What is Personality Theory?

Personality theories have been used throughout history to address what makes up the
personality of an individual. A personality is how a person thinks, feels, and behaves.
This influences how the person interacts with their environment.
Personality is generally stable, although it can be influenced by environmental factors. An
individual's personality causes them to react to certain scenarios and people.
The four personality theories are:

 psychoanalytic
 humanistic
 trait perspective
 behaviorist theory

Personality theories study how an individual develops their personality and can be
utilized in studying personality disorders. These theories address whether personality is a
biological trait or one that is developed through a person's interaction with their
environment.
Personality theories address the origins of personality as well as the traits that define a
personality. These theories look to understand why people develop different character
traits and respond to external and internal stimuli differently.

Psychoanalytic Personality Theory

Definition
The psychoanalytic personality theory was developed by famed psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud. Freud believed that an individual's personality was a summation of their
innate instincts and their parental influences. He thought that these two forces, nature,
and nurture, worked together to form a complete personality.
Freud believed that personality was made up of the following components:

 instincts that drive behavior such as sex, hunger, and thirst

 unconscious thought processes that the person is unaware of
 childhood events, particularly parental influence and nurturing events

He believed that the events of the first five years of life developed the personality of
adults. The instincts and the environment of a child during these crucial years would
affect his personality development.
Freud also believed that personality was defined by three components:

 The id controls the instinctual urges of a person.

 The ego moderates the urges of the id and superego and keeps them in check
with reality.
 The superego is responsible for the development of a person's morals.

Freud hypothesized that children developed their personalities by progressing through a

succession of stages that focused on particular regions of the body. If a child progressed
through the stages without incidence, they would be well-developed in that area. If not,
they may develop an infatuation later in life. For example, if a child does not successfully
pass the oral stage in life, they may develop an eating disorder later in life or may
become a chronic thumb-sucker.

Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic personality theory.

Humanistic Personality Theory

Definition
The humanistic personality theory was developed by Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel
Briggs Myers, a mother and daughter. Humanistic personality theory highlights the
importance of self-growth to develop healthy personality traits. The researchers
developed the test to understand the differences in personalities.
They developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, a questionnaire created in 1943 to help
people understand their personality type. This test is used in clinical settings as well as
research settings and has been translated into thirty languages.
These test results split the individuals into 16 different personality groups. The goal is to
place these people into careers where they are happiest and to provide them with a
better understanding of themselves.
The test helps the individual understand four components of personality:

What are the four personality theories?

The four personality theories are:
 psychoanalytic
 humanistic
 trait perspective
 behaviorist theory

Personality theories study how an individual develops their personality and

can be utilized in studying personality disorders. These theories address
whether personality is a biological trait or one that is developed through a
person's interaction with their environment.

The trait theory of personality is an approach to studying

human personality through traits, such as extraversion,
agreeableness, honesty, etc.

When somebody asks us about a certain person, then we usually

describe them through traits: “She is a little shy” or “he is a
perfectionist”. These traits are essentially habitual patterns of
behavior, which make us who we are.

Starting from Allport & Odbert, various psychologists have come

up with trait theories, some of which we will discuss below. But
before that, let us learn about the concept in more detail and
look at some examples.

A relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain

way.”

(Kassin, 2022)
For them, these traits were the building blocks of personality,
and they were characterized by:

 Consistency: Traits are consistent over various situations.

For example, if someone is talkative, they will participate
more in conversations in all contexts: schools, offices,
parties, etc.
 Stability: Traits are not simply transient states; instead,
they are stable over long periods. So, someone who is a
perfectionist as a school student will most likely still be a
perfectionist later in their professional life.
 Individual Differences: Different individuals have
different traits. They may or may not have a certain trait
(say desire for fame). Other traits (like introversion vs
extraversion) may have a spectrum, with individuals being
placed at different points
 

Behaviorist therapy
Behaviorists do not believe personality characteristics are
based on genetics or inborn predispositions. Instead, they
view personality as shaped by the reinforcements and
consequences outside of the organism. In other words, people
behave in a consistent manner based on prior learning.
Differentiate between sensation and
perception. Elaborate Gestalt Principles of
perception.
Sensation and perception are two interconnected processes that play a
fundamental role in our experience of the world. Although often used
interchangeably, sensation and perception refer to distinct stages of
information processing. Sensation involves the detection and initial encoding
of sensory stimuli, while perception refers to the interpretation and
organization of sensory information into meaningful experiences.
Understanding the differences between sensation and perception is crucial for
comprehending how our senses interact with the environment. In this article,
we will explore the key dissimilarities, advantages, disadvantages, and
similarities between sensation and perception.

Sensation Perception
Detection and encoding of sensory Interpretation and organization of sensory information
stimuli
Occurs at the sensory receptors Involves the brain's higher-order processing
Represents the first stage of Represents the second stage of information processing
information processing
Involves the five senses: sight, hearing, Involves the integration of sensory information with
taste, touch, smell memory, knowledge, and expectations
Involves the physiological response to Involves the cognitive and psychological interpretation of
stimuli stimuli
Objective and universal Subjective and influenced by individual factors
Does not require conscious awareness Requires conscious awareness and attention
Forms the building blocks of Leads to the formation of conscious experiences
perception
More automatic and involuntary More deliberate and voluntary process
process

Key differences between Sensation and

Perception
 o Sensation involves the detection and encoding of sensory stimuli, while
perception involves the interpretation and organization of sensory
information.
o Sensation occurs at the sensory receptors, while perception involves
higher-order processing in the brain.
o Sensation represents the first stage of information processing, while
perception represents the second stage.
o Sensation involves the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and
smell, whereas perception involves the integration of sensory
information with memory, knowledge, and expectations.
o Sensation involves the physiological response to stimuli, while
perception involves the cognitive and psychological interpretation of
stimuli.
o Sensation is objective and universal, while perception is subjective and
influenced by individual factors.
o Sensation does not require conscious awareness, whereas perception
requires conscious awareness and attention.
o Sensation forms the building blocks of perception, as perception relies
on the information provided by sensation.
o Sensation is a more automatic and involuntary process, while
perception is a more deliberate and voluntary process.

What is Sensation?
Sensation refers to the process by which sensory receptors detect and encode
sensory stimuli from the environment. It involves the initial gathering of
information through the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.
Sensory receptors, specialized cells located in the sense organs, respond to
specific types of stimuli and transmit signals to the brain for further
processing. Sensation is a physiological process that occurs automatically and
does not require conscious awareness. It forms the foundational stage of
information processing, providing raw sensory data for subsequent
interpretation.

Advantages of Sensation
1. Enhanced Awareness: Sensation allows us to be aware of our
surroundings and detect important sensory cues.
2. Survival Instincts: Sensation helps us recognize potential dangers and
respond to them, promoting self-preservation.
3. Immediate Response: Sensory information provides rapid feedback,
enabling quick reactions to external stimuli.
4. Sensory Enjoyment: Sensation allows us to experience pleasure
through the enjoyment of sensory stimuli, such as food, music, or art.
5. Sensory Exploration: Sensation motivates us to explore and engage
with the environment, facilitating learning and discovery.

Disadvantages of Sensation
1. Sensory Overload: Excessive or overwhelming sensory stimulation can
lead to sensory overload, resulting in stress, fatigue, or difficulty in
focusing.
 2. Sensory Limitations: Our sensory systems have limitations in
perceiving certain stimuli, such as ultraviolet light or infrasound.
3. Sensory Adaptation: Prolonged exposure to a constant sensory
stimulus can lead to sensory adaptation, reducing sensitivity to that
particular stimulus.
4. Sensory Illusions: Sensation may sometimes give rise to sensory
illusions or misperceptions, leading to inaccurate interpretations of
stimuli.
5. Sensory Distortions: Sensory distortions can occur due to factors such
as fatigue, drugs, or neurological conditions, affecting the accuracy of
sensory perception.
6. Sensory Variability: Sensory experiences can vary across individuals,
leading to differences in perception and interpretation of stimuli.

What is Perception?
Perception refers to the process of interpreting and organizing sensory
information to create meaningful experiences and understand the world
around us. It involves higher-order cognitive and psychological processes that
go beyond the initial detection of stimuli. Perception integrates sensory
information with memory, knowledge, expectations, and context to form
conscious experiences. Perception goes beyond the mere sensing of stimuli to
derive meaning, make judgments, and construct mental representations of
the environment.

Advantages of Perception
1. Meaningful Interpretation: Perception allows us to make sense of
sensory input and interpret it in a meaningful way.
2. Environmental Understanding: Perception helps us understand the
characteristics and properties of our environment, facilitating
navigation and interaction.
3. Object Recognition: Perception enables us to recognize and identify
objects, people, and events based on their sensory features.
4. Depth and Spatial Perception: Perception allows us to perceive depth,
distances, and spatial relationships, enabling accurate judgments of
object placement and orientation.
5. Multisensory Integration: Perception integrates information from
multiple senses, enhancing our ability to perceive and understand the
world.

Disadvantages of Perception
1. Perceptual Errors: Perception is susceptible to errors, biases, and
distortions that can lead to misinterpretation or misjudgment of
sensory information.
2. Subjectivity and Variability: Perception is subjective and can vary
among individuals, leading to different interpretations and
perspectives.
 3. Perceptual Illusions: Perception may give rise to perceptual illusions,
where our brain misinterprets sensory input, leading to false
perceptions.
4. Cognitive Biases: Cognitive biases can influence perception, causing
systematic errors in how we interpret and process sensory information.

Similarities between Sensation and

Perception
1. Interconnected Processes: Sensation and perception are
interconnected processes involved in the understanding of the
environment.
2. Reliance on Sensory Input: Both sensation and perception rely on
sensory input received through the senses.
3. Involvement of the Brain: Both sensation and perception involve the
brain's processing and interpretation of sensory information.
4. Role in Experience: Both sensation and perception contribute to our
overall experience of the world and the formation of conscious
awareness.
5. Interaction with Memory and Knowledge: Both sensation and
perception interact with memory, knowledge, and past experiences to
shape interpretations.
6. Involvement in Decision-making: Both sensation and perception play a
role in decision-making processes, influencing our choices and actions.
7. Subject to Individual Differences: Both sensation and perception can
vary across individuals due to factors such as genetics, learning, and
attention.
8. Influenced by Context: Both sensation and perception can be
influenced by contextual factors, such as expectations or
environmental cues

Conclusion
In conclusion, sensation and perception are distinct but interconnected
processes involved in our experience of the world. Sensation involves the
initial detection and encoding of sensory stimuli, while perception involves the
interpretation and organization of sensory information into meaningful
experiences. While sensation represents the first stage of information
processing, perception represents the higher-order cognitive and
psychological processes that follow. Understanding the differences,
advantages, disadvantages, and similarities between sensation and
perception helps us comprehend how our senses interact with the
environment and how our minds construct our subjective experiences.

Gestalt Principles of Perception

Developed by German psychologists, the Gestalt principles—also
known as the Gestalt laws of perceptual organization—describe how
we interpret the complex world around us. They explain why a
series of flashing lights appear to be moving, for instance, and why
we can read this sentence: notli ket his ort hat.

The six Gestalt principles or laws are:

. Law of similarity
. Law of prägnanz
. Law of proximity
. Law of continuity
. Law of closure
. Law of common region

History of the Gestalt Principles

Have you noticed how alternately flashing lights, such as neon signs
or strands of lights, can look like a single light that is moving back
and forth? This optical illusion is known as the phi phenomenon.
Discovered by German psychologist Max Wertheimer, this illusion of
movement became a basis for Gestalt psychology. 1
Mungan E. Gestalt theory: A revolution put on pause? Prospects for a
paradigm shift in the psychological sciences. New Ideas Psychol.
2023;71:101036. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101036
According to Gestalt psychology, this apparent movement happens
because our minds fill in missing information. Motion pictures are
based on this principle, with a series of still images appearing in
rapid succession to form a seamless visual experience.
Gestalt psychology focuses on how our minds organize and interpret
visual data.2 It emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater
than its parts.
Based upon this belief, Wertheimer along with Gestalt psychologists
Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka, developed a set of rules to explain
how we group smaller objects to form larger ones (perceptual
organization). They called these rules the Gestalt laws of perceptual
organization.
It's important to note that while Gestalt psychologists call these
phenomena "laws," a more accurate term would be "principles."
Gestalt principles are much like heuristics, which are mental
shortcuts for solving problems.

Law of Similarity
The law of similarity states that similar things tend to appear
grouped together. Grouping can occur in both auditory and visual
stimuli.
In the image at the top of this page, for example, you probably see
two separate groupings of colored circles as rows rather than just a
collection of dots.

Law of Prägnanz
The law of prägnanz is sometimes called the law of simplicity. This
law holds that when you're presented with a set of ambiguous or
complex objects, your brain will make them appear as simple as
possible.3
An example of this can be experienced with the Olympic logo. When
you look at the logo, you see overlapping circles rather than an
assortment of curved, connected lines.
This Gestalt principle is also sometimes referred to as the law of
good figure as the word prägnanz is a German term meaning "good
figure."

Law of Proximity
According to the law of proximity, things that are close together
seem more related than things that are spaced farther apart. 4 Put
another way, when objects are close to each other, we also tend to
group them together.
To see this Gestalt principle in action, look at the image at the top of
the page. The circles on the left appear to be part of one grouping
while those on the right appear to be part of another. This is due to
the law of proximity.

Law of Continuity
The law of continuity holds that points that are connected by
straight or curving lines are seen in a way that follows the
smoothest path. In other words, elements in a line or curve seem
more related to one another than those positioned randomly.

Law of Closure
According to the law of closure, we perceive elements as belonging
to the same group if they seem to complete some entity. 5 Our
brains often ignore contradictory information and fill in gaps in
information.
In the image at the top of the page, you probably see the shape of a
diamond. This is because, according to this Gestalt principle, your
brain fills in the missing gaps in order to create a meaningful image.

Law of Common Region

The Gestalt law of common region says that when elements are
located in the same closed region, we perceive them as belonging
to the same group.6 What does this mean?
Look at the last image at the top of the page. The circles are right
next to each other so that the dot at the end of one circle is actually
closer to the dot at the end of the neighboring circle. Despite how
close those two dots are, we see the dots inside the circles as
belonging together.
Define psychological intervention.
Discuss major therapeutic techniques
introduced by clinical psychologists in
different eras for the treatment of
psychological disorders.