
Sum of Squares df F p
Square
Between
14.062 2 7.031 24.623 .000***
Groups
Teachers’
Within
Performance 272.413 954 .286
Groups
Total 286.476 956
Note: *** The mean difference is significant at 0.001 level
Table 7 indicated that a statistically significant difference in teachers’ performance was

found among principals, teachers and students at 0.001 level.
To investigate more specifically how teachers’ performance differed in relation to
principals, teachers and students, the Post Hoc Test was carried out. The results were shown in
Table 8.
Table 8 The Result of Post Hoc Test Multiple Comparison for Teachers’ Performance
Types of Person Position of Person Mean Difference
Variable p
(I) (J) (I-J)
Teachers -.123 .480
Principals
Students .157 .291
Teachers’ Principals .123 .48
Teachers
Performance Students .281 .000***
Principals -.157 .297
Students
Teachers -.281 .000***
Note: *** The mean difference is significant at 0.001 level
Post Hoc Test revealed that the mean difference between Teachers and Students was .281
and it was significantly different at p = 0.000. So, the teachers’ perception had higher teachers’
performance levels than the students’ perception.
Pearson-product moment correlation between School Climate and Teachers’ Performance

The Pearson-product moment correlation was utilized to find out the relationship between
school climate (independent variables) and teachers’ performance (dependent variables). Table 9
shows correlations between school climate and teachers’ performance of teachers perceived by
teachers in Nine Basic Education High Schools in Pale Township, Sagaing Division.
Table 9 Pearson-product Moment Correlation between School Climate and Teachers’
Performance Perceived by Teachers in Nine Basic Education High Schools
School Climate Teachers’ Performance
School Climate .658
1
P .000***
Teachers’ Performance .658
1
P .000***
Note:*** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level (2-tailed)
Table 9 depicts that the two variables were significantly correlated. The direction of
correlation was positively correlated with a Pearson r = .658 at 0.001 level. According to Cohen’s
guideline, the effect size of r = .658 was considered large effect size.
Simple Linear Regression on School Climate and Teachers’ Performance in High Schools
To examine how school climate can predict teachers’ performance in high schools, simple
linear regression was calculated. By using the results of simple linear regression, school climate
significantly predicted to teachers’ performance F (1, 234) = 178.498. To see vividly, the
explanation was presented in Table 19.
Table 10Model Summary for School Climate and Teachers’ Performance

Std. Error of the
Model R R2 Adjusted R2
Estimate
1 .658 .433 .430 12.547
According to Table 10, the simple linear regression coefficient (R) = .658 and adjusted R
square was .430. It can be concluded that 43% of teachers’ performance can be predicted from
school climate. To get more exact information, the results can be seen in the following Table 11.
Table 11 Results of Simple Linear Regression on School Climate and Teachers’

Performance
Unstandardized Coefficient Standardized
Variables t p
B Std. Error Coefficient 𝜷
Teachers’
11.141 8.865 1.257 .210
Performance (TP)
School Climate (SC) .663 .050 .658 13.360 .000***
***
Note: The mean difference is significant at the 0.001 level
From the Table 11, it was found that the predictor teachers’ performance significantly
predicted school climate. Therefore, the model can be expressed as the following equation.
Teachers’ Performance = 11.141+.663School Climate
Conclusion
Discussion
This study was conducted to find out the relationship between school climate and
teachers’ performance. A total number of (9) principals, (269) teachers and (712) students from
Basic Education High Schools in Pale Township were chosen as the sample. The school climate
questionnaire was composed of 78 items in the form of five-point Likert Scale based on
Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) constructed by Halpin and Croft
(1963, cited in Chen, 1990) and the teachers’ performance questionnaire was composed of
30 items in the form of five-point Likert Scale constructed by Raza (2010). Based on the findings
of this study, the following were discussed.
To find out the mean and standard deviation of school climate, descriptive analysis was
carried out. The results showed that all teachers from Basic Education High Schools in Pale
Township rated school climate to be moderate level on disengagement (𝑋̅=2.96) and low level on
hindrance (𝑋̅=2.33). Besides, all teachers from Basic Education High Schools perceived
aloofness (𝑋̅=3.79), production emphasis (𝑋̅=4.36), thrust (𝑋̅=4.3), consideration (𝑋̅=3.86), esprit
(𝑋̅=4.19) and intimacy (𝑋̅=4.04) to be high level. As discussed in literature, school climate
consists of two aspects: principal’s leadership behavior and teachers’ behavior. The dimensions
of principal’s leadership behavior are aloofness, production emphasis, thrust and consideration
and the dimensions of teachers’ behavior are disengagement, hindrance, esprit and intimacy.
Therefore, in term of principal’s leadership behavior aspects, it could be inferred that the
principals practice aloofness highly that is the extent to which some principals keep social
distance from the teachers, give excessive rules and regulations. Some principals are seen as
unfriendly; they do not show human feelings as they relate to the staff. And, the principals
practice production emphasis highly that is the behavior by the principal which is characterized
by close supervision of the staff. He is highly directive and task-oriented. Then, the principals
emphasize thrust to be highly that is behavior marked not by close supervision of the teacher, but
by the principal’s attempt to motivate the teachers through the example which he personally sets.
He does not ask the teachers to give of themselves anything more than he willingly gives of
himself; his behavior, though starkly task-oriented, is nonetheless viewed favorably by the
teachers. Hence thrust is an important factor in enhancing the effectiveness of an organization.
Next, the principals used consideration as highly practice that is the behavior by the principal
which is characterized by an inclination to treat the teachers “humanly,” to try to do a little

something extra for them in human terms.
Another behavior, the teachers practice disengagement to be moderately that is the
principal’s negative behavior does not prevent the teachers from doing and enjoying their work.
Thus, these teachers are productive regardless of the principal’s weak autocratic leadership.
Disengagement indicates that the teachers do not work well together. They pull in different
directions with respect to the task; they gripe and bicker among themselves. Besides, the teachers
practice hindrance to be lowly level that is the teachers’ feeling that the principal relieve them
with routine duties, committee demands and other requirements which the teachers construe as
unnecessary busy-work. Moreover, teachers practice esprit as to be highly effective that is
describes “teachers’ satisfaction with their social and professional needs.” In an institution
characterized by high esprit and accomplishments, teachers help, support and work with each
other. As a team, they like and respect each other. They enjoy each other’s company and they are
committed to their work. They are enthusiastic, innovative and they willingly work reluctantly.
They do not derive satisfaction from their work. Thus, they work just to earn a living without any
devotion. Another aspect, the teachers practice intimacy highly in their schools that is
characterized by high intimacy knows each other well and share personal issues with each other.
This kind of relationship does not end at school; they socialize on a regular in school and outside
school. They provide strong support for each other, that is, they exchange visits, know each
other’s family members, they are always there for each other even in difficult situations. They
find their closest friends among their colleagues.
The study findings showed that teachers perceived by principals to be highly practiced on
their performance (𝑋̅=4.18). The study findings showed that teachers perceived by students to be
highly practiced on their performance (𝑋̅=4.02). The study findings showed that teachers
perceived themselves to be highly practiced on their performance (𝑋̅=4.3). This implies that the
teachers’ performance is very crucial in child’s development. The identification and nurturing of
talents is one of the main responsibilities of a teacher. Riley (1994, cited in Raza, 2010) has
stated “as an interpreter, the teacher has to place new knowledge and new experience with in the
context of what is already known and understood by the students.” If the teachers highly practice
in their duties and responsibilities, it can improve school environment, students’ achievement,
development in their life-long time.
According to the ANOVA results, there were significant differences among
principals, teachers and students’ perception on teachers’ performance. The teachers’ perception
from all schools had the highest mean scores among them. However, the principals and students’
perception were also high levels on teachers’ performance. Among these, teachers’ perceptions
were slightly distinct on teachers’ performance. It may be because teachers ranked themselves
their own performance.
Pearson-product moment correlation showed that there was a significant relationship
between the school climate and teachers’ performance basing on the evaluation done by the
teachers from basic education high schools in Pale Township (r=.658, p<0.001). This implies that
the school climate have significant implication on their level of performance in their teaching
job. And then, the finding of regression analysis showed that the approximately 43% of the
variance in school climate could be explained. This implies that school climate is one of the most
powerful and significant factor that contributes to effective teacher performance.
Suggestions
This study was concerned with the teachers’ performance in relation with to their school
climate. The performance of employees can be improved by providing on job relevant training,
seminars, conferences, departmental meetings and supervision. The climates environment may be
ensured through administrative policy measures and performance can be improved by allowing
controlled climates rather than closed climates (Raza, 2010). In the school organization, it is
common for the principals and teachers to discuss and interact with each other concerning
schools matters and issues. According to Raza (2010), the interaction between the principals and
teachers influence the atmosphere of the school organization. Organizational climate assessment
might help in finding the obstacles to teachers’ job performance. Moreover, the principals need to
know why and how their instructional leadership behaviors can bring into existence of a
particular type of school climate. It will help them to take the necessary steps to improve the
climate in their schools. The principal must create a quality workplace for teachers and increase
the opportunities for quality teaching in each classroom through instructional leadership. The
principal should create a climate of high expectations in schools by communicating with
teachers, supporting and participating in staff development activities. A positive school climate
affects everyone associated with the school; students, staff, parents and the community.
As the research is an endless process and every research work provides the way for
further research studies, some suggestions are provided.
1. As the present study was limited geographically, the future studies should include other
townships, divisions, regions or even nationwide if possible.
2. It is suggested that longitudinal study should be undertaken to confirm and validate the
findings of this study.
3. Further research needs to find out other factors that improve the performance of teachers.
4. Moreover, the research should be conducted that is factors affecting on school climate
and teachers’ performance.
5. And then one research, school climate, teachers’ job satisfaction and teachers’
performance should be made because job satisfaction can influence teachers’ job
performance.
6. If the current investigation for school climate can be made, we may know that it may play
a role in reducing negative outcomes.
Conclusion
Nowadays, education is more important for human resources to meet the challenges in the
world’s development. It must be the type of education that fulfills individual, social, national, and
international needs. It means all-round development of a person who is self-aware and self-
development, one who can make a better self, better surroundings and who can carve out a better
history of humanity. In raising the standard of education, the teachers who are the main inputs of
the educational process, play a vital role. Therefore, teachers require expert knowledge, wide
range of skills, abilities (personal, social and methodological abilities or attitudes), competences
and qualities in order to carry out teaching tasks and to cope with the current educational
technologies and advancement in the changing world. In addition, the school climate of schools
requires being positive climate and staff in this climate requires being possessive willingness to
go above and beyond the call of duty to promote the effective functioning of organization. So, the
researcher get examined school climate and teachers’ performance in high schools in Pale
Township, Sagaing Region in the present study.
Education is now universally recognized to be the prime key to moral, cultural, political
and socio-economic development of a nation. School climate or environment of a workplace is
one of the factors that explicitly or implicitly influence the level of performance of teachers. This
climate affects the behavior of the individual living and working in the environment which in
turns influences their performance. Thus the environment of a school is an important factor,
which influences the behavior and activities of the role participants. The climate is quite vital
because it shapes the social and environmental structure organizational improvement and to bring
change and promote individual skills and performance outcomes. So, principals and teachers
should be able to apply effectively organizational climate which include aloofness, production
emphasis, consideration, thrust, disengagement, hindrance, esprit and intimacy that can shapes
social and environmental structure of organization.
This research points out the relationship between school climate and teachers’
performance in high schools in Pale Township, Sagaing Region. It was found that there was a
significant relationship between school climate and teachers’ performance. This study supply all
principals and teachers to better understand how they communicate each other to improve their
school outcomes. To conclude, if the school climate is positive, the teachers’ performance and
school may be at high level. Hence, it is expected that this research will be able to provide
paramount benefits for principals and teachers. And, this study may provide basis for further
research studies.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express my profound thanks to those who have granted the help accomplish of this thesis.
First we would like to offer special gratitude to Dr. Saw PyoneNaing (Rector, Sagaing University of Education) for
his permissions and direction to conduct this work. We would like to express my special thanks to Dr. WaiWaiOo
(Associate Professor & Head of Department, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education) for her
expert guidelines, precious advice and encouragement. Finally, we wish to record my full marks to the principals,
teachers and students from Nine Basic Education High Schools in Pale Township for their active participation and
cooperation during the data collection.
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AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF THE USE OF DIAGRAMS

IN TEACHING AND LEARNING BIOLOGYAT THE HIGH SCHOOL
LEVEL
Htet Wai Aung1 and Wutyi Htway2
Abstract
The purpose of the study is to investigate the effects of the use of diagrams in teaching and
learning biology at the high school level. Mix-Method Research: QUAN-qual Model was used in
the study. Two Basic Education High Schools were selected from Yesagyo Township, Magway
Region by using simple random sampling method. The sample size was (176) Grade Ten biology
students of 2018-2019 Academic Year. Pretest and posttest, questionnaire items, and interviews
were used as instruments to measure the effects of the study. The two intact groups in each school
were assigned into experimental and control groups. Before the treatment, both groups were
administered by the pretest to determine group equivalence between experimental and control
groups. According to the t value, it was found that the students in both schools were essentially the
same before the treatment. In each school, the experimental group was given a treatment by using
extensive diagrams while the control group was taught only with textbook. Independent samplest-
test was used to analyze the quantitative data (t = 7.515, df= 84, p< .001) at BEHS, Yesagyo and
(t = 7.950, df= 78.995, p< .001) at BEHS, Ma-U-Out-Seik. The result indicated that the students
who were taught by using diagrams performed significantly better than those who were not on the
overall posttest achievement scores in both schools. Based on the findings of interviews and
questionnaires, it can be interpreted that the students had good perception on using diagrams in
teaching and learning biology and they enjoyed teaching with diagrams. Therefore, diagrams are
essential to support teaching and learning process. Teaching biology can be effective through the
use of diagrams, which helps students have a meaningful learning.
Keywords: biology, visual representations, diagram
Introduction
At the beginning of the last century, children were taught in a rigidly formal and
stereotyped way. Education was then conceived as a process of transmission of factual
knowledge only. The teacher adopted an authoritarian attitude. The facts learnt by rote by
children were tested from time to time but such tests were neither concerned with conceptual
understanding nor effective performance. The main emphasis was on testing memory. The
teacher very often used the verbal method. The teacher had little or no sensory or other visual
material to supplement his/her oral teaching.
The science of biology concerns itself with living system from cellular to the biosphere.
Biology is developing more rapidly today than in any period of past. The teaching matters of
biology are always changed because of the changing nature of biological sciences. The new
information is observed from time to time. Teaching strategies and the teaching styles are needed
to develop to encourage thinking and enquiry process in teachers. Thus, the teacher should
emphasize to develop effective teaching and learning by using proper resources.
1
Senior Teacher, Basic Education High School (Seik-Ta-Thu-Kha), Yesagyo
2
Importance of the Research

Biology is a science of living things. Science is a methodology for learning about the
world. It involves the application of knowledge. Scientists create, share, and negotiate the
meanings of representations ‒ notes, reports, tables, graphs, drawings, diagrams (Anderson,
1999). In such a case, representations play a central role in explaining scientific concepts to
enhance students’ learning and understanding and facilitate learners’ conceptual learning
processes. Ainsworth (2006) argued that the use of representations as an aid to the transmission
of scientific ideas is proving to be one of several theoretical accounts relevant to classroom use of
representations to support science teaching and learning. Therefore, in order to learn science
effectively students must understand different modes of representations demonstrating scientific
concepts and processes, and be able to translate the knowledge learnt from one representation to
another, as well as realize the co-ordinated relations in representing expertise (Ainsworth, 2006).
Studies on multiple external representations have shown that representations can provide
unique benefits when students are learning complex concepts (Ainsworth, 1999, 2006). When
learners are interacting with multiple forms of representations to learn complex scientific
concepts, representations such as diagrams, graphs and written text can provide learners with
visualizations of phenomena that are difficult to achieve without such representations. Scientific
ideas cannot be separated from their representation, and the learning process implies the need for
students to harness the representational usage and to develop their own skills of interpreting
scientific phenomena.
Representational learning environments require careful handling because different
representations have different implications. Ainsworth (2006) insisted that multiple external
representations can play many cognitive roles in learning complex material and these different
roles fall into three distinct categories: to complement, constrain and construct. This design,
functions and tasks framework for learning with multiple representations provides some insights
into considering how multi-representational systems might be designed to support learning.
Some biology concepts are complex and abstract to comprehend and understand for
students. Teaching of biology is a challenging work for the biology teacher, while teaching the
biology concepts in classroom, teachers faced many difficulties. Thus, biologists use several
types of visual representations, including graphs, photographs and drawings as well as diagrams.
By using diagrams, students can understand some biology concepts that are abstract and difficult.
Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the effects of the use of diagrams in teaching and learning
biology at the high school level.
Purpose
The purpose of the study is to investigate the effects of the use of diagrams in teaching
and learning biology at the high school level.
Objectives
The objectives of the research are as follows:
1. To examine the improvement of students’ achievement in teaching and learning biology
with the use of diagrams.
2. To compare the achievement between the students who are taught by using diagrams and
those who are not.
Research Hypotheses
The research hypotheses of the study are as follows:
1. There is a difference between the students who are taught by using diagrams and those
who are not.
2. Students will have good perception on using diagrams in teaching and learning biology.

Biology : Biology is the science of life and the study of the structure, function,
growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms. Its
name is derived from the Greek words ‘bios’ (life) and ‘logos’ (study)
(Bagley, 2017).
Visual Representation : Visual representations translate data into a visible form that
highlights important features, including commonalities and anomalies
(Szent-Gyorgyi, 2005).
Diagram : A diagram is a simplified drawing designed to show inter-relationship
primarily by means of lines and symbols. Diagrams are used in the
teaching of almost all subjects (Kochhar, 1981).

Biology is the science that studies living organisms and how they interact with one
another and with their environment. Biology is the science of life. Science employs both
deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning (Raven, Johnson, Losos& Singer, 2005). Some
biology concepts are complex and abstract to comprehend and understand for students. So, many
educationists agree that instructional materials bring about improvement in the teaching/learning
process as well as permit teachers and students to interact as human beings in a climate where
people control their environment for their own best purposes. Also, most educators generally and
equally agree that the creative use of variety of instructional materials will increase the
probability that student would learn more, retain better and bring about the skills they are
expected to perform. The instructional materials also offer real experiences in giving the teacher
basis for thinking and understanding. They supply concrete basis for conceptual thinking and
therefore reduce meaningless responses of students (Kamal-deen, 2013).
Visual-aids are items that are designed (most by teachers) to support written or spoken
information so that it can be understood more easily. Visual-aids have the ability to arouse and
maintain students’ interest, simplify teaching, accelerate learning and improve the retention of
learned information. Visual-aids bring the real thing closer to the student. They make learning
experiences more natural more realistic. Learning is faster and therefore more effective when
students are interested to learn when visual-aids make it easier for them to see patterns and
relationships. Visual-aids make it easy for students to form mental images of abstract ideas
(Foliaki, 2012).
Therefore, teachers should use the visual materials such as diagrams because visual
representations play a very important role in the communication of science concepts (Ametller&
Pinto, 2002, cited in Cook, 2011). Among visual representations, diagrams are important tools
for biologists (Perini, 2013).
Visual Media
Visual-aids are items that are designed (most by teachers) to support written or spoken
information so that it can be understood more easily. Visual-aids have the ability to arouse and
maintain students’ interest, simplify teaching, accelerate learning and improve the retention of
learned information. Visual-aids bring the real thing closer to the student. They make learning
experiences more natural more realistic. Learning is faster and therefore more effective when
students are interested to learn when visual-aids make it easier for them to see patterns and
relationships. Visual-aids make it easy for students to form mental images of abstract ideas
(Foliaki, 2012).
Visual media may provide the chance to learn visually and are more effective and easy for
human beings. During teaching with visual media and models, students try to recognize it, or
know its functions and try to have its interpretation, to understand its use. They compare it with
their pre-concepts, assimilating the new phenomenon and seeking to know about it. Hence, it is
good to activate the students or keep them active for eliciting in teaching and learning process
(Baser, 2013).
When visual aids are used as teaching aid, it is one of the factors which cause involvement
of students in the lesson because when students look at visual aid or model, it is considered as a
kind of involvement. Also the uses of visual aids encourage the body movement and it may
strengthen the control. So, visual aids, then, is mutually beneficial to the students and teacher.
Visual aids increase the interest of students and teacher to the subject matter. Visual senses
contribute to about 90 percent to all students or human learning. It means other senses have only
10 % contribution to learning. Clear pictures and diagrams increase the student’s level of
understanding of the material presented, and its use facilitate learning, reinforce the sayings,
clarify ideas, and create excitement (Rautrao, 2012, cited in Baser, 2013).
Diagram
A diagram is a simplified drawing designed to show inter-relationship primarily by means
of lines and symbols (Kochhar, 1981). Diagrams being of an abstract character require a careful
foundation work before they can be used effectively with a class of pupils. Diagrams are used in
the teaching of almost all subjects. They are indispensable in geometry and science. Diagrams are
very helpful to show arrangements and relations. In biology teaching, the diagrams are used to
explain the abstract biology concepts.
Diagram could be used to explain many facts easily using a variety of symbols and labels.
Diagrams can explain facts more easily than charts. Teachers use diagrams every day and in
many subjects. A diagram must be as simple as possible. Diagrams should be used along with the
other aids. A good diagram must approximate two standards:
(i) It must be technically correct and neatly drawn in paper proportions well-labeled and
explained.
(ii) It should be so prepared that it can be moved and seen from all angles (Kochhar, 1981).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Diagrams

According to Bhaavani, Khimani and Kinger (n.d.), the followings are the advantages of
diagrams.
 The information gathering stage on most projects produces a substantial amount of data.
This information, sometimes may not give the essence of data and hence
misunderstanding create a chaos on the mind of viewer. But, good diagrams turn chaos
into clarity. The essence of data becomes clear on the mind of the viewer. The diagram
translates all the information and helps us to plan for the next.
 The amount of information can be overwhelming sometimes. The initial diagrams are
always a good reference point – a good reminder of the most important aspects on a
project. These diagrams act like a roadmap which guides the viewer.
 The data collected may require to be communicated with different persons. These persons
may come from different castes and may have different mother tongue. This can lead to
misunderstandings between them as these different persons are not mind-readers. To
remove this misconception, the data can be communicated with diagrams and hence, a
common plan of action could be carried out.
 The huge amount of data collected may not be grasped in mind within a short period of
time. Also, the characteristic of the variables of data may not be revealed easily. But, all
the difficulties while grasping data can be removed with diagrams. Diagrams provide an
effective way to summarize the whole data. This summarized data could be grasped up
easily and be remembered for a sufficiently long time. The characteristic of the variables
of data are easily revealed. Hence, learning data through diagrams saves time.
Bhaavani, Khimani and Kinger (n.d.) also pointed out the disadvantages of diagrams. The
disadvantages are:
 There is a loss of accuracy of data while representing data through diagrams. It is obvious
that there will be loss of data as it is the summarization of the whole data.
 Sometimes the illusionary effect creates a wrong impression on the mind of viewer.
Research Method
In the research, “the effects of the use of diagrams in teaching and learning biology at the
high school level”, Mix-Method Research: QUAN–qual model, also known as the explanatory
mixed methods design was used.
Name of School Population Size (Student) Sample Size (Student)
BEHS, Yesagyo 235 86
BEHS, Ma-U-Out-Seik 124 90
Total 359 176
Instruments
Pretest and posttest, questionnaire and interviews were used as instruments to measure the
effects of the study.
Data Analysis
The pretest was used to see if the groups were essentially the same before the treatment.
To be able to determine whether there are significant differences between the experimental group
and control group, the posttest scores of the groups were used. Because of this procedure, it is
most appropriate to use the t-test for independent samples. The Statistical Package for Social
Scientists (SPSS) version 23 was used to analyze the quantitative data. Descriptive statistics
showing mean, standard deviation and independent samples t-test are commonly presented. For
qualitative study, after data are collected, qualitative data analysis is conducted by a multistage
process of organizing, categorizing, synthesizing, analyzing, and writing about the data (Gay,
Mills &Airasian, 2012). The following table shows that there is no significant difference between
the means of the experimental and control groups in both schools before they are treated.
Table 2Analysis of Means on Pretest
N M SD
School t df Sig.(2-tailed)
E C E C E C
BEHS,
43 43 32.84 32.47 3.988 3.954 .434 84 .665(ns)
Yesagyo
BEHS,
Ma-U- 45 45 39.51 39.07 4.879 5.227 .417 88 .678(ns)
Out-Seik
Note: E = Experimental, C = Control, ns = not significant
Procedure
For studying the effects of the use of diagrams in teaching and learning biology at the
high school level, two Basic Education High Schools were selected from Yesagyo Township.
First of all, the researcher requested and discussed the headmasters and two teachers who
teach Grade Ten biology to cooperate in the study and to assign the content area. Two classes
from each school were assigned as experimental and control groups to receive the treatment. The
pretest was administered to both groups. The mean scores of the two groups were compared by
using the independent samples t-test to determine group equivalence between experimental and
control groups at the beginning of the study.
In each school, the experimental group was given a treatment by using diagrams. The
researcher prepared the lesson plans for the content assigned for this study with the help of
supervisor before teaching for the class of experimental groups. During instruction, the
researcher used many diagrams. On the other hand, the control group was taught only with
textbook. The researcher wrote the lesson plans for the content assigned for the study with the
help of supervisor before teaching for the class of control group.
The researcher taught both the experimental and the control groups. The treatment period
was four weeks. One period per day was taken for each group in each school. One period was
lasted 45 minutes. At the end of the treatment period, the posttest was conducted for both groups.
The allocated time for the posttest was 1:30 hours and the given marks were 50 marks. And then,
questionnaire on perception of students towards using the diagrams was administered to
experimental groups, followed by the interview given to all students who had been exposed to the
treatment with the diagrams at the conclusion of the study. Then, the findings were presented
based on experimental and control groups’ scores, the students’ perception to the questionnaire
and the interview data.
Findings
This section describes quantitative and qualitative findings.
Quantitative Findings
This section deals with the findings of the experimental study andperception of students
towards using diagrams. Data obtained from the posttest were analyzed by using independent
samples t-test to compare the differences between the experimental and control groups of each
school.
Analysis on Overall Posttest Achievement Scores
Table 3Analysis on Overall Posttest Achievement Scores
N M SD
School t df Sig.(2-tailed)
E C E C E C
BEHS,
43 43 43.16 35.86 4.359 4.647 7.515 84 .000***
Yesagyo
BEHS,
Ma-U- 45 45 42.67 36.07 3.205 4.555 7.950 78.995 .000***
Out-Seik
Total 88 88 42.91 35.97 3.798 4.575 10.954 168.310 .000***
Note: E = Experimental, C = Control, ***p< .001
The means of experimental group were significantly higher than those of control group in
both schools. It indicated that there was a significant difference between experimental and
control groups on overall posttest biology achievement scores. It can be seen in following Figure.
Overall Posttest Achievement Scores
43.16 42.67 42.91

45 35.86 36.07 35.97
40
35
30
Mean
25
20 Experimental
15
Control
10
5
0
BEHS, Yesagyo BEHS, Ma-U- Total
Out-Seik
School
Figure Comparison of means for overall posttest achievement scores.

Based on the above findings, it can be interpreted that the use of diagrams has significant
effect on biology achievement scores. Hence, the use of diagrams has a positive effect on biology
teaching at the Basic Education High School level. Using the diagrams can make effective
learning in the students’ cognition.
Perception of Students towards Using Diagrams

Responses from questionnaire on perception of students towards using diagrams were
used to see if there was consensus of opinion about the use of diagrams.
From the questionnaire data, it was observed that all of the students (100%) from the
experimental groups agreed with the following facts that the diagrams help them in:
 understanding the meaning of the lesson better,
 promoting learning and retention of new lessons,
 making biology class interesting and
 knowing the links between new knowledge and previously obtained knowledge.
Motivation of learners is one of the most important factors in teaching. It was observed
that teaching by using the diagrams improved the students’ motivation to learn the lesson and
made the class more interesting. So, they understood the meaning of the lesson better and could
know the links between new knowledge and previously obtained knowledge. Therefore, they
improved their learning and retention of new lessons.
Over 90% of the students agreed with the following items:
 Diagrams stimulate the students to learn biology.
 The use of diagrams has improved the students’ learning in biology.
 Using the diagrams makes the students feel comfortable in learning biology.
 The student would like to learn biology with extensive diagrams in addition to those in
textbook.
 When the students can explain a biology concept with different types of diagrams, the
students feel more confident about their learning.
It was observed that teaching by using the diagrams could stimulate the students to learn
the lesson and helped them to learn the lesson easily. So, they felt comfortable in learning and
improved their learning in biology. Therefore, they are likely to learn biology with the diagrams.
Eighty six percent (86%) of the students agreed that the diagrams help me to contribute in
class discussion.
It was observed that because the diagrams helped the students to contribute in class
discussion, the students could share the ideas with each other, they participated actively in
learning activities, they are interested the lesson and improved their interpersonal skills. It can
also be interpreted that students enjoyed teaching with the diagrams and they had good
perception on using the diagrams in teaching biology.
Qualitative Findings
For this section, semi-structured interview was conducted in order to make quantitative
findings more reliable.
Analysis on Students’ Interview
Interview was given to six experimental students, three from each school, to find out
students’ perceptions about the use of diagrams in the classroom. Interviews were semi-
structured type and in face to face format. Responses were recorded by audio-taping and they
were transcribed. Interview questions can be found in below. The interview was given at the
conclusion of the study; after all students had been exposed to the treatment with the diagrams.
The answers to each question varied. Answers to each interview question are summarized as
follow.
1. Do you think that diagrams play an important role in teaching and learning biology?
Student 1: Yes, I do. This is because teaching and learning biology with the help of diagrams
make it easier to understand the content more quickly and more exactly than the
words alone.
Student 2: Yes, I do. This is because I can learn the lessons more easily with the help of
diagrams than the words alone. That is why I think diagrams play an important
role.
Student 3: Yes, I do. This is because I can remember the lessons more easily with the help
of diagrams than the words alone.
Student 4: Yes, I do. This is because we have to learn biology in English. If we learn it
through the diagrams, we can understand it more easily. That is why diagramsare
important.
Student 5: Yes, I do. This is because in learning biology, we can learn it more easily withthe help
of diagrams than the words alone. That is why diagrams are important.
Student 6: Yes, I do. This is because it is difficult to learn the words alone, and it is easy to
learn the lessons with the help of diagrams.
From this question, all students indicated that they think that diagrams play an important
role in teaching and learning biology.
2. Do you like being taught by using diagrams in biology?
Student 1: Yes, I do. This is because learning the lessons with the help of diagrams makeme
remember it more easily.
Student 2: Yes, I do. I can learn the lessons more quickly and easily with the help of diagram.
Student 3: Yes, I do. This is because I like drawing and it also makes me feel relaxed. That’s
why I like it.
Student 4: Yes, I do. I can learn the lessons more quickly in a short period of time with the
help of diagrams.
Student 5: Yes, I do. Studying the lessons with the help of diagrams not only makes me easyto
learn, but also makes me feel relaxed. So, I can learn a lot.
Student 6: Yes, I do. This is because studying diagrams is easier than studying the lessonsalone.
All six students like being taught by using diagrams in biology.
2. What are the difficulties during learning with diagrams?
Student 1: I have some difficulties in drawing.
Student 2: The difficulty is that drawing takes a long time.
Student 3: We have to draw the portraits of living things. It takes some time to do so. That’sthe
difficulty.
Student 4: I like drawing but it is time-consuming. It is also difficult when we don’t know
how to draw.
Student 5: Yes, I have difficulties in drawing the portraits of plants and animals and incorrect
labeling and spelling.
Student 6: The difficulty is that I have to draw diagrams that I have not seen before.
Four of the six students indicated that they have some difficulties in drawing because
drawing takes a long time. Two of the six said that they have difficulties in drawing the portraits
of plants and animals and in correct labeling and spelling.
3. When you were taught biology concepts by using diagrams, do you think it would help you
learn better?
Student 1: Yes, I do. When the teacher explains to us the lessons by using diagrams, I can
remember almost all the lessons. Even when I can’t recall the lessons, I canrecall the
lessons with the help of diagrams.
Student 2: Yes, I do. This is because even if we can’t remember the lessons we have leanedby
heart, we can write it our own words since we remember the diagrams.
Student 3: Yes, I do. Learning the lessons with the help of diagrams can save times and make
us learn it more quickly than the rote learning with only text.
Student 4: Yes, I do. Since I learn the lessons with the help of diagrams, it is easy toremember
the lessons. In the exam, we can get clue to answer the questions fromthe diagrams
even if we forget the lessons.
Student 5: Yes, I do. I can not only draw the diagram but also retain the lessons longer. I can
also label the diagrams wit correct spellings. That’s why I think it is an improvement.
Student 6: Yes, I do. Leaning with diagrams is helpful to remember the lessons.
All students indicate that they feel the diagrams have been most helpful.
4. Tell me your feelings about learning biology with the help of diagram.
Student 1: I like it very much. This is because those are the diagrams of plants and animals,
which can be seen in our environment.
Student 2: I like it. This is because we can learn animals and plants with the help of diagams.
Student 3: I am happy because I like drawing.
Student 4: I feel satisfied because I have become better at drawing.
Student 5: I like it. This is because I can learn the lessons more easily with the help of
diagrams.
Student 6: I am happy. I love drawing.
Three of the six students indicated that they like diagrams, and three of the six said that
they love drawing.
5. Do you have a long retention of biological concepts taught with the help of diagrams?
Student 1: Yes, I do. I listen carefully to the teacher’s teaching as I like diagrams. That’s why I
can retain them longer.
Student 2: Yes, I do. This is because I can focus on the lessons as I love learning through
diagrams.
Student 3: Yes, I do. This is because I can study eagerly.

Student 4: Yes, I do. As learning the lessons through diagrams look like watching a movie, I
can retain it longer.
Student 5: Yes, I do. In biology, learning with text alone is easy to forget but through diagrams, I
have a long retention of it.
Student 6: Yes, I do. Learning the lessons with the help of diagrams helps me remember the
lessons and it is also helpful in the exam in a way that by just thinking about the
diagrams, I can answer the questions.
Three of the students indicated that they have a long retention of biological concepts
taught with the help of diagrams because learning the lesson alone is easy to forget but through
diagrams they have a long retention of it and the lessons through the diagrams helps them
remember the lessons and is also helpful in the exam even they can’t recall the lessons. Three of
the six students said that they also have a long retention because they can focus on the lessons as
they love learning through the diagrams.
6. Teaching with the use of diagrams makes the classroom an interesting place.
Do you agree with this statement?
Student 1: Yes, I do. Most students including me like diagrams and listen carefully to
theteacher’s explanations of how to draw diagrams and how to explain by using
diagrams.
Student 2: Yes, I do. Most students like the teacher’s teaching in which he uses diagrams. So,they
can play attention to the teacher.
Student 3: Yes, I do. This is because studying the lessons with diagrams is very interesting
and knowledgeable.
Student 4: Students are interested in diagrams. If they are taught through them, the classroom
will be a happy and interesting place.
Student 5: Yes, I do. This is because diagrams can be both the plants and animals that we have
seen and the ones we haven’t seen, students are interested in that.
Student 6: Yes, I do. This is because teaching students by using diagrams can make themhappy
and they like drawing.
Three of the six felt that the diagrams were specifically shown during the study helped
them learn concepts. All six felt the diagrams made class more interesting.
7. Can teacher’s teaching with the use of diagrams from many sources (Google, Facebook, Internet and
Website etc.,) besides textbook make conducive learning? Why or why not?
Student 1: There are not only the lessons with diagrams but also the lessons with nodiagrams. If
we can make a text with diagrams, it can be understood easily.
Student 2: If we can teach the lessons with the help of diagrams, it will be more effective.
Student 3: The lessons with the help of diagrams can be memorized more easily than the
lessons without diagrams.
Student 4: Yes, I do. This is because we can learn the plants and animals extensively.
Diagrams should be used because they can raise the speed of studying.
Student 5: Yes, I do. In biology textbook, there are not only the lessons with diagrams butalso the
lessons with no diagrams. If we can learn the lessons through thediagrams, we can
understand them.
Student 6: Yes, I do. It is beneficial.
Four of the students indicated that diagrams are beneficial to them because there are not
only the lessons with diagrams but also the lessons with no diagrams in biology textbook. So,
learning the lessons through the diagrams makes students easier to understand the concepts. Two
of the six students said that the lessons with the diagrams can be memorized more easily than the
lessons without diagrams and it will be less time consuming.
To sum up, students indicated in the interview that diagrams were useful and made class
more interesting. Thus, students had good perception on using diagrams in teaching and learning
biology.
Conclusion
Discussion
The following points are discussed as the results of the study.
Discussion for Hypothesis 1
The posttest means of experimental group was significantly higher than the means of
control group for overall posttest achievement scores in each school. The finding revealed that
there was a significant difference between the students who are taught by using diagrams and
those who are not. As a result, experimental groups performed more effectively than the control
groups for overall posttest achievement scores. Baser (2013) believed that the use of visual media
is good to activate the students or keep them active for eliciting in teaching and learning process.
Visual media is mutually beneficial to the students and teachers. Visual media increase the
interest of students and teacher to the subject matter (Rautrao, 2012, cited in Baser, 2013).
According to Foliaki (2012), visual-aids have the ability to arouse and maintain students’
interest, simplify teaching, accelerate learning and improve the retention of learned information.
It was found that diagrams facilitate and promote in teaching and learning biology. Furthermore,
when properly combined and appropriately used, the diagrams could help the teacher to teach
more efficiently and effectively and learners to earn faster, better retain longer and transfer
learned material more effectively. There is a link between attitude and achievement. If students
are more engaged and more motivated to learn, then achievement is likely to increase. When
students have a more positive attitude towards class and the content learned, then achievement
could follow. This implies that the use of diagram was successful and boosted students’
achievement.
Discussion for Hypothesis 2
When analyzing data for the student surveys, it was observed that all of the students
(100%) from the experimental groups agreed with the statement that teaching by using the
diagrams improved the students’ motivation to learn the lesson and made the class more
interesting. So, they understood the meaning of the lesson better and could know the links
between new knowledge and previously obtained knowledge. Therefore, they improved their
learning and retention of new lessons. Over 90% of the students agreed that teaching by using the
diagrams could stimulate the students to learn the lesson and helped them to learn the lesson
easily. So, they felt comfortable in learning and improved their learning in biology. Therefore,
they are likely to learn biology with the diagrams. Eighty six percent (86%) of the students
agreed that the diagrams helped the students to contribute in class discussion, the students could
share the ideas with each other, they participated actively in learning activities, they are
interested the lesson and improved their interpersonal skills. It can be interpreted that students
enjoyed teaching with the diagrams and they had good perception on using the diagrams in
teaching biology.
The responses to interview questions were also useful in this study. The six students
indicated that the use of diagrams make biology class interesting and comfortable in learning,
stimulate to learn and improve learning in biology. And then, diagrams helped them to see links,
summarize concepts, contribute in class discussion, and understand the lesson better. So, if
students feel positively about using extensive diagrams in teaching, then diagrams could still be
used in teaching of biology. In teaching, many strategies can be used. The use of diagrams can
help students to pay attention more. Students also showed that they had opportunity to interact
with their classmates, enjoyed the use of diagrams and wished it to be used in other lessons.
Therefore, the students had good perception on using the diagrams in teaching biology.
Recommendations for Further Research
The major findings in the study have prompted the researcher to make the following
recommendations so as to facilitate further improvement in the effective utilization of diagrams
in teaching and learning biology.
1. Further studies should be conducted to investigate the teachers’ attitudes towards the
effectiveness of using diagrams in teaching biology.
2. Further research should be extended with a larger sample and a longer term of study in
order to obtain more reliable and valid results.
3. This study deals with biology students at the high school level. Therefore, similar studies
should be investigated on the teaching of other various subject areas at different grade
levels to determine whether similar or different result could be obtained.
4. The study should be replicated in other districts and regions in Myanmar.
5. Teachers should always try their best to make use of available diagrams which make their
lessons more interesting.
6. Government and school principals should provide biology teachers with enabling
environment for the use of available diagrams in order to make learning more meaningful.
Government and school principals should also supply finance for biology teachers to
make teaching and learning easier, practical, appealing and enjoyable and promote
academic standard.
7. Workshops, conferences and seminars should be organized for teachers where they would
be taught how to use the diagrams effectively for the achievement of educational goals
and how to incorporate into main stream of pedagogy in teaching various subject areas at
different grade levels.
Conclusion
The major purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of the use of diagrams in
teaching and learning biology at the high school level. Mix-Method Research: QUAN-qual
Model was used to compare students’ biology achievement between Grade Ten biology students
from two selected schools. It was conducted in Yesagyo Township, Magway Region. The
instruments for this study were pretest and posttest, questionnaire and interview. In order to get
the validation and expert opinions, the sets of pretest and posttest questions, making schemes and
questionnaire items were distributed to the five educators from Sagaing University of Education.
Before the treatment, pretest was used to check the equivalence of the two groups. These
two intact groups were assigned as experimental and control groups. According to the t value, it
was found that the students in both schools were essentially the same before the treatment. In
each school, the experimental group was taught by using extensive diagrams and textbook while
the control group was taught by using textbook only. After treatment period, the posttest was
administered to both groups. Independent samples t-test was used to examine whether there were
significant differences according to Revised Bloom’s taxonomy levels of cognitive domain. And
then, the questionnaire was administered to the experimental groups in order to investigate
students’ perception on using the diagrams. And then, the six students were interviewed to delve
into their ideas about the use of diagrams in the classroom.
On these overall achievement scores, there were significant differences between the two
groups for all selected schools. According to the questionnaire and interviews, students had good
perception on using the diagrams in learning biology and the students felt the diagrams that were
specifically shown during the study helped them learn concepts and made class more interesting.
Based on the findings of the study, it can be concluded that the diagrams are essential to
support teaching-learning process. The students taught with diagrams have excellent achievement
scores compared with those who were not. It is clear that to achieve effectiveness and efficiency
in teaching-learning process, the diagrams should be incorporated. The diagrams could facilitate
teaching-learning process between teachers, learners and subject matter. Students could pay
attention and focus better in class if the teachers used the diagrams in teaching biology. Teaching
at any level requires that the students be exposed some form of simulation. Using a variety of
diagrams can enliven a class, encourage student participation, and help students grasp difficult
concepts. Therefore, teaching biology can be effective through the use of diagrams, which helps
students have a meaningful learning.
Acknowledgements
With a heart filled with gratitude, we are thankful to Dr. Saw Pyone Naing, Rector, Sagaing University of
Education, and Dr. MyatMyat Thaw, Pro-Rector, Sagaing University of Education for granting us the permission to
undertake the research. We specially wish to give thanks and appreciation to Dr. Soe Than, Retired Professor and
Head of Methodology Department, Sagaing University of Education and Dr. Wai Wai Oo, Associate Professor and
Head of Methodology Department, Sagaing University of Education for providing us with persistent advice and
support in managing the study.
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DEVELOPING THE READING SKILL OF EFL STUDENTS THROUGH

COOPERATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING
Kyaw Zin Oo1 and Wai Wai Oo2
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of the reading skill of EFL students
design through cooperative language learning. The quasi-experimental design, viz, non-equivalent
control group was used to develop the reading skill of EFL students. The students from the
experimental group received the cooperative learning methods (Jigsaw method and Think-Pair-
Share method) but the control group was not taught by these methods. The subjects, (106) students
from No.(1) Basic Education High School, Kyaukse and (125) students from No.(2) Basic
Education High School, Kyaukse, Kyaukse Township, were chosen by using a random sampling
method. The instruments used in this research were a pretest and a posttest. The independent
samples t test was used to analyze whether there was a significant difference between the two
groups. Examination of the means and t test for the posttest were (t=4.176, df=104, MD=5.151,
p<.001) at No. (1) BEHS, Kyaukse (t=3.415, df=123, MD=3.433, p<.001) at N0. (2) BEHS,
Kyaukse. The results showed that the students who received a treatment by using cooperative
learning method were significantly better than those who did not receive it. Thus, it can be
interpreted that the cooperative learning methods (Jigsaw method and Think-Pair-Share method)
can develop the reading skill of EFL students and a suggestion was made for teachers to use the
cooperative learning methods in teaching reading in English.
Keywords: cooperative learning, language, skill, reading, reading skill
Introduction
The education system plays a crucial role in every society. It is necessary to focus the
education efforts on preparing students to enter the modern life of the twenty-first century. There
is no doubt that English is a universal language. It is used for international communication in
various fields such as education, science, business, society, and technology. There is an
increasing demand for effective teaching and learning of English in many contexts. Effective
English language skills are seen as vital for the countries which seek to participate actively in the
global economy and want to have access to the information that forms the basis of social,
educational, and economic development.
All teachers know that language plays a crucial role in education. It is a way for
communication and expression, and also the medium of thought and a precious tool for learning.
Teachers also know that English is the most useful language in the world and it has four skills
namely reading, writing, listening and speaking. In fact, listening, speaking, reading and writing
need equal attention if the new communicative skills now acquired are to be attained (Savigon,
1983). In order to teach the language called English, they need to promote the skills of language
teaching efficiently and effectively.
Because of the recent spread of information technology, English is more essential in non-
English speaking countries which have undergone extreme changes recently. So, the English
teachers have to develop and be experts in approaches or methods suitable for the students who
1
Senior Teacher, Basic Education High School, No.(1), Kyaukse Township, Mandalay Division
2
Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
come from different backgrounds and have different proficiencies in English. But now, almost
every student can have the chance to learn English in the basic education schools.
This study mentions about the reading skill of the English language. Reading skill is one
of the basic English skills which should be proficient by the students. It is a way of transferring
information from the writer to the reader. The only main aim of teaching reading skills is to
achieve comprehension. Without comprehension the meanings of the text, reading will be
useless. In order to make the teaching learning process more interesting and reach the goals of
the process, the teacher needs to apply a special technique, strategy and method. Using a suitable
method in teaching reading skills to students makes the teaching learning process more effective
and the students more active. There are so many methods to develop the reading skill of the
students. Among these methods, Cooperative Language Learning (CLL) is one of the most
special methods used in developing the reading skill of EFL students as mentioned in this study.
Hence, unlike the traditional teaching methods which focused on reading skills of
English, only cooperative language learning is to apply cooperative learning techniques to the
language learning either for the native or foreign language. Cooperative learning is a generic
term for various small group interactive instructional procedures. It can be an effective method to
motivate students, encourage active learning, and develop key critical-thinking, communication,
and decision-making skills.
For language contexts, CLL is broadly defined as an approach to organize classroom
activities so that students are able to learn from and interact with one another as well as from the
teacher (Olsen &Kagan, 1992).
Purposes of the Research
The main purpose of this study is to study the development of the reading skill of EFL
students through cooperative language learning. The specific purposes are as follows:
 to differentiate the reading skill of EFL students taught by cooperative learning from
those who did not receive it in the posttest reading skill achievement.
 to differentiate the reading skill of EFL students taught by cooperative learning from
those who did not receive it in components of reading skill.
 to provide related discussion and recommendations based on the findings.
Research Questions
1. Is there any significant difference in the reading skill achievement between the students
taught by cooperative learning and those who are not?
taught by cooperative learning and those who are not taught to scanning?
taught by cooperative learning and those who are not to synonyms and antonyms?
taught by cooperative learning and those who are not to true/false?
taught by cooperative learning and those who are not in relation to cloze procedures?
taught by cooperative learning and those who are not in relation to skimming?
taught by cooperative learning and those who are not in relation to matching?
Cooperative Learning: A group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the
socially structured exchange of information between learners in a group in which each learner is
held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others
(Richards& Rodgers, 2001).
Reading: Reading is the processes by which the meaning of a written text is
understood(Richards & Schmidt, 2010).
Skill: Skill is an acquired ability to perform an activity well, usually one that is made up of a
number of coordinated processes and actions. Many aspects of language learning are traditionally
regarded as the learning of skills, such as learning to speak, or read ﬂuently (Richards &
Schmidt, 2010).
Reading Skill: A reading skill is a cognitive ability which a person is able to use when
interacting with the written text (Bojovic, 2010).
Language: Language is a system that connects thoughts, which cannot be heard, seen, or
touched, with sounds, letters, manual signs, or tactile symbols (Delahunty& Garvey, 2010).

Cooperative Language Learning (CLL) is part of a more general instructional approach
known as Collaborative Learning. “Cooperative learning is group learning activity organized so
that learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in
groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated
to increase the learning of others”(Olsen &Kagan 1992). Cooperative learning has examples in
proposals for peer-tutoring and peer-monitoring. Some students were left behind higher-
achieving ones in this learning area but cooperative learning required to do the followings:
- raise the achievement of all students,
- help the teacher build positive relationships among students
- give students the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological, and cognitive
development.
- replace the competitive organizational structure of most classrooms and schools
In second language teaching, CL (where it is often referred to as Cooperative Language
Learning-CLL) has been defined as a way of promoting communicative interaction in the
classroom and it is also the extension of Communication Language Teaching. It is also assumed
as the learner-centered approach to teaching rather than teacher-centered classroom methods.
Therefore, CLL is an approach that crosses the education and second and foreign language
teaching.
Cooperative Learning and Second Language Acquisition

Student participation in groups and small-group work following cooperative principles
facilitates second language acquisition along with the subject matter mastery (McGroarty, 1991).
According to Aronson, (2000)modern methods of Cooperative Learning includes: Jigsaw, Think-
Pair-Share, Group investigation, Constructive Controversy,Student Teams-Achievement
Divisions (STAD), and so on.
(a) Jigsaw
Aronson (2012) describes how he and a group of graduate students developed jigsaw in
1971 as a means of reducing the interracial hostility among students and they were able to reduce
racial conflict, raise the self-esteem of students, improve their academic performance and
increase their enthusiasm for learning.
In the jigsaw approach, the teacher divides the learning materials into manageable pieces
and each learner initially concentrates on mastering a small portion of the material. The learners
then share their understanding and integrate all the pieces into a meaningful whole to complete
the jigsaw.
(b) Think-Pair-Share
Think-pair-share is a relatively low-risk and shortcooperative learning technique, and is
ideally suited for instructors and studentswho are new to cooperative learning. Defined by
Ledlow (2001), Think-pair-share is a low-risk strategy to get many students actively involved in
classes of any size. Ledlow (2001) also declared that think-pair-share (TPS) technique
ineducation is also about:
1) Think: Students think independently about the question that has been posed, forming
ideas of their own.
2) Pair: Students are grouped in pairs to discuss their thoughts. This step allows students to
articulate their ideas and to consider those of others.
3) Share: Each student pair shares their ideas with a larger group, such as the whole class.
Think-Pair-Share is a collaborative discussion strategy designed to provide students with
time to think and formulate their individual thoughts and ideas about a given topic or concept
before forming a pair with a peer to share their thinking(Lyman, 1981).
Research Method
Participants
This study took place in Kyaukse Township and the required sample schools were
selected by using a simple random sampling method. They were No.1 Basic Education High
School and No.2 Basic Education High School in Kyaukse. Participants in this research were
Grade Ten students from the selected high schools (see Table1).
Table Population and Sample Size
Name of the School Number of Population Number of participants
No.1 BEHS, Kyaukse 604 106
No.1 BEHS, Kyaukse 233 125
Research Design
One of the quasi-experimental designs, viz. non-equivalent control group designwas
adopted in this research.
Table 2Experimental Research Design
No. of Students
Group Pretest Treatment Posttest
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
Experimental 53 64 ERSA CLL ERSA
Control 53 61 ERSA Formal Teaching ERSA
Note: CLL = Cooperative Language LearningERSA=English Reading Skill Achievement
Instruments
The instruments used in this research were a pretest, a posttest, and sample lesson plans.
Pretest
The pretest was constructed to measure the basic English knowledge of the students. It
consists of short question items, same meaning items, true or false items, opposite meaning
items, reference items, cloze procedure, multiple choice items, match items, the cause and effect
items, and answer questions items. Test items were constructed based on the Units from 1 to 8 of
Grade Ten English textbook and intermediate stories for reproduction 2by Hill (1977). Then, the
test items were validated by a professor from the Department of English, two professors and two
lecturers from the Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education. According to
the suggestions of these teachers, the test items were modified again. On 29th October, 2018, the
pilot test was held with (60) Grade Ten students from No.5 Basic Education High School,
Mandalay. The allocated time for this test was (120) minutes and the given marks were (50)
marks. On 1st November, 2018, the pretests were held at No.(1 )BEHS and No.(2 )BEHS in
Kyaukse Township.
Posttest
The posttest was administered to investigate if there is any significant difference between
the students from the experimental group and those from the control group in terms of their
English reading skills achievement. The construction of the test items was made on the
Unitsfrom 1 to 10 of Grade Ten English textbook and intermediate stories for reproduction 2 by
Hill (1977). For validations, the copied papers of the test items were distributed to the four
experienced teachers from Sagaing University of Education. The allocated time for the test was
(120) minutes and the given marks were (50) marks. On the basis of the suggestions of those
experienced teachers, the test items were modified again. Then, the pilot test was held with 60
Grade Ten Students from Minn Myanmar Private High School, Mandalay. After the treatment
was given, the posttests were administered at the selected high schools on 17th December, 2018.
In order to find out whether there is a significant difference between the experimental
group and the control group, the posttest scores of the two groups were compared by calculating
means, standard deviations and using the independent samplesttest. The pretest was conducted to
ensure that the background English knowledge of the two groups were equivalent. The results of
the posttest were analyzed to investigate the development of the reading skill of EFL students
through cooperative language learning.
Research Findings
Findings for Pretest
This study was designed to explore the development of the reading skill of EFL students
in high schools through cooperative language learning. One of the true experimental designs, the
randomized pretest-posttest control group design was used and it involved two groups such as
experimental group and control group. Both groups were formed by random assignment. Before
the treatment was given, a pretest was administered and the results of the t value, the mean,
standard deviations, and mean differences of both groups are presented as follows:
Table 3 t Values for Pretest Reading Skill Achievement Scores
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Experimental 53 19.74 4.382 0.216
BEHS 1 Control 53 21.02 6.100 -1.283 -1.244 104 (ns)
Experimental 64 27.81 4.105 0.217
BEHS 2 Control 61 29.36 5.834 -1.283 -1.244 94.376 (ns)
Note: ns = not significant BEHS 1 = No.1 BEHS, Kyaukse BEHS 2 = No.2 BEHS, Kyaukse
The means of the experimental groups and control groups were slightly different (see
Table 3). It showed that there was no significant difference between the experimental group and
control group for the scores on the pretest in each school (see Figure 1).
After a pretest, the experimental group was taught by cooperative language learning but
the control group was not taught by it. A posttest was administered to both groups after eight
weeks. The posttest scores could be compared by using the independent samples t test.
29.36
27.81
30
19.74 21.02
20
Mean
Experimental
10 Control
0
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
School
Figure 1 Comparison of means for pretest
Findings for Posttest

Examining the Results for Research Question (1)
To examine this question, means, standard deviations and mean differences of the
experimental group and the control group for the posttest reading skill achievement were
computed. The independent samples ttest was used to measure the significant difference.
Table 4 t Values of Posttest Reading Skill Achievement Scores

Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS 1 5.151 4.176 104 0.000***
Control 53 24.28 8.231
BEHS 2 Control 61 27.43 7.170 3.433 3.415 123 0.001***
Note: ***p< .001
According to table 4, the results showed that there was a significant difference between
the overall reading skill achievement scores of the experimental and control groups in each
school (see Figure 2).
40 29.43 30.86
27.43
30 24.28
Mean
20 Experimental
Control
10
0
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
School
Figure 2 Comparison of means for posttest
According to the findings, it can be interpreted that the use of cooperative language
learning has a significant effect on the reading skill of EFL students from high schools. It
positively contributed to the teaching of reading skill of students at the high school level.
In this study, scanning includes short answer question (5 items). To examine this
question, means, standard deviations and mean differences of the experimental group and the
control group for recognition type items were computed. The independent samples t test was
used to measure the significant differences.
Table 5t Values for Scores scanning
Sig.
School Group N M SD MD T df
(2-tailed)
BEHS 1 Control 53 3.15 1.535 1.13 2.431 104 0.010*
BEHS 2 Control 61 3.24 1.542 0.77 1.063 123 0.031*
Note. * p< .05
According to the table 5, it showed that there were significant differences between the
results of the experimental groups and the control groups in both schools (see Figure 3).
Therefore, it can be interpreted that cooperative learning can improve the achievement of the
students with regard to the scanning.
5 4.5
4.08
3.5
4
2.79 Experimental
Mean
3
Control
2
1
0
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
School
Figure 3 Comparison of means for scanning

In this study, synonyms and antonyms include same meanings (5 items), opposite
meanings (5 items) and suitable words (5 items). To examine this question, means, standard
deviations and mean differences of the experimental groups and the control groups for
recognition type items were computed. The independent samples ttest was used to measure the
significant differences.
Table 6 t Values for Scores on Synonyms and Antonyms
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS 1 Control 53 13.32 2.127 3.86 2.257 104 0.000***
BEHS 2 Control 61 9.44 3.043 6.31 3.525 123 0.000***
Note: *** p< .001
According to table 6, it showed that there were significant differences between the results
of the experimental groups and the control groups in both schools (see Figure 4). Therefore, it
can be interpreted that cooperative learning can improve the achievement of the students with
regard to the synonyms and antonyms.
20 17.18 15.75
13.32
15 9.44
Mean
10 Experimental
5 Control
0
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
School
Figure 4 Comparison of means for synonyms and antonyms

To examine this question, means, standard deviations and mean differences of the
experimental groups and the control groups for true/false were computed. The independent
samples t test was used to measure the significant difference.
Table 7t Values for Mean Scores on True/False

Sig.
School Group N M SD MD t df (2-tailed)
BEHS 1 Control 53 3.5 2.935 1 4.076 104 0.000***
BEHS 2 Control 61 2.79 2.327 1.29 2.744 123 0.007**
Note:*** p < .001** p < .01
Therefore, it can be interpreted that cooperative learning can bring about the significant effect on
the achievement of the students with regard to the true/false.
6 4.5 4.18
3.28
4 2.63
Mean
Experimental
2
Control
0
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
School
Figure 5 Comparison of means for true/false type

To examine this question, means, standard deviation and mean differences of the
experimental groups and the control groups for cloze procedures were computed. The
independent samples t test was used to measure the significant differences.
Table 8t Values for Scores on Cloze Procedures
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS 1 2.98 2.327 104 0.022*
Control 53 12.30 5.109
BEHS 2 2.31 4.845 123 0.000***
Control 61 12.64 5.053
Note:* p< .05*** p< .001
students with regard to the cloze procedures.
20 15.28 14.95
12.3 12.64
Mean
10 Experimental
Control
0
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
School
Figure 6 Comparison of means for cloze procedures

In this study, skimming includes choose the right answer (5 items). To examine this
question, means, standard deviation and mean differences of the experimental group and the
control group for skimming were computed. The independent samples t test was used to measure
the significant differences.
Table 9t Values for Scores on Skimming
Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS 1 1.22 3.006 104 0.038*
Control 53 3.28 1.435
BEHS 2 1.55 2.112 123 0.000***
Control 61 2.63 2.127
Note:* p < .05*** p< .001
students with regard to skimming.
4.5 4.18
5
3.28
4 2.63
Mean
3
Experimental
2
1 Control
0
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
School
Figure 7 Comparison of means for skimming

In this study, matching includes match cause with effect (5 items). To examine this
question, means, standard deviations and mean differences of the experimental groups and the
control groups for matching were computed. The independent samples t test was used to measure
the significant differences.
Table 10t Values for Scores on Matching

Sig.
(2-tailed)
BEHS 1 0.8 2.112 104 0.042*
Control 53 3.68 1.135
BEHS 2 0.4 1.173 123 0.021*
Control 61 3.61 1.107
Note: * p < .05
students with regard to the matching.
4.28 4.01
5
3.15 3.24
Experimental
Mean
Control
0
BEHS 1 BEHS 2
School
Figure 8 Comparison of means for matching
Conclusion
Discussion
In this study, the results relating on the posttest indicated that there was a significant
difference at p< .001, between the performances of the two groups. The means of the control
groups were 24.28 and 27.43, the means of the experimental groups were 29.43 and 30.86. This
showed that there was a significant difference between the overall reading skill achievement
scores of the experimental group and those of the control group in each school.
In addition, the finding concerning to scanning indicated there was a significant
difference at p< .05, between the performance of the students from both schools. Whereas the
means of the control groups were 3.15 and 3.24, the means of the experimental groups were 4.28
and 4.01. This showed that there was a significant difference between the reading skill
achievement of the students from the experimental groups and the control groups in relation to
the short answer type items.
Moreover, the results relating to the synonym and antonym type items showed that there
was a significantly difference at p< .001, between the performance of the students from both
schools. While the means of the control groups were 13.32 and 9.44, the means of the
experimental groups were 17.18 and 15.75. This can be interpreted that there was a significant
difference between the reading skill achievement of the students from the experimental groups
and the control groups in relation to the synonym and antonym type items.
Furthermore, the comparison of means on true/false showed that there was a significant
difference at p< .001, between the performances of the students from both schools. While the
means of the control groups were 3.5 and 2.79, the means of the experimental groups were 4.5
and 4.08. This revealed that there was a significant difference between the reading skill
achievement of the students from the experimental groups and the control groups in relation to
the true/false.
Furthermore, the results concerning the cloze type items indicated that there was a
significantly difference at p< .05, between the performance of the students from both schools.
Whereas the means of the control groups were 12.30 and 12.64, the means of the experimental
groups were 15.18 and 14.95. This revealed that there was a significant difference between the
reading skill achievement of the students from the experimental groups and the control groups in
relation to the cloze procedures.
The results concerning to the skimming indicated there was a significantly difference at
p< .05, between the performance of the students from both schools. The means of the control
groups were 3.28 and 2.63, the means of the experimental groups were 4.5 and 4.18. These
results showed that there was a significant difference between the reading skill achievement of
the students from the experimental groups and the control groups in relation to skimming.
Finally, the results concerning to the matching indicated there was a significantly
difference at p< .05, between the performance of the students from both schools. The means of
the control groups were 3.61 and 3.68, the means of the experimental groups were 4.48 and 4.01.
It can be said that there was a significant difference between the reading skill achievement of the
students from the experimental groups and the control groups in relation to the matching.
The current study pointed out that the reading skill achievement of the students by
cooperative learning is better than that of the students by other learning method. Therefore,
cooperative learning especially jigsaw method and think-pair-share method can significantly
develop the reading skill of the EFL students.
Recommendations and Suggestions

It is obvious that the reading skill is becoming important in language learning nowadays.
A child’s reading skills are important to their success in school as they will allow them to access
the breadth of the curriculum and improve their communication and language skills. In addition,
reading can be a fun and imaginative time for children, which opens doors to all kinds of new
worlds for them.
Ulla (2017) stated that jigsaw method could improve the students’ reading comprehension
of narrative text of the eighth grade students of MTS Tarqiatul Himmah Pabelan Semarang
district in the academic year 2016/2017. Mutiara and Bugis and Hanapi (2018) pointed that the
students were active in the class using Think Pair Share method in terms of sharing ideas, asking
and answering questions.
The teachers should use jigsaw method and think-pair-share methods to improve the
students’ reading comprehension and should be recognized the advantages of jigsaw method and
think-pair-share method. Some of the writers think that jigsaw method and think-pair-share
method are the frequently used in learning strategy and the teacher should stimulate the students
by conducting jigsaw method and think-pair-share method in learning English. By using these
methods, the teachers should develop students’ deeper understanding of the text. On the basis of
these findings, recommendations are offered as follows:
i. This study deals with only EFL students at the high school level. As cooperative
learning (jigsaw method and think-pair-share method) is suitable to all levels of
education, further research therefore should be conducted at other levels, especially at
the middle school level or at the university level.
ii. This study was limited at two selected high schools in Kyaukse Township, Mandalay
Region. To be more representative, further studies should be done in other states and
regions.
iii. In this study, the content area was limited to Unit 9: Earthquakes and Unit 10:
Traditional Medicine from Grade Nine Textbook. To get more generalized results, more
studies are needed to conduct in other content areas of other Textbook, especially Grade
Ten Textbook.
iv. Cooperative learning (jigsaw method and think-pair-share method) is also an effective
method for other subjects such as Mathematics, Science, Social studies and so on.
Therefore, further research should be extended to investigate in those subjects.
v. For those who are going to conduct the study that will use cooperative learning, are
recommended to apply the methods in improving other skills such as writing, listening
and speaking.
vi. As students’ attitudes are very important in learning English, further studies should be
conducted to investigate students’ attitudes toward the use of cooperative learning in
developing the reading skill.
vii. The current study lasted for 6weeks (6 weeks treatment and 1 week for test). It may be
beneficial to conduct the study over a longer period of time as students can become
comfortable in incorporating the strategy into their habits.
viii. Moreover, the small sample size limits the extent to which the conclusions can be
generalized. Therefore, further studies and research need to use a great number of
subjects in order to obtain more reliable results.
Conclusion
The main purpose of the study was to develop the reading skill of EFL students through
cooperative language learning. In language teaching, reading was one of the best ways to
promote understanding all the facts concerning the whole world. In this study, cooperative
learning is one of the best trends in the field of language teaching and learning. Therefore,
cooperative learning was selected to develop the reading skill of EFL students. The importance
of reading skill was highlighted in the literature review and also the findings of the study showed
that students who were taught with cooperative learning methods had better achievement than
those who were not. Furthermore, the results of this study revealed that as regard with the
teaching to develop the reading skill, using cooperative learning method was better than the
conventional teaching.
To sum up, in the context of EFL (English as a Foreign Language), the ultimate aim of
the language is to use it as a means of communication. The reading skill is given special status in
language teaching as equally as writing skill, listening skill and speaking skill. Therefore, in
order to develop the reading skill, the effective language teaching materials and syllabus
designed to reflect the theories of language and accompanied with the most suitable teaching
methods are vitally needed. In this study, it was found that the achievement of the students taught
by Cooperative Learning was better than that of the students who were not taught by it.
Therefore, it can be concluded that Cooperative Learning could make them more familiar with
each other and also develop their reading skill.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our deep gratitude to Dr. Saw Pyone Naing, Rector, Sagaing University of
Education . Then we owe our deepest and heartfelt appreciation to our teacher, Dr. Soe Than, Professor and Head of
the Department of Methodology (Retired), Sagaing University of Education for his constructive guidance, immense
knowledge, extraordinary tolerance and benevolence. Without his intellectual resources and motivational support,
this paper would not have been materialized.
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2016/2017. Retrieved from http://e-repository.perpus.iainsalatiga.ac.id/1633/1/sachibul%20ulla.pdf
A STUDY OF DIPLOMA IN TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMIN

MYANMAR
Nilar Moe1 and Su Lae Yi2
Abstract
The main purpose of this paper is to study Diploma in Teacher Education (DTEd) program in
Myanmar. Literature survey, one of the descriptive methods, was used in this paper. Literature
survey was mainly conducted to collect relevant data for this study. There are 24 Education
Colleges and 12 Departments under the Ministry of Education. The necessary data for this study
were collected by studying books form libraries, theses, reports, journals and downloading related
data from internet besides 3 Education Colleges and Department of Higher Education The
obtained data were analyzed, synthesized and presented as the research findings. It was found that
there are purpose of DTEd program, management and control, type, level and duration of the
program, admission requirements, application and selection procedure, registration fees, daily
program, curriculum and credit unit of first year and second year, practice teaching, assessment
system of the DTEd program and awards and appointment of the DTEd students. After completion
the course, the trainees are awarded Diploma in Teacher Education (DTEd). These results indicate
that DTEd program is a two-year diploma course, the longest teacher education course, available
for qualifying as a primary school teacher.
Keywords; Education, Teacher Education, Diploma
Introduction
An effective teacher is not just born; they are made over time through training and
experience. Teacher education is crucial in this process (Thompson & Power, 2015).Quality
training must therefore be assured by teacher education institutions and other training programs
sanctioned by the Ministry of Education (Karan &Morren, 2013). Teacher education and teachers
themselves are a crucial part of educational change and development (Rehmani, 2006).
In order to build human resources in the field of education, training must be done both at
the pre-service and in-service levels. Pre-service training refers to training individuals before
they become teachers (Nyuyet & Ha, 2010). To know the efficiency of teacher education
programs in our country, we should study teacher education program that is necessary for the
improvement of teachers’ proficiency and competency. For that reason, a study of the Diploma in
Teacher Education (DTEd) program was conducted.
1. to present the DTEd program in Myanmar
2. to offer some suggestions concerning the DTEd program in Myanmar
3. to serve as a useful paper for further research in the field of teacher education

Education : Education is a system process through which a child or an adult
acquires knowledge, experience, skill and sound attitude. It makes an
individual civilized, refined cultured and educated(Parankimakil, 2014).
1
Senior Teacher, BEHS (Branch) Bone Bwe, Shwebo Township, Sagaing Region
2
Teacher Education : Teacher Education is wider than teacher-training in that it includes not
simply a teacher’s vocational training but also whatever general post-
secondary education he has that contributes to his growth as a person
regardless of his future profession (Rowntree, 1981).
Diploma : Diploma is a course of study at a college or university. e.g. a two-year
diploma course (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2015).
Scope
This research is intended to study the DTEd program offered by Education Colleges in
Myanmar. The purposes of DTEd program, management and control, type, level and duration of
the program, admission requirements, application and selection procedure, registration fees, daily
program, curriculum and credit unit of DTEd course, practice teaching, assessment system of the
DTEd program and awards and appointment of the DTEd students are emphasized.

Meaning and Aims of Education
Different educationists’ thoughts from both Eastern and Western side have explained the
term education. Various educationists have given their views on education. Some important
definitions are:
1. Mahatma Gandhi – By education mean an all-round drawing out of the best in man –
body, mind and spirit.
2. Rabindranath Tagore – Education enables the mind to find out the ultimate truth, which
gives us the wealth of inner light and love and gives significance to life.
3. Nelson Mandela – Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change
the world (Parankimakil, 2014).
Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are formulated keeping in view the
needs of situation. Human nature is multisided with multiple needs, which are related to life.
Educational aims are correlated to ideals of life (Parankimakil, 2014).
1. Knowledge Aim. Knowledge is essential for intellectual development, better adjustment
in life, social efficiency, character formation and spiritual upliftment.
2. Vocational Aim. Self-preservation is the individual’s first need. So education should
enable one to earn his bread and butter. Most of the parents send their children to school
mainly with this aim in mind.
3. Social Aim. Social aims of education include creation of the sense of citizenship,
development of a sense of community involvement, protection and increase of culture and
civilization, increasing consciousness of other cultures, developing national integration
and international understanding (Parankimakil, 2014).
Meaning and Nature of Teacher Education
Teacher education encompasses teaching skills, sound pedagogical theory and
professional skills.
Teacher Education = Teaching Skills + Pedagogical theory + Professional skills.
Teacher education has become differentiated into stage-specific programmes. This

suggests that the knowledge base is adequately specialized and diversified across stages, which
should be utilized for developing effective processes of preparing entrant teachers for the
functions which a teacher is expected to perform at each stage. It is a system that involves an
interdependence of its inputs, processes and outputs (Kilpatric, 2009).
Historical Background of Teacher Education in Myanmar
The teacher education started as the monastic system in Myanmar. The Christian
Missionaries introduced the teacher education during the First Anglo-Burmese War (Kaung,
1963, cited in KoKoAung, 2014). During (1853-1885) teacher education was given in the
Normal Schools. Most of the Normal Schools were opened by the Christian Missionaries. The
first Normal Schools were established at Hinthata (henzata) and Pathein (bassien) to train
primary school teachers during the year 1862-63. In 1886-87, there were four Normal Schools
which were opened by the government (three for men teachers in Yangon, Sittwe and
Mawlamyine; one for women teachers in Yangon), and three Missionary Normal Schools for
women teachers (Kaung, 1963, cited in KoKoAung, 2014).
After the establishment of Yangon University in 1920, a separate Education Department
came into being and Diploma Classes were conducted beginning from 1921(Han Aye, 2002). In
1925-26, there were six Missionary Normal Schools aided by the Government (Kaung, 1963,
cited in KoKoAung, 2014). Short courses for Middle School teachers were also offered during
October Holidays (1928). In 1931, a Teacher Training College (TTC) was established with the
former Head of Education Department of Yangon University, Dr. Clark as its principal. Normal
schools were abolished and all English and Anglo Vernacular teachers (except KG teachers)
were trained at the Teachers Training College (TTC) (Han Aye, 2002).
In 1941, all schools of Yangon were closed because of the declaration of War by the
Japanese. And then, the schools in Taninthayi Division were closed. Only the schools in
Ayeyarwady Delta Region were opened until 31st March, 1942 (Kaung, 1963, cited in
KoKoAung, 2014). In the post-war period, the UTTC courses were dropped and were handed
over to the State Teacher Training College (STTC) in 1947. Only BEd classes were conducted at
the former TTC. Meanwhile, University of Yangon (Yangon University was reorganized on a
unitary basis. All the constituent colleges were converted into Faculties under the control of
Yangon University. So, the TTC became Faculty of Education in 1946-1947 AY (Han Aye,
2002). The B.A.Ed course was opened in 1950 to those who passed the Intermediate
Examination of the Faculty of Education. The reasons for the introduction of this course were
1. to produce trained teachers with a professional degree and
2. to provide more teachers, which was a felt need at the time (Han Aye, 2002).
To meet the urgent need for more teachers created by the expansion of education, a TTC
in Mandalay and Teacher Training Schools (TTSs) in Mawlamyine, Pathein, Kyaukphyu, and
Meiktila were opened (1955). More TTCs and TTSs totaling 19 have been opened since then to
meet the raising demands and needs (Han Aye, 2002). In October 1964, the New System of
University Education was implemented according to the new University Education Law (Han
Aye, 2002).
Under the new system, the Institute of Education offered a five-year BEd degree course
for those who had passed the matriculation examination. At the same time, a one-year Dip.Ed.
course for university graduates and a one-year BEd course for those who passed B.A.Ed. or
Dip.Ed. continued to be offered until their cessation in 1966-67 and 1969-70 AY respectively.
From 1970-71 academic year, MEd courses for deserving in-service teachers with Diplomas in
Education (DT/Dip.Ed.) and BEd degree were offered to upgrade the quality of the teaching
force (Han Aye, 2002). In 1975-76, a bridge system for Junior Teachers to attend the course
beginning from the third year was introduced. Since 1980-81, the duration of the course has been
reduced to one-year and the course came to be intended mainly for in-service graduates (Junior
Teachers and Senior Teachers) (Han Aye, 2002).
According to a felt need for in-service training of Upper Myanmar, Institute of Education,
Mandalay was established in 1992. Beginning from 1998-99 academic year, MEd degree course
were also conducted (Han Aye, 2002). In 1998, the TTCs and TTSs have been upgraded to
Education Colleges ( ). According to the Education Promotion Programmes which
begin in 1998, (5) Teacher Training Colleges were upgraded to Education Colleges (Level I) and
(14) Teacher Training Schools were upgraded to Education Colleges (Level II) (Han Aye, 2002).
In 2002, Daewi Education College (Level I) was opened. On January 16, 2004, (14) Education
Colleges (Level II) were upgraded to Education Colleges (Level I). During 2013-2016, 5
Education Colleges (Level I) were opened. All Education Colleges became Education Colleges
(Level I). Institutes of Education (IOE) were upgraded to Universities of Education on June 5,
2014 . IOE also offer higher degree courses such as Bachelor of Education, Master
and PhD courses (Suzuki, 2007).
Research Method
Design
In order to collect the relevant data for this paper, literature survey which is one of the
descriptive methods was used (Gay, 1987).
Procedure
Literature survey was mainly conducted to collect relevant data for this study. The
necessary data for this study were collected by studying books, theses, reports and journals form
libraries, and downloading related data from internet besides 3 Education Colleges (Mandalay
Education College, Taunggyi Education College and Sagaing Education College) and
Department of Higher Education (DHE). Then, the obtained data were analyzed, synthesized and
presented as the research findings.
Findings
Purposes of the Program
The purposes of the DTEd program is as follows:
1. to get the chances to study primary and middle teacher education for the students who
pass the matriculation examination,
2. to fulfill and serve those who pass the diploma in teacher education as necessary primary
teachers in basic schools and
3. to get the opportunities for the local youths serving as the primary teachers according to
the divisions and states.
Management and Control

According to the education system, the Ministry of Education was organized to manage
and supervise all the education sectors. Under the Ministry of Education, there were (10)
departments including Department of Educational Planning and Training (DEPT) in 1998. In
2013, there were (7) departments including Department of Teacher Education and Training
(DTET) and in 2016, there are (12) departments including Department of Higher Education
(DHE). DEPT and DTET were responsible for formulation, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of the education plans, programs and projects as well as supervision and management
of teacher education colleges. Nowadays, Department of Higher Education is responsible for
teacher education programs ( ).
Type, Level and Duration of the DTEd Course
Diploma in Teacher Education course in Myanmar is full-time, regular and pre-service
one. Education Colleges offer pre-service course leading to diploma. The duration of DTEd
course is two academic years. Each academic year is divided into two semesters. The semesters
in the academic years are referred to as semester I and semester II. The candidates have to attend
and have to sit for a written examination at the end of each semester.
Admission Requirements
1. The applicant must be a Myanmar citizen.
2. The applicants must have passed the Basic Education High School examination with
grade ‘A’ from batch 1/98 to batch 3/00 and the matriculation examination from batch
4/00 to batch 23/18.
3. The applicants must be under 24/25 years of age on the fixed date of application from
batch 1/98 to batch 10/05 and must be under 22 years of age on the fixed date of
application batch 11/06 to batch 23/18.
4. Beginning from batch 1/98, the applicant must give achievement recommendation by the
Headmaster/ Headmistress of the school the applicant has been attended, the copy of list
of marks and three passports together with application form. From batch 17/12, the copy
of list of family members and the copy of identity card are needed. From batch 20/15, a
medical certificate is needed. Except from batch 10/05 to batch 19/14, the applicant must
give moral recommendation by the commission.
5. From batch 10/05 to batch 19/14, the applicants (woman) must be unmarried. Except
batch 10/05 to batch 19/14, the applicants (woman) who are married must not be
pregnant. In the admission requirements of Batch 23/18, the applicant (woman) is allowed
to rest the course if she can show the pregnant certificate during the training course. If the
applicant is either ill or pregnant, he/she must report the medical certificate and he/she is
allowed to attend the next academic year with his/her own plan.
6. From batch 12/07, the applicant must attend to the education college which is sent by
authority.
7. The applicant must be able to serve anywhere within the country.
Application and Selection Procedure

1. The applicant must send three sets of applications to the respective State/Division
Education Office or Joint State/Division (from batch 1/98 to batch 19/14), two sets of
applications to the respective State/Division Education Office or Joint State/Division
(from batch 20/15 to batch 21/16) and two sets of applications to the respective Education
College (from batch 22/17 to batch 23/18) together with each passport as in admission
application assigned.
2. From batch 1/98 to batch 9/04, the applicant who can be able to serve anywhere within
the country will be selected. From batch 10/05 to batch 23/18, the applicant will be
selected by means of their subject wise marks in matriculation examination.
3. From batch 1/98 to batch 9/04, the applicant will be examined at the respective
State/Division Education Office on the assigned day. From batch 10/05 to batch 23/18,
the candidate must reach to the education college earlier than one or two days before the
course starts. There will be a physical examination of student teacher in the respective
education college. If the physical character does not find him suitable to the teaching
profession, the candidate will be sent back.
4. From batch 1/98 to batch 17/12, a list of applicants to attend will be announced in the
respective State/ Division/ Township Education Office.
5. From batch 10/05 to batch 23/18, the order, a list of applicants to attend the course, will
be sent to the candidate selected.
6. The candidate to the diploma course must give a medical certificate of the respective
township.
7. The candidate must be able to attend the appointed education college together with
documents needed.
8. From batch 10/05 to batch 23/18, the candidate must complete the agreement that he can
serve anywhere within the country.
Registration Fees for the Course
All of the DTEd students are required to register at the beginning of the academic year
(AY). The fees for DTEd course (batch 23/18) is as follows:
Registration fees 100ks
Admission fees 100ks
Hostel fees 300ks
School fees 6000ks
Sport fees 100ks
Laboratory fees (for science) 600ks
Laboratory fees (for art) 300ks
Examination fees 300ks
Library fees 300ks
Curriculum and Credit Unit of DTEd Course

Curriculum and credit unit of DTEd course from 1998-99 AY to 2002-03 AY is described in
Table 1.
Table 1: Credit Unit of First Year and Second Year Curriculum (from 1998-99 AY to 2002-
03 AY)
Credit Unit (first year) Credit Unit (second year)
Sr.
Subjects First Second First Second
No
semester semester semester semester
1 Educational Theory 4 4
2 Educational Psychology 4 4
3 Methodology
(a) Myanmar 3 3
(b) English 3 3
(c) Mathematics 3 3
(d) Natural Science and Social Science 3 3
(first year)/General Science (second
year)
(e) General Studies and Social Studies
(first year)/Geography + History 3 3
(second year)
Academic Subjects
(a) Myanmar
(b) English
4 (c) Mathematics 4 4
(d) Physics/History 4 4
(e) Chemistry/Geography 4 4
(f) Biology/Economic 4 4
Co-curricular Subjects 4 4
(a) Physical Education 4 4
(b) Industrial Arts/
5 Domestic Science 1 1 1 1
(c) Agriculture 1 1 1 1
(d) Fine Arts
(e) Music 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
Total 28 29 28 29
Curriculum and credit unit of DTEd course from 1998-99 AY to 2002-03 AY is described
in Table 2.
Table 2Credit Unit of First Year and Second Year Curriculum (from 2003-04 AY to 2018-
19 AY)
Credit Unit (first year) Credit Unit (second year)
Sr.
Subjects First Second First Second
No
semester semester semester semester
1 Educational Theory 2 2 2 2
2 Educational Psychology 2 2 2 2
3 Methodology
(a) Myanmar 2 2 2 2
(b) English 2 2 2 2
(c) Mathematics 2 2 2 2
(d) Natural Science and 2 2 2 2
Basic Science (first
year)/Basic Science
(second year)
(e) Geography and History 2 2
(first year)
(f) Geography (second
year) 2 2
(g) History (second year) 2 2
4 Academic Subjects
(a) Myanmar 2 2 2 2
(b) English 2 2 2 2
(c) Mathematics 2 2 2 2
(d) Physics/History 2 2 2 2
(e) Chemistry/Geography 2 2 2 2
(f) Biology/Economic
5 Co-curricular Subjects
(a) Physical Education 1 1 1 1
(b) Industrial Arts/ 1 1 1 1
Domestic Science
(c) Agriculture 1 1 1 1
(d) Fine Arts 1 1 1 1
(e) Music 1 1 1 1
ICT - - - -
Total 29 29 31 31
Daily Program for the Trainees of DTEd Course

Daily program for the students is described in Table 3.
Table 3Daily Program for the DTEd Students
Period Time Activity
1 5:00 am Getting up
2 6:00-6:45 am Taking Physical Exercise
3 7:00-7:45 am Attending co-curricular classes
4 7:45-8:00 am Taking bath
5 8:00-9:00 am Breakfast
6 9:30-12:30 am Attending morning classes
7 12:30-1:00 pm Lunch
8 1:00-3:15pm Attending afternoon classes
9 3:15-4:00 pm Attending co-curricular classes
10 4:00-5:00 pm Dinner
11 5:00-7:00 pm Leisure time
12 7:00-10:00 pm Night study
13 10:00 pm Going to bed
Source: From UNICEF (2013)
Practice Teaching
Concerning the teaching practice, the prospective primary school teachers have to do
practical teaching in local school or attached school at the end of first year course of education
colleges. They conduct their teaching practice in the selected primary, middle and high schools of
their township for about two months ( ). The program of
practice teaching is helped and supported by the township education officers and relevant
principals of primary, middle and high schools. The placements are designed so each student is
supervised and mentored by the class teacher and monitored and assessed by the head teacher
and the Township Education Officer (TEO) or Assistant TEO (ATEO). Assessment of the
placements is through the TEOs checklist and the student teachers’ post-practicum report based
on daily journals. At the end of a placement, the teacher educators receive both the checklists and
reports.
From 1998-99 AY (batch 1/98) to 2001-02 AY (batch 6/01), the trainees had to take
practice teaching at the end of the first semester of the first year for the first time and that of the
second year for the second time. From 2002-03 AY (batch 7/02) to 2013-14 AY (batch 18/13),
they had to take practice teaching at the end of the first year for the first time and at the end of the
first semester of the second year for the second time. From 2014-15 AY (batch 19/14) to 2018-19
AY (batch 23/18), they had to take practice teaching at the end of the first year for the first time
and at the end of the second year for the second time. After the completion of practical teaching,
the trainees have to send the evaluation records to the respective education college in
time( ).
Assessment System
Since the beginning of 1998-99 AY, an attendance of 90% is the requirement for
permission to sit for the examination ( ).From 2017-18
AY, an attendance of 75% is the requirement for permission to sit for the examination
( ).From 1998-99 AY to 2016-17 AY, the question papers for tutorial
are set up by a group of teacher educators in the respective education college. For mid-term test
and final examination of first year and second year, the question papers for all subjects are set up
by the educational personnel in the respective Department (DEPT or DTET or DHE). From
2017-18 AY to 2018-19 AY, the question papers for the mid-term test and final examination of
first year are set up by teacher educators in the respective education college, and that of second
year are set up by Department of Higher Education. The assessment system for assignment is as
follow.
1. Introduction 0.5 marks
2. Objective 0.5 marks
3. Presentation 4 marks
4. Conclusion 0.5 marks
5. Suggestion 3 marks
6. References 0.5 marks
7. Appendix 0.5 marks
8. Format from 1 to 7 0.5 marks
Total 10 marks
Since the beginning of 1998-99 AY, the credit system with modular approach has been
introduced and it is applied to all Education Colleges. The proportion of marks prescribed for
each education subject and academic subject are shown in Table 4.
Table 4Proportion of Marks for Assessment of Educational Subjects and Academic
Subjects
Percentage
No Classification 1998-99 AY to 2010-11 AY to
2009-2010 AY 2018-19 AY
1 Tutorials 30 20
(first semester + second semester)
2 Assignments 30 20
3 Final examination 40 60
Total 100 100
For co-curricular subjects, a hundred marks are mostly based on the daily routine,
practical tasks and final examination. Marks allocation for co-curricular subjects from 1998-99
AY to 2018-19 AY is shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Marks Allocation for Co-curricular Subjects
Given Marks
No Examination PT Co-curricular Subjects
(expect PT)
1 Daily routine 40 30
2 Practical 30 40
3 Final examination (40 x 0.75= 30) (40 x 0.75= 30)
Total 100 100
From 1998-99 AY to 2018-19 AY, assigned credit unit in accordance with the attendance
is presented in Table 6.
Table 6Credit Unit with Attendance
No Percentage of Attendance Earned Credit Unit
1 90% - 100% 4 1998-99 AY to
2 85% - 89% 3 2002-03 AY
3 80% - 84% 2
4 75% - 79% 1
5 0% - 74% 0
1 95% - 100% 4 2003-04 AY to
2 90% - 94% 3 2018-19 AY
3 85% - 89% 2
4 80% - 84% 1
From 1998-99 AY to 2018-19 AY, changing grade number from written, tutorial,
assignment and practical marks each subject is presented in Table 7.
Table 7 Changing Grade Number from Written, Tutorial and Assignment Marks
No Marks range Grade No. Assigned Meaning
1 0-49 0 Fail
2 50-59 1 Pass 1998-99 AY
3 60-69 2 Good to
4 70-79 3 Very Good 2007-08 AY
5 80-100 4 Excellent
1 0-49 1 Resist
2 50-59 2 Pass
3 60-64 2.5 Pass 2008-09 AY
4 65-69 3 Pass to
5 70-74 3.5 Pass 2016-17 AY
6 75-79 4 Pass
7 80-84 4.5 Pass
8 85+ 5 Qualified
1 0-34 1 Fail
2 35-49 2 Moderation 2017-18 AY
3 50-64 3 Pass to
4 65-74 4 Qualification 2018-19 AY
5 75+ 5 Distinction
From 1998-99 AY to 2018-19 AY, assigned specification based on grade point average is
Table 8 Assigned Specification Based on Grade Point Average
No GPA Specification
1 3.5 - 4.0 Distinctions
2 2.5 - 3.49 Good 1998-99 AY to
3 1.5 - 2-49 Pass 2002-03 AY
4 1 - 1-49 Conditional Pass
1 4.5 - 5 Distinctions
2 3.5 - 4-49 Very Good 2003-04 AY to
3 2.5 - 3.49 Good 2018-19 AY
4 2 - 2.49 Pass
Awards and Appointment

After the completion of the one-year pre-service course, the candidates are awarded
Certificate in Education and appointed as Primary Teachers at the same time. Those who pass the
first year course must attend the second year course. The candidates who pass the second year
course are awarded Diploma in Teacher Educationand appointed as Primary Teachers. Up until
2014 (batch 18/13), ECs also offered a one-year Certificate in Teacher Education, which
provided the Y1 diploma curriculum, and qualified new teachers for primary school level only
(UNESCO, 2016).
Those who finished the course are obliged to serve anywhere within the country.
Concerning the appointment procedure, those who finished the course colleges are obliged to
serve as school teachers for a minimum of five years after training. If they are absent, they must
compensate 40000 kyats to the country (from batch 1/98 to batch 19/14), 50000 kyats (from
batch 20/15 to batch 21/16) and 300000 kyats (from 22/17 to batch 23/18).
From batch 1/98 to batch 16/11, the scholar are obliged to serve as school teachers for a
minimum of ten years after training. If they are absent, they must compensate two times of
contribution including 40000 kyats (from batch 1/98 to batch 16/11) to the country. Beginning
from batch 17/12, the scholarship program stopped (Department of Educational Planning and
Training, 2012). From batch 20/15 to batch 23/18, all student teachers get 30000 kyats for the
contribution. If the student teachers are absent to serve as school teachers, they must compensate
two times of contribution including 50000 kyats (batch 20/15 to batch 21/16) and the
contribution including 300000 kyats (batch 22/17 to batch 23/18) to the country. After
completion of the two-year course, the qualified students can attend B.Ed. course from third year.
Conclusion
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to study the DTEd program in Myanmar.
Regarding the management and control, there were Department of Educational Planning and
Training (1998-99 AY to 2012-13 AY), Department of Teacher Education and Training (2013-14
AY to 2015-16 AY) and Department of Higher Education (2016-17 AY to 2018-19 AY) for the
responsibilities for all aspects of teacher education. In the role of duration of training of the
course, the student teachers had to attend four months for the first semester and four months for
the second semester. Sometimes, they had four months or fifteen days or two months for off-days
between two semesters (from 1998-99 AY to 2018-19 AY). Because of four months for off-days,
there is gap in time between two semesters. Because of fifteen days or two months for off-days,
there is no gap in time between two semesters. It is easy to recall the lesson that learnt the first
semester of each academic year.
Regarding the admission requirements for the course, there are changes according to the
admission guide-books. Regarding the fees for the course, total fees for science stream is 7800
kyats and 7500 kyats for art stream. In the role of daily program for the DTEd students, the
student teachers have to take daily activities regularly. This makes the student teachers’ body
healthy and fit. Regarding the curriculum, educational subjects, academic subjects and co-
curricular subjects are taught together in both semesters (from 2003-04 AY to 2018-19 AY). This
makes the student teachers interesting in teaching-learning process.
In the role of practice teaching and curriculum, the student teachers had to take practice
teaching at the end of the first semester of each academic year, or sometimes at the end of the
whole academic year. Taking practice teaching at the end of first year/second year made the
student teachers’ practice teaching skill efficient as they learnt the educational subjects and
academic subjects within the academic year. It is efficient for practice teaching because the
student teachers learnt the educational subjects and academic subjects at the whole academic
year. Regarding the change of attendance of 90% to 75%, the student teachers get more
opportunities to study other subjects and to carry out the activities.
Regarding awards and appointment of the DTEd students, the trainees who complete first
year course are awarded Certificate in Teacher Education until batch 18/13. The teachers can still
get job opportunities for their life by offering Certificate in Teacher Education. The candidates
who pass the second year course are awarded Diploma in Teacher Education. For those who are
awarded Diploma in Teacher Education can become middle school teachers (Junior Teacher, JT)
without attending the Correspondence Course in Middle School Teachers Training. By
completing the confession, percentage of drop-out of school teachers can reduce. This may
contribute as a part in the role of building the modern and developing country with education.
Suggestions
The applicants who have passed the matriculation examination attended DTEd course. After
the completion of the course, the candidates are awarded Diploma in Teacher Education and
appointed as Primary Teachers. For a primary school teacher (Primary Teacher, PT) to be
promoted to a middle school teacher (Junior Teacher, JT), they need to complete a further
degree-level course. The majority of teachers seemingly complete a degree-level correspondence
course post their diploma through the University of Distance Education (UDE).
Although they studied the academic subjects in the two-year teacher training course, they
attend the correspondence course again from first year. As the school that he/she serves as school
teacher is far from the location of the University of Distance Education, it is impossible to do the
practical task (for science subjects). Thus they choose the art subjects although they studied the
science subjects in the training course. Because of the unconformity of the subject specialization,
teaching-learning process is not effective. Thus the subject specialization in the DTEd course
should be conformable with the subject specialization in the University of Distance Education.
The trainee who finished the teacher training course in education college studies for two years at
the diploma in teacher education course and for three or four years at the University of Distance
Education to promote or become a middle school teacher. Increasing the duration of training and
offering the trainees degree in stead of diploma will solve the condition of the unconformity of
the subject specialization and the duration that lasts for six years to get degree. Thus the duration
of training should be increased and the course should be upgraded.
Student teachers should have the option to study specific subjects. By selecting the subject
specialization that the student teachers want to study, this makes them interesting on their
specialized subjects and their proficiency with their subject specialization may improve. This
proficiency can contribute the improvement of their teaching-learning process. The period of the
practice teaching for student teachers matches with the October examination in basic education.
This means regular lessons are not being carried out and student teachers are therefore not able to
practice teaching. The period of the practice teaching should be changed. Concerning the award
and appointment, the student teachers that finished the course are young. Thus, the duration of
training should be increased to become qualified and complete teachers.
Conclusion
The aim of this paper is to study the DTEd program in Myanmar. The objectives of this paper
are (a) to present the DTEd program in Myanmar, (b) to offer some suggestions concerning the
DTEd program in Myanmar, and (c) to serve as a useful paper for further research in the field of
teacher education. Regarding the management and control, there were three departments
(Department of Educational Planning and Training, Department of Teacher Education and
Training and Department of Higher Education) for the responsibilities for all aspects of teacher
education. In the role of type, level and duration, diploma in teacher education program is pre-
service teacher training course leading to diploma. The course is a two-year training course and
there are two semesters in an academic year. The different admission requirements, fees for the
course, curriculum and credit unit are described.
In the role of practice teaching, they conduct the practice teaching in the selected primary,
middle and high schools of their township for about two months. Regarding the assessment
system of the DTEd program, the percentage of attendance that requires for permission to sit for
the examination is stated. The assessment system of the DTEd program is stated from 1998-99
AY to 2018-19 AY. Regarding awards and appointment of the DTEd students, the trainees who
complete first year course are awarded Certificate in Teacher Education and those who complete
the second year course for Diploma in Teacher Education.
The findings of this study contribute that ECs and DTEd program have a key role to play
in the reform of teacher education in Myanmar at the pre-service stage. So pre-service teacher
education program such as DTEd program is necessary for the improvement of teachers’
proficiency and competency. Findings of this study will contribute to a consideration measure for
the improvement of the program and for further research concerning the teacher education
program.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express my whole-hearted gratitude to all the persons who had helped in completion of
this study. First, we would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Saw Pyone Naing (Rector, Sagaing University of
Education) who allowed us to write this paper. We are also thankful to Dr. Soe Than (Retired Professor and Head of
Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education) and Dr. Wai Wai Oo (Associate Professor and Head
of Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education), for their expert guidance, valuable and timely
advice to complete this thesis, great support, encouragement and invaluable kindness throughout this study and
critical judgement as the Chairperson of Board of Examiners. Finally, we wish to thank all teachers, principals and
instructors of Education Colleges (Sagaing, Mandalay and Taunggyi) and respective teachers of Department of
Higher Education (DHE) for their patient and helpful discussion and comments.
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AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE USE OF COMMUNICATIVE

APPROACH IN DEVELOPING THE LISTENING SKILL OF HIGH
SCHOOL STUDENTS
Phuu Ei Kyaw1 and Wai Wai Oo2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study was to study the effect of communicative approach in developing
the listening skill of high school students. The design adopted in this study was a quasi-
experimental design, viz. non-equivalent control group design. The subjects were 61 Grade Ten
students from No. (14) Basic Education High School and 104 Grade Ten students from No.(16)
Basic Education High School, Chan Aye Tharsan Township, Mandalay. The instruments for this
study were a pretest, teaching materials, lesson plans and a posttest. The subjects were pretested
before the treatment. The experimental groups were taught through communicative approach
whereas the control groups were not taught using this approach. After five weeks’ treatment, a
posttest was administered to examine whether there was a positive effect of communicative
approach on the students’ listening skill. In order to satisfy the research questions, the obtaining
data were analyzed by using the independent samples t test and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
to compare the listening achievement of the students between the experimental and control groups.
The findings showed that there was a significant difference between the experimental and control
groups for the scores on listening achievement test in HS 14 (p = .008) and HS 16 (p = .000) at
the levels of p < .01 and p < .001 respectively. The result of this study, therefore, indicated that
communicative approach has positive effect on developing the listening skill of high school
students.
Keywords: approach, communicative approach, listening skill
Introduction
The trend of modern education directs to the needs of language competency to enhance
the demands. Global language, the English, became the first priority many decades ago. TESL
(Teaching English as a Second Language) and TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language)
programmes were developed all over the world as soon as the acceptance of the significance of
English. In order to be proficient in global language, English, all four skills of language must be
provided equally and orderly. In most of the Myanmar classrooms, reading and writing skills are
the major focus more than the other two skills. Speaking and listening skills are rarely taught in
schools since these skills are not assessed in examinations. As a consequence, the proficiency of
speaking and listening skills are extremely limited. It, therefore, is a high time to promote these
skills. For communicative competence, receptive skill should be given priority to naturally lead
to the productive skill. The most widely used teaching in the world today is communicative
approach or communicative language teaching (CLT) which is advocated by many applied
linguists and English teachers.
Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows:
- To compare the listening skill achievement of students who were taught by communicative
approach and those who were not.
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, Basic Education High School (Branch), MyaSein, Singu
2
Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
- To highlight the importance of listening skill in language learning.

- To improve student’s listening skill through communication.
- To give some suggestions on the use of communicative approach in English language teaching.
Research Questions
- Does the use of communicative approach have positive effect on improving the listening skill of
Grade Ten students?
- Does the use of communicative approach have positive effect on improving the listening for
specific information of Grade Ten students?
phonemic distinctions of Grade Ten students?
sequencing of Grade Ten students?
transferring information of Grade Ten students?
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), at the level of language theory,
Communicative Language Teaching has “a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base”. Some of
the characteristics of the communicative view of language are as follows:
1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
2. The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication.
3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
The influential interpretation of Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) upon the distinctive
features of communicative approach is as follows:
1. Meaning is paramount.
2. Dialogues, if used, center around communicative functions and are not normally memorized.
3. Contextualization is a basic premise.
4. Language learning is learning to communicate.
5. Effective communication is sought.
6. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
7. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
8. Any device that helps the learners is accepted – varying according to their age, interest, etc.
9. Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning.
10. Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible.
11. Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it.
12. Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired.
13. The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to
communicate.
14. Communicative competence is the desired goal (i.e., the ability to use the linguistic system
effectively and appropriately).
15. Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methodology.

16. Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content, function, or meaning that maintains
interest.
17. Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.
18. Language is created by the individual, often through trial and error.
19. Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: Accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in
context.
20. Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group
work, or in their writings.
21. The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use.
22. Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language
(Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) cited in Brown, 2001).
Moreover, Littlewood (1981) diagrammatically provided a methodological framework for
communicative activities as follows:
Structural activities
Pre-communicative activities
Quasi-communicative activities
Functional communicative activities

Communicative activities
Social interaction activities
Through pre-communicative activities, the teacher isolates specific elements of
knowledge or skill which compose communicative ability, and provides the learners with
opportunities to practice them separately. The learners are thus being trained in the part-skills of
communication rather than practicing the total skill to be acquired. The different types of drill or
question-and-answer practice are included. These aim to provide learners with a fluent command
of the linguistic system, without actually requiring them to use this system for communicative
purposes. Accordingly, the learner’s main purpose is to produce language which is acceptable
(i.e. sufficiently accurate or appropriate) rather than to communicate meanings effectively. The
activities which attempt to create links between the language forms being practiced and their
potential functional meanings can be categorised as ‘quasi-communicative’ because they take
account of communicative as well as structural facts about language.
In communicative activities, the learner has to activate and integrate his
pre-communicative knowledge and skills, in order to use them for the communication of meaning
(Littlewood, 1981).
Research Method
Research Design
The design adopted in this study was a quasi-experimental design, viz. non-equivalent
control group design (see Table 1).

No. of Students
Group Assignment Pretest Treatment Posttest
HS 1 HS 2
Conventional
Control Intact 30 51 UBLLT PILLT
Methods
Communicative
Experimental Intact 31 53 UBLLT PILLT
Approach
Note: UBLLT = Upper Beginner Level Listening Test HS1 = BEHS (14)
PILLT = Pre-Intermediate Level Listening Test HS2 = BEHS (16)
The independent variable was the use of communicative activities to develop the
students’ listening skill, and the dependent variable was the student’s listening skill. The data
collected in this study were the scores of the posttest for quantitative data.
Subjects
Two basic education high schools from Chan Aye Tharsan Township: No. (14) Basic
Education High School and No. (16) Basic Education High School, were selected by using a
simple random sampling method. A sample of (61) students was selected from a population of
(94) Grade Ten students of No. (14) Basic Education High School. A sample of (104) students
was selected from a population of (283) Grade Ten students of No. (16) Basic Education High
School. Table 2 showed the number of population and sample size used in this study.
Table 2Population and Sample Size
Name of School No. of Population No. of Sample
No. (14) BEHS 94 61
No. (16) BEHS 283 104
Instruments
(a) Pretest
The pretest consisted of (50) items for specific information, phonemic distinctions,
transferring information and sequencing. The items in the pretest are upper beginner level. The
test was constructed according to the advice and guidance of the supervisor. For the validation of
the pretest, the test was delivered to three experienced and expert teachers and modified the test
according to the suggestions of the experts. A pilot test was administered with (47) Grade Ten
students from Basic Education High School, Patheingyi. But due to the inconvenience in playing
one audio file, this pilot test was rejected. The second pilot test was administered with (50) Grade
Ten students from No. (33) Basic Education High School, Aung Myae Tharsan Township,
Mandalay. According to the pilot test, the item responses showed that the estimate of reliability
was 0.79. Then, on the 1st November 2018, the pretest was held at No.(14) BEHS and No.(16)
BEHS.
(b) Teaching Materials and Lesson Plans
Teaching materials ranging from upper beginner to pre-intermediate levels were compiled
into three categories: dialogues and conversations, short stories and various topics which are
relevant to the high school level. They were collected from various sources such as English
workbooks, graded story books, internet websites. The collected teaching materials were
designed for the study under the guidance and suggestions of the experienced and expert
teachers. Teaching materials for the listening skills were planned as the following table.
Table 3Teaching Materials
Types of Materials Listening Skill
Dialogues and conversations  General idea
 Ordering
 Specific information
 Transferring information
Stories  Phonemic distinctions

 Specific information
 Sequencing
Topics  Phonemic distinctions

 Transferring information
As regard with the lesson plan, it was divided into pre-listening, while-listening and post-
listening for both groups. The distinction between conventional teaching and communicative
approach for teaching listening is focus on form of the language and focus on function of the
language. Especially for post-listening section, conventional teaching emphasizes on the analysis
of language in the text and on listen and repeat, whereas, communicative approach targets at the
examining functional language and inferring vocabulary meaning (Field, 2002). To examine
practically and revise as necessary, the lesson plans were pilot tested for one week with (47)
Grade Ten students from Basic Education High School, Patheingyi.
(c) Posttest
The posttest consisted of (60) items of pre-intermediate level for specific information,
phonemic distinctions, transferring information and sequencing. The posttest was administered to
investigate whether the use of communicative approach has positive effect on improving the
listening skill of Grade Ten students. The test items were constructed according to the advice and
suggestions of the supervisor. The test items were validated by three experienced and expert
teachers. The allocated time was (45) minutes and the given marks were 50 marks. The test items
were modified again in accordance with the suggestions of those experienced teachers. Then, the
posttest was administered at the selected high schools on December 12, 2018.
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to process the results of the
groups statistically. The pretest scores of the experimental and control groups were compared by
using the independent samples t test. According to the t test result, the levels of the two groups
were not the same before the treatment. Therefore, the posttest scores of the two groups were
compared after controlling the pretest scores by using the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to
find out whether there was a significance difference between the two groups from each selected
school.
Procedure
Research methodology was studied to understand the nature of the research and the
researcher’s ethics. For the theoretical foundation, relevant information were explored and
collected through books, educational journals, theses and Internet websites. After that, the
literature review was made on the basis of communicative approach and listening skill. At the
same time, the research design was chosen and the instruments were constructed under the
guidance of the supervisor. In order to carry out the experimental study, quasi-experimental non-
equivalent control group design was used. The two high schools, No. (14) Basic Education High
School and No. (16) Basic Education High School, Chan Aye Tharsan Township, Mandalay,
were selected by using a simple random sampling method. Non-equivalent control group design
allows random assignment of intact groups not individuals. “An advantage of this design is that
since classes are selected “as is”, possible effects from reactive arrangements are minimized.
Groups may not even aware that they are involved in a study” (Gay &Airasian, 2003).
The pilot study was carried out for the pretest and lesson plans. Then, the pretest was
administered before the treatment was provided. Afterwards, the treatment was given to the
experimental groups for five weeks. The posttest was administered to both groups after giving
the treatment. The data were analysed by using the independent samples t test and analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA).
Findings
Findings on the Equivalence of the Intact Groups
The non-equivalent control group design requires to consider whether the groups are
equivalent because “the more similar the intact groups are, the stronger the study” (Gay
&Airasian, 2003). To examine this question, the pretest scores of the both groups in each school
were calculated by using the independent samples t test as shown in the following table.
Table 4The Result of t Test for Independent Samples on Pretest Scores
School Group N M SD t df p
C 30 32.33 8.93
HS 1 -2.37* 59 .021
E 31 37.16 6.85
C 51 36.39 8.07
HS 2 -4.43*** 79.12 .000
E 53 42.13 4.63
Note: *p < .05 C = Control Group HS 1 = No. (14) BEHS, Mandalay
***p < .001 E = Experimental Group HS 2 = No. (16) BEHS, Mandalay
According to the results as shown in Table 4, it was found that the means of the
experimental groups were higher than that of the control groups in both schools. Then, the null
hypothesis, ‘there is no difference between the groups’, was rejected because the p values were
.021 (p < .05) and .000 (p < .001) respectively. Therefore, there were significant differences
between the control and experimental groups in both schools. Consequently, it can be said that
the listening skill of the experimental groups was significantly higher than that of the control
groups before the treatment. According to this result, to display the findings on the research
questions, the pretest scores were needed to equate statistically in using the analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA).
Findings on Research Question (1)

Research question (1) is whether the communicative approach has positive effect on
improving the listening skill of Grade Ten students. To examine this question, the pretest and the
posttest scores of the experimental groups and control groups in both schools were calculated by
using the analysis of covariance as in the following table.
Table 5 The Result of Analysis of Covariance on Posttest Scores Using Pretest Scores as a
Covariate
Unadjusted Adjusted
School Source N M SD M SE df Ms F p
C 30 22.70 7.62 23.54 1.36
HS 1 1 395.85 7.50** .008
E 31 29.69 7.78 28.88 1.34
Error 58 52.76
C 51 20.45 8.52 22.72 .98
HS 2 1 798.22 17.94*** .000
E 53 30.97 8.21 28.79 .96
Error 101 44.51
Note.**p < .01 C = Control Group HS 1 = No. (14) BEHS, Mandalay
According to the results as shown in Table 5, after controlling the pretest scores, there
was a significant difference between the control and experimental groups in each school,
F(1,58) = 7.50, p = .008 and F(1,101) = 17.94, p = .000 respectively. Moreover, as it is evident
from this table, the adjusted means of the experimental groups are significantly higher than those
of the control groups in both schools (see Figure 1).
Posttest
28.88 28.79
30 23.54 22.72
25
20
Mean
15 Control Group
10 Experimental Group
5
0
HS 1 HS 2
School
Figure 1Comparison of means of the two groups on the posttest

These results showed that the use of communicative approach has positive effect on
improving the listening skill of Grade Ten students.
improving the listening for specific information of Grade Ten students. To satisfy this question,
the overall pretest scores and the posttest scores in relation to the specific information items of
the experimental groups and control groups in both schools were analyzed by using the analysis
of covariance as shown in the following table.
Table 6 The Result of Analysis of Covariance on Specific Information Items Using Pretest
Scores as a Covariate
Unadjusted Adjusted
C 30 2.17 1.05 2.29 .24
HS 1 1 5.83 3.60 .063
E 31 3.06 1.55 2.94 .23
Error 58 1.62
C 51 2.86 1.90 3.26 .26

HS 2 1 .08 .26 .613
E 53 3.83 2.04 3.45 .25
Error 101 3.13

Note: C = Control Group HS 1 = No. (14) BEHS, Mandalay
E = Experimental Group HS 2 = No. (16) BEHS, Mandalay
According to the results of the Table 6, after controlling the pretest scores, there were no
significant differences between the control groups and experimental groups of the posttest scores
on specific information items in both schools, F(1,58) = 3.60, p = .063 and F(1, 101) = .26,
p = .613 respectively. And the means of the experimental groups and those of the control groups
were also almost the same in both schools (see Figure 1).
Specific Information
10
9
8
7
6
Mean
5 3.26 3.45 Control Group

2.94
4 2.29 Experimental Group
3
2
1
HS 1 HS 2
School
Figure 2 Comparison of means of the two groups on the specific information items
These results lead to the conclusion that the use of communicative approach does not
have positive effect on improving the listening skill of Grade Ten students in relation to the
specific information.

improving the listening for phonemic distinctions of Grade Ten students. To answer this
question, the overall pretest scores and the posttest scores in relation to the phonemic distinctions
items of the experimental groups and control groups in both schools were analyzed by using the
analysis of covariance as shown in the following table.
Table 7 The Result of Analysis of Covariance on Phonemic Distinctions Items Using
Pretest Scores as a Covariate
Unadjusted Adjusted
C 30 8.40 1.33 8.59 .24
HS 1 1 1.65 1.01 .320
E 31 8.44 1.49 8.25 .24
Error 58 1.64
C 51 7.35 2.26 7.85 .29

HS 2 1 9.08 2.37 .127
E 53 8.98 2.23 8.50 .28
Error 101 3.83

Note: C = Control Group HS 1 = No. (14) BEHS, Mandalay
The results in the Table 7 showed that after controlling the pretest scores, there were no
significant differences between the control groups and experimental groups of the posttest scores
on phonemic distinctions items in both schools, F(1, 58) = 1.01, p = .320 and F(1, 101) = 2.37,
p = .127 respectively. Also, the adjusted means of the experimental groups and those of the
control groups are about the same in both schools (see Figure 3).
Phonemic Distinctions
8.59 8.25 8.5
10 7.85
9
8
7
Mean
6
5 Control Group
4
2
1
HS 1 HS 2
School
Figure 3Comparison of means of the two groups on the phonemic distinctions items
This means that the use of communicative approach does not have positive effect on
improving the listening skill of Grade Ten students in relation to the phonemic distinctions.

improving the listening for sequencing of Grade Ten students. To examine this question, the
overall pretest scores and the posttest scores in relation to the sequencing items of the
experimental groups and control groups in both schools were analyzed by using the analysis of
covariance as shown in the following table.
Table 8 The Result of Analysis of Covariance on Sequencing Items Using Pretest Scores as
a Covariate
Unadjusted Adjusted
C 30 5.00 2.23 5.21 .38
HS 1 1 18.56 4.52* .038
E 31 6.58 2.03 6.37 .37
Error 58 4.11
C 51 5.51 3.23 6.07 .39
HS 2 1 4.05 .57 .454
E 53 6.17 2.62 5.64 .30
Error 101 7.15
Note: *p < .05 C = Control Group HS 1 = No. (14) BEHS, Mandalay
The results in the Table 8 revealed that after controlling the pretest scores, there was a
significant difference between the groups in BEHS (14) since F(58, 4.11) = 4.52, p = .038
(p < .05) and the adjusted mean scores of the experimental groups were higher than those of the
control groups. For BEHS (16), however, there was no significant difference between the groups,
F(101, 7.15) = .57, p = .454 and the adjusted means were almost the same (see Figure 4).
Sequencing
8 6.37 6.07 5.64
7 5.22
6
Mean
5
4 Control Group
2
1
HS 1 HS 2
School
Figure 4 Comparison of means of the two groups on the sequencing items
These results lead to the conclusion that the use of communicative approach has positive
effect on improving the listening for sequencing of students in BEHS (14) but not on that of
students in BEHS (16).

improving the listening for transferring information of Grade Ten students. To examine this
question, the overall pretest scores and the posttest scores in relation to the transferring
information items of the experimental groups and control groups in both schools were analyzed
by using the analysis of covariance as shown in following table.
Table 9The Result of Analysis of Covariance on Transferring Information Items Using

Pretest Scores as a Covariate
Unadjusted Adjusted
C 30 7.13 5.04 7.44 .85
HS 1 1 205.67 9.98** .003
E 31 11.58 4.15 11.28 .83
Error 58 20.60
C 51 4.75 3.69 5.57 .49

HS 2 1 727.39 64.20*** .000
E 53 12.15 3.95 11.36 .48
Error 101 11.33

Note. **p < .01 C = Control Group HS 1 = No. (14) BEHS, Mandalay
Table 9 displayed that after controlling the pretest scores, there were significant
differences between the control groups and experimental groups in both schools, F(1, 58) = 9.98,
p = .003 and F(1, 101) = 64.20, p = .000. As it is obvious from this table, the means of the
experimental groups are significantly higher than those of the control groups in both schools
(see Figure 5).
Transferring Information
11.28 11.36
12
10 7.44
8 5.57
Mean
6 Control Group
2
0
HS 1 HS 2
School
Figure 5 Comparison of means of the two groups on the transferring information items
Therefore, the use of communicative approach has positive effect on improving the
listening for transferring information of Grade Ten students.
Conclusion
Discussion
In this study, the achievement test for the listening skill was developed with four
sub-skills: listening for specific information, phonemic distinctions, sequencing and transferring
information. The data were also analyzed according to each sub-skill to examine if there is a
significance difference between the groups.
The sub-skills of listening were arranged in the order of more challenging ones. The
results on each listening sub-skill highlighted that the effect of using communicative approach
and conventional teaching had no difference in less challenging sub-skills such as specific
information and phonemic distinctions. When it came to the more challenging sub-skills as
sequencing and transferring information, however, using communicative approach had a
relatively positive effect on them.
To examine the effectiveness of communicative approach on developing the listening
skill, the overall posttest scores were analyzed statistically. As a result, the experimental groups
which were treated by communicative approach had higher means on the listening test than the
control groups which were treated by conventional teaching. This result advocated that “the
communicative language teaching – the idea the student learns through the act of communication
– increased the role of listening” (Helgesen, 2003).
In language teaching, all four skills are equally important and should be prioritized
equally in the textbooks and tests. Nevertheless, listening skill is still excluded in the text content.
This study, therefore, tried to highlight the importance of listening skill in language teaching.
Through the study, one surprising fact to the researcher was that all students had the
listening ability to some extent although listening skill was not practiced in class. If the students
were given the opportunity for practice, their listening skill could be developed in no time.
Furthermore, owing to the lack of practice, their listening skill was somewhat lower in comparing
with their reading and writing skills.
It was also found that the students had lack of confidence in listening and communication
during the first week of the study because it was quite unfamiliar to them. But they gradually
enjoyed and actively participated in the listening processes; pre-listening, while-listening and
post-listening. This proved that even though listening is a receptive skill it is not necessarily a
passive one and a listener can either be active or passive (Lindsay & Knight, 2006).
As regard with the communication during the lesson, the researcher could not expect the
students could communicate successfully using the target language due to the less significance of
speaking section in the textbook and exclusion in the achievement tests. That is why, according
to the continuum of communicative approach from pre-communicative to communicative
activities (Littlewood, 1981), the researcher could design the lessons only around the
pre-communicative activities and the judicious amount of using the mother tongue was allowed
(Finocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983, cited in Brown, 2001).
The most time-devoting task in this research was developing the teaching materials. In
designing them, the most commercial syllabuses which seemed reflected the communicative
approach were studied. The researcher had to consider the background knowledge of students
based on the English syllabuses used in Myanmar as well as trying to make the teaching
materials including in the communicative continuum. The researcher also had to take the
suggestions and help of the expert teachers in designing the materials which is “tailored for a
particular group of learners in a particular place, studying for particular purposes in a given
amount of time” (Brown, 2001).
The main differences of the lesson plans between conventional teaching and
communicative approach were classroom setting, classroom language and different focuses on
language. For conventional teaching, the classroom setting remained unchanged as it was and the
teacher led the explanation of the language which was emphasized on grammar and new
vocabularies. For communicative approach, the students were cooperated in groups and the
teacher manipulated the members of the groups during the study. The intervention of the teacher
in communicative approach was much less than that of in conventional teaching. The teacher’s
explanation emphasized mainly on examining functional language and usage of new
vocabularies. For classroom language, the teacher used the target language in communicative
approach and the students also tried to use the target language as much as they could during the
communication with each other, but not in conventional teaching. The findings of the study also
statistically approved the relatively positive effect of communicative approach in compared with
the conventional teaching.
As regard with the study period, the schools allowed four days per week because the
listening skill was excluded in the textbook and the researcher could not substitute the existing
period of English subject teachers. The schools had to draw the new timetables that include the
period for this research. At the high school level, therefore, only Grade Ten was available for this
study owing to the matriculation exam preparation of Grade Eleven.
In addition, the class size of a school was very big, up to (53) students in each classroom.
The researcher, therefore, found that it was difficult to give individual attention to each student.
In every group, few students who had enough confidence to speak usually led the group to
discuss and the others seemed less active in communicating with the whole group. However,
their contributions to group performance by taking notes and delivering the ideas were prominent
due to the fact that “communicative competence implies a set of strategies for getting messages
sent and received and for negotiating meaning as an interactive participant in discourse, whether
spoken or written” (Brown, 2001). So, it can be said that those less active students could be more
active in communication if the group size was small enough to enhance their confidence and the
teacher’s attention could be given individually to encourage them.
Moreover, noise was also an important factor to control in listening and communication
processes. Although the researcher tried to reduce the noise by choosing the classrooms which
was not very close to the others, noise from the other classes was still disturbed the listening
process to some extent. Similarly, the noise from the communication of students also disturbed
the other classrooms in some ways. Accordingly, rooms like language laboratory become
necessity for listening sessions, whereas the language laboratory with the individual seats which
prevent communication with each other would also be useless in implementing communicative
language teaching.
In this study, only classroom activities and teaching materials for listening could be
developed to implement communicative approach. Since communicative approach leads to
“re-examination of language teaching goals, syllabuses, materials, and classroom activities”
(Richards & Schmidt, 2002), the underlying communicative theories of language should also be
reflected in the syllabuses.
To sum up, the listening skill of the students could be developed if the special attention is
given to it in the textbooks and syllabuses. As regard with the language teaching methods, the
results of this study clearly revealed that using communicative approach is far more effective
than using the conventional teaching.
Suggestions for Further Studies

In order to provide the enriched information of the integration of communicative
approach to language teaching, suggestions for further studies are as follows:
1. Researchers should use the communicative approach in developing the other skills of
language: speaking, reading and writing.
2. Researchers should arrange to get as much study period as possible.
3. Researchers should compare the use of communicative approach not only to conventional
teaching but also to other language teaching methods.
4. Researchers should widen the scope of the study by choosing more than two schools.
5. Researchers should study the effectiveness of communicative approach at other school
levels such as primary and middle school levels.
6. Researchers should strengthen the experimental study by combining with the study of
students’ perception on the communicative approach using questionnaires or interviews.
Conclusion
In language teaching, listening was the ignored skill all over the world a long time ago.
Nunan (2002), therefore, called it “the Cinderella skill” in second language learning since it was
overlooked by “its elder sister, speaking skill”. However, listening became fashion in language
learning since 1960s and many appropriate approaches were developed. Here, communicative
approach is the latest trend in the field of language teaching. In this study, therefore,
communicative approach was selected to develop the listening skill which is still ignored in
Myanmar with the intention of showing the equal paramount importance of developing language
skills and adopting appropriate teaching approach for teachers.
The importance of listening skill was highlighted in the literature review and also the
findings of the study showed that although students had lower level in listening skill than their
existing level of reading and writing skills, it could develop when great attention was given to it.
This means that if the listening skill was integrated in syllabus and given the special attention,
this could lead to the significant development of students’ listening skill.
Moreover, the results of this study revealed that as regard with the teaching to develop the
listening skill, the use of communicative approach was better than the use of conventional
teaching. Therefore, when it comes to the language teaching, this study has manifested that
communicative approach is the solution.
To sum up, in the context of ESL (English as a Second Language) and EFL (English as a
Foreign Language), the ultimate aim of the language is to use it as a means of communication for
learning. The listening and speaking skills are given special status in language teaching as
equally as reading and writing skills which have never been ignored in teaching language.
Therefore, in order to enhance the development of all four skills of language in students,
effective language teaching materials and syllabuses should be designed to reflect the theories of
language and to accompany with the most suitable teaching methods.
Acknowledgements
First, we would like to express our deep gratitude to Dr. Saw Pyone Naing, Rector, Sagaing University of
Education and members of MEd Supervision Committee of Department of Methodology for their permission to do
this paper. We wish to express our deepest and heartfelt appreciation to our teachers, Dr. Soe Than, Professor and
Head of the Department of Methodology (Retired), for his constructive guidance, immense knowledge, extraordinary
tolerance and benevolence. Without his intellectual resources the paper would not have been materialized.
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A STUDY OF THE FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS’ PARTICIPATION

IN CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL
Phyo Naung Naung1 and San San Maw2
Abstract
The main aim of this research is to investigate the factors influencing students’ participation in co-
curricular activities at the Middle School Level. This study sought four possible factors
influencing students’ participation in co-curricular activities such as the roles of teachers,
infrastructures, funding and parental involvement. Descriptive survey design was used and the
respondents included (13) principals, (42) co-curricular teachers and (471) middle school students
from (13) schools within Kyauktaga Township of Bago Region. (526) respondents were selected
by using stratified sampling and simple random sampling methods. Data was collected by using
attitude questionnaires for three different types of respondents and a set of participation
questionnaire for students only. So, students are asked by two questionnaires. Principals and
teachers’ attitude questionnaires consist of (10) items for each factor. Students’ attitude
questionnaire contains (6) items for each factor. Students’ participation questionnaires contain (10)
Likert-type items. Moreover, researcher conducted interview with (13) principals to enhance the
credibility of current research findings. All questionnaires are self-structured. Data analysis
included both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The quantitative results indicated that
these four factors have significant and positive relationship towards students’ participation in
co-curricular activities (the role of teacher r(471) = .407***, p< .001, infrastructures
r (471) = .310***, p< .001, funding r(471) = .199***, p< .001 and parental involvement
r(471) = .292***, p< .001). Teachers’ role factors is the most influent factor among them and 22%
of the combination of four predictor variables can be predicted from the influencing factors. It can
be concluded that these factors are necessary to become more participation of students in
co-curricular activities at the middle school level.
Keywords: activities, participation, co-curricular activities
Introduction
Modern education aims at the wholesome development of children. In fact all-round
development is the key theme of education. Today, when a child comes to school, he comes in
his totality and, so education should help him to develop his total personality. To fulfill these
purposes, varieties of educative experiences are to be provided in the school programs which
may contribute to a long, happy and normal life of the child. The function of the education is to
bring change in child behavior and personality in a more desirable form. So, modern approach of
education emphasizes on all-round development of the child.
In this modern world, our nation needs citizens, dynamics and excellent leaders. The
schools are where the molding should begin, and thus the importance of students’ participation in
co-curricular activities, which has proven to turn out better and successful students, as leaders
and responsible citizens of tomorrow. Co-curricular activities and extra-curricular activities play
a significant role in the lives of the students. Therefore, participating in these activities has been
linked to greater school attachment and sense of belonging, better academic achievement, and
higher academic aspirations. There are many factors which affect students’ participation in
co-curricular activities. In order to fulfill some requirements for more participation of students in
1
Senior Assistant Teacher, BEHS - Kyauktaga, Kyauktaga Township, Bago Region
2
Associate Professor, Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education
co-curricular activities, this study aimed at investigating the influencing factors on students’
participation in co-curricular activities.
Purposes
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the factors influencing students’
participation in co-curricular activities at the Middle School Level. The specific objectives are as
follows:
 To study the assumptions of participants about the factors influencing students’
 To explore the relationship between the influencing factors and students’ participation in
co-curricular activities.
 To explain the extent of the influence of the roles of teachers, infrastructural facilities,
funding, and parents’ involvement on students’ participation in co-curricular activities.
 To find out the most influential factors on students’ participation in co-curricular
activities.
 To give suggestions for the improvement of students’ participation in co-curricular
activities according to the results of the study.
Research Hypothesis
There is a relationship between the influencing factors and students’ participation in
co-curricular activities.
Scope of the Study
The subjects were confined to the principals, middle school co-curricular teachers and
middle school students at the three basic education middle schools, five basic education high
schools (branch) and five basic education high schools in Kyauktaga Township, Bago Region of
Lower Myanmar. The total number of schools was (13) and the total participants were (526).
This study was delimited into the four factors such as teachers’ role, funding, infrastructural
facilities and parents’ involvement.
Definition of Key Term

Co-curricular Activities
Co-curricular activities mean the programs of educational activities, which are systematically
organized in or out of the school compounds together with the teaching of subject matters in
order to implement the educational objectives for the purpose of students’ all-round development
(Basic Education Law, 1973).
All-round, Balanced Development and Co-curricular Activities
Students must be nurtured with focus on all-round, balanced development especially in
terms of intellectual, physical, social, moral, emotional and aesthetic dimensions (National
Education Law, 2014). The all-round development or holistic development of an individual is
only possible through balanced development of scholastic or academic as well as non-
scholastic or non-academic aspects in the formal, in-formal and non-formal educational
setting in the society. The co-curricular or extracurricular activities help the student to
overcome the stress of stunts and allow the holistic development of individual. Holistic
Development is basically the development of everyone’s intellectual, emotional, social, physical,
artistic, creative, religious values and feelings. It is pretty much just the development of the
entire brain’s thoughts and feelings. Co-curricular activities such as academic or special interest
clubs, theatre and music groups, and internal sports teams have traditionally enhanced students'
sense of school membership by providing them with a special position in the school community.
Students involved in these kinds of co-curricular activities find opportunities to shine and are less
likely to become disengaged from school. Many studies have indicated an association between
co-curricular activities in general and positive academic outcomes. Co-curricular activities
promote enthusiasm, vitality, positive thinking and team spirit which in turn, contribute to
personality development. Co-curricular activities facilitate the development of various domains
of mind and personality such as intellectual development, emotional development, social
development, moral development and aesthetic development (Kisango, 2016).
Teachers’ Role and Students’ Participation in Co-curricular Activities
The importance in education does not only lie in academic but also in all other fields
which are required in educating students , which include skills and co- curriculum.
Fostering a sense of school co-curricular engagement in a personalized environment requires an
expanded role for teachers. In this expanded role, teachers seek to influence students' social and
personal development, as well as their intellectual growth. The new school has considerably
modified the status, duties and privileges of the teacher. In the new school, the teacher goes
beyond the classroom (Kochhar, 1985).
Teaching is a broad occupation and teachers may range far beyond their specialization in
their reading, writing, and the enjoyment of the arts. They may range over every type of
composition from biography, fiction, travel, adventure, science, poetry, to journalism. Their
interest in music, drama, and the fine arts may be just as catholic. Such interests tend to “elevate
and liberate the human spirit” (Alcorn, Kinder, & Schunert, 1964).
The Influence of Infrastructural Facilities and Funding on Students’ Participation in Co-
curricular Activities
Education is very important to the economic development of Myanmar. Only when the
education system is good enough will the workers needed for the country’s manufacturing and
services sectors that support the development of the economy be improved. For that kind of
quality education, the level of expenditure plays a major role. In Myanmar, education
expenditure, the curriculum, infrastructure, learning materials and the attractiveness of the
teaching profession are related. If those elements, and specially the budget allocation, are limited,
the education environment will not be conducive to effective teaching and learning. Limited
budget allocations cause significant difficulties for education reform. Most graduates are not
interested in being teachers because the low salaries offered to them are not attractive. According
to a survey conducted by Comprehensive Education Sector Review, teachers reported that most
schools do not have enough desks and chairs for classrooms, the classroom size is inadequate,
and there are no toilets in the schools. Moreover, many classes are crowded into the same room
without any walls or partitions between them. These kinds of problems are mostly the result of
inadequate budget allocation (Min ZawSoe, Aye MyaSwe, Nan Khin Moe Aye, & Nan Htet
Mon, 2017).
School's physical facilities provide and maintain safety, cleanness, and creativity learning
environments to the students which encourage students to perceive high achievements and
outcome. Physical facilities strive to give students a comfortable learning environment in which
they work and learn. In developing countries, low quality of learning among students can partly
be attributed to poor or physical facilities of the schools. School physical facilities are
fundamental factors for better learning environment and achievements, and outcome of the
students (Saeed&Wain, 2011, cited in Nepal &Maharjan, 2015).
Parental Involvement and Students’ Participation in Co-curricular Activities
The modern educator seeks the active interest and co-operation of parents in the
education of their children. In the new school, every week is “Education Week” when the school
doors are open to visitors. The new school realizes that home and school share a mutual interest
and school, there cannot be full success in educating the child. The result is that parents and
teachers meet in small or large groups to discuss their common problems. In some schools,
parents assist in the office and classrooms, they participate in trips and many other social and
community undertakings (Kochhar, 1985).
Effective schools also tend to have high levels of parental involvement. Parents are key
individuals whose support can make important contributions to a school’s effort to accomplish its
educational missions. There is strong evidence that, when parents show a strong interest in
school, their children have a more positive attitude about school and do better in their academic
tasks ( Armstrong, Henson, & Savage,1989).
Research Method
Descriptive survey design, both quantitative and qualitative method is used to carry out
the study. As a quantitative research method, data were collected by surveys from the principals,
teachers and middle school students to investigate how the various factors influenced students’
participation in co-curricular activities at the Middle School Level. As a qualitative research
method, the researcher conducted interview by meeting headmasters or headmistress in the
selected schools. Descriptive research involves collecting data in order to test hypothesis or to
answer questions concerning the current status of the subjects of the study (Gay, 1987).
The sample of the subjects was principals, junior teachers; particularly co-curricular
teachers, and middle school students from the thirteen schools in Kyauktaga Township and they
were selected by using stratified sampling and simple random sampling methods. The total
numbers of principals, junior teachers and students participated in this study were (526).
Table 1The Sample Schools and Sample Size

Numbers of participants
No Schools
Principals Teachers Students
1 B.E.H.S, Kyauktaga 1 6 78
2 B.E.H.S, Thamin Inn Kone 1 2 26
3 B.E.H.S, In Kone 1 4 20
4 B.E.M.S, 14-Ywa 1 2 28
5 B.E.H.S(Branch), Htain Tall 1 2 16
6 B.E.M.S, KoneLalYoe 1 2 16
7 B.E.H.S, PaeNweKone 1 4 45
8 B.E.H.S, Pha do 1 6 72
9 B.E.H.S(Branch), 2-Yat Quat 1 2 36
10 B.E.M.S, Myot Ma 1 2 30
11 B.E.H.S(Branch), HmanChaung 1 3 32
12 B.E.H.S(Branch), Say YoeKhin 1 3 32
13 B.E.H.S(Branch), AnaukYat 1 4 40
Total 13 42 471
Note: B.E.H.S = Basic Education High School, B.E.H.S(Branch) = Basic Education High School, Branch,
B.E.M.S = Basic Education Middle School
Instrument
As the instrumentation, three questionnaires for the factors influencing students’
participation in co-curricular activities were self-structured. Each questionnaire included
demographic data and items deal with the influencing factors, such as, the role of teachers,
infrastructural facilities of schools, funding condition, and involvement of parents in education.
Questionnaires for principals and teachers consist of 10 items for each factor and totally
40 items were contained. And one set of interview question for the principals is prepared.
Questionnaires for students consist of 6 items of each factor and totally 24 items were contained.
Another one set of participation question for students contains 10 items. Each item in attitude
questionnaires is constructed with five-point Likert scales (1- Strongly Disagree, 2- Disagree,
3- Moderately agree, 4- Agree, and 5- Strongly Agree). Each item in participation questionnaire
for students is constructed with five-point Likert scales (1-Never, 2-Seldom, 3-Sometimes.
4- Often, 5- Always).
Procedure
First of all, the researcher found out the relevant literature concerning with the research.
Secondly, in order to the required data, the researcher constructed the instruments under the
guidance of the supervisor. For the validation of the instrument, the questionnaires for the factors
influencing students’ participation in co-curricular activities were distributed to three experts
from the Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education. The instrument was
modified according to the advices and guidance of the experts. Content validity was determined
by expert judgment. After that, a pilot testing was conducted in 3rd October, 2018. Based on the
findings of the pilot test, internal consistency reliability of the questionnaires are determined by
Cronbach’s alpha. The Cronbach’ alpha internal consistency reliability of the students’
questionnaire was (0.674) and the Cronbach’ alpha internal consistency reliability of the
teacher’s questionnaire was (0.876). So these items were used for the final test.
And then, the main study was conducted from 9th November, 2018 to 28th November,
2018. The questionnaires were distributed to the subjects with the request to complete and return
as soon as possible. At the same time, the researcher interviewed to the principals. The
respondents were asked to decide about the questionnaire statements and marked the relevant
response category honestly. So the response rate was (100)%. After the questionnaires were
returned, the obtained data were entered into a computer file and were analyzed using the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.
Analysis of Data
The data were analyzed by using descriptive (means, standard deviations) and inferential
(correlation) statistics. Pearson product-moment correlation was used to assess whether there
were relationship between students’ participation in co-curricular activities and the influencing
factors. Multiple regressions were used to calculate the extent of influencing factors on students’
participation in co-curricular activities. To interpret the interview response, constant comparison
method was used.
Findings
Findings of the Quantitative Results
Table 2 Percentages of Assumptions of the Factors Influencing Students’
Participation in Co-curricular Activities by the Participants
Numbers of Disagree Normal Agree
Factors
Participants N % N % N %
The Role of Teachers 526 2 0.4% 46 8.7% 478 90.9%
The Role of
526 29 5.5% 266 50.6% 231 43.9%
Infrastructures
The Role of Funding 526 14 2.7% 245 46.6% 267 50.7%
The Role of Parental
526 5 1% 56 10.6% 465 88.4%
Involvement
Table 3 Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations for Students’ Participation in

Co-curricular Activities and Predictors Variables (N=471)
Teachers’ Infrastructural Funding Parents’
Variable M SD
Role Role Role Involvement
Students’
Participation in Co- 3.53 .547 .407*** .310*** .199*** .292***
curricular Activities
Predictor variable
Teachers’ Role 4.05 .435 -- .448*** .144*** .384***
Infrastructural Role 3.46 .581 -- -.095* .282***
Funding Role 3.57 .490 -- .244***
Parents’ Involvement 4.10 .481 --
Note:.*p<.05; ***p<.001.
The correlation coefficient indicates the size and the direction of a relationship. As it can
be seen in Table 3, there is a positive correlation between students’ participation in co-curricular
activities and the four factors.
Table 4 Simultaneous Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for Teachers’ Role,
Infrastructural Role, Funding Role, and Parents’ Involvement Predicting
Students’ Participation in Co-curricular Activities (N=471)
Variable B SE B β t Sig.
Teachers’
.335 .061 .267 5.516*** .000
Role
Infrastructural
.165 .044 .175 3.721*** .000
Role
Funding Role .169 .048 .152 3.513*** .000
Parents’
.117 .052 .103 2.250* .025
Involvement
Constant .519 .271 1.918 .056
Note: R2= .223 ;F(4,466) = 33.46, ***p <.001, *p<.05
According to the result, the adjusted R2 value is .216. So the predictors are particularly
good at predicting students’ participation in co-curricular activities and it can be assumed that the
model is a particularly modest fit one. The combination of variables to predict students’
participation in co-curricular activities from the role of teachers, the role of infrastructural
facilities, the role of funding, and the role of parental involvement was statistically significant,
F(4,466) = 33.46, p < .001. This indicates that approximately 22 % of the variance in students’
participation in co-curricular activities can be predicted from the influencing factors.
The model equation to predict students’ participation in co-curricular activities is;
SPCA = .519 + .335 TR +.165 IR + .169 FR + .117 PI
Note.SPCA = Students’ Participation in Co-curricular Activities, TR = Role of Teacher, IR = Role of Infrastructure
Facilities, FR = Role of Funding, PI = Parental Involvement.
From the regression analysis, among four variables, the best predicting factors of the
influencing factors for students’ participation in co-curricular activities were found to be role of
teacher (β = .269), role of infrastructure facilities (β = .175), role of funding (β = .152), and
parental involvement (β = .117). According to the results, the role of teacher appeared to be the
strongest predictor of students’ participation in co-curricular activities. These findings support
that the students’ participation in co-curricular activities was closely related with the influencing
factors such as their teachers’ role, schools’ infrastructures, funding role and their parents’
involvement. So it may be interpreted that the better the role of teachers in co-curricular teaching,
the higher the students’ participation in co-curricular learning would be. The following model is
constructed to predict students’ participation in co-curricular activities.
Figure 1 Summary model of the results

Findings of Qualitative Results
In dealing with the influencing factors on students’ participation in co-curricular
activities such as the role of teacher, infrastructural facilities, funding and parental involvement,
the representative responses of the principals are as follows:
 All principals have basic general concepts of co-curricular activities.
 Most of the principals perceived co-curricular activities have advantages for students.
 There is little effectiveness of co-curricular teaching in today schools.
 Barriers of Co-curricular Teaching in Schools (principals’ responses)
1. There are little competent teachers in all co-curricular teachings.
2. Since no adequate teachers in schools, there are more burdens on teachers to teach co-
curricular activities.
3. Insufficiency of teaching aids for some co-curricular activities.
4. Lack of appropriate space or playground in schools.
5. Some activities cost appropriate funds to carry out and there is no particular fund
allotment for co-curricular activities in the school grants given by the government.
6. Most parents are less interested in school activities and in their children education.
7. Some teachers and students are less interested and little focused in co-curricular
activities because these activities have no examination.
8. Since most of the parents did not know the importance and benefits of these activities,
they do not encourage their children to participate in.
 Suggestions of Principals to Become More Participation of Students in Co-curricular
Activities
1. It should be fulfilled more adequate teachers in schools.
2. It should be appointed specialized teachers for each co-curricular activity or subject.
3. It should be trained in-service teachers about how to teach these activities.
4. If possibility, particular fund for all co-curricular activities are assigned by the
government.
5. It should be supplied adequate infrastructures, facilities, and equipment for co-

curricular teaching.
6. It should be distributed knowledge of co-curricular activities to the students’ parents
by any way.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the factors on middle school students’
participation in co-curricular activities. The researcher assigned the possible four factors
previously, such as, the teachers’ role factor, infrastructural role factor, funding role factor and
parental involvement role factor, and then prepared three sets of questionnaires dealing with
these factors for three strata, such as students, teachers and principals.
In order to assess the assumptions of participants on the factors influencing students’
participation in co-curricular activities, three groups such as disagree, normal and agree are
classified as presented in Table 2. the percentages of disagree populations of the study on each
factor are relatively small to the comparison of agree populations, so the assumptions of the
participants in respect of the four factors were the same as the researcher that these four factors
would be influenced to the students’ participation in co-curricular activities.
In the part of relationship between students’ participation in co-curricular activities and
the four factors, by applying Pearson correlation analysis, the results showed that the four factors
such as the role of teachers [r(471) = .407***, p < .001], infrastructures [r(471) = .310***,
p < .001], funding [r(471) = .199***, p < .001] and parental involvement [r(471) = .292***,
p < .001] were positively and significantly correlated.
The results of the role of teachers revealed that the correlation was positive correlation.
This means that if the performance of teachers in co-curricular teaching is high, the participation
of students in co-curricular activities is likely to be high, or if the performance of teachers in co-
curricular teaching is low, the participation of students in co-curricular activities is likely to be
low. In other word, students who are teached by more enthusiastic teachers were more eager to
participate in co-curricular activities than who are teached by less enthusiastic teachers.
Therefore the role of teachers significantly affects students’ participation in co-curricular
activities.
Based on the result of infrastructural facilities, it shows the direction of correlation was
positive. This means that if the role of infrastructural facilities in the schools is high, the
participation of students in co-curricular activities is likely to be high, or if the role of
infrastructural facilities in the schools is low, the participation of students in co-curricular
activities is likely to be low. In other word, students whose schools have good and adequate
infrastructures, playgrounds and agricultural grounds are willing to learn co-curricular activities
than those have poor. Therefore the role of infrastructural facilities significantly affects students’
According to the research’s finding concerning with funding, the result shows that the
direction of correlation was positive and low related. This means that if the schools may have
more adequate fund for co-curricular activities and may be used appropriately them in the
teaching of co-curricular activities, the level of students’ participation in co-curricular activities
may be high. Moreover, there is found that less adequate fund granted by the government for
co-curricular teaching in Myanmar Schools. It seems that it is one of the barriers in more
co-curricular participation.
The result of parental involvement showed that the direction of correlation was positive
and low related. This means that if the students receive appropriate directions, endowments and
encouragements to participate in co-curricular activities by their parents, the level of students’
participation in co-curricular activities is high. If so not, students are less and less interest and do
finally not participation in co-curricular activities. Therefore, the role of parental involvement
significantly affects students’ participation in co-curricular activities.
And the multiple regression analysis revealed that the role of teacher appeared to be the
strongest predictor of students’ participation in co-curricular activities. So it may be interpreted
that the better the role of teachers in co-curricular teaching, the higher the students’ participation
in co-curricular learning would be. The adjusted R2 value is .216 and this indicates that
approximately 22 % of the variance in students’ participation in co-curricular activities can be
predicted from the influencing factors.
To enhance the credibility of the current research’s findings, the researcher conducted
interview with (13) principals of the sample schools. Based on their responses, it was found that
the four factors assigned by the researcher such as the roles of teachers, infrastructures, funding
and parental involvement are inclusive in interview responses. So, it is confirmed the quantitative
results of the study.
Results of qualitative and quantitative data analysis showed that these four factors have
the significant relationship towards students’ participation in co-curricular activities. It can be
realized that these factors are necessary to become more participation of students in co-curricular
activities at the middle school level in the selected township.
Conclusion
Modern education recognized that when the child comes to the school, he comes in
mentally, physically, spiritually, socially and vocationally and as such he must be educated in all
of them, now it is recognized that these activities are valuable media for developing proper
attitudes, habits, interests, ideals among people. Because of their importance in education, they
have been renamed as co-curricular activities as they form an integral part of the school
curriculum (Kisango, 2016). Parents, teachers and administrators should implement it effectively
in all types of educational setting through all related agencies of education. Co-curricular
activities are important elements of the curriculum and should not be treated as extra
activities but treated as non-academic improvement activities.
In this research, different variables of determinants of the influencing factors on students’
participation in co-curricular activities were investigated. The study included variables such as
role of teachers, role of infrastructures, role of funding and role of parental involvement. It was
found out that these variables had a direct impact on the development of the students’
participation in co-curricular activities because of positive correlations between them.
The role of teachers in the development of co-curricular participation among middle
school students was very affected as from the analyzed data. It can be concluded that teachers
play a very important role in co-curricular teaching. Teachers should be the best role models for
instilling or implanting the knowledge of co-curricular activities. In Myanmar, most teachers
cannot encourage and stimulate pupils to participate actively in the co-curricular activities in
schools because of the assigned monthly content of the academic subjects to finish regularly.
Although it was natural process in teaching co-curricular activities in schools, the teachers should
try to change their attitude towards teaching co-curricular activities and should not adopt that
their responsibility was enough to finish the assigned syllabus.
The research findings also revealed that the role of parental involvement was the further
influencing factors on students’ participation in co-curricular activities. By the students’
responses of the dimension of parental involvement from the students questionnaires, parents
were seen to contribute positively in their role on the development of students’ participation in
co-curricular activities. It can be concluded that when parents or family members are involved in
their children’s development of co-curricular participation in positive ways, students more

participate and realize their potential in co-curricular activities.
According to the research findings of the roles of funding and infrastructures, they play a
significant effect on students’ participation in co-curricular activities. By this study, it can be
concluded that when schools funding is increased and more money allocated towards
co-curricular activities, more students participate and then their skills are nurtured. From the
quantitative and qualitative findings, Myanmar schools are weak in the part of funding towards
co-curricular activities. Moreover, it was found that there are inadequate infrastructures in some
schools in the research, so some co-curricular activities cannot be carried out effectively.
Therefore, the government and stakeholders such as teachers, parents and education officials
should cooperate and put the relevant infrastructures in place to encourage students’ participation
in co-curricular activities.
To conclude, this study shows that students’ participation in co-curricular activities is
affected by many factors which co-curricular teachers and learners should be aware of. The four
factors investigated in this research are moderately linked to the participation of students in
co-curricular activities. It is sure that there are many other residual factors. Another researcher
should investigate other influential factors on students’ participation in co-curricular activities.
Then, the stakeholders in education should provide appropriate plans to improve the development
of co-curricular participation among students.
Acknowledgements
Firstly, we would like to express our respectful gratitude to Dr. Saw Pyone Naing (Rector, Sagaing
University of Education), Dr. Myat Myat Thaw (Pro-Rector, Sagaing University of Education) for their permission
to carry out this study successfully. We would like to thank a million to Prof. Dr. Soe Than (Retired Professor, Head
of Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education) and Dr. Wai Wai Oo (Associate Professor, Head
of Department of Methodology, Sagaing University of Education) for giving us the opportunities to undertake this
assignment.
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A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

STUDENTS’ MATHEMATICS-RELATED BELIEF SYSTEMS AND
THEIR PROBLEM SOLVING ABILITY
Win Win Maw 1, Naing Naing Thein2
Abstract
The main purpose of this research is to study the relationship between the middle school students’
mathematics-related belief systems and their problem solving ability. A quantitative research
method and descriptive research design were used to study students’ mathematics-related belief
systems and their problem solving ability. This study was conducted in Yangon Region. The
sample schools for this study were randomly selected. Two high schools and one middle school
were selected from each district, Yangon Region. Therefore, eight high schools and four middle
schools were included in this study. The (600) Grade Eight students were participated in this
study. A Mathematics-Related Beliefs Questionnaire (MRBQ) and a problem solving ability test
were used as instruments. To measure the reliability of the instrument, a pilot test was conducted
to (50) Grade Eight students. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) of the students’
Mathematics-Related Beliefs Questionnaire (MRBQ) was (.736) and students’ problem solving
ability test was (.733). This means that these instruments have the reliability. The copies of
modified instrument were distributed to all the participants of the twelve selected schools with the
help of the headmaster/headmistress and teachers from those schools. The data were analyzed by
using the descriptive analysis techniques and Person product moment correlation in this study. The
research finding revealed that there were positively moderate relationships between the students’
beliefs about mathematics education and their problem solving ability (r = .615, p < .01), the
students’ beliefs about the self and their problem solving ability (r = .635, p < .01), the students’
beliefs about the social context and their problem solving ability (r = .606, p < .01). Furthermore,
the relationship between the students’ mathematics-related belief systems and their problem
solving ability was positively high relationship (r = .790, p < .01). Findings pointed out that the
students’ mathematics-related belief systems influence on the students’ problem solving ability, so
there is a relationship between students’ mathematics-related belief systems and their problem
solving ability.
Keywords: Students’ Mathematics-related Belief Systems, Problem Solving, Problem
SolvingAbility
Introduction
Education is essential for everyone. It enables an individual to make his life better both as
an individual and as a member of his society. Mathematics education also plays a vital role in the
present day scientific and technological world. One cannot also do without the use of
fundamental processes of mathematics in daily life. It can be visualized as the vehicle to train a
person to think, reason, analyze, and to articulate logically. So, mathematics is very important for
everyone. Moreover, mathematics is a subject that is filled with problems. According to Branca
(1980, cited in Rahayu & Kartono, 2012), the ability of problem solving is the heart of
mathematics. Op’tEynde and De Corte (2004) explained that in order for students to become
competent problem solvers they must develop a mathematical disposition, where affect plays a
major role. More specifically, student’s mathematics-related belief systems form a central
component of a mathematical disposition and have a strong impact on learning and problem
solving (Op’tEynde & De Corte, 2004).
1
Assistant Lecturer, Methodology Department, Dawei Education College
2

Mathematics is very important subject. It is a compulsory subject from the primary school
level to high school level in Myanmar. However, over four years of the teaching career of the
researcher, it was found that many students have the hateful notion in mathematics learning.
They may think that learning mathematics and calculating mathematical problems are
unattainable tasksand these are not related real life situation. This hateful notion seems to be
undermined their mathematics achievement and problem solving ability. A large number of
teachers hope that students will be able to improve the mathematics achievement and problem
solving ability.
Schoenfeld(1989) pointed out that students’ ability to solveproblems is often undermined
by their beliefs about mathematics. So, it is important thing that students must possess positive
beliefs about mathematics to do mathematical tasks unreservedly. But, the researcher thinks that
most students do not have beliefs about mathematics. This is undoubted aspect that beliefs play
great role in mathematics learning and teaching.
Schoenfeld (1989) claimed that the learning outcomes of students are strongly related to
their beliefs about mathematics. By his claim, how students’ mathematics-related beliefs
influence on their learning and problem solving of this subject has attracted to the researcher.
Therefore, the researcher would like to study the middle school students’ mathematics-related
belief systems and the relationship between these systems and students’ problem solving ability.
The main purpose of this research is to study the relationship between the middle school
students’ mathematics-related belief systems and their problem solving ability.
The specific objectives are as follows.
 To investigate the middle school students’ mathematics-related beliefs
 To examine students’ problem solving ability
 To identify the relationship between the middle school students’ mathematics-related
belief systems and their problem solving ability
Research Questions
Q1: To what extent do the students possess mathematics-related beliefs?
Q2:To what extent do the students possess problem solving ability?
Q3:Is there a relationship between the middle school students’ mathematics-related
belief systems and their problem solving ability?
Scope of the Study
This research has its own particular limitations. The first limitation is related to the
participants of the study. The (600) Grade Eight students from selected eight Basic Education
High Schools and four Basic Education Middle Schools, the total twelve schools in Yangon
Region are included in this study. The second limitation is that this study is only concerned with
the categories and subcategories of students’ mathematics-related belief systems which are
identified by Op’tEynde, De Corte, and Verschaffel (2002). The three main categories are (1)
beliefs about mathematics education, (2) beliefs about the self and (3) beliefs about the social
context, i.e., the classroom context. To investigate these beliefs, Mathematics-Related Beliefs
Questionnaire (MRBQ) will be used. The third limitation is the content areas of the subject that is
mathematics. The content areas are limited to fourteen chapters from Grade Eight mathematics
textbook volume I and four chapters from mathematics textbook volume II to construct problem
solving ability test that is used to measure students’ problem solving ability.
Students’ Mathematics-Related Belief Systems
Students’ mathematics-related belief systems can be defined as the implicitly or explicitly
held subjective conceptions students hold to be true about mathematics education, about
themselves as mathematicians, and about the mathematics class context.
(De Corte & Op’tEynde, 2002)
Problem Solving
Problem solving is the process of working detail of problem to reach a solution. Problem
solving may include mathematical or systematic operations and can be a gauge of an individual’s
critical thinking skills. (Longman Company, 2009)
Problem Solving Ability
In this study, problem solving ability is referred to an essential ability in which includes
reading skill to comprehend or understand the statement, process skill to identify the
mathematical operations and quantities needed to solve the problem, and computational skill to
carry out the computation accurately.
With new developments in cognitive science in the 1970s, attention to beliefs and belief
systems re-emerged. Students hold certain beliefs about mathematics and about themselves that
play an important role in the development of their affective responses to mathematical situations
(Mcleod, 1992). More specially, studies on students’ value and expectancy beliefs in the context
of mathematical learning and problem solving clearly show how these beliefs relate to students’
motivation and the way they engage in mathematical learning and problem solving. Beliefs about
the self strongly determine students’ emotions during problem solving (Op’tEynde et al., 2002).
Students’ belief about teaching and the practices characterizing their specific classroom context
have been found important factors to be taken into account if the academic behaviors in the
classroom want to be understood fully.
And also several studies have conducted about the mathematics-related belief systems.
The researcher thinks that the results of the current study may raise students’ awareness of their
probable belief systems and how they influence their learning, problem solving and achievement
in mathematics.According to the reasons mentioned above, it is clear that it is necessary to study
students’ mathematics-related belief systems and how these belief systems impact students’
problem solving.
Problem Solving
Polya (1985) proposed that problem solving was a major theme of doing mathematics and
teaching students to think was of primary importance. How to thinkis a theme that underlies
much of genuine inquiry and problem solving in mathematics. Problem solving has come to be
viewed as a process involving the highest faculties − visualization, association, abstraction,
comprehension, manipulation, reasoning, analysis, synthesis, generalization − to be managed and
all ending to be coordinated.
For a learner to effectively solve a mathematical problem, he/she should clearly identify four
components at the initial or approach stage of problem solving.
1. The goal or goals (The thing or things wanted to do in a situation).
2. The givens (The facts and factors that are available to start in a problem situation).
3. The obstacles (The elements or factors that get in the way of a solution).
4. The methods or operations (The procedures that may be used to solve the problem).
Strategies in solving mathematics problems are essential in mathematics education. Problem
solving procedure is a plan made as to how question can be solved, and a perspective and pattern
in the events. The most commonly used problem solving model is Polya’s four-step model
including understand the problem, devise a plan, carry out the plan, and look back to check the
results (Polya, 1985).

The efficiency and ability in solving problems is the basis of success in learning
mathematics. The learner must have adequate knowledge of such essential information as
number facts, relationships of commonly used measures, arithmetical symbols, formulas, the
technical vocabulary of arithmetic, and the use of graphs and tables. Problem solving ability
depends on not only problem solving intelligence but also the relationship between
problemsolving and arithmetical understanding. In addition, an interest in mathematics and in
learning to solve problems plays a significant role in problem solving ability.
Problem Solving and Beliefs
The ability to solve mathematics problems develops slowly over a very long period of
time because it requires much more than merely the direct application of some mathematical
content knowledge. Problemsolving performance seems to be a function of at least five broad,
interdependent categories of factors: knowledge acquisition and utilization, control, beliefs,
affects and socio-cultural contexts (Charles & Lester, 1982, cited in Ozturk&Guven, 2016).
Cognitive skill is needed but itself is not sufficient to support problemsolving behavior. In
addition to possessing affectivedomain, problem solvers need to be able to manage their ability
and skills. According to Sriraman (2003), it is currentlyaccepted that the cognitive processes
involved in problem solving are susceptible to the influence oftheaffective domain in its three
fundamental areas: beliefs, attitudes, and emotions.
Students’ Mathematics-Related Belief Systems

An analysis of the nature and the structure of beliefs and belief systems show that the
social context, the self, and the object in the world that the beliefs relate to, are constitutive for
the development and the functioning of these systems. The constitutive dimensions of students’
mathematics-related belief systems can then be represented as a triangle (see Figure 1).
Object (mathematics education)
Student’s
mathematics-related
belief systems
Social context
(class context) Self
Source: From Op’t Eynde, De Corte, and Verschaffel (2002), P. 27.
Figure 1 Constitutive Dimensions of Students’ Mathematics-Related Belief Systems

Students’ mathematics-related beliefs are constituted by theirbeliefs about mathematics
education,beliefs about the self, andbeliefs about the social context (i.e. class context). A
framework of students’ mathematics-related beliefs in which the major components of the
modelspresented above were tried to integrate was developed. The different categories and
subcategories of the framework are presented in the Table 1.
Table 1 A Framework of Students’ Mathematics-Related Beliefs

Beliefs about Mathematics Beliefs about the Self Beliefs about the Social
Education Context
(a) Beliefs about mathematics (a) Goal orientation beliefs (a) Beliefs about social
as a subject norms in their own class
(b) Task value beliefs
(b) Beliefs about -the role and the functioning
(c) Control beliefs
mathematical learning of the teacher
andproblem solving (d) Self-efficacy beliefs
-the role and the functioning
(c) Beliefs about mathematics of the students
teaching
(b) Beliefs about socio-
mathematical norms in their
own class
Source: Adapted from Op’t Eynde, De Corte, and Verschaffel (2002), P. 28.
Previous Related Researh

Lerch (2004) conducted a study with the title “Control decision and personal beliefs their
effect on solving mathematical problems.” He found that belief affected students’ approach to
problem solving. Specifically, students’ personal belief systems provided confidence that would
be able to solve the problem. Chirove (2014) conducted the research on “The relationship
between learners’ mathematics-related belief systems and their approaches to non-routine

mathematical problem solving: A case study of three high schools in Tshwane north district (D3),
Sourth Africa.” He found that a weak positive linear relationship between them.
Research Design
The research design used for this study was a descriptive research design.
The students’ result in mathematics achievement and problem solving ability is still under
unsatisfactory condition. One assumption for this may be imperfectly students’ beliefs about
mathematical context. To what degree the students possess beliefs about mathematical context
and are there really influences beliefs on students’ mathematics achievement and problem
solving ability should be investigated. So the researcher sought out the literature related to this
study through books and Internet sources. After that, a Mathematics-Related Beliefs
Questionnaire and a problem solving ability test were constructed for this study. To find the
reliability of the instruments a pilot test with (50) Grade Eight students was conducted.Then,
eight high schools and four middle schoolsfrom Yangon Region were selected by using a random
sampling method. Six hundred Grade Eight Students were also selected as participants.The
required data are collected with the help of the headmaster/headmistress of those schools and the
test was administered and then the data were entered into the computer data file and were
analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS 22).
Instruments
In this study, a Mathematics-Related Beliefs Questionnaire(MRBQ) and a problem
solving ability test for Grade Eight students were used as instruments.
(a) Mathematics-Related Beliefs Questionnaire
Mathematics-Related Beliefs Questionnaire (MRBQ) developed by Op’tEynde and De
Corte (2004, cited in Physick, 2010 &Chirove, 2014) was adapted.The total items were (50) on
five point Likert-type scale from (1) to (5). For positive items, the score closer to (1) indicated
“Never/Strongly Disagree” and “Always/ Strongly Agree” was indicated by the score closer to
(5). For negative items, the score closer to (1) indicated “Always/ Strongly Agree” and (5)
indicated “Never/Strongly Disagree”. To measure the reliability of the questionnaire, the
Cronbach’s Alpha was used. According to the pilot study, the internal consistency (Cronbach’s
Alpha) of the questionnaire for all mathematics-related belief systems was (.736).
(b) Problem Solving Ability Test

In order to measure the problem solving ability of the students, a problem solving ability
test was constructed .This test covered (18) chapters: (14) chapter (Chapter 1 to 14) from Grade
Eight mathematics textbook volume I and (4) chapters (Chapter 1 to 4) from mathematics
textbooks volume II. In this test, there are (10) multiple choice items for the score (10) marks of
the test and (4) seen and (4) unseen problems for the score (40) marks of the test and the total
score was (50) marks. Its internal consistency is (.733).

All the participants in the sample were Grade Eight students. This study was conducted in
Yangon Region. There are four districts in Yangon Region. One township from each district was
randomly selected for this study.The sample schools for the study were selected by using a
stratified random sampling technique. Two high schools and one middle school from each
township were selected as the sample. Therefore, twelve schools (eight high school and four
middle schools) are included in this study. The total number of students participated in this study
were (600). The students in this study were selected by an equal-size (non-proportional) random
sampling technique.Table 2 shows the number of population and the sample size in the selected
schools.
Table 2Population and Sample Size
No. of Student
No. District Township School Population Subject
1. Tharkayta B.E.H.S (4) 287 50
2. East Tharkayta B.E.H.S (5) 367 50
3. Tharkayta B.E.M.S (7) 187 50
4. Mayangone B.E.H.S (2) 630 50
5. West Mayangone B.E.H.S (3) 138 50
6. Mayangone B.E.M.S (3) 112 50
7. Thongwa B.E.H.S (1) 237 50
8. South Thongwa B.E.H.S (2) 240 50
9. Thongwa B.E.M.S – Ye New 52 50
10. Hlaingtharyar B.E.H.S (2) 292 50
11. North Hlaingtharyar B.E.H.S (3) 389 50
12. Hlaingtharyar B.E.M.S (5) 332 50
Total 3263 600
Note.B.E.H.S = Basic Education High School
B.E.M.S = Basic Education Middle School
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation).
Moreover, the Pearson product-moment correlation was used to describe the relationships
between the middle school students’ mathematics-related belief systems and their problem
solving ability.
Research Findings
Findings of Students’ Mathematics-Related Belief Systems
In order to find out the students’ mathematics-related belief systems, (50) items were
used. The full score of students’ Mathematics-Related Beliefs Questionnaire (MRBQ) was (250).
In order to examine the percentage of students who possess mathematics-related belief systems
of low, moderate, high levels a descriptive statistics (percentage) was used. The average mean
score and the standard deviation by all the participants were (184.19) and (17.005) respectively.
So based on these results, if the score was below (167), it would be defined as low level of
mathematics-related belief systems. If the score was between (167) and (201), it would be
defined asmoderate level of mathematics-related belief systems. If the score was above (201), it
would be defined as high level of mathematics-related belief systems. From the total number of
participants, 11.3% (N =68) of the students possess low level, 72.5% (N = 435) of the students
possess moderate level and 16.2% (N = 97) of the students possess high level of mathematics-
related belief systems (see Table 3).
Table 3 Students’ Level of Mathematics-Related Belief Systems
Level of Mathematics- Percentage
Score (x) No. of Student
Related Belief Systems (%)
Low x < 167 68 11.3
Moderate 167 ≤ x ≤ 201 435 72.5
High x >201 97 16.2
Total 600 100%
Comparison of the Three Categories ofStudents’Mathematics-Related Belief Systems

When the mean percentages of three categories of students’ mathematics-related
belief systems are compared, the mean percentage of beliefs about mathematics education was
(71.01%), beliefs about the self was (73.44%), and beliefs about the social context was (76.65%)
respectively (see Table 4). It indicates that the mean percentage of students’ belief about
mathematics education was the lowest and students’beliefs about the social context was the
highest.It indicates that the mean percentage of students’ belief about mathematics education
which is the first category of students’ mathematics related-belief systems was the lowest and the
mean percentage of students’beliefs about the social context which is the third category of
students’ mathematics related-belief systems was the highest.
Table 4 TheComparison of the Mean Percentages of Three Categories of Students’
Mathematics-Related Belief Systems
Mean
Students’ Mathematics- No. of Standard Mini- Maxi-
Mean Percent-
Related Belief Systems Student Deviation mum Mum
age (%)
Beliefs about Mathematics
600 53.26 71.01 6.518 36 69
Education
Beliefs about the Self 600 73.44 73.44 8.041 29 95
Beliefs about the Social
600 57.49 76.65 7.135 27 73
Context
Findings of Students’ Problem Solving Ability

In order to find out the students’ problem solving ability, a problem solving ability test
was administered.The full score of students’problem solving abilitywas (50). In order to access
the students’ problem solving ability level, it was necessary to examine the percentage of
students whoseproblem solving abilitylevel is low, moderate and high in all the participants. The
average mean and standard deviation by all the participants were (28.68) and (8.759)
respectively. So based on these results, if the score was below (20), it would be defined as low
problem solving ability level. If the score was between (20) and (37), it would be defined as
moderate problem solving ability level. If the score was above (38), it would be defined as high
problem solving ability level. The findings of students’ problem solving abilitywere presented in
Table 5 in terms of three levels.From the total number of participants, 17.5% (N = 105) of the
students were at low level, 59.5%(N = 357) of the students were at moderate level and 23%
(N = 138) of the students were at high level of problem solving ability.
Table 5 Students’Level of Problem Solving Ability

Level of Students’ Problem Percentage
Score (x) No. of Student
Solving Ability (%)
Low x <20 105 17.5
Moderate 20≤ x ≤ 37 357 59.5
High x >37 138 23
Total 600 100%
Findings of the Correlations between Students’ Mathematics-Related Belief Systems and

their Problem Solving Ability
The correlation analysis was performed between students’ mathematics-related belief
systems (overall belief systems, beliefs about mathematics education, beliefs about the self, and
beliefs about the social context) and their problem solving ability using the Pearson product-
moment correlation. Table 6 shows the correlation between students’ problem solving ability and
their mathematics-related belief systems in terms of beliefs about mathematics education, beliefs
about the self, and beliefs about the social context.
Table 6 The Correlations between Students’ Mathematics-Related Belief Systems and their
Students’ Mathematics-Related Belief Correlation
Systems (Problem Solving Ability)
Beliefs about Mathematics Education .615**
Beliefs about the Self .635**
Beliefs about the Social Context .606**
Over all Belief Systems .790**

Discussion
This research finding supports the finding of Lerch (2004) and is similar to the finding of
Chirove (2014) though a little different result had.
According to the research findings of students’ mathematics-related belief systems, it was
found that (11.3%) of the students possessed low level, (72.5%) of the students possessed
moderate level, and (16.2%) of the students possessed high level. These findings revealed the
answer to research question (1): To what extent do the students possess mathematics-related
beliefs?Moreover, the fact that beliefs about mathematics education was lowest was found so
students do not believe and cannot perform to apply their lesson in their daily life. The fact
beliefs about the social context was highest indicated that most students depend on teachers and
their peers. Positively, the warm relation, collaboration, accommodation, and adjusting between
students and teacher and between peers were found.
Concerning with the students’ problem solving ability, (17.5%) of the students possessed
low level of problem solving ability, (59.5%) of the students possessed moderate level of
problem solving ability and (23%) of the students possessed high level of problem solving
ability. These findings revealed the answer to research question (2): To what extent do the
students possess problem solving ability? This result indicated students had difficulty in thinking
unseen problems, formulating solutions from word problems and solving geometrical figures.
The correlation between the students’ mathematics-related belief systems and their
problem solving ability was found that the correlation (r (10) = .790, p< .01). This result showed
that the direction of correlation was positive and it indicated that if the students’ mathematics-
related belief systems were high, the students’ problem solving ability was also high and if the
students’ mathematics-related belief systems were low, the students’ problem solving ability was
also low. So, this finding revealed the answer to research question (3): Is there a relationship
between the middle school students’ mathematics-related belief systems and their problem
solving ability?
Suggestions
Some suggestions for the improving of each mathematics-related belief systems and
problem solving ability are as follows.
Suggestions for Improving the Students’ Beliefs about Mathematics Education: Teachers
should perform to gain knowledge for students to connect mathematics lessons to their daily life
and other course. The facts that mathematics is continuously evolving and new thing are still
being discovered should be demonstrated by giving unseen problem such as external problems
and unusual problems. Moreover, teachers should never humiliate the students about
mathematics learning and doing mathematical task and never use mathematics as a
punishment.Teachers should try to make mathematics lessons interesting for students by asking
to compete each other in solving problems, to discover own invention and to design a graph by
using mathematical calculated data. In teaching mathematics, students’ centered approach should
be adopted and new lessons should be taught based on previous knowledge. Furthermore,
teachers should keep in mind individual difference of the learner while teaching. Consequently,
positive beliefs about mathematics education would increase.
Suggestions for Improving the Students’ Beliefs about the Self:Teachers should use
instructional strategies to encourage the development of critical thinking skills such as think-pair-
share, brain-storming, problem-based learning. Teachers should practice students to enjoy
pondering mathematical exercise. So, thought-provoking problems should be provided to
students. Problem-based learning should be used for active participation of the students.
Classroom environment should be full of active activities to promote task value beliefs.
Moreover, teachers should contribute students the opportunity to choose mathematical
assignments that they can learn from even if they are not at all sure of getting a good grade.
Students should be allowed to initiate their own strategies to solve problems and struggle with
challenges. Sometime, unusual mathematical problems should be provided to sure the thought
that the students could handle more difficult mathematical problems. Such the ways, the
students’ beliefs about the self will be able to promote.
Suggestions for Improving the Students’ Beliefs about the Social Context: Teachers should
upgrade not only students’ skills but also their intrinsically competent by themselves. When
students make mistakes in learning mathematics, the teachers should give explanation again
instead of punishment. Students to be improved communication skill, the teaching strategies such
as cooperation, collaboration, discussion, group investigation should be used.
Students should be made aware of their belief systems and the possible effects of their
naive beliefs to mathematical problem solving. Teachers should incorporate students’ belief
systems in their teaching and learning process in an attempt to encourage the development of
positive, health and enlightened mathematics-related belief systems. So, teachers should assess
and be aware of students’ active belief systems that adversely affect their mathematical problem
solving. By doing so, the students’ mathematics-related belief systems and problem solving
ability can be promoted effectively.
Conclusion
Nowadays, most of the syllabuses are within ace of abstract in nature, the classroom
teaching is likely to abstract and textual material is also abstract. So, it is needed that the students
who are continuously trained in solving abstract mathematical problems are expected to prefer
abstract problem situations. And, their beliefs appear to be for applying their mathematical
knowledge in problem situations.
Certain beliefs affected the behaviors of the students and their decisions, as well as which
behaviors they will perform in the process. The statement that students’ beliefs affect their
decisions was supported by the findings of this study. Students’ beliefs have positive beliefs and
negative beliefs. While some students' beliefs had a positive effect on the problem solving ability,
others had a negative effect. The positive effects cause persistence in looking for a solution.
Negative effects are giving up the missing problem solving process, failing to make an effort to
solve the problem. Students’ negative beliefs prevented them from the transition between the
steps of problem solving and prevented their transition between the steps changed according to
the tack of the problem.
Most of the participants who possessed positive beliefs thought that problem solving was
an enjoyable activity as long as they were able to solve the problems they encountered. They
believed that they needed to find solutions to the problems to increase their thinking for problem
solving and thought the problem solving as gratifying. Therefore, it can be inferred that there was
a direct positive relationship between the beliefs and the problem solving ability. It was also
determined that students were motivated by their positive beliefs as long as they were successful.
Students’ beliefs grow up along mathematics learning and it used to solve not only
mathematics problem solving but also to solve daily life problem. If mathematical classroom
practices can have detrimental effects on students’ beliefs, it is plausible to hypothesize that
alternative learning environments can be designed that foster positive mathematics-related beliefs
in children. Students’ mathematics-related beliefs are manifested in the classroom in whether and
how they ask and answer questions, work on problems, and approach new mathematical tasks.
The assessment of students’ mathematics-related beliefs can help teachers plan instruction and
structure the classroom environment so as to help students develop more enlightened beliefs
about mathematics and mathematics learning. Furthermore, students’ awareness of how beliefs
develop, change over time and affect learning might assist them to develop a healthy relationship
with mathematics. The information in this study can provide teachers with valuable information
about the beliefs that influence their students’ study of mathematics
Finally, the fact that the students’ mathematics-related belief systems really impact on
students’ achievement and problem solving ability cannot deny according to the results of the
current study. And, mathematics teachers will realize that their students need to improve
mathematics-related beliefs through this study. Although this study cannot fulfill all the aims of
teaching mathematics in the middle school, it can be hoped that it can support, to some extent, to
try for improving middle school students’ mathematics-related belief systems and their problem
solving ability in Myanmar.
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Vol. XVIII No.9C (Methodology)

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Vol. XVIII No.9C (Methodology)

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JOURNAL OF THE

Vol. XVIII, No.9C, August, 2020

Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL IN

Specific objectives are as follows.

communication, connection, and representation. Hence, mathematics teachers need to analyze

Pupils’ actual Zone of Proximal Potential

Most difficult task Most difficult task

Figure 1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Cognitive Teaching and Learning Theories

According to Piaget’s cognitive development theory (Sang, 2003), concept learning is

Teaching Feedbac Regulatio

Strategies of Concept Attainment

Selecting a Presenting Analyzing

Figure 5 Proposed Concept Attainment Model

Bago Region BEHS Phado 101 101

(Kyauktaga BEHS (Branch) Quarter 2 Phado 81 81

Mandalay Region BEHS Myoe Ma 279 135

Instruments. Questionnaire and interview were used.

Table 3 t Value for Posttest Scores of Grade Seven Students in S2

Table 4 Summary of ANCOVA Results for Problem-Solving Skill on Posttest of Grade

Table 6 Summary of ANCOVA Results for Communication Skill on Posttest of Grade

Note: **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table 10 Attitudes of Students and Teachers towards Learning Activities based on

Table 11 Grade Seven Teachers’ Attitudes towards the Attainment of Mathematics

1. Mathematics concepts are the most important things for 6 50 50 0 0 0

A STUDY OF THE AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE OF THE PRIMARY

Review of Related Literature

Curriculum Development and Implementation

4 4.34 4.33 4.41 4.27 4.06

Table 2 Correlations between Awareness and Attitude and level of Implementation in

Discussion, Suggestions and Conclusion

In order to achieve the implementation of new primary curriculum, it is necessary to

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROJECT

 Attitude - Attitude defined as a disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an

Scope of the Study

Nature of Project Based Learning

Step 1: Creating/ Providing the Situation

Choosing and Purposing

Steps of project based learning Planning of the project

Executing the project

Judging or evaluating the project

Recording the project

Figure 2.1 Steps of Project Based Learning

Table 2 Experimental Design

Table 4 t Values for Scores on Knowledge Level Questions

Table 5 t Values for Scores on Comprehension Level Questions

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING MODEL IN

Significance of the Study

(1) Motivational perspective

(2) Social cohesion perspective

(3) Cognitive perspective

(5) Cognitive elaboration perspective

(1) Effects on Academic Achievement

(2) Effects on Cooperative Behavior

Model of Cooperative Learning. Researcher would like to investigate the effective-ness of

Source: From Smith & Ragan. (1999)

(3) Base or Home Groups

educators and academicians. According to their valuable suggestions, necessary modification in

Note : *** p < .001

Note: p < .01. *p < .001.