Small-Scale Cashew Nut Processing

cashew http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/agsi/Cashew/Cashew.
htm
Small-scale cashew nut processing
S H Azam-Ali and E C Judge
ITDG
Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development
Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire, UK
FAO, 2001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to M Whitton for providing the illustrations.
We would also like to thank the small-scale cashew processors in Sri Lanka and the participants of the International
Cashew Workshop "Cashing in on Cashew" held in Sri Lanka (November 2000) for sharing vital information on cashew
processing.
Dr S H Azam-Ali
Agro-processing Specialist
E C Judge
Agro-processing Researcher
ITDG
Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development
Bourton on Dunsmore,
Rugby, Warwickshire, CV23 9QZ, UK
Contributions from:
J Gunasekara
Agro-processing Programme Manager
ITDG South Asia
5 Lionel Edirisinghe Mawatha,
Kirulapone, Colombo 5, Sri Lanka
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cashew http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/agsi/Cashew/Cashew.htm
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Boxes
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 The importance of cashew
1.2 Cashew products
1.2.1 Cashew kernels
1.2.2 Cashew nut shell liquid
1.3 Processing
1.4 Opportunities for small-scale processors
1.5 The way ahead
Chapter 2 Cashew production
2.1 Botanical characteristics
2.1.1 Varieties
2.2 Agricultural practices, propagation and culture
2.2.3 Sowing
2.2.4 Seasonal planting
2.2.5 Raising seedlings in a nursery
2.2.6 Layering
2.2.7 Approach-grafting or inarching
2.3 Land preparation
2.4 Spacing
2.5 Fertilizer use in cashew
2.5.1 Basal dressing at planting
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2.5.2 Rate of application of fertilizer
2.5.3 Method of fertilizer application
2.5.4 Frequency and timing of application
2.6 Diseases
2.7 Pests
2.8 Harvesting
2.8.1 Drying of the raw material
2.9 Storage
2.10 Infestation of harvested nuts
2.11 Post harvest handling
Chapter 3 Uses of cashew
3.1 Uses of cashew nut
3.2 Uses of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL)
3.3 Uses of cashew apple
3.3.1 Using cashew apples in recipes
3.4 Dried cashew fruits
Chapter 4 Trends in cashew nut production and trade
4.1 Global cashew production
4.2 Cashew production in Africa
4.2.1 Production in Mozambique
4.2.2 Production in Tanzania
4.2.3 Production in Nigeria
4.2.4 Production in other African countries
4.3 Cashew production in Asia
4.3.1 Production in India
4.3.2 Production in Indonesia
4.3.3 Production in Vietnam
4.3.4 Production in Sri Lanka
4.3.5 Production in Australia
4.4 Production in South and Central America
4.4.1 Production in Brazil
4.5 Global trade trends
4.5.1 International classification
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Chapter 5 Traditional methods of cashew processing
5.1 Cashew processing in Africa
5.1.1 Cashew processing in Guinea-Bissau
5.2 Cashew processing in Asia
5.2.1 Traditional processing in India
5.2.2 Traditional processing in Sri Lanka
5.3 Traditional manual shelling
5.3.1 Quality control in shelling
5.4 Manual peeling
Chapter 6 Cashew processing operations
6.1 General processing
6.2 Cleaning, sizing and conditioning
6.2.1 Soaking or conditioning
6.2.2 Large-scale cleaning and conditioning
6.3 Roasting and centrifuging
6.3.1 Drum roasting
6.3.2 The hot oil method
6.4 Shelling
6.4.1 Mechanical shelling
6.5 Separation
6.5.1 Pre-grading
6.6 Drying
6.7 Peeling
6.8 Grading
6.9 Rehumidification
6.10 Packing
6.11 Infestation
6.12 Hygiene and safety
6.12.1 Food hygiene and the law
6.12.2 Food poisoning and its causes
6.12.3 Personal hygiene
6.12.4 Cleanliness of equipment and the working area
6.12.5 Other sources of contamination
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6.12.6 Packaging and preservation
Chapter 7 Bibliography
Chapter 8 Selected references and contacts
Published sources
Internet sites
Equipment manufacturers and suppliers
Organizations involved in cashew processing
Annex 1
Trends in global production (1961 to 2000)
Annex 2
Products containing cashew apple and cashew nut
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1:
Air-layering.
Figure 2:
Inarching section.
Figure 3: Inarching section.
Figure 4: Cross section of a cashew fruit.
Figure 5: Global cashew production (1961 to 2000) (tonnes).
Figure 6:
Pan roasting.
Figure 7:
Overview of cashew nut processing.
Figure 8:
Medium-scale cleaning.
Figure 9: Diagram of a drum roaster fired from a furnace below.
Figure 10: Cashew shelling machine.
Figure 11: Diagram of a tray dryer.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1:
Cashew production (tonnes) in African countries from 1961 to 2000.
Table 4.2: Leading African producers of cashew. Percentage of African and global production (1961 to 2000).
Table 4.3: Cashew production (tonnes) in Asian countries from 1961 to 2000.
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Table 4.4:
Cashew production (tonnes) in South and Central American countries from 1961 to 2000.
LIST OF BOXES
Box 4.1:
World Bank policy and cashew processing in Mozambique
Box 6.1:
Critical conditions for the 'hot oil' method of CNSL extraction.
Box 6.9: Measurement of the moisture content of cashew kernels
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The cashew tree, native to Brazil, was introduced to Mozambique and then India in the sixteenth century by the
Portuguese, as a means of controlling coastal erosion. It was spread within these countries with the aid of elephants that
ate the bright cashew fruit along with the attached nut. The nut was too hard to digest and was later expelled with the
droppings. It was not until the nineteenth century that plantations were developed and the tree then spread to a number of
other countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Cashew processing, using manual techniques, was started in India in the first half of the twentieth century. It was
exported from there to the wealthy western markets, particularly the United States. In the 1960s, some of the producing
countries in East Africa began to process nuts domestically rather than sending them to India for processing. This
allowed them to benefit from the sale of both processed nuts and the extracted cashew nut shell liquid.
1.1 The importance of cashew

Cashew is held with great esteem in many customs and cultures. Its value can be estimated from a question that appeared
on the household census in Mozambique that asked whether the house owned any cashew trees.
Cashew is known by many names. In Mozambique, the Maconde tribe refer to it as the "Devil's Nut". It is offered at
wedding ceremonies as a token of fertility and is considered by many to have aphrodisiac properties. The cashew tree and
its products are known by the following names in other parts of the world:
Portuguese caju, cajueiro, pe de caju, castanha de caju, maca de caju

French cajou, acajou, ancardier, noix de cajou, pomme de cajou, amande de cajou
English cashew, cashew tree, cashew nut, cashew apple, cashew kernel
Spanish maranon, nuez de maranon
Hindi cadju
Sinhalese cadju
Italian anacardio, noce d'anacardio, mandorlad'anacardio
Dutch acajou, kashu
German acajuban, kashunuss
Swahili mkanju, korosho
Somali bibbo, bibs
Indonesian jambu mente, jambu mete
Source: Andrighetti et al, (1989).
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The cashew industry ranks third in the world production of edible nuts with world production in 2000 at about 2 million
tonnes of nuts-in-shell and an estimated value in excess of US$2 billion. India and Brazil are the major cashew exporters,
with 60 percent and 31 percent respectively of world market share. The major importers are the United States (55
percent), the Netherlands (ten percent), Germany (seven percent), Japan (five percent) and the United Kingdom (five
percent).
Cashew kernels are ranked as either the second or third most expensive nut traded in the United States. Macadamia nuts
are priced higher and pecan nuts can be more costly, if the harvest is poor. Cashew nuts have a well established market in
the United States with a great variety of uses. Retail prices range from about US$4 to 11 per pound (US$9 to 23 per kg)
depending on the size of nut and the packaging.
The extensive market connections of exporters from Brazil and India make it difficult for the smaller exporters to make
gains in the United States market. Importers may appreciate the low prices offered by small suppliers, but the lack of
reliability in quality tends to make them favour the larger, more reputable suppliers (The Clipper, 1994).
1.2 Cashew products

Three main cashew products are traded on the international market: raw nuts, cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid
(CNSL). A fourth product, the cashew apple is generally processed and consumed locally.
The raw cashew nut is the main commercial product of the cashew tree, though yields of the cashew apple are eight to ten
times the weight of the raw nuts. Raw nuts are either exported or processed prior to export. Processing of the raw nuts
releases the by-product CNSL that has industrial and medicinal applications. The skin of the nut is high in tannins and
can be recovered and used in the tanning of hides. The fruit of the cashew tree that surrounds the kernel can be made into
a juice with a high vitamin C content and fermented to give a high proof spirit.
1.2.1 Cashew kernels

It is estimated that 60 percent of cashew kernels are consumed in the form of snacks while the remaining 40 percent are
included in confectionery. The cashew competes in the same market as other edible nuts including almonds, hazels,
walnuts, pecans, macadamias, pistachios and peanuts. There has recently been a considerable rise in demand for edible
nuts by consumers interested in quality and health aspects of food. The breakfast cereal, health food, salads and baked
goods markets are all expanding markets for cashew nuts.
One major factor that affects the consumption of cashew kernels in world markets is competition from other tree nuts.
The major importers in developed countries contract their requirement for the whole year based on the sales from
previous years. If prices of a commodity fluctuate over a wide range, they will not want to trade in that item for fear of
incurring heavy losses. Since cashew cultivation is not organized on a plantation scale in most producing countries, year
to year variation in crop yield is a regular feature resulting in wide price fluctuations for cashew kernels. On the other
hand, almonds and pistachios are grown in very large plantations in the United States and thus their prices are steady year
after year (Nayar, 1995).
1.2.2 Cashew nut shell liquid

Cashew nut processing allows for the development of an important by-product, which can increase its added value. The
liquid inside the shell (CNSL) represents 15 percent of the gross weight and has some attractive possible medicinal and
industrial uses. CNSL is one of the few natural resins that is highly heat resistant and is used in braking systems and in
paint manufacture. It contains a compound known as anacardium, which is used to treat dermatological disorders. The
main markets for CNSL are the United States, the European Union (mainly the United Kingdom), Japan and the Republic
of Korea. Together these account for over ninety percent of world trade, most of which is supplied by India and Brazil.
1.3 Processing
Traditionally the various processing operations were performed manually by experienced semi-skilled workers. This is
still the case in India, which is the world' s largest producer of cashew kernels. Since the 1960s, various mechanized
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pieces of equipment have been developed and are available in several countries. The processes that have been
mechanized are roasting, cashew nut shell liquid extraction and shelling. For the most part, the cleaning of raw materials
and sizing and kernel grading have remained labour intensive manual operations.
There are significant differences in investment requirements, labour skills, health requirements and levels of efficiency
between the Indian manual technology and the medium to large-scale mechanical and semi-mechanical operations. In
general the Indian processing system involves lower investment and variable costs and achieves far greater efficiency in
terms of kernel material yield and the proportion of whole kernels extracted. However this system requires large numbers
of experienced workers who work at unhealthy levels of exposure to CNSL. The mechanized systems are more
vulnerable to breakdown due to shortage of spare parts, require large volumes of nuts for efficient operation and operate
well below manufacture specifications when strict grading and sizing activities are not in place prior to shelling (Jaffee
and Morton, 1995).
1.4 Opportunities for small-scale processors

Cashew processing is a very competitive but also a potentially lucrative activity that can and should be exploited by more
small-scale processors. African countries that are in the process of re-building their local cashew processing industry
would be well advised to follow the Indian example of small scale, mainly manual processing operations.
There are several good reasons why small-scale producers and processors should get involved in cashew processing,
including the following:
Cashew kernels are a high value luxury commodity with sales growing steadily at an annual rate of seven percent,
with every expectation that the market will remain strong.
There is substantial potential to exploit cashew by-products, such as cashew butter, from broken nuts, CNSL for
industrial and medicinal purposes and the juice of the cashew apple that can be processed further.
Cashew is a good crop for smallholder farmers. In Mozambique cashew is considered by smallholder farmers to be
one of their most lucrative crops. It requires few inputs and harvesting does not coincide with peak labour demands
for other food crops (Hanlon, 2000).
Thus cashew has the potential to increase the incomes of poor producers, to create employment opportunities during
harvesting and processing and to increase exports.
However, as with all small-scale processing operations, cashew processing is not without risk or problems. In order for
the small-scale processor to succeed, there are certain constraints, which also need to be considered:
Cashew production is very weather dependent so supply is variable. World prices, although stable on average, are
highly volatile in the short term.
Luxury goods must be of high quality. In order to compete directly in the world market, a high level of standards,
branding and marketing are required.
Exploitation of by-products requires new technology, which may be expensive or difficult to obtain.
Production volumes must be sufficient to ensure a consistent supply of raw material.
These constraints are not, however, insurmountable. With good committed support from local governments, introduction
of policies that favour rather than hinder the small-scale entrepreneur and back-up from relevant development
organizations, cashew processing can be an attractive and viable option for the small-scale processor.
1.5 The way ahead

Small-scale producers and processors need to establish more direct relationships with the European food industry, which
packs and markets cashew nuts. At the moment, the world purchasing circuits are dominated by middlemen, brokers and
wholesalers who control prices, quality requirements and the volumes sold (Partnership, 1995). Development
organizations can be instrumental in bridging the gap between the small-scale processor and the buyer, thus helping the
former to succeed. They can offer a range of support services, including the following:
training in quality assurance and control,

providing information on available equipment and machinery,
advice on standards and export legislation,
providing information on packaging,
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providing access to packaging materials and suppliers,

advice on marketing.
One area that deserves special attention is the development of value-added products for export. Most exports are in the
form of plain kernels in bulk, which are imported by large wholesalers in the consuming countries. These are then
re-packaged, either as they are, or after roasting and salting and sold to retailers. Opportunities exist for processors to
penetrate these markets, however, they are fraught with difficulties, such as pricing and competition from existing
products. The key to opening up new markets or expanding the existing ones is to supply the best quality products at
competitive and steady prices. Particular attention to providing goods of consistently high quality is vital and cannot be
over-stressed. This requires inputs from various stakeholders in the food processing chain and is a service that can be
provided by government and non government organizations interested in supporting the small-scale food processor.
This bulletin gives a general overview of cashew production, with a detailed section on cashew processing. It is suitable
for smallholder farmers, small-scale processors and development professionals who wish to support development of the
cashew processing sector. Considerable emphasis is placed on processing operations, particularly for the small and
medium-scale processor. This bulletin also contains a comprehensive list of organizations and resource persons involved
in cashew processing and a selection of suppliers and manufacturers of cashew processing equipment. The bibliography
section contains an assortment of relevant literature that the reader should find interesting and useful.
CHAPTER 2
CASHEW PRODUCTION
2.1 Botanical characteristics
The cashew tree, Anacardium occidentale L., belongs to the Anacardiaceae family of plants, which also includes the
mango, the pistachio and the poison ivy. The tree is native to Brazil, but has spread to other parts of tropical South and
Central America, Mexico and the West Indies. In the 1600s, Portuguese traders introduced the cashew tree into India and
Africa to prevent soil erosion. It is now widely cultivated for its nuts and other products in the coastal regions of South
Africa, Madagascar and Tanzania and in South Asia, from Sri Lanka to the Philippines.
The cashew tree is a tropical evergreen, resistant to drought, unexacting as to soil (although it prefers deep, sandy soil),
which grows up to 12 metres high and has a symmetrical spread of up to approximately 25 metres. It has leathery oval
leaves. Reddish flowers grow in clusters and the pear-shaped fruits, referred to as cashew apples, are red or yellowish in
colour. At the end of each fruit is a kidney-shaped ovary, the nut, with a hard double shell (Figure 1). Between the shell
and nut is black caustic oil, which is difficult to remove and can be used in varnishes and plastics.
The cashew tree grows with a minimum of attention and is easily cultivated. It is usually found from sea level to an
altitude of 1 000 metres (3 000 feet), in regions with annual rainfall as low as 500 mm (20 inches) and as high as 3 750
mm (150 inches). For maximum productivity, good soil and adequate moisture are essential. Optimum conditions include
an annual rainfall of at least 889 mm (35 inches) and not more than 3 048 mm (120 inches). The tree has an extensive
root system, which helps it to tolerate a wide range of moisture levels and soil types, but commercial production is only
advisable in well-drained, sandy loam or red soils. The cashew tree can flourish in the sand of open beaches, but it grows
poorly in heavy clay or limestone.
Most cashew trees start bearing fruit in the third or fourth year and are likely to reach their mature yield by the seventh
year if conditions are favourable. The average yield of nuts of a mature tree is in the range of 7 to 11 kg per annum.
Although the cashew tree is capable of living for 50 to 60 years, most trees produce nuts for about 15 to 20 years.
2.1.1 Varieties
Cashew seedlings present great variation in growth habit, quality of crop and yield. The tree cross-pollinates freely and
this has further contributed to high variability although there are as yet very few named varieties of cashew trees.
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Generally a distinction is made only between those with yellow or red cashew apples. Tests have indicated that very large
nuts usually have inferior kernels, low density and slow germination (Caribbean Technological Consultancy Services
Network, 1993).
2.2 Agricultural practices, propagation and culture
2.2.3 Sowing
The cashew tree is usually grown from seeds placed directly in the field, since seedlings do not transplant well due to
their delicate root system. Seed nuts should be thoroughly dry, clean and free from insect or fungal attack. Seeds should
be stored until the next rainy season before they are planted in the field, unless irrigation facilities are available, or
seedlings are raised in polythene bags in a nursery where water is available. After a few months, stored nuts gradually
lose their germination capacity.
Seeds should be water tested prior to planting those that sink should be chosen as they have a high success rate and tend
to germinate quickly. Seeds should be planted at a depth of about 5 cm. The maximum depth at which a seed should be
sown is about 10 cm, depending on the soil conditions. Two or three seeds should be planted together, stem end up, at a
slight incline and covered with 5 to 8 cm of soil. Germination usually takes place in 15 to 20 days, although seeds of low
density (i.e. those that float in water) may require as long as eight weeks to germinate. Using seeds of high density, from
selected trees, considerably increases the chance that some of the seeds at one site will perform well. Two months after
sprouting, the two weakest seedlings should be removed from the site, leaving only the strongest one to grow. By
planting more than one seed, the occurrence of gaps in a plantation is reduced (Ohler, 1979).
In orchard practice, pits measuring from 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm to 60 cm 60 cm 60 cm are dug and left to weather for
a month or two. They are then filled with soil, which has been mixed with rotting manure about two weeks before
seeding. In loose soils of sufficient fertility, the root system of the seedlings develops so quickly that, when growing
naturally, root lengths would exceed the size of the planting hole within a few months and therefore in optimum growing
conditions planting holes are not essential.
Advantages of sowing
The plant can develop its root system and especially its root tap quickly.
It is the cheapest method of planting.
It is the quickest method of planting as one person can plant 400 to 500 sites each day.
Disadvantages of sowing
Lower rate of germination.

Danger of serious damage by animals.
Less opportunity for selection of seedlings than when planting seedlings that are raised in plastic bags in the
nursery.
2.2.4 Seasonal planting

Cashew seeds should be sown or planted during the rainy season in areas that lack irrigation facilities. The best time for
planting is during periods of regular rainfall, so that the soil does not dry out again. If the soil dries out before the
germinated seeds have become securely rooted, they may die. The advantage of early planting is that it gives the
seedlings more time to develop before the onset of the dry season.
In climates with irregular rainfall and short rainy seasons, the risk of germinated seedlings drying out can be reduced by
pre-soaking the seeds before planting, deep sowing (5 to 10 cm) and covering the site with mulching material to reduce
evaporation. The mulching material should be carefully selected and any weeds with mature seeds should be removed.
2.2.5 Raising seedlings in a nursery

Where it is necessary to raise seedlings in a nursery, the seeds should be sown in containers of a type that can be set in
the ground and readily disintegrate. In Cuba, baskets of uva-grass or cona brava are used and cut away before setting the
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plant into the ground. In Jamaica, it has been found that nursery seedlings can be raised in the ground and transplanted
with 90 percent success, providing the plant is taken up with a good ball of soil and the top is cut back by one third, when
it is put into the field. It is recommended that the seedlings be transplanted within a week of emerging, to ensure that the
transplantation is successful (Caribbean Technological Consultancy Services Network, 1993).
Seedlings can also be planted using plastic bags as containers. The seedlings should be lifted into their planting holes in
the plastic bags, which are then carefully slit with a sharp knife and removed.
2.2.6 Layering
Ground layering
The lowest branches of the cashew tree tend to trail on the ground at a distance of several metres from the trunk. Where
branches touch the ground, spontaneous rooting may occur. Covering such branches with soil and keeping the area moist
encourages rooting, a method which has been used in India for a long time. However, such layers cannot be easily
transplanted to other places and the shape of the material tends to produce low trees of spreading habit. The number of
layers that can be obtained in this way is also rather low.
The stem is
girdled to The girdled Aluminium foil or plastic
induce root stem is covered sheeting is wrapped
formation with damp moss. around the moss and tied
above the cut. at both ends. This cover
is removed 2 to 3 months
after tying or when the
roots can be seen.
Figure 1: Air-layering.
Air-layering
A strip of bark about 0.5 cm wide is removed from either a year-old branch or a pencil-thick shoot (about 1 cm diameter)
of the current season, at about 20 to 30 cm from the growing point. The exposed wood is wrapped with twine to prevent
the bark from growing over it during the healing process and covered thickly with moist moss, wood shavings or sand. It
is then wrapped securely in a sheet of 100 to 150-gauge plastic and the ends are tied tightly to the branch with twine
(Figure 1).
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After 20 to 30 days, callus is formed at the foot of the layer and 40 to 50 days later, small roots emerge from the callus
tissue. After approximately 75 days, there should be adequate root formation (five or more well formed roots measuring
1.0 to 1.5 cm long) to separate the twig from the tree. The part of the twig below the layer is cut about halfway through.
One week later, the cut is deepened and a few days later the layer can be removed and transplanted into plastic bags or
other containers and hardened off before planting. If the layer is separated from the tree in one cut, the shock will be too
great for it to survive.
The whole process takes about two and a half months, although the time varies depending upon the period of the year
when the layer is being prepared. Layers that are produced early in the rainy season have time to establish themselves and
develop a large enough root system to survive the dry season.
Air-layering has been one of the most successful methods of vegetative propagation in cashew. The method is rather
laborious and the cost is relatively high, but the advantages of obtaining a plantation from high yielding, uniform material
make these costs extremely worthwhile. A large disadvantage of this method, as with all methods of layering, is the
relatively small number of layers that can be produced by one tree per year. It is estimated that from one tree, 80 to 120
successful layers can be obtained. In order to obtain sufficient material for a fairly large plantation, the first generation of
air layers should be grown to maturity and only then, from many trees of the same quality, could sufficient material be
obtained for later plantings.
2.2.7 Approach-grafting or inarching

The technique of approach-grafting is relatively easy but labour intensive and like air-layering has to be done in the field.
Seedlings to be grown as rootstocks are raised in containers. Once they are 8 to 9 months old, they are cut back to half
their height and kept in grass baskets for a month in the shade until new shoots appear. The basket is replaced by a sheet
of 100-gauge plastic to retain moisture and the seedling is joined to a year old branch of the same diameter on a selected
tree as described below.
From the stem of the seedling and from the shoot with which it will be united, strips of bark and inner wood, measuring
about 5 to 8 cm in length, are removed (Figure 2). Both cut surfaces, which should be of the same size, are bound
together with twine and the join is firmly tied with string, binding the seedling stem and the shoot together. In 90 days the
union should be complete and the grafted plant is gradually separated from the parent (Figure 3). A "v" cut is made half
way through the branch 2 cm below the graft and a similar cut is made in the rootstock 2 cm above the graft. Seven or
eight days later the cuts are deepened and after a further period of four days the severing is completed. About 60 percent
take is expected.
Two independent plants

with stems approximately Identical slices of wood and
the same size. For bark (2.5 to 5 cm long) are
example, seedling cut from both stems. The stems
plants in containers are placed closely together.
and established plants.
Figure 2: Inarching.
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The stems are bound

tightly together with After graft union heals, the stock
string, tape or raffia. plant is cut above the union and
the scion is cut below the union.
Figure 3: Inarching.
2.3 Land preparation

Cashew seedlings are very sensitive to competition with weeds, but in many areas, especially on sloping land, the
vegetation should not be removed completely before planting because of the danger of water and wind erosion. In
tropical countries with a marked dry season and where the rainy season tends to start with torrential rains, the danger of
erosion increases if large areas of land have been cleared.
If the soil is very sandy and subject to strong winds, clearing the land may result in severe wind erosion, which is
virtually impossible to stop. In these areas, the land should be cleared in strips, which are perpendicular to the direction
of the prevailing winds. Once the cashew trees have developed to such an extent that their rows act as wind breaks, the
remaining land can be cleared. Another important reason for leaving strips of natural vegetation is to ensure that the
insect population required for pollinating the cashew flowers is maintained.
The removal of tree stumps is an expensive but essential part of the clearing process. The sprouting stumps need to be
slashed each year as they compete with the cashew trees and prevent a good view between the rows.
2.4 Spacing
To promote maximum development and reduce competition for available moisture, it is recommended that the seedlings
be planted 10 to 15 metres apart. This is considered to be the most productive spacing for mature trees. The average yield
per hectare will be 700 to 1 000 kg but yields outside these limits are encountered. However, cashew trees are normally
planted more closely, which results in overcrowding and they are often intermixed with other trees either in small
orchards or in the wild.
2.5 Fertilizer use in cashew

Cashew is often grown as a casual crop by smallholder farmers and as a result its fertilizer requirements are overlooked.
Also the trees are long standing and are frequently grown in soils that are of poor quality. As each season passes, the soils
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become more depleted and productivity gradually declines. Yields of trees grown in this way are very much lower than
the potential that could be gained if fertilizer was applied.
Experiments have demonstrated that regular application of the major plant nutrients (nitrogen, potassium and
phosphorus) is beneficial for healthy trees and increased cashew yields. In addition, application of magnesium to cashew
is beneficial (Fernandopulle, 2000). Two separate mixtures of fertilizer, based on the combination of nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), have been recommended according to the growth stage of the plant.
Young plant mixture
This mixture is recommended for cashew plants from field planting up to 5 years of age. It contains N:P:K in the ratio of
4:3:2.
For 100 kg of young plant fertilizer, the following is used:
Compound
weight (kg)
Urea 38
Rock phosphate 47
Muriate of potash 15
Adult plant mixture
This mixture is recommended for cashew plants from 5 years onwards. It contains N:P:K in the ratio of 4:3:4.
For 100 kg of adult plant fertilizer, the following is used:
Compound weight (kg)
Urea 33.5
Rock phosphate 41
Muriate of potash 25.5
2.5.1 Basal dressing at planting

Each planting hole should be filled with topsoil mixed with young plant mixture and dolomite and if possible with
organic matter. In a hole that measures 60 cm 60 cm 60 cm, 250 kg young plant mixture and 300 kg Dolomite are
required, plus 1 to 2 kg organic manure. The soil is removed from the hole and mixed with the chemical fertilizer. The
hole is then re-filled with the mixture of soil and fertilizer. This should take place before the rains to allow the soil and
fertilizer time to settle before the seedlings are planted. If the seedlings are planted directly into the fertilizer, the tender
roots may be damaged. To avoid damage, the seedlings should be planted at the beginning of the monsoon or four to six
days after refilling the hole.
2.5.2 Rate of application of fertilizer

During the early stages of growth, it is better if the amount is split and applied in two separate doses at the end of each
season, to avoid the heavy rains.
Time after transplant

Young plant mixture
(years)
(g/plant/year)
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1 200
2 350
3 500
4 650
5 800
After five years of age, the rate of application of adult mixture varies with the plant yield.
Average yield/plant Adult plant mixture

(kg/plant/year)
(kg/plant/year)
<10 1
10 to 15 1.5
15 to 20 2.0
>20 2.5
2.5.3 Method of fertilizer application

Fertilizer should only be applied after weeding and cleaning the base of the individual trees within a 1 to 2 metre radius,
to avoid the competition for nutrients from weeds. In the early years (up to 1.5 year), fertilizer should be broadcast close
to the plant, covering an entire full circle up to a distance of 0.5 m from the base of the plant. The fertilizer should be
lightly mixed with the soil. As the plant grows older, the area should be gradually extended to reach 1.0 m. Mulching the
fertilized area is encouraged as it is beneficial. With adult plants, the fertilizer should be broadcast in a circular strip (1 to
1.5 m wide) and about 0.5 to 1.0 m away from the base of the tree. The fertilizer should be lightly mixed with the soil.
2.5.4 Frequency and timing of application

Fertilizer should be applied to young plants twice a year at the end of each monsoon rain. It is applied to adult plants
annually at the end of the monsoon rains and before flowering. The fertilizer should be applied when the soil is moist, at
the end of the monsoon season so as to avoid the heavy rains. Application of fertilizer during the dry season is not
advisable as the nutrients require water to be dissolved and absorbed by the roots.
2.6 Diseases
Cashew seedlings can be affected by a number of different diseases. The fungus, Colletotrichum glocosporioides, is one
of the most common pathogens in cashew (Ohler, 1979). Initial symptoms show the development of reddish-brown,
shiny, water-soaked lesions, followed by resin oozing out onto the affected parts. As the lesions grow, the affected shoots
and inflorescences are killed and the leaves become crumpled. The affected nuts and apples decay and shrivel and the
flowers turn black and fall off. The trees can be sprayed with various fungicides, including Bordeaux mixture, to control
the fungus.
Several diseases that result in the terminal twigs dying off are grouped under the name "die-back" or "pink disease"
which is produced by Glocosporium. There may be associated pitting of the surface of the nut. This serious disease
requires the affected branches to be pruned and sprayed with a 1 percent Bordeaux mixture or other copper-based
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fungicides.
Characteristic symptoms of other infections which attack cashew include wilting and withering; the yellowing of the
lower leaves; the seedlings turning pale and showing water-soaked girdles of darkened tissue around the stems; or the
rotting of the underground portion of the stem. Powdery mildew may appear on young leaves and inflorescences during
dry weather.
2.7 Pests
Insect pests are a major source of crop loss in all cashew-growing areas of the world. More than 60 species of insects
attack the crop during its different stages of growth. These pests include sap-sucking bugs, leaf-chewing caterpillars,
beetles, aphids, scales, thrips and some mites. They can cause considerable damage to the tree and the crop by bringing
about the death of the floral-flushing shoots, the early abortion of young nuts and loss of yield.
The adult weevil, or borer, is dark grey in colour and about 2 cm long. The larva has a curled whitish body with wrinkled
skin and dark brown head. The eggs are laid singly in small holes made by the female in the bark of the trunk or the main
branches of the cashew tree. After hatching, the larvae tunnel down just beneath the bark, eating the sapwood. The grubs
should be removed as soon as they are detected because they cause gum leakage and will eventually kill the tree. To
control the borer, all heavily-infested trees should be cut down and the bark should be cut away in places that show signs
of weevil attack. Once the wood has dried out sufficiently, it should be burned, to kill all the remaining larvae and eggs.
Alternatively, the base of the tree can be sprayed with Malathion and the bore holes filled with the spray.
The tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii Sign.) is a common pest found in Sri Lanka, causing up to 30 percent loss of
yield. The adults and nymphs of the species feed on tender shoots and floral branches, as well as on the developing nuts
and apples, by piercing and sucking the sap (Ranaweera, 2000). Helopeltis populations increase during the rainy season,
reaching a maximum at the end of the rainy season and the beginning of the dry season. This coincides with the
emergence of a new flush. Insecticide application should be started when the new flush emerges. The damage caused by
Helopeltis is of two types. Primary damage, which is seen as brown lesions surrounding the feeding punctures, causes
affected leaves and young shoots to turn brown, wither and die. Secondary damage occurs when the puncture holes are
infected by secondary pathogens and the whole stem or branch dies back or is affected by blight.
Helopeltis can be controlled by chemical spray. Three applications of a 0.1 percent mixture of Carbaryl are recommended
at flushing, onset of flowering and the fruiting season. However, Carbaryl is indiscriminate and will kill other beneficial
insects. Special attention must be paid to the second spray at the onset of flowering, to minimize the effect of insecticide
on pollinators. The optimum time to spray is between 0600 hours and 0800 hours and again between 1600 hours and
1900 hours, when the Helopeltis bug is active.
A copper fungicide or Bordeaux mixture (1 percent) can be used to control inflorescence die-back, which may occur.
Helopeltis damage can be limited by careful cultural practices. The plantation should be kept weed-free to remove
alternative hosts of the bug. Removal of non-productive and diseased branches from the trees allows for improved air
circulation and solar radiation within the crop canopy and can then reduce the humidity of the canopy. This in turn can
reduce the damage caused by the pest.
Thrips are known in many countries to attack cashew leaves, causing a symptom called "silvery leaves". They suck the
leaf juices and leave a "scorched" area. Heavy attacks will stunt the growth of young plants but can be controlled by
spraying with a 0.05 percent solution of Malathion.
The caterpillar of the leaf miner attacks young plants by tunnelling through new leaf tissues. The first signs are winding
trails on the leaves. Later the infestation shows as patches of white blisters. The adult is a tiny, silvery-grey moth. The
larvae appear red when they are fully-grown and are about 6 mm long. Affected trees should be sprayed with a 0.06
percent solution of "Folidol E.605" (30 ml in 50 litres of water).
A sporadic leaf-eating caterpillar, which has poisonous stinging hairs, sometimes occurs in swarms and defoliates the
cashew tree. It pupates in silky cocoons and the adult moth is large and reddish-brown in colour.
The mealy bug attacks the cashew inflorescence but can be controlled by spraying with a 0.06 percent solution of
"Folidol E.605" (30 ml in 50 litres of water). Among the other pests are leaf webbers, flea beetles, spider mites and
scales.
Rodents, such as rats, squirrels and porcupines, may cause serious damage to cashew seedlings, particularly when they
emerge above the ground. Cashew apples are sometimes attacked by fruit flies. Monkeys are partial to ripe apples and
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can cause damage to the cashew trees whilst foraging for the fruit. Bats and parrots also eat cashew apples.
2.8 Harvesting
The harvesting and processing of cashew is very labour intensive. After producing clusters of flowers, cashews produce
the edible apple and also a nut encased in a heavy shell, which is the true cashew fruit. The cashew tree flowers for two
or three months and fruit mature about two months after the bloom. The cashew nut forms first at the end of the stem.
Subsequently, the stem swells to form the "apple" with the nut attached externally.
The cashew nut is 2.5 to 4.0 cm (1.0 to 1.5 inches) long and kidney shaped. Its shell is about 5 mm thick, with a soft
leathery outer skin and a thin hard inner skin. When fully ripe, it falls to the ground. Harvesting generally involves
collecting the nuts once they have dropped to the ground after maturing. Workers scour the area and detach the nut from
the fruit. For the nuts to be easily traced, the surface under the tree has to be free from weeds. In some places, the whole
area under the tree is swept free of dry leaves. The nuts are generally collected in baskets or sacks. Cashew fruit are
generally left to fall to the ground before being collected, as this is an indication that the kernel is mature. If fruit are
picked from the trees, the cashew apple will be ripe, but the kernel will still be immature.
The quantity of nuts, which can be harvested, depends upon the yield of the trees. Where many nuts fall together, much
less time is required for walking in search of them. On average, each individual can harvest a maximum of 50 kg per day.
A very limited number of nuts fall at the beginning of the production season. A peak in the number of nuts falling is
gradually attained and production slowly declines. Although activities are labour intensive and time consuming, they are
not heavy and women and children can help.
In very dry climates where the topsoil remains dry overnight, nuts can be left under the trees for several weeks without
their quality being affected. However, where humidity of the air or soil causes moisture and dew formation, the nuts
should be reaped at least twice a week. This is not very economical, unless it is carried out on smallholdings with
relatively high labour intensity, as there will not be adequate numbers of nuts to harvest sufficient quantities to achieve
collection levels of 50 kg per day (Ohler, 1979).
Apples to be used for processing into products such as jam or juices should be picked from the tree before they fall
naturally. On falling to the ground, apples may become damaged. Once damaged, the apples may ferment and deteriorate
quite rapidly. The riper the apple, the sweeter the taste. It is therefore recommended that the apple be picked as it is about
to fall. At this stage the nut is fully-grown for about two weeks and is ripe and ready for harvest.
Apples, which are not within reach of the picker's hands, can be harvested using a small basket or sack attached to a ring
at the end of a long stick. Fully ripe apples will drop into the sack when the tree is shaken. Apples that have not matured
completely should be cut off with a small knife attached to the stick. The nuts must remain attached to the apple, since
some juice may be lost on their removal.
The cashew apple will only keep for 24 hours after it has been picked. Transporting large quantities of apples is difficult
for this reason. When stacked in layers, apples may burst and lose their juice because of the weight on top of them.
2.8.1 Drying of the raw material

Cashew nuts are dried in the sun for two reasons:
To reduce the moisture content of the nut,

To mature the seed in the infrared and ultra-violet rays of the sun.
Cashew nuts should keep for 12 months or more, provided that they are dried to moisture content of eight percent or
below, packed in sealed polythene bags and stored under dry conditions. The moisture content of cashew nuts at harvest
is dependent on climatic conditions, moisture content of the soil, on which the nuts have fallen, weed growth density
under the tree and the time between nut fall and harvest. High moisture content may cause deterioration of the kernel due
to mould or bacterial attack or enzyme action. Drying the nuts immediately after harvesting is essential in preserving their
quality, but this process is often neglected.
Sun drying of cashew nuts can be done on specially prepared drying floors or mats made of bamboo or palm leaves. The
drying areas should be smooth and slightly sloping, so as to allow rainwater to run off. The cashew-nut layer on the
drying floor should not be thicker than 10 cm, thus allowing for about 60 kg of nuts per square metre. The nuts should be
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constantly raked in order to ensure that they all receive the same benefit of the sun's rays and therefore they are dried
evenly. The nuts should be heaped together and covered in the evenings. If the nuts are heaped while still warm, they will
continue to dry under the cover of a tarpaulin. The nuts should be checked the following morning to ascertain the need
for further drying.
Dried nuts should make a rattling sound when falling. Drying may take between one and three days depending upon local
climatic conditions. As soon as the nuts are dry, they should be stored and protected from rain.
2.9 Storage
Technical requirements for storage are dependent on weather conditions. As cashew nuts are usually produced in
climates with a long dry season, simple buildings with concrete floors and walls and roofs of corrugated metal, should
provide adequate storage.
Certain prerequisites must be satisfied to ensure safe storage:
1. a waterproof, dry floor,

2. a firm and secure roof,
3. openings in the wall must be protected in order prevent water from entering the room,
4. headroom must be adequate to allow the bags in a stack to be moved around if large quantities are to be
stored,
5. the store should be easily inspected: there must be sufficient clearance between the wall and the bags,to
allow individuals to walk around and check the condition of the stack,
6. the stack must be placed on a raised wooden platform, in order to prevent moisture from being drawn from
the floor to the nuts.
2.10 Infestation of harvested nuts

Raw cashew nuts, stored in sacks, sometimes in the open awaiting shipment and frequently without protection from rain,
are subject to infestation through the stem-end. This may go undetected until damage has progressed to the point of heavy
loss. Infestation also occurs in the shelled kernels at various stages of handling.
2.11 Post harvest handling

The nut is encased in a rock hard shell that is virtually impossible to penetrate after harvest. In order to extract the nut, the
whole shell is soaked in water, softened by steaming and carefully air-dried to the final moisture content (9 percent).
Each nut is hand massaged and cracked via a manual process that entails putting the nut against one sharp blade and
bringing another blade, which is on a foot powered lever, through the outer shell. The blade on the foot lever is raised by
an enthusiastic stomp allowing the outer shell to separate from the nut. The nut inside is carefully picked out of the outer
shell using a nut pick.
CHAPTER 3
USES OF CASHEW
The cashew tree has been cultivated for food and medicine for 400 years. Cashews have served nutritional, medicinal and
wartime needs. More recently, they have been used in the manufacture of adhesives, resins and natural insecticides.
During World War II, the cashew tree became highly prized as the source of valuable oil drawn from the shell.
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Figure 4: Cross section of a cashew fruit.
The cashew kernel is a rich source of fat (46 percent) and protein (18 percent) and is a good source of calcium,
phosphorus and iron. It has a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids, in particular, the essential fatty acid linoleic
acid. The tart apple is a source of vitamin C, calcium and iron. The bark, leaves, gum and shell are all used in medicinal
applications. The leaves and bark are commonly used to relieve toothache and sore gums and the boiled water extract of
the leaf or bark is used as a mouthwash. A paste of bark ground in water is used in topical applications for the cure of
ringworm; in this form it can however act as an irritant and should not be applied to sensitive skin or to children. The root
has been used as a purgative. Fibres from the leaves can be used to strengthen fishing lines and nets and as folk remedies
for calcium deficiency and intestinal colic, as well as a vitamin supplement. The water-resistant wood is used for boats
and ferries, while the resin, in addition to having industrial uses, is used as an expectorant, cough remedy and insect
repellent.
3.1 Uses of cashew nut
The cashew nut kernel is constituted of three different portions namely the shell, the kernel and the adhering testa (Figure
4). The primary product of cashew nuts is the kernel, which is the edible portion of the nut and is consumed in three
ways:
directly by the consumer,

as roasted and salted nuts,
in confectionery and bakery products, for example, finely chopped kernels are used in the production of sweets, ice
creams, cakes and chocolates, both at home and industrially and as paste to spread on bread.
The relative importance of these uses varies from year to year and country to country, but it is estimated that at least 60
percent of cashew kernels are consumed as salted nuts. Separately packed cashew nuts are a good selling line, mainly as
an appetizer to cocktail drinks. Salted cashews are part of the snack food market. They compete mainly with other nuts,
although chips, salted popcorn and other savoury snacks can impinge on the nut market. The price of cashew nuts is
much higher than the price of peanuts or other snacks so those sales must be based on a strong taste preference by the
consumer. Cashew nuts are generally considered a luxury product and an element of their appeal may lie in this status.
3.2 Uses of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL)
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The cashew nut shell contains a viscous and dark liquid, known as cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), which is extremely
caustic. It is contained in the thin honeycomb structure between the soft outer skin of the nut and the harder inner shell.
The CSNL content of the raw nut varies between 20 and 25 percent.
Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is an important and versatile industrial raw material. There are more than 200 patents for
its industrial application, in particular, its use as raw material for phenolic resins and friction powder for the automotive
industry (brake linings and clutch disks). In drum-brake lining compounds, cashew resins are used as fillers and may also
be used as binders. In disc pads, the role of cashew resin is restricted to the use of friction dust as filler. The advantage of
the cashew resins compared with synthetic phenolic resins is that they are more economical and produce a softer material,
which gives a quieter braking action (CTCS, 1993).
CNSL is also used in mouldings, acid-resistant paints, foundry resins, varnishes, enamels and black lacquers for
decorating vases and as insecticides and fungicides. In tropical medicine, CNSL has been used in treating leprosy,
elephantiasis, psoriasis, ringworm, warts and corns.
Like cashew nuts, CNSL also has an excellent international market and its imports have reached almost US$10 million
annually, corresponding to the sale of the raw liquid. However, the exporting country would earn much more foreign
currency if manufactured products were exported.
After extracting the CNSL, the cashew nut shells can be burned to provide heat for the decorticating operation or can be
used in the manufacture of agglomerates. Together with the testa, it may be used either in the manufacture of dyestuff or
to provide durability to hammocks and fishing lines.
3.3 Uses of cashew apple

In cashew-producing countries, the nut is only one of the products enjoyed by the local populations. The cashew "apple"
or false fruit is an edible food rich in vitamin C. It can be dried, canned as a preserve or eaten fresh from the tree. It can
also be squeezed for fresh juice, which can then be fermented into cashew wine, which is a very popular drink in West
Africa. In parts of India, it is used to distil cashew liquor referred to as feni. In some parts of South America, local
inhabitants regard the apple, rather than the nut kernel, as a delicacy. In Brazil, the apple is used to manufacture jams and
soft and alcoholic drinks.
The cashew tree bears a false fruit known as the cashew apple from which the nut protrudes. The cashew apple is
between three and five inches long and has a smooth, shiny skin that turns from green to bright red, orange or yellow in
colour as it matures. It has a pulpy, juicy structure, with a pleasant but strong astringent flavour.
The cashew apple is very rich in vitamin C (262 mg/100 ml of juice) and contains five times more vitamin C than an
orange. A glass of cashew apple juice meets an adult individual's daily vitamin C (30 mg) requirement. The cashew apple
is also rich in sugars and contains considerable amounts of tannins and minerals, mainly calcium, iron and phosphorous.
Furthermore, the fruit has medicinal properties. It is used for curing scurvy and diarrhoea and it is effective in preventing
cholera. It is applied for the cure of neurological pain and rheumatism. It is also regarded as a first-class source of energy.
Until recently, the potential of cashew apple had not been investigated due to its highly astringent and acrid taste which is
believed to originate in the waxy layer of the skin and which causes tongue and throat irritation after eating. Cashew fruit
can be made suitable for consumption by removing the undesirable tannins and processing the apples into value-added
products, such as juices, syrups, canned fruits, pickles, jams, chutneys, candy and toffee. The recommended methods for
removing the astringent properties of the cashew apple include steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in
cold water, boiling the fruit in salt water for five minutes or adding gelatin solution to the expressed juice.
The fruit should be picked from the tree by hand to avoid bruising the delicate flesh. They are then carefully washed and
the nuts are removed for processing. Cashew apples should be processed within two to three hours of picking, since they
undergo rapid deterioration when kept for a longer time.
Currently only six percent of cashew apple production is exploited, since the producer only has a guaranteed market for
cashew nuts. It is also extremely difficult to use the whole fruit commercially as the apple ripens prior to the nut. The
quality of nuts detached from the green fruit, is unacceptable for commercialization.
The ripe apple can be eaten or used for jam making, for the production of fruit juices or for making alcoholic beverages.
The development of processing options for the cashew apple has also been limited by its high degree of perishability and
consequent difficulties in transportation from growing areas to distant processing plants.
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3.3.1 Using cashew apples in recipes

In gathering the fruits and transporting them to be processed, the prime purpose should be to have the fruit arrive in the
very best condition possible. Cashew apples should be sorted and only mature, undamaged cashew apples should be
selected for use in recipes. These should be washed in clean water prior to use. Recipes for the use of cashew apple are
listed in Annex 2.
Cashew wine
Cashew wine is made in many countries throughout Asia and Latin America. It is a light yellow alcoholic drink, with an
alcohol content of 6 to 12 percent.
Processing
Cashew apples are cut into slices in order to ensure a rapid rate of juice extraction when they are crushed in the juice
press. The fruit juice is sterilized in stainless steel pans at a temperature of 85oC in order to eliminate any wild yeast. The
juice is filtered and treated with either sodium or potassium metabisulphite, to destroy or inhibit the growth of
undesirable types of micro-organisms such as acetic acid bacteria, wild yeast and moulds.
Wine yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae - var ellipsoideus) should be added. Once the yeast has been added, the juice is
thoroughly stirred and allowed to ferment for about two weeks. The wine is separated from the sediment and clarified by
mixing fining agents, such as gelatin, pectin or casein, with the wine. Filtration is carried out with filter-aids such as
fullers earth. The filtered wine is transferred to wooden vats.
The wine is pasteurized at 50 to 60oC. The temperature should be controlled, so that it does not rise exceed 70oC, since
alcohol vaporizes at a temperature of 75 to 78oC. The wine is then stored in wooden vats and subjected to ageing. At
least six months should be allowed for ageing. If necessary, the wine should be clarified again before bottling. During
ageing and subsequent maturing in bottles, many reactions, including oxidation, occur. The formation of traces of esters
and aldehydes, together with the tannin and acids already present enhance the taste, aroma and preservative properties of
the wine (Wimalsiri et al, 1971). The product is packaged in glass bottles with corks and should be kept out of direct
sunlight.
Flow diagram
Selection
Mature, sound cashew apples
Slicing To increase extraction of juice
Crushing
Sterilization At 85C
Filtering
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Inoculation With S. cerevisiae
Fermentation Two weeks
Filtering
Pasteurization 50 to 60C
In wooden vats for 6 months

Ageing
3.4 Dried cashew fruits

Cashew fruit are not readily consumed in the raw state because of their high content of astringent compounds. If these are
removed and the fruit is sweetened, it can be converted into a useful dried product. The fruit must therefore be
extensively processed prior to drying.
Fruits are prepared according to the following process:
Fruits are picked from the tree using special hooked sticks (note that fruits harvested at this stage of maturity
contain nuts that are immature). The fruit is washed and boiled in salted water (two percent solution) for five
minutes to remove the astringent compounds.
The skin is pricked with a fork and the fruit pressed in a small hand press to extract the juice. The collected juice is
reserved for later use.
The fruit is boiled for three hours in a solution of cashew juice and raw sugar (2 kg raw sugar in 10 litres of juice).
Other sweeteners can also be used, for example: 0.5 kg white sugar in 1.8 litres of cashew juice; 1.2 litres cane
juice in 1 litre cashew juice; 250 ml (1 cup) honey in 2 litres cashew juice.
The boiled, sugared fruit is laid out on screens and placed in a drier. In a simple solar drier, drying time takes about
three days.
The fruit is packaged in airtight moisture-resistant packaging.
Source: Brown, 1992.
CHAPTER 4
TRENDS IN CASHEW NUT PRODUCTION AND TRADE
4.1 Global cashew production

In the early 1970s, the majority of global cashew production (68 percent of total) took place in African countries, in
particular, Mozambique and Tanzania. Over the following thirty years, production trends shifted, with Asian countries
emerging as the world leaders in cashew production. Today, India commands about 40 percent of the international
market in cashew production. Other Asian countries, particularly Vietnam and Indonesia, are beginning to expand their
production capacities. Currently, the four main cashew producing regions are India, Brazil, Nigeria and Tanzania. Figure
5 illustrates the global trends in cashew production over the last forty years.
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Figure 5: Global cashew production (1961 to 2000) (tonnes).
World production of cashew nuts grew rapidly during the 1950s and 1960s, reaching a peak of 624 000 tonnes of raw
nuts in 1973. Three countries, India, Mozambique and Tanzania accounted for the majority of this production, while
smaller industries had developed in Brazil, Kenya and several other African countries. In 1975 to 1976, there was a sharp
decline in world production, which continued into the 1980s. This decline was largely due to decreased production in
Mozambique and Tanzania, since production in India during that period remained static (Jaffee and Morton, 1995). The
table showing Trends in global production in Annex 1 summarizes trends in average global cashew production over a
forty year period. During the late 1980s and continuing into the 1990s, production picked up and continued to increase
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gradually. In 2000, world cashew production exceeded 1.2 million tonnes. Asian and African countries produced 0.6
million and 0.4 million tonnes respectively.
4.2 Cashew production in Africa

Overall cashew production in Africa steadily increased during the 1950s and 1960s, until the mid-1970s when that
continent was the prime producer of cashew nuts. The year 1975 was the start of a fifteen year period of decline in
production throughout the continent due to a combination biological, agronomic and socio-political factors. The decline
in prices at the end of the 1970s, combined with lower levels of production, dissuaded many farmers from improving
cultivation techniques and replanting their cashew plantations (Andrighetti et al, 1998).
Since the early 1990s, production has recovered and has continued to increase steadily over the last decade. Today,
Africa accounts for about 36 percent of world cashew production.
Historically, Mozambique and Tanzania were the main cashew-producing countries in Africa, with smaller amounts
produced in a number of other countries. During the last five to ten years Nigeria has emerged as a leading producer of
cashew nuts in Africa.
Table 4.1: Cashew production (tonnes) in African countries from 1961 to 2000.
Country
2000 1998 1995 1990 1985 1980 1975 1970 1965 1961
Angola 800 1 200 900 1 200 1 200 1 200 1 400 1 300 1 000 1 000
Benin 10 000 10 000 10 000 3 000 1 200 1 086 345 627 50 50
Burkina Faso 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 074 645 200
Cote d. Ivoire 28 000 28 000 20 000 7 000 3 500 600 450 300 400 400
Ghana 7 500 7 500 1 000 500
Guinea-Bissau 38 000 38 000 37 000 30 000 13 000 3 500 2 500 2 500 2 000 2 000
Kenya 8 000 9 000 5 000 7 000 8 500 15 000 21 600 22 200 9 000 3 000
Madagascar 7 000 6 500 6 000 5 300 4 000 3 400 2 900 2 400 1 900 1 600
Mozambique 35 000 51 716 33 423 22 524 25 000 71 100 188 000 184 000 136 000 107
000
Nigeria 176 000 152 000 95 000 30 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 22 000 7 000
Senegal 15 000 7 000 1 500 500
Tanzania 106 500 93 200 63 400 17 060 32 750 41 416 115 840 107 445 76 000 50 000
Togo 155 155 748 587
Total Africa 432 955 405 271 274 971 125 745 114 795 162 502 358 035 345 772 248 350 172
050
Source: FAO, 2000
Table 4.2: Leading African producers of cashew. Percentage of African and Global production (1961 to 2000).
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2000 1998 1995 1990 1985 1980 1975 1970 1965 1961
Year
World 1 217 210 1 070 774 944 070 606 681 520 973 464 215 563 795 511 939 386 303 287
535
Total Africa 432 955 405 271 274 971 125 745 114 795 162 502 358 035 345 772 248 350 172
050
Mozambique 35 000 51 716 33 423 22 524 25 000 71 100 188 000 184 000 136 000 107
000
% of Africa 8.1 12.8 12.2 17.9 21.8 43.8 52.5 53.2 54.8 62.2
% total 2.9 4.8 3.5 3.7 4.8 15.3 33.3 35.9 35.2 37.2
Tanzania 106 500 93 200 63 400 17 060 32 750 41 416 115 840 107 445 76 000 50 000
% Africa 24.6 23.0 23.1 13.6 28.5 25.5 32.4 31.1 30.6 29.1
% total 8.7 8.7 6.7 2.8 6.3 8.9 20.5 21.0 19.7 17.4
Nigeria 176 000 152 000 95 000 30 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 22 000 7 000
% Africa 40.7 37.5 34.5 23.9 21.8 15.4 7.0 7.2 8.9 4.1
% total 14.5 14.2 10.1 4.9 4.8 5.4 4.4 4.9 5.7 2.4
Source: FAO, 2000
4.2.1 Production in Mozambique

In the 1960s, Mozambique accounted for half of the world's cashew nut production and in the mid 1970s it was the
leading world producer with 240 000 tonnes of raw nut production. The civil war from 1982 to 1992 had serious
repercussions on the industry, reducing production to merely 23 000 tonnes per annum. With the return of peace to the
country, cashew production has gradually increased again, but is still far below former levels (production in the year
2000 was only 35 000 tonnes).
In Mozambique, cashew nuts are grown entirely by small-scale farmers and subsistent families, mainly in coastal areas. A
1996 to 1997 survey showed that 26 percent of all rural families have cashew trees and 16 percent of rural families have
more than ten cashew trees. Even ten percent of urban families have cashew trees. The importance of cashew in
Mozambique was shown by a question on the 1997 national census, which asked: "Do you have any cashew trees?"
This huge decline in the cashew industry in Mozambique, coupled with the 1995 intervention by the World Bank that
was aimed at rejuvenating the industry, has attracted a lot of interest from economists and development specialists.
From 1972 onwards, there has been a general decline in cashew production in Mozambique. However, during this time
there have been good years when exports remained high. For example, in 1976 there were 21 100 tonnes of processed
cashew kernels exported worth US$33 million and accounting for 23 percent of export earnings. In 1982 there were 16
700 tonnes exported, worth US$44 million and 19 percent of total export earnings.
Cashew remained Mozambique's largest export until 1982, with the majority of the crop going to the United States. The
industry involved millions of smallholder farmers and more than 10 000 processors, making it the fourth largest employer
after the railways, sugar and textiles. But then cashew production fell sharply and prawns became Mozambique's main
export. Today, Mozambique only produces five percent of the world total, fewer than one million small-scale farmers are
involved in cashew production and the processing workforce is less than 1 000 (Hanlon, 2000).
Most of Mozambique's cashew processing factories were opened during the colonial era and then abandoned in the late
1970s. Two factories owned by the Anglo-American Corporation of South Africa stayed open until 1981 when de facto
sanctions were imposed on Mozambique by South Africa. After independence from Portugal in 1975, the factories were
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run by a state holding company. Great emphasis was put on improving wages and working conditions, particularly for the
women who made up half the workforce. The new state managers were able to keep the factories running, but there was
no new investment. Inevitably the machinery began to wear out. Many factories are in rural areas, where transport and
electricity supplies were affected by the war. In 1989, a serious programme was initiated by the government, to privatize
small and medium size businesses. In the early 1990s the World Bank pushed for privatization of larger companies and
by 1999 virtually all government-controlled parts of the economy had been privatized. In 1997, there were 15 operational
cashew factories, with an installed capacity of 144 000 tonnes of raw nuts but an actual capacity to process 75 000 tonnes
of raw nuts per year. This was more than had been commercialized by smallholders in any year since 1981.
Historically, Mozambique was prohibited by law to export raw (unprocessed) cashew nuts until the capacity of the local
processing industry had been met. In the 1960s, however, there was some export of raw nuts to India (then the second
largest producer of cashew). In 1992, Mozambique replaced its export ban with an export tax on raw (but not processed)
nuts. There was an informal agreement with the owners of the newly privatized companies that they would be given a
period of protection while they rehabilitated and modernized the factories. In April 1995, the government changed the
export tax on raw nuts to 25 percent on sales up to US$600 per tonne and 70 percent thereafter. But for the 1995 to 1996
season, it set the export duty at a flat 26 percent and further specified that it would fall to 20 percent the next year,
followed by annual drops to 16, 12 and 8 percent (by 1999 to 2000) where it would remain. This revised policy was never
implemented, however, due to the 1995 intervention of the World Bank (Box 4.1).
There is good reason to believe that cashew has the potential to regain substantial importance for Mozambique and other
developing countries because:
1. Cashew kernels are a high value luxury commodity with sales growing at a steady rate of 7 percent per year 1991
to 1996 and with every expectation that the market will remain strong,
2. Northern markets are not controlled, protected or organized into cartels, leaving substantial opportunity for
Mozambique and other countries to capture the value added by processing and marketing the kernels,
3. There is substantial potential to exploit cashew by-products such as cashew butter from broken nuts, CNSL and the
juice of the cashew apple, which has a good flavour and is high in Vitamin C,
4. The climate in Mozambique is suitable for growing cashews,
5. Cashew is considered by small-scale producers to be one of their most lucrative crops and the work needed comes
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at times which do not conflict with peak labour times for food crops. Thus it has the potential to increase earnings,
create jobs and increase exports.
Certain constraints however need to be overcome:
1. Cashew production is weather dependent, therefore supply is variable. World prices, although stable in the
long-term, are highly volatile in the short-term.
2. Luxury goods must be of high quality. Standards, branding and marketing are required in order for the product to
compete directly in the world market.
3. New technology is required in order to exploit by-products.
4. Production volume must be dramatically increased.
4.2.2 Production in Tanzania

In terms of global production, Tanzania ranks fourth after India, Nigeria and Brazil. Over the last four decades,
Tanzanian cashew production has shown considerable fluctuation (Table 4.2). Between the 1990 to 1991 and 1999 to
2000 seasons, cashew production has increased six-fold from 17 000 tonnes to 106 500 tonnes. It is estimated that this
upward trend will continue for the near future, reaching about 130 000 tonnes in the 2000 to 2001 season.
Various factors are responsible for the past decline in cashew production. The 'villagization' policy of the Tanzanian
government in the 1970s, aimed at moving people from their original settlements to communal villages, contributed to
some extent to the decline in cashew production, since most farms were abandoned as the villagers were moved to new
settlements. The low yields of the 1980s were associated with factors such as poor crop husbandry, pests and diseases
and low producer prices, which discouraged many farmers from investing in the crop.
At the beginning of the 1990s, trade liberalization policies, combined with improved crop husbandry, improved tree stock
and more investment in research activities resulted in an improvement in both cashew production and the cashew industry
in Tanzania.
Currently, small-scale farmers carry out the majority of cashew production in Tanzania in mono- or mixed production
systems. An estimated 280 000 households, covering an area of 400 000 hectares, are involved in cashew production.
The government is actively supporting farmers in upgrading their current farming systems and practices in order to
improve the condition of the trees and maximize agronomic potential. Current yields are about 3 kg per tree, but under
optimum conditions, yields of 8 kg per tree are expected.
In recognition of the potential importance of cashew nuts in Tanzania, the Cashew Nut Board of Tanzania (CBT) was
established by the government in 1993. The main roles of the CBT are to regulate and promote the quality, marketing and
export of raw and processed nuts and to advise the government on matters affecting cashew nut production and
marketing.
Commercial cashew processing in Tanzania began following the independence of that country. In the early 1960s, a
private company known as African Cashew Processors Company Ltd established a simple manual processing plant in
Dar es Salaam and in 1965 the first mechanical processing factory, incorporating Italian technology, was installed. This
was soon followed in 1968 by a second plant that used Japanese technology. In early 1979, the National Development
Corporation (NDC) established seven hand processing factories, two in the Coastal region and two in Southern regions.
These manual processing factories were part of the National Cashew Company Ltd. As production from the factories
increased, the government was prompted to build five new factories, all with Italian technology. These twelve factories
have a combined processing capacity of 112 000 tonnes. In the 1980s, the rapid decline in production of cashew nuts
resulted in the closure of all twelve factories.
All twelve factories require some investment and refurbishment to bring them back into use. The Cashew Nut Board of
Tanzania (CBT) is investigating the possibility of initially re-opening four of the factories so that they can be leased or
sold to private processors. The government of Tanzania has declared a national policy to encourage the local processing
of cashew nuts with the objective of processing the entire crop locally. This policy is in line with similar policies adopted
by other major cashew producers. Brazil, Vietnam, Kenya and India (Cashew Nut Board of Tanzania, 2000).
Prior to embarking on a programme of upgrading processing facilities, countries such as Tanzania (and other exporting
countries such as Nigeria, Guinea Bissau and Indonesia) might be advised to consider the advantages and disadvantages
of processing locally or exporting the raw nuts to India for processing. In making this judgement several factors must be
considered. An analysis by Newafrica.com (2000) sets out the parameters. The article considers that the value added by
processing easily exceeds that of exporting raw nuts and therefore recommends that nuts are processed locally rather than
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exported.
4.2.3 Production in Nigeria

During the past decade, the production of cashew nuts in Nigeria has increased almost six-fold from 30 000 tonnes in
1990 to 176 000 tonnes in 2000. Prior to this, production was relatively static at 25 000 tonnes over a 25 year period from
1965. As in the case of other developing countries, Nigeria has recognised the potential economic value of cashew and
has made a concerted effort to improve production of the crop.
4.2.4 Production in other African countries

Other African producers of cashew are listed in Table 4.1. During the 1970s, Kenya produced appreciable quantities
(over 22 000 tonnes) of cashews, but unlike its neighbours, has never recovered production since the decline in the
1980s. Guinea Bissau, The Ivory Coast and Benin are now emerging as important producers of cashew in Africa (Table
4.1).
4.3 Cashew production in Asia

Cashew production in Asia currently accounts for about 50 percent of global production. It has held this prime position
for almost twenty years, reaching over 60 percent in some years. African countries previously dominated the world
cashew market, with Asian cashews accounting for about 30 percent of the world total.
India has long been the main cashew producer in Asia, accounting for between 70 and 90 percent of total Asian
production (Table 4.3). During the 1970s and 1980s when African production was on the decline, production in India
continued to grow at a steady rate. India now accounts for about 40 percent of world cashew production.
During the 1990s, Indonesia and Vietnam emerged as important cashew producing countries within Asia, helping to
boost Asia's position as a prime producer. Increased production in these two countries is responsible for reducing India's
share of total Asian production from 90 percent at its peak in the early 1970s to just over 70 percent today. Production in
Thailand, Malaysia and Sri Lanka has increased steadily over the past forty years.
Table 4.3: Cashew production (tonnes) in Asian countries from 1961 to 2000.
Country
2000 1998 1995 1990 1985 1980 1975 1970 1965 1961
Bangladesh 10 10 20 80 60 20 10
China 2 000 2 000 923 1 000 6 500 6 000 4 800 3 250 2 400 2 000
India 440 000 440 000 321 640 285 590 221 330 180 266 144 254 123 319 100 000 85 000
Indonesia 69 027 69 027 74 995 29 907 21 114 9 074 9 122
Malaysia 13 000 13 000 13 000 10 000 6 000 5 200 11 200 4 300 3 600 3 600
Sri Lanka 15 000 15 000 13 000 10 000 9 500 8 260 4 330 2 770 8 800 4 240
Thailand 22 000 21 000 18 000 11 850 9 500 4 500 1 800 1 300 800 500
Vietnam 41 200 54 000 52 800 26 000 9 000 5 600 3 500 2 100 700 700
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Total Asia 602 237 614 037 494 378 374 427 283 004 218 920 179 016 137 039 116 300 96 040
Source: FAO, 2000
4.3.1 Production in India

For a long time, cashew was not considered to be a serious crop in India. Rather it was grown as a wild crop on land that
was unsuitable for other crops. It was frequently grown as a source of fuel or to prevent soil erosion rather than as a cash
crop.
In India, cashew is produced in the coastal regions of the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra andhra Pradesh,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu. The state of Kerala accounts for approximately 50 per cent of cashew production in India. Kerala
has a centralized procurement system and much of the processing is done on an outworker basis by families. Although
Kerala only accounts for about 25 percent of the total area under cashew, yields in this state are relatively high when
compared to those in other states. Estimated cashew productivity in Kerala is 900 to 950 kg raw cashew nuts per hectare,
which is almost double that in the rest of India.
Cashew is predominantly a smallholder crop in India about 70 percent of cashews are grown by small-scale farmers. The
remaining 30 percent are grown under re-forestation programmes. Cashew yields in India average around 1.5 kg of nuts
per tree. In Kerala average cashew yields are about 5 kg per tree, which is substantially less than the potential yield of 10
to 15 kg per tree under optimum conditions. The poor quality of raw cashews has been a long-term problem for the
cashew processing industry in India. The main reasons for poor quality are incorrect harvesting techniques, unsatisfactory
drying of raw nuts and inadequate storage of dried nuts.
The number of cashew processing units in India has increased rapidly over the last four decades, from 170 in 1959 to
over 700 today. Over two-thirds of the processing units are in the State of Kerala, while the remainder are scattered
throughout the other producing states. Together these units have a processing capacity of over 800 000 tonnes per year
and provide employment to over 500 000 people, 95 percent of whom are women (Nayar, 1995). The industry is
dominated by small-scale, single-owner or family-owned businesses.
Cashew has gained significant economic and social importance in India as a major foreign exchange earner. In 1992 to
1993, India exported 53 436 tonnes of cashew kernels valued at US$160 million. In the same year, a further US $0.8
million was generated through the sale of 4 258 tonnes of cashew nut shell liquid.
In the 1980s and 1990s, India rapidly expanded its cashew production, to become the world's largest producer and now
accounts for about 40 percent of global production. Processing capacity increased more rapidly than production, so
Indian imports of raw nuts increased rapidly, reaching 203 000 tonnes in 1996 (of which 41 percent originated from
Tanzania and 13 percent from Mozambique). In recent years, an increasing number of non-African countries have also
supplied raw nuts to India. The decline in African production in the 1970s and 1980s resulted in a rapid decline in
imports into India. Alternative supplies of raw nuts were obtained from Vietnam. According to India's 8th National
Development Plan, agricultural production should match processing capacity by the year 2000.
The beginnings of India's international trade in cashews date back to after the First World War. This trade expanded
rapidly in the 1920s with the introduction of improved packaging materials for long distance transit. By the start of World
War II, cashew nuts had become the second most important traded dessert nut after almonds and have remained in this
position for the last fifty years (Jaffee and Morton, 1995).
Cashew is the only major plantation crop that is not regulated by an autonomous board. Other plantation crops, such as
tea, coffee, cardamom and rubber all have efficient and autonomous boards and as a result have experienced much faster
growth in productivity than cashew. Cashew is one of the most neglected plantation crops in India despite its status as a
major source of foreign exchange.
The international price of Indian cashew kernels has fluctuated widely over the last decade.
4.3.2 Production in Indonesia

Indonesia has long been the second largest producer of cashew in Asia. Production has picked up over the decade, when
it doubled from 30 000 to 60 000 tonnes. Some of the Indonesian production is exported to India for processing.
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4.3.3 Production in Vietnam

Cashew production in Vietnam has increased quite rapidly over the last decade. Vietnam now accounts for about 6
percent of total Asian production and is the third largest cashew producer in Asia. Previously, many of the raw nuts were
exported to India for processing, to make good the shortfall that India experienced when East African supplies dried up.
Now, however, Vietnam has about 60 processing plants, with a capacity of 220 000 tonnes of raw nuts. Annual cashew
production is often less than this and Vietnam has become an importer of raw nuts from East and West Africa and South
East Asia.
4.3.4 Production in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has a very small share (around 2 to 2.5 percent) of the Asian cashew production market. Some of the cashews
are processed locally while the remainder are exported to India for processing.
4.3.5 Production in Australia

Cashew is a crop with good potential for the Australian tropics, particularly in the Northern Territory and Queensland,
where agro-climatic conditions are suitable for its production. Australia currently produces about 25 tonnes and imports
about 5 000 tonnes of cashew a year. There is potential therefore to increase production to meet domestic demand. The
cashew industry in Australia is at an infant stage, with three plantations - one in north Queensland and two in the
Northern Territory. Expansion of the industry will necessitate a good supply of high yielding plants.
The Australian government is supporting a large cashew research programme (at the Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)) to develop high yielding hybrids adapted to the local conditions.
Australia has no shelling facilities. The raw nut is exported to China for shelling and returned to Australia where it is sold
either as raw kernel or further processed into value added goods such as chocolate coated, salted or honey coated nuts
(O'Farrell, Blaikie and Chacko, 1998).
4.4 Production in South and Central America

Brazil is the main cashew producing country in the South and Central American continent. A handful of Central
American countries also produce minor quantities of cashew nuts (Table 4.4).
Table 4.4: Cashew production (tonnes) in South and Central American countries from 1961 to 2000.
Country
2000 1998 1995 1990 1985 1980 1975 1970 1965 1961
Brazil 167 123 39 836 164 156 99 367 115 000 75 000 20 490 20 309 13 789 9 670
Dominican 930 930 930 930 910 870 810 804 789 775
Republic
El Salvador 4 000 4 000 3 000 2 098 2 162 2 208 1 702 1 700 1 600 1 500
Honduras 400 400 400 350
Mexico 300 300 235 168 1 154 316
Peru 3 265
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Total South 176 018 45 466 168 721 102 913 119 226 78 394 23 002 22 813 16 178 11 945
America
Source: FAO 2000
4.4.1 Production in Brazil

Brazil currently holds third place in global production of cashew, after India and Nigeria. Overall, production has tended
to increase gradually over the last thirty years, but at times (1988 and 1983 especially) has plummeted (Table 4.4), mainly
due to periods of drought.
Brazil recognized the economic value of cashew cultivation at the beginning of the Second World War, when there was a
considerable demand for cashew nut shell liquid for the North American war effort. The expansion of cashew areas
began at the end of the 1960s through government incentives and funding. This increase in production allowed Brazil to
enter the international market, although actual yields of the crop were low. Cashew cultivation, of which 99 percent is in
the north of the country, is of great economic importance for the states of Ceara, Piaui and Rio Grande de Norte, which
are some of the poorest regions. Interruptions in incentives and financial aid, linked with low internal prices and a
stagnation of export demands, were the main factors responsible for the decline in the production of cashew. Over the
past twenty years, however, cashew production in Brazil has boomed, with producers making the most of the large US
market for the kernels (CDI, 1995).
4.5 Global Trade Trends

Cashews rank third in world production of edible nuts that are traded globally. World trade in edible nuts has experienced
relatively rapid growth, averaging about 2.7 per cent per year since the early 1970s and increasing in value from US
$1.94 in 1980 to US $2.84 billion in 1990 (United Nations Yearbook of International Trade Statistics).
Worldwide, trade in cashews exceeds US$2 billion and demand is increasing. Of the total world supply, 110 000 tonnes
are traded on international markets. India (60 percent) and Brazil (31 percent) are major exporters.
As a major importer of cashew, the USA has a strong influence over the world price, which is fixed in US$ per pound (1
pound = 0.45 kg). The price of W320 grade (320 kernels per pound) over the last 15 years has ranged from US$2.73 to
US$3.18. The 1999 price for W320 grade was US$3.30 per lb (US$7.2 per kg) FOB.
International trade in raw cashew nuts has traditionally involved shipments from East Africa to India. India was the first
country to build up a processing industry, but domestic production has long been insufficient to meet the requirements of
the country's hundreds of small and medium-scale processing outlets. The imports from East Africa generally took place
from December to May, which complemented the national harvest from May through to July. Thus, the Indian processors
were able to operate over a prolonged period without having to maintain large stores of raw nuts. This trade declined in
the early 1980s when East African production reached low levels and Indian importers had problems with access to
foreign exchange. Since then, import levels have increased due to greater supply availability, particularly from South East
Asia Vietnam and Indonesia and Tanzania (Nayar, 1995). Cashews from Tanzania used to command premium prices
over other suppliers, but recent years have seen a growing uncertainty about the quality of Tanzanian shipments, resulting
in the loss of premium grade (Jaffee and Morton, 1995).
India has long been the world's largest supplier of cashew kernels with its prices and quality, setting the standards for the
industry. In Europe, India has been the preferred supplier, with long standing trading relationships based on confidence in
product quality and on fast and regular deliveries. India has more than 150 cashew kernel shippers, many of whom have
offices in Europe and the United States (Jaffee and Morton, 1995). Throughout the 1970s, Mozambique was also a major
exporter, but its market share has declined. At the same time, Brazilian exports have expanded. The quality of Brazilian
cashews does not match that of Indian cashews. Brazilian nuts however have a comparative advantage in the US market,
based on lower transportation costs and the unique larger size of the Brazilian cashew nut. Other suppliers, including
Tanzania, Kenya and China, are reputed for producing nuts of irregular quality, which contributes to substantial price
discounts (up to 30 percent), in international markets.
Most cashew kernels exported form India are plain kernels packed in four gallon prime cans, flushed with carbon dioxide
and having a net weight of 11.34 kg (25 lb). These cans are encased in cardboard cartons. Global pricing is generally
quoted in US dollars per pound or per kilogram of nuts.
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The United States is the largest importer of cashew kernels, accounting for over 50 percent of world imports. Other
importers include the Netherlands (ten percent), Germany (seven percent), Japan (five percent) and the United Kingdom
(five percent). The former Soviet Union was previously a major importer of cashew kernels, but with recent economic
changes trade to this part of the world has diminished. Other emerging markets include the Middle East, South East Asia
and Australia (ITC, 1990; O'Farrell, Blaikie and Chacko, 1998).
Cashew kernels are usually the second or third most expensive nuts traded in the United States. Macadamia nuts are more
expensive and pecan nuts can cost more in years when there is a poor harvest. Cashew nuts have a well established
market in the United States with a great variety of end uses. Retail prices vary from about US$4 to 11 per lb (US$9 to 23
per kg) depending on kernel size and packaging.
The extensive market connections of large exporters from Brazil and India make it difficult for smaller exporters to make
gains in the US market. Importers may appreciate the low prices that small suppliers can offer, but the lack of reliability
in quality, tends to make them favour the larger, more reputable suppliers (The Clipper, 1994).
Almost all of the world's raw cashew nuts are sent to India for processing, since India has an inexpensive labour force
and does not produce adequate quantities of cashews to fulfil its domestic processing capacity. Approximately 25 to 40
percent of nuts processed in India originate in foreign countries. India also has a long tradition and good reputation as a
high quality processor of cashew. A number of countries therefore prefer to export their raw nuts to India for processing
rather than to process themselves and produce lower quality kernels.
China also has a high processing capacity and benefits from having an inexpensive labour force. Chinese processed
cashews were previously considered inferior to Indian nuts, but with improving standards, the import of raw nuts to
China is on the increase.
World prices of cashew kernels vary according to the size, class and composition of the product. W320 (320 kernels per
pound weight) is the category in highest demand and is the reference point for pricing. International prices for cashew
kernels are influenced by the behaviour of market operators. There is no fixed market price and the market is speculative.
Cashew quality is of utmost importance. High quality is a major criterion for success on the world market. India and
Brazil have worked hard to ensure high quality of the processed kernels. India's cashew industry was the first to use
quality control for improvement of performance. Quality control is administered via the Cashew Export Promotion
Council (CEPC).
4.5.1 International Classification

In order to safeguard and guarantee quality, producers and exporters have introduced quality standards, which must be
met by cashew exporters. The ISO 6477 standard was introduced in 1988 in order to unite the Brazilian and Indian
classifications and to give one single classification scheme for quality control.
Cashew kernels are selected on the basis of the number per unit weight, in accordance with the weight of the kernels.
They are also classified either as wholes, chips, splits, butts or baby bits, in accordance with the integrity of the kernel.
White or ivory kernels are preferred over brown ones. There is a maximum permitted moisture level (both for raw
cashews and cashew kernels) and the product must be free from insects, mould, rancidity and extraneous materials.
The highest price is paid for better quality kernels of the W180 and W210 grades, which are the largest and heaviest
grades.
CHAPTER 5
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CASHEW PROCESSING

5.1 Cashew processing in Africa
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Traditionally, much of the raw Eastern African production has been shipped to India for processing and re-exported as
kernels. Manual processing, such as that practised in India, tends to give higher yields of whole kernels than the
mechanized methods in use in Africa and Brazil (Errington and Coulter, 1989). This practice decreased toward the end of
the 1970s and early 1980s when production in the exporting countries declined.
5.1.1 Cashew processing in Guinea Bissau

Most of cashews produced in Guinea are exported to India for processing. There is, however, a cashew processing centre
in Quinhamel at which some local processing takes place. Raw cashew nuts are boiled in a large cauldron for 25 minutes,
then sun-dried for 48 hours. This makes it easier to separate the nut from the shell. Shells are removed from individual
cashews using a foot-powered shelling machine.
The kernels are spread over special cooling screens and dried for seven hours at 77C. The thin testa covering the kernel
is subsequently manually removed by workers sitting at a row of tables. The cleaned kernels are then graded in
accordance with their size and wholeness. The smallest pieces are collected for use in pastries and confectionery. Once
separated and classified according to international standards, the cashews are roasted and packed for shipping.
All parts of the cashew are used during processing. The discarded shell is burned to heat the cauldron in which the raw
nuts are boiled. The skins can also be burned or mixed with grains for livestock feed and the ovens can be fired from the
pruned branches obtained from a well maintained orchard.
Home based cashew processing has very low energy requirements, as fuel is required only for cooking and drying.
Workers shell and clean the cashews during daylight hours. The cashew shelling machines, which were originally
imported from Brazil, are manually operated. These machines are now made locally. Cashew processing is thus regarded
as a low-input activity that is suitable for the small scale or domestic level. Sale of the processed nuts provides year round
employment opportunities, unlike the sale of raw nuts for processing abroad which only provides a few months of
employment a year.
Those African countries which experienced a decline in their cashew production capacities may now be in a position to
revive the industry, particularly at the small-scale. Following the Indian example of small-scale manual processing, rather
than continuing with the old concept of large plants that are unable to operate efficiently, will be the most appropriate
way forward and will provide opportunities for small-scale processors.
5.2 Cashew processing in Asia

India is the main cashew processing country in Asia. The highly skilled workforce and low labour costs in India allowed
it to have a virtual monopoly on the manual processing of cashew for many years. Raw cashew nuts were traditionally
shipped from Africa to India for processing, because of the reputation of the high quality of processing in India.
Cashew production and processing provides employment to over 500 000 people in farms and factories. Over 95 percent
of these workers are women from the poorer sectors of society. In Mozambique, cashew production and processing used
to be the fourth most lucrative business, providing incomes for millions of peasant growers and over 10 000 processors.
5.2.1 Traditional processing in India

The traditional practice in the south Arcot region of India was to spread the nuts out on flat rocks in the sun, to allow
them to dry until the shell became brittle. The kernel could then be removed from the shell by striking the nut with a
wooden batten to split the shell along the natural line of cleavage. The cashew kernel was removed from the shell without
becoming contaminated by the CNSL. Use of this method was made possible by the suitability of humidity and climate
condition in that particular region of India. Shells are further processed to obtain the CNSL.
An alternative method of removing the kernel from the shell is to subject the nuts to very low temperatures, thus causing
the shell to become brittle. Following this, the nuts are mechanically cut along the natural line of cleavage and the kernels
removed. The shells are then further treated to remove the CNSL. This method of kernel removal has been commercially
adopted.
Open pan roasting
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Open pan roasting is used by traditional cashew processors in India. This roasting technique is very simple with minimal
equipment requirements. It however requires skill and judgement in order to prevent the nuts from burning.
The roasting pan is an open circular mild steel dish, measuring 600 to 675 mm (2 to 2.5 feet) in diameter, supported over
an open fire. Between 1 and 1.5 kg of raw nuts are placed on to the heated pan at a time. The nuts are heated on the pan,
with constant stirring, in order to prevent burning (Figure 6). As the nuts heat up, the CNSL is exuded onto the pan and
eventually ignites, producing clouds of thick black smoke. After heating and burning for about two minutes (judged by
experience) the pan is dowsed in water and the nuts are thrown off and allowed to cool, during which the shells become
brittle and can be readily removed from the nut.
Figure 6: Pan roasting.
5.2.2 Traditional processing in Sri Lanka

Cleaned raw nuts are spread in a single layer on the ground under bright sunlight for six to seven hours a day, over a two
to three day period, in order to attain the correct stage of dryness. Partially dried nuts are covered with polythene
overnight. A trained processor can determine the correct stage of dryness by shaking together a few dried nuts in the
palm of his hands, to give the correct rattling noise.
Processors sit on the ground and shell the nuts by beating with a mallet two or three times on the same spot, until the
shell cracks. A hard stone is buried in the ground to serve as a stable platform on which to rest the nut for shell breaking.
After the shell is broken the kernel is extracted using a small metal tool resembling a penknife. This method is hazardous
to the processor since the CNSL oozes out of the shell onto the hands. The processor wears rubber gloves and uses
firewood ash sprinkled onto the floor to neutralise the caustic liquid. The firewood ash also helps to grip the nut. In
addition to the danger posed by the CNSL, this method of kernel extraction is very labour intensive and uncomfortable
for the women involved in these activities (ITDG Sri Lanka).
Pre-heating and peeling
After extracting the kernel from the shell, the testa, which is a thin reddish coloured skin covering the kernel, must be
removed. Removal of the testa is facilitated by drying through slight heating. Care must be taken not to overheat the
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kernels as they become scorched and discoloured. Traditionally the kernels are heated on either a metal plate or open pan
over an open fire. The kernels are tossed over the heat to avoid roasting and burning. An alternative and preferable
method is to use a mechanical drier maintained at 55 to 60C. The kernels are loaded into the drier and dried for three to
four hours until the nuts give the appropriate sound when rattled together. Although investment in a mechanical drier is
costly, mechanical drying gives a higher quality cashew kernel.
The testa is scraped off the kernel using a small blunt knife. Any burnt or discoloured spots are also scraped off the
kernel with the knife. Care must be taken when peeling not to scratch the surface of the kernel as this can trigger off
enzymatic browning and reduce the quality of the kernel.
Grading
The peeled kernels are divided into wholes, splits and broken pieces. They are stored in bulk in cardboard cartons or
polythene bags.
Drying
Kernels are dried to a final moisture content of five per cent, using either a mechanical drier or oven. It is important to
ensure that the drying temperature is not too high as this would cause roasting and discoloration rather than just drying of
the kernels. Trained processors examine the kernels for the correct level of dryness by observing the colour and texture
and shaking a few nuts together to hear the correct sound.
Grading
The dried kernels are further graded into sizes 180W, 240W and 320W according to the size of the nut. This process is
carried out by experienced graders.
Packaging
The type of packaging used is largely dependent on the target market. For the local market, kernels are packed in bulk
and sealed in polythene bags. For the export market they are packed and flushed with nitrogen. Regardless of the target
market, cashews must be packed in airtight containers so as to avoid the absorption of moisture from the air. They must
be stored away from sunlight in order to prevent oxidative rancidity.
5.3 Traditional manual shelling

In the manual shelling process, the nuts are placed on a flat stone and cracked with a wooden mallet. The sheller requires
a few basic pieces of equipment, namely cans for shelled kernels and shelled pieces, a shelling mallet, a striking point
and a supply of wood ash to dust both the cashews and the fingers of the sheller. The working area should be kept clean
to prevent the ash and spilled CNSL from contaminating the extracted kernels. This is quite easily achieved by organizing
the work area and following an accepted routine.
Although this is a labourious routine, efficiency can be improved if attention is paid to ergonomic details, such as the
positioning of the pile of nuts in relation to the striking point. The nuts for shelling and the tin for receiving must be
correctly positioned so as to avoid wasting effort in reaching from one to the other. The raw and cleaned nuts must also
be separated in order to avoid contamination of the extracted kernels. If the sheller is right-handed, the pile of nuts for
shelling should be placed on the left hand side. The nut is picked up in the left hand and struck with the mallet on the
right hand. The kernel is removed and deposited in the receiving can in the centre or on the right hand side. The shell
pieces are brushed aside into a pile. The hands and striking point have to be regularly coated in wood ash to keep the
kernels clean.
Shelling is a technique that can be relatively easily learnt. Strength is not required for breakage of the shell. Correct
positioning of the nut and the ability to hit the nut in the correct position, so as to allow its breakage is most important. If
the nuts have been properly roasted and are correctly positioned on the striking platform, they will easily break down the
natural line of cleavage when struck at the broad end. The convex side of the nut should be placed in contact with the
striking platform, with the plane of cleavage at right angles to the surface of the striking post. Occasionally, a nut will
require more than one strike in order to open the shell, but this technique comes with practice. An average sheller can
open one nut in about six seconds or ten nuts per minute. In an eight hour working day, this amounts to about 4 800 nuts
or about 5 kg of kernels. At an extraction rate of 24 percent, this quantity corresponds to about 21 kg of raw nuts per day
or about 7 tonnes per year. Experienced shellers in India can produce around half as much again, with a quality of 90
percent whole kernels. A good sheller will produce a high percentage of clean, unbroken kernels, whereas a poor sheller
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will produce a larger quantitiy of dirty broken kernels (FAO, 1969).
For optimum shelling efficiency, the raw roasted nuts should be delivered close to the sheller, such that he does not have
to keep moving to fetch them. The nuts should be delivered in small manageable quantities, since large piles of unshelled
nuts act as a psychological barrier to the sheller and lower the quality of shelling.
5.3.1 Quality control in shelling

The success of a cashew processing operation is largely dependent on the proportion of whole kernels produced in the
shelling operation. Quality control and inspection are therefore critical in ensuring that shellers produce kernels of the
highest quality. The critical period for quality control in the shelling operation is the start and the end of the day, but in
particular the latter when the sheller may be rushing to complete the day' s work.
Several points must be to monitored:
The discarded shells must be inspected for completeness of removal. An inspector should aim to inspect
approximately one in ten discarded shells for kernels, wholes and pieces that are being discarded with the shell,
partially shelled nuts and unshelled nuts.
The inspector should also inspect the extracted kernels and pieces for cleanliness and to make sure there are no
pieces of shell included.
At the end of the day the quantity of shelled kernels should be weighed to assess the productivity of each sheller. If
shellers are paid on a piece-rate basis, then the individual amounts are weighed separately. The percentage
extraction, which is the ratio of kernels to raw roasted nuts, is calculated.
Shellers need to be made aware of the quality of their work. They should be rewarded for high standards and penalized
for work that is below par. At the end of the day the work place needs to be cleaned and tidied in preparation for next
day's work.
Processors may be required either by factory inspectors or health authorities to provide the shellers with gloves. Gloves
are not, however, the most suitable form of protection against CNSL, in that they are cumbersome, become dirty and
eventually perish from contact with CNSL. Wood ash is much more effective and has been successfully used for over
half a century. The new processor may take a little while to get used to applying wood ash to his/her hands. Coconut oil
is also used to protect the hands from CNSL.
Shelled kernels have a moisture content of over 6 percent, which makes them susceptible to fungal attack. It is imperative
that they be dried immediately after shelling.
5.4 Manual peeling

Manual peeling is performed by gently rubbing with the fingers. Those parts still attached to the kernel are removed with
the use of a bamboo knife. One person can peel about 10 to 12 kg of kernels per day.
It is important that the kernels are not cut or damaged during the peeling process. The use of knives increases the
likelihood of the kernels becoming damaged, but it is also essential that all of the testa be removed. Gentle scraping of
the testa with a blunt knife is the most effective way of removing it.
Peeled kernels can be separated into different grades with the use of a peeler. At the most basic level, the kernels are
separated into white wholes, scorched wholes, white pieces, scorched pieces, browns and refuse. However, the more
experienced graders are able to separate the kernel into a larger number of categories. It is preferable that grading is
carried out at the time of peeling as this cuts down on handling of the brittle kernels. There is, however, the opportunity
for further grading subsequent to peeling.
CHAPTER 6
CASHEW PROCESSING OPERATIONS
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6.1 General processing

Cashew processing methods have improved considerably over the years. Difficulties in shelling cashew nuts are due to
the irregular shape of the nut, the tough leathery outer shell and the CNSL within the shell that must not be allowed to
contaminate the kernel during its removal from the shell. An early method used to remove the CNSL in cashew
producing countries was to burn the raw nuts for a short period in order to burn the shells and the CNSL without
affecting the taste or appearance of the kernel. This was a delicate operation requiring an experienced processor to gauge
the length of time required for burning. Kernels produced using this method are only suitable for either home
consumption or for the local market.
The most economic features of processing are the ratio of kernels to whole nuts obtained and the percentage of whole
kernels obtained. Kernel yields usually vary between 22 and 24 percent of the total weight of raw material processed. The
percentage of whole kernels at the end of processing varies between 55 and 85 percent depending upon the processing
method and factory management. In general, 65 percent may be considered a satisfactory result.
The main objective of processing is to remove the valuable cashew kernel from the shell with as little damage as possible.
Whole kernels command a higher price than do broken pieces. Pale, ivory coloured or white kernels are preferable to
coloured or burnt ones. The CNSL has to be removed during the process, without either contaminating the cashew
kernels or burning the hand of the processor. The processor must therefore, finely tune the process in order to achieve the
best quality kernels.
Extraction of the kernel from the shell of the cashew nut has traditionally been a manual operation. Roasting causes
brittleness of the shell and loosening of the kernel from within the shell. Soaking increases the moisture content of the
kernel, thereby reducing the risk of it being scorched during roasting and increasing its flexibility so as to make it less
likely to crack. The CNSL is released when the nuts are roasted. Collection of this material in sufficient quantities can be
economically advantageous. CSNL is unlikely to be collected by very small-scale processors, due to the high cost of the
specialised roasting equipment required for its collection.
After the kernels are taken out of the shells, the testa (the thin skin covering the kernel) must be removed, following
which the kernels are graded and packaged. The process consists of five main steps:
Shelling: removal of the outer shell and CNSL

Peeling: removal of the testa
Grading: into different sizes and colours in accordance with standard grading
Drying or humidifying: to a final moisture content of 5 percent
Packing: into airtight bags or cans, depending upon the scale of operation
Each of these five steps involves a number of operations. The various processing steps differ in accordance with the scale
of operation. In some cases, all steps of the process are manually carried out by small-scale processors, while various
pieces of equipment are used in commercial scale processing. A general overview of the process and the various
processing options is summarized in Figure 7.
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Figure 7: Overview of cashew nut processing.
6.2 Cleaning, sizing and conditioning
The first processing operation is the removal of foreign matter and dirt from the nuts. The nuts are collected from the
ground after falling from the trees. Apples are removed along with other foreign matter. At the simplest level, the nuts
can be sieved by hand using a three-quarter inch (20 mm) mesh sieve to remove dust and dirt (ITDG, 2000).
The cleaned nuts are then conditioned in preparation for removal of the shell. Conditioning increases the brittleness of
the shell and thereby facilitates its removal.
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6.2.1 Soaking or conditioning

The nuts are soaked in water in order to avoid scorching during the roasting operation. Conditioning is carried out in
order to prepare for removal of the CSNL.
In small-scale operations, after cleaning, the nuts are placed in a large open drum (180 to 220 litres/40 to 45 gallons).
Water is poured into the drum and the nuts are allowed to stand for ten minutes prior to draining off the water through a
hole in the base of the drum. The dampened nuts are then allowed to stand in order to absorb the adhering water. This
soaking and conditioning operation is repeated up to three or four times until a moisture content of nine percent is
attained.
On a slightly larger scale, in the processing of 2 to 10 tonnes per day for example, a simple cleaning and conditioning
system can be set up. This consists of three main parts:
A platform on which a bag of cashew nuts can be placed and opened.

A long grill of mild steel rods placed along a length of an enclosed frame across which the nuts are drawn by hand.
The sand and dirt pass through the grill and the cleaned nuts fall over the edge into a vat.
A vat that is large enough to contain the volume of nuts required for one day's processing. There are two vats so
that one may be filled while the other is emptied for further processing.
The sacks of harvested nuts on the stand are generally opened by two people, who clean the nuts as they pass over the
grill and into one of the vats (Figure 8). Water is then sprayed on to the nuts contained in the vat. The water trickles down
through the nuts, while excess water is drained through a hole situated at the bottom of the tank. Spraying is stopped
when drainage of excess water begins and the surface water which adheres to the nuts is allowed time to be absorbed by
the nuts. The spraying treatment is repeated at three-hourly intervals until the required moisture condition (9 percent) of
the raw nuts is met.
All nuts conditioned in this way are further processed in the same batch and the vat is completely emptied prior to the
further addition of nuts. If nuts are left in the vat when new ones are added, the moisture content of the remaining nuts
will be too high for processing. After the vat is emptied it must be thoroughly cleaned to remove all traces of dirt.
Figure 8: Medium-scale cleaning.
The platform grill and vat can be locally made from a variety of materials. The platform must however be sturdy enough
to withstand the impact of the many bags of nuts being dumped on to it. The grill must also be sturdy since the full
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weight of the nuts resting on it at any one time may increase to as much as 100 to 150 kg. The vat can be constructed
from either concrete blocks or from bricks, rendered on the inside with cement to give a smooth finish. Drains contained
within the vat should be small enough to prevent the nuts from flowing out with the water. The drains should be kept free
so as to allow the water to drain away freely. The vat can be fitted with a small closure that can be lifted to allow the nuts
to flow out for subsequent processing.
A vat with internal dimensions of 3.0 2.4 2.1 metres will hold about 10 tonnes of cashew nuts.
6.2.2 Large-scale cleaning and conditioning

Specially designed equipment for cleaning and conditioning operations has been developed for large scale cleaning
operations. The equipment basically consists of a feed hopper into which the raw cashew nuts are delivered. The nuts
flow out of the hopper through a cylindrical cleaning trommel. The cleaning trommel consists of two concentric cylinders
made of mild steel rods built on rings of flats. The inner cylinder is made of 13 mm (0.5 inches) rods spaced at 33 mm
(1.25 inch) centres, about 260 mm (10 inches) in diameter and 2 metres (6 feet) long, mounted on a central shaft. The
outer cylinder consists of 7 mm (0.25 inches) rods spaced at 13 mm (0.5 inches) centres, about 75 mm (30 inches) in
diameter and mounted on the same shaft. The cylinders are lined up at the feed end and the inner cylinder projects 375
mm (15 inches) beyond the discharge end.
The cylinders rotate and the shaft is mounted at a slight angle in order to ensure that the material passes through it during
rotation. The cashew nuts are fed into the inner cylinder. Large pieces of foreign matter are retained in the inner cylinder
and removed later at the discharge end. The nuts and small pieces of foreign matter pass through the inner cylinder to the
outer cylinder where the nuts are retained and the dirt and debris falls through, on to the floor below. The clean nuts are
discharged into a chain bucket elevator hopper.
The buckets on the chain elevator are drilled with drain holes. They pass through a water bath at the bottom of the chain.
The nuts fall into the bucket elevator while it is on the downward leg of travel, passing through the water bath and then
draining as they are taken on the upward leg of the chain.
At the top of the elevator they are discharged into a mild steel silo with a conical bottom. They are discharged from the
silo via a hole in the apex of the inverted cone. Excess water drains through this hole. The capacity of the silo is sufficient
for one day's processing in the roasting plant. There is a second silo into which the nuts from the first silo can be
transferred by a belt bucket elevator.
Additional water can be added to the silos as required. The quantity of water to be added is determined from experience.
Conditioned nuts leave the second silo for the roasting plant. When this happens, nuts from the first silo are transferred to
the second. When silo one is empty, more nuts are loaded onto the receiving hopper to re-fill the first silo.
An alternative method of cleaning and conditioning employs the use of a shaking sieve whilst blowing air to remove all
lightweight debris. The nuts are washed and then pass over sizing grills, which separate them into three different grades.
The nuts fall into the relevant bins where they can be further conditioned if necessary (FAO, 1969).
All the conditioning operations must be done in a closed environment. They all require a certain amount of time and an
experienced operator.
6.3 Roasting and centrifuging

Following conditioning, the nuts must be prepared for the removal of shells. The application of heat to the nut releases
the CNSL and makes the shell brittle, thus facilitating extraction of the kernel when breaking the shell open. Three
methods of roasting are used: open pan roasting (as described in Chapter 5), drum roasting and roasting via the hot oil
method. The latter is best suited to medium-scale operations because of the associated higher equipment costs and
viability of CNSL collection. The roasted cashew nuts may be centrifuged to remove any adhering surface liquid from the
nut.
At the start of the cashew industry in India, open pan roasting was the method used by all processors. The only advantage
of the method was its low cost. The fumes and large amounts of black smoke given off during this process made it a very
unpleasant operation. Particular care and attention were required in order to ensure that the kernels were not lost or
ruined. The process also suffered from the disadvantage that the by-product CNSL was lost.
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Other cleaner methods of roasting were therefore developed.
6.3.1 Drum roasting

An improvement on the open pan roaster was the development of a drum roaster, within which the cashew nuts are
roasted. The drum is tilted at an angle over the fire and rotated during heating to prevent the nuts from burning (Figure 9).
During rotation, nuts pass through the cylinder and out of the opposite end of the drum. The duration of the roasting
process can be regulated by changing the speed of rotation of the drum. The cylinder is covered in a hood connected to a
chimney which draws the black smoke upward into the atmosphere and makes it less unpleasant for the operator (FAO,
1969).
Figure 9: Diagram of a drum roaster fired from a furnace below.
Many of the drums were originally manually rotated, but were later fitted with a power drive. Although this method was
an improvement over the original method, it was imperfect in that kernels were lost due to overheating and burning and
the CNSL was lost.
6.3.2 The hot oil method

An increased demand for CNSL in the mid 1930s, led to a major change in cashew nut processing. The 'hot oil' method
was developed and was widely adopted.
The principle of this method is that oil bearing substances, when treated in the same or similar oil at a high temperature,
give up their oil constituents to the bulk, thereby increasing the volume of the bulk. When cashew nuts are submerged in
a bath of hot CNSL, the CNSL within the shell is therefore extracted, resulting in an increase in the volume of the bath
liquid.
Conditions for successful operation of the 'hot oil' method are described in Box 6.1.
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Simple hot oil process
The simplest hot oil process is one that consists of a tank in which CNSL is heated and a wire basket that contains the
nuts to be roasted. The nuts are placed in the basket and weighted down with a piece of mild steel plate (1 mm thick). A
thermometer is inserted in the side well below the liquid level. Trays on either side of the tank act as draining areas,
allowing excess oil to run back into the tank. The tank is heated from below by a built-in furnace. The nuts are held in the
hot oil for 1.5 minutes at a temperature of 185C. The entire process is manually operated. After roasting, the nuts are
placed on a wire mesh screen over a tank for further draining and cooling prior to shelling.
A slight modification of this simple method allows larger quantities to be processed in one day. The equipment involves
three circular baths situated in close proximity, each with a separate furnace. The baths are approximately 900 mm wide
by 900 mm deep and are fitted with wire mesh baskets, which hold the raw nuts. The baskets are successively dipped into
the three oil baths.
The Pierce Lesley 'hot oil' method was the first of many to be patented. All subsequent methods are copies or
modifications of this method and the equipment used by it. Equipment used varies in its degree of sophistication,
throughput and price. The Oltremare hot oil plant is one such modified version that operates on the same principles. One
advantage of this equipment is that it grades the nuts prior to roasting, thus allowing the nuts to be roasted for different
lengths of time in accordance with their relative sizes.
Clean, conditioned cashew nuts are packed in a feed hopper, from which they are discharged at a controlled rate on to a
conveyor that carries them through a hot oil bath maintained at 190C. The equipment is designed such that the residence
time within the oil bath is 1.5 minutes. The roasted nuts are subsequently discharged from the conveyor. The liquid level
in the bath is maintained by an overflow pipe.
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The bath is heated to a constant temperature by a furnace that runs along its length. Two thermometers are mounted
within the bath to monitor the temperature. The oil bath is cleaned on a daily basis by a device that scrapes the bottom of
the tank, gathering all the sludge and debris that has built up during the day.
The liquid overflow is channelled into drums in which it is filtered and allowed to settle in order to remove pieces of shell
and other debris. Excess oil is filtered into drums for shipment.
Decarboxylation of the oil is inevitable throughout the process. The oil begins to froth as soon as new material is fed into
the system and frothing continues until a steady state is attained. The oil bath design allows adequate space to
accommodate frothing. Soon after roasting, the froth is broken and surplus liquid formed overflows into the settling
drums.
Raw conditioned nuts, having a moisture content ranging between 15 and 17 percent are fed into the hot oil bath and
heated until moisture is given off as steam. This produces some frothing. The production of steam within the nutshell
assists with the extraction of CNSL, thus causing the shell to become brittle. There is a direct correlation between the
amount of oil removed from the shell, its degree of brittleness and hence ease of cracking.
Large quantities of water vapour are produced in the oil bath due to the production of steam and the decarboxylation and
evaporation of the lower fractions of the CNSL. Water vapour production can however be minimized by covering the
bath and drawing off the vapour.
Fuel from a range of sources can be used to heat the furnace. The use of spent cashew shells, which also contain some
excess CNSL provides one of the most economical methods of heating the furnace. Problems caused by fumes must
however be addressed.
The bottom plate of the tank must be made of steel (20 mm thick) that is reinforced with chromium. Mild steel will pit
and distort under the constant heat and the action of the hot CNSL.
The nuts are discharged from the bath on to a cooling conveyor. Scorching of the kernels occurs if the heated nuts are
allowed to remain in a pile. It is essential that the kernels be cooled quickly on emerging from the hot oil bath. The
conveyor is designed to draw off the liquid from the nut and allow air to circulate around it in order to facilitate its
cooling. Excess liquid is collected in a tank situated below.
The nuts are discharged from the end of the cooling conveyor into a centrifuge, which removes much or the remainder of
the adhering surface oil. They are then either manually or mechanically shelled.
The hot oil method is preferred by larger scale processors. A power driven plant, however, requires capital investment
and is less flexible than a less sophisticated drum roaster.
It has been shown that hot oil plants are successful when used for processing large quantities of nuts. This is due to the
fact that the constant heating and cooling of the CNSL causes polymerization, which changes the characteristics of the oil
and seriously affect the efficiency of the roasting process. When large quantities are roasted in a single batch, new liquid
added to the bath keeps the liquid fresh while displacing some of the liquid which has been heated and cooled a number
of times.
It is advantageous to cool the oil bath as quickly as possible subsequent to roasting. This is done by removing the heat
source and allowing air to circulate freely. Cold CNSL can be added to the bath to assist in the cooling process (FAO,
1969).
6.4 Shelling
The objective of shelling is to produce clean, whole kernels, which are free of cracks. Shelling has always been manually
performed in India. Other countries have difficulty in competing with the great skill and the low wages of Indian workers.
India has therefore enjoyed a virtual monopoly of cashew processing for a long time. Manual shelling (described in
Chapter 5) is still relevant to the small-scale processor, although a close look at mechanical options is recommended in
all cases.
6.4.1 Mechanical shelling
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Several pieces of equipment are designed to remove shells from cashew nuts. The main challenge with mechanical
shelling is to remove the kernel without damage or contamination from the CNSL. This challenge is exacerbated by the
irregular shape of the nut and the wide variation in the size of the nut. The most successful mechanized decorticators
work on nuts that have been conditioned by the hot oil process, which makes the shell brittle and easier to break.
A semi-mechanized process that has been predominantly utilized in Brazil incorporates the use of a pair of knives, each
shaped in the contour of half a nut. When the knives come together by means of a foot operated lever, they cut through
the shell all around the nut, leaving the kernel untouched. Two people work at each table; the first cuts the nuts while the
second opens them and separates the kernel from the shell. About 15 kg of shelled nuts are produced on a daily basis by
this team.
The first mechanized shelling system, Oltremare, is also based on two nut-shaped knives. The nuts are brought to the
knives on a chain, each nut aligned to fit between the knives. The nuts are pushed between the knives and cut. The chain
itself has to be fed manually. After coming together, the knives make a twisting movement, thus separating the shell
halves. The disadvantages of this method are that nuts smaller than 18 mm cannot be processed and output is reduced
since not all the spaces on the chain can be filled. This can count for as much as ten percent of the production volume.
The shelling machines of the Cashco system are also chain fed but the nuts are automatically aligned. The shelling device
has two knives that cut the sides of the nut and a pin that is wedged into the stalk end of the nut separates the shell halves.
This system is advantageous in that it is a fully mechanized operation with an output of about 75 percent whole kernel
quality. Nuts smaller than 15 mm cannot however be processed using this system.
Centrifugal shellers use a system, which is simple and enables a continuous flow. A rotary paddle projects the shells
against the solid casing of the machine and the impact cracks open the shell without breaking the kernel. All sizes of nuts
can be processed by this method. It is however, necessary to grade the nuts into about four sizes, since a different rotary
speed is used for each of the various size groups. The percentage of whole kernels produced is around 75 percent. By
weakening the shells with grooves before the operation begins, the percentage can be increased. The speed of the rotor
can be reduced and the risk of damaging the kernels is minimized.
Development of a cashew nut sheller in India
A mechanical sheller was designed in India by researchers at the Post Harvest Technology Centre, Indian Institute of
Technology in Kharagpur. The sheller uses principles of compression and shear, taking into account the physical and
mechanical properties of cashew nuts. The machine consists of four compartments power supply, transmission, feeding,
shelling and discharging (Figure 10).
The feeding section consists of a hopper and horizontal screw conveyor for positive feed of the roasted nuts to the
shelling section. The design criteria for the hopper and screw conveyor use size, bulk density, coefficient of friction and
angle of repose of roasted cashew nuts. A flat plate sliding gate is used to control the feed rate of cashews into the
sheller.
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Figure 10: Cashew shelling machine.
Shelling of roasted nuts takes place between two wooden discs, one of which is stationary (fixed to the machine casing)
while the other is mounted on to a shaft. The rotating disc is spring loaded in order to compress and shear the roasted
cashew nut against the stationary disc. Sufficient pressure is exerted by the spring in order to compress the nuts between
the two discs. The compression and differential speed of the discs causes the shells to be broken and removed. Initial
designs of the sheller resulted in either a high percentage of broken kernels or a large number of unshelled nuts. Further
to several re-design attempts, a sheller has been developed with a shelling rate of about 70 percent and minimal breakage
(Jain and Kumar, 1997).
The entire disc assembly is encased in an 18 gauge mild steel cage. At the bottom is a square opening (150 150 mm) for
discharging the kernels and shells. A conduit is provided (120 mm diameter and 250 mm long) to prevent the kernels
from being damaged by falling onto the collecting tray.
The machine is powered by a 1.5 kW DC motor (1500 rpm), equipped with a belt and pulley arrangement to transmit
power from the motor to the shaft.
The performance of the sheller is optimal at 320 rpm. Performance statistics are as follows:
Capacity
18 kg/h
Shelling efficiency 70 %
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Whole kernel yield 50 %
Half split yield 22 %
Broken yield 28 %
Comparison of performance and labour requirements before and after the introduction of a mechanical sheller in
Sri Lanka:
With a shelling Before the shelling

machine machine
Raw nuts per day (kg) 110 100
Kernel output (kg) 24.4 22.20
Wholes (kg) 20.74 (85%) 15.54 (70%)
Splits (kg) 3.66 (15%) 6.66 (30%)
Labour requirement
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Shelling 2 4
Peeling 4 4
Oven/grading/packing 1 1
Over all supervision 1 1
Total 8 10
6.5 Separation
After shelling, shell pieces and kernels are separated and the unshelled nuts are returned to the shelling operation.
Blowers and shakers are generally used to separate the lighter shell pieces from the kernels. Recovery of small pieces of
kernel sticking to the shell poses the greatest problem. This is usually done manually from a conveyor belt used to carry
all the sorted semi-shelled nuts.
6.5.1 Pre-grading
Pre-grading can be done before or after drying the kernels and may greatly reduce the work involved in final grading.
Pre-grading can be done mechanically for large-scale processes, separating mainly the whole from the broken kernels and
sometimes separating the different size groups of whole kernels.
6.6 Drying
The shelled kernel is covered with the testa, the removal of which is facilitated by drying the shelled kernel, to produce
the blanched kernel. Drying causes shrinkage of the kernel, thereby allowing the testa to be easily removed either
mechanically or by hand with a knife. Drying also protects the kernel from pest and fungal attack at this vulnerable stage.
All processors dry the shelled kernels prior to peeling.
The moisture content of the kernel is reduced from approximately six percent to three percent by drying. It is important
that the drying capacity exceeds the shelling capacity, should there be periods of heavy rainfall. Under such
circumstances, the drying operation is increased, since the kernels absorb moisture very quickly.
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Figure 11: Diagram of as tray dryer.
Sun drying, where the kernels are spread out in the sun in thin layers is possible. It is however heavily reliant on a
constant supply of sunshine. Although sun-drying does not pose any risk of scorching the kernels, it may be prolonged
under conditions of bad weather, which can lead to mould development.
Artificial drying is more reliable and is required in medium or large-scale operations. Drying usually takes six hours, at a
temperature of around 70C. A uniform temperature throughout the drier is essential to avoid under-drying or scorching.
Various drier designs are available. Figure 11 shows a tray dryer, designed by ITDG, for drying cashew kernels. The
dryer contains a series of mesh-bottom trays that are slotted into the drying cabinet. The trays should be of a size that can
be lifted when full. A lever mechanism automatically moves the trays down when dried trays are removed and when new
ones are entered into the cabinet. Hot air circulates over the trays and is exhausted through the chimney. The heat source
can either be a gas or electric powered heater. Burning cashew shells or other sources of fuel (ITDG, 2000) can also be
used to provide a heat source.
Drying programmes are generally organized so that the kernels from one day' s shelling go directly into the oven for
overnight drying. Kernels in the dried state are most vulnerable, since they are brittle and break very easily. It is essential
that the kernels are carefully handled in order to minimize damage.
6.7 Peeling
At this stage, the testa is loosely attached to the kernel, although a few kernels may have already lost the testa during
prior operations. Manual peeling is performed by gently rubbing with the fingers. Those parts still attached to the kernel
are removed with the use of a bamboo knife. Approximately 10 to 12 kg of kernels can be peeled by one individual per
day.
It is important that the kernels are neither cut nor damaged during the peeling process. The use of knives increases the
likelihood of the kernels becoming damaged. It is also essential that the entire testa be removed. Gentle scraping of the
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testa with a blunt knife is the most effective way of removing it.
The peeled kernels can be separated into different grades by the peeler. At the most basic level, the kernels are separated
into white wholes, scorched wholes, white pieces, scorched pieces, browns and refuse. More experienced graders are able
to separate the kernels into more categories. It is preferable that grading is carried out at the time of peeling since this cuts
down on handling of the brittle kernels. There is however an opportunity for further grading subsequent to peeling.
It is essential that the peelers work under well-lit conditions in order to enable them to remove the entire testa. At the end
of the day, the removed testa is winnowed and all cashew pieces removed. The dust and very fine pieces that cannot be
peeled, together with the diseased pieces, are classified as refuse and are thrown away. The browns, which are kernels
that are badly diseased and which have not been separated out during the shelling operation, must also be removed and
discarded (FAO, 1969).
Strict cleanliness in the peeling operation is essential, not only in the peeling room and its facilities, but must be observed
by all personnel. All workers must follow basic codes of hygiene and wash their hands prior to handling the kernels.
The mechanized processes of peeling vary widely. They include air-blasting, suction, a freezing operation and a system
of rubber rollers. These systems are of low efficiency due to the difficulty of removing the testa. The level of breakage
can be as high as 30 percent. Currently research and development is taking place to improve the viability of the
mechanization of this operation.
After peeling, the kernels are weighed in order to record daily production. The peeled kernels are vulnerable to insect
infestation and mould growth. They are also prone to rodent attack and should be stored in rodent-proof containers or
rooms.
6.8 Grading
The grading operation is important since it is the last opportunity for quality control of the kernels. After the kernels are
extracted from the shells, dried and peeled, they are graded for export according to size and condition. The grading
system is known as the American Standard, which is also incorporated in the Indian Government export criteria. Kernels
are categorized on the basis of colour and condition.
Peeled cashew nuts can be classified into between 11 and 24 grades. These are roughly divided into three groups: white
whole, white pieces and scorched grades. The three groups are further broken down as follows:
White wholes
W180 (super large) Between 120 and 180 kernels per lb (266 to 395 per kg)
W210 (large) Between 200 and 210 kernels per lb (395 to 465 per kg)
W240 Between 230 and 240 kernels per lb (485 to 530 per kg)
White pieces
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Butts A kernel broken cleanly across the section of the nut.
Splits A kernel which has broken down the natural line of cleavage to form a cotyledon.
Pieces A kernel which has broken across the section but does not qualify for a butt and is
above a specific size.
Small pieces As above but smaller.
Baby bits Very small pieces of kernel which are white in colour.
Scorched grades
Wholes Whole kernels that have been slightly scorched during the process but are otherwise
sound. These are not graded according to size.
Butts Butts that have been scorched.
Splits Splits that have been scorched.
Pieces As for pieces, but which have been scorched during processing and contain all but
the very small pieces.
White, whole kernels are graded according to their size on the basis of the number of kernels per pound (equivalent to
454 g). The most common count for Indian and African kernels is 300 to 320 per pound (W320) followed by 400 to 450
(W450), 220 to 240 (W240) and 200 to 210 (W210) per pound. In Brazil where the crop has a proportion of large kernels
not found in other countries, another grade of 160 to 180 (W180) is available. Whole kernels of scorched and dessert
types are not graded according to their count. but are sorted according to the colour of the kernel. White kernels, which
are not whole, are graded according to the way in which they are broken. Splits are kernels that have divided naturally
lengthways, while butts are kernels broken crosswise. Other pieces of kernels that have broken into more than two pieces
are graded according to size i.e. large white pieces, small white pieces and baby bits (Errington and Coulter, 1989).
There are other grades that do not fall into the above classification, but which are used for local consumption or are
shipped to countries that have an outlet to the cheaper trade. These are the dessert grades and are classified as follows:
scorched wholes, grade 2: a whole kernel that is discoloured but otherwise sound,
dessert wholes: a whole kernel with a black spot or comparably more scorched than the above,
dessert pieces: pieces that are discoloured as above.
In practice, most processors do not produce all of the different grades. They produce such small quantities of certain
grades that it is uneconomical to produce them all.
With the exception of a few grading aids, all grading is done by hand. Graders sit on high stools or stand at tables that are
covered in blankets to provide a soft surface and reduce breakage. The blankets also hold any dust that is removed from
the kernel. It is essential that the room be well lit as colour is an important grading criterion. With experience, graders
become accustomed to picking out kernels of one particular size. A proven procedure is to have one or two workers
picking out the 210 and 240 count grades, then have one or two more workers picking out the 450 count. The majority of
the remaining kernels (and usually the largest quantity) will be the 320 count. In addition, all graders also pick out
scorched kernels and broken pieces. It is important that care is taken to avoid breakage of the kernels during grading.
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Throughout the grading of white whole kernels, the weight must be constantly checked. This is done with the use of a
small counter scale with 250 g (lb) of graded kernels accurately weighed out and counted. From this, the count per kg
(or per pound) can be calculated.
With the scorched grades, the degree of scorching must be evaluated by the grader, who must judge between scorching
and discoloration due to disease. This applies to both wholes and pieces and to scorched butts and splits. Kernels that are
discarded from the scorched category go into categories of either scorched wholes grade 2, dessert wholes or dessert
pieces.
Several attempts have been made to mechanize the grading of kernels, with limited success. Power driven rotary sieves
are one mechanical method, another being the use of two outwardly rotating rubber rollers aligned at a diverging angle.
For large operations looking towards export markets, it is necessary to grade the kernels to an international level.
In all classes, there are certain minimum requirements to which operators must adhere:
1. Kernels should be free from any deterioration likely to affect the natural keeping quality of the nuts and make them
unfit for human consumption. They should be:
Sufficiently developed and ripe,

Clean, practically free from any visible foreign matter,
Free from living or dead insects, whatever their stage of development,
Free from visible insect damage, mites or other parasites,
Free from mould or rancidity,
Free from adhering shell liquid or testa,
Free of any foreign smell or taste.
2. Cashew kernels should have a moisture content no greater than five percent.
Quality has emerged, ahead of price, as the most vital criterion for any item if it is seeking entry into the global market.
Quality aspects include safety, reliability, durability and acceptability of the product to the consumer (Nayar, 1995).
Small-scale processors have to match the standards set by importers, consumers and standards agencies. Details of the
minimum requirements for export will be available from the Ministry for Export or the Chamber of Commerce. Quality
assurance procedures are an essential element of any processing operation to ensure product consistency between
different batches. Simple HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) procedures suitable for small-scale operators
to follow, can and should be applied to the process (Dillon and Griffith, 1995).
6.9 Rehumidification
Prior to packing the kernels, it is necessary to ensure that their moisture content is increased from three percent up to
around five percent. This makes the kernels less fragile, thus lessening the risk of breakage during transport. In humid
climates, the kernels may absorb enough moisture during peeling and grading to make a further rehumidification process
unnecessary.
The final moisture content is critical since, moisture contents in excess of six percent, favour mould growth. Moisture
content of five percent is optimal. Many processors have facilities for adjusting the moisture content.
The moisture content of the cashews can be increased by transferring them to conditioning rooms which are completely
closed rooms, in which trays of cashew kernels are placed overnight to absorb moisture from the surrounding air. Under
low humidity conditions, the floor is sprayed with water prior to closing the door. Under high relative humidity
conditions, it may not be necessary to add water to the floor. Steam is sometimes used for humidifying the kernels.
Saturated steam is allowed into the conditioning room. The amount of steam to be injected is determined on basis of
personal experience.
Determination of the moisture content is extremely important at this stage of the process. Two methods that are
recommended for the determination of moisture content: use of the Steinlite Moisture Meter and the Dean and Stark
apparatus (Box 6.9).
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6.10 Packing
The normal packaging used for the export of kernels is airtight cans of 11.34 kg (25 lbs) weight capacity. The packaging
material needs to be impermeable, since cashew kernels are subject to rancidity and go stale very quickly. The can will be
familiar to most tropical countries as it is a replica of the four gallon kerosene or paraffin oil can. Cans can be locally
made in order to reduce costs. Parts purchased overseas can be locally fabricated. This may be done by arrangement with
can manufacturers. The output of a can manufacturing line is usually too large for a single consumer, but some cashew
nut processors have installed their own can manufacturing plants and supply other processors.
After filling and weighing, the cap should be soldered in preparation for the vita pack process. This consists of removing
all the air from the can and substituting it with carbon dioxide (CO2). The advantages of packing cashew kernels in
carbon dioxide are two-fold. Firstly, carbon dioxide will not support life so any infestation that may have been present is
therefore arrested. Secondly, carbon dioxide is soluble in cashew oil and goes into solution as soon as the can is sealed.
Within a short period of time, a decrease in pressure takes place as the carbon dioxide goes into solution and the sides,
top and bottom of the can are drawn inwards. The kernels are therefore tightly sealed in the can, thus preventing
movement and breakage during transport. Carbon dioxide, being a heavy gas, causes the upward displacement of air and
will remain in the cans after filling. Some large-scale machines will operate on six cans at a time, creating a vacuum in
each and subsequently filling it with carbon dioxide.
Some processors do not have vacuum pumps and displace the air in the can by feeding in carbon dioxide through a small
hole in the bottom of a side of the can. The carbon dioxide valve is turned off when all the air has been replaced. Holes in
the can are then sealed, with the hole at the bottom of the side of the can being sealed first and the one at the top last.
6.11 Infestation
Far too little attention is paid to the infestation hazards to cashew kernels. These hazards are more prevalent at some
times of the year than others. A good processor will be vigilant all the times. The main insect pests are:
ants
grain weevils
meal moths
The most important defence against infestation of any type is cleanliness and is essential in the rooms used for drying,
peeling, grading, conditioning and packaging. Floors and walls must be sound and free from cracks. They should be
white-washed on a regular basis. Some processors fill the corners and areas at which the wall meets the floor with a
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curved filling in order to eliminate all corners, so that the room can be properly swept.
The speed of operations between drying and packaging must be stressed as this reduces the critical period when attacks
may occur, to a minimum. The equipment used must also be thoroughly cleaned on a regular basis as insects may breed
in hidden crevices and gaps.
The kernels are most vulnerable when dry, being both brittle and susceptible to insect infestation. Therefore, at this stage,
they must be handled with care and moved to the next stage of peeling as quickly as possible.
6.12 Hygiene and safety
Successful business activity is dependent upon adequate food safety and hygienic practices. The main ways in which a
producer can harm consumers are by selling food that:
contains poisonous materials,

contains bacteria or moulds or the poisons they produce,
contains glass or other contaminants that could cause harm if eaten.
Safe food can be produced by careful attention to hygiene and by the use of proper quality control.
Proper hygiene means careful attention to the cleanliness of the processing equipment and the personal hygiene of food
handlers.
Proper quality control means careful attention to the selection of good quality raw materials; correct processing
conditions, such as the temperature and time of heating; preventing contaminating materials, such as dirt, metal and
stones, from becoming mixed with the food; and the use of suitable packaging materials to protect the food after
processing. These factors will ensure that only wholesome food is produced without contaminants. Any bacteria in the
raw materials will be destroyed or controlled at a safe level and prevented from growing and multiplying (Fellows,
Hidellage and Judge, 1999).
6.12.1 Food hygiene and the law

In most countries, laws on food processing are designed to protect consumers against poisoning and injury. Nuts are
prone to becoming contaminated by the mould aflatoxin. Readers are advised to contact their local Bureau of Standards,
Ministry of Health or other relevant government Departments in order to obtain full details of the specific laws of their
country.
Although food laws can be enforced, in the end, the customer is the most effective food inspector. If customers become
ill from eating a food, they will not buy food from that processor again. It is therefore in the processor' s interest to
prepare safe wholesome foods.
6.12.2 Food poisoning and its causes

The main cause of food poisoning is microbial activity. Microbes live almost everywhere: on animals and plants (hence
on all fresh foods), in and on humans, in the soil, water, air and on all surfaces. There are many different types, but the
most important for food hygiene are bacteria, yeast, moulds and viruses.
Agents that cause disease (pathogens) can be transmitted to humans by a number of routes - soil, air, water, direct
person-person contact and food. Some can be transmitted to food by animals or by an item of equipment. Cross
contamination occurs when contaminants are transferred from one food to another via a non-food surface, for example,
utensils, equipment or human hands.
Illness is caused by eating food containing a significant amount of harmful bacteria. Poisoning bacteria can cause illness,
either by producing poison in food before it is eaten or by continuing to multiply inside the body after eating. The
symptoms of an attack of food poisoning can include stomach pains, diarrhoea, vomiting, headache, fever and aching
limbs. Sometimes the illness lasts for days, weeks or months and in some cases, it can cause death.
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6.12.3 Personal hygiene

The main problems arise from contaminating food while preparing it, with microbes from the processors own hands or
mouth, from dirty tools, work surfaces or from other food. All persons handling food should pay strict attention to good
hygiene practices. This includes wearing clean, suitable clothing, including aprons, gloves and footwear and covering the
hair to prevent contamination of foods. Aprons, gloves or any other clothing that could touch the food should be
thoroughly cleaned everyday if necessary.
All cuts or wounds should be covered by a waterproof dressing and kept clean, even if they are not on the hands.
Processors should not handle foods if they have a stomach upset or a skin disease or if they are looking after someone
else with these illnesses.
The processor should not smoke, eat or chew anything while preparing food. They should never spit near the food being
prepared or cough or sneeze over foods as this spreads bacteria and can contaminate the food.
Everyone who touches food should wash his/her hands properly, using soap and clean water, especially after every visit
to the toilet and between handling raw meat or poultry and any other food stuff, to avoid cross contamination.
After the basic preparation of ingredients has been completed, direct handling of the food can be avoided if appropriate
care is taken. Food can be moved about with tongs or similar utensils. If the food is to be sold in bags, a good technique
is to use the bag as a glove so that direct hand contact is prevented.
6.12.4 Cleanliness of equipment and the working area

Just as invisible harmful organisms live on the body, they can also be present on the utensils and surfaces with which
food comes into contact. All surfaces and equipment must be clean before work, during production and after the process
is finished. Cloths and sponges used to wipe down surfaces and towels used for hand drying should be washed and
sterilized regularly by boiling in water.
There should be a supply of clean water for washing equipment as soon as it has been used and for use in food
processing. If the water is not clean, it will contaminate the food. If the water comes from a stagnant pool or dirty source,
it should be boiled for at least ten minutes to destroy bacteria, before it is used for washing food or utensils or processing.
All the equipment must be in good condition and be properly repaired. Rusty, dirty or broken equipment must not be used
to process foods as these can cause accidents as well as contaminate the food.
Equipment and utensils should be stored where they can be kept clean when not in use. Hang brushes and cloths up to
dry after use. Store the cleaning equipment in a separate cupboard from the food and processing equipment. Keep all
chemicals, pesticides, poisons and detergents away from food in a separate storage area.
Make sure that there is good lighting to help stop accidents and make working easier and safer.
6.12.5 Other sources of contamination

Food should always be kept covered and above ground level to protect it from contamination by insects, rodents and
birds and the bacteria they carry. Flies, bluebottles, rats, mice and other vermin contaminate food with bacteria from their
droppings or their bodies. All cupboard doors and lids of tins and jars should fit tightly. Table legs can be put in pots of
water or kerosene to stop ants crawling up them.
All spills should be cleaned up as soon as they are formed. Wastes should not be left to accumulate on floors, in drains or
on work surfaces. Lids should be kept firmly on bins and waste sacks should be securely fastened before putting them out
for collection.
6.12.6 Packaging and preservation

Food poisoning bacteria multiply very quickly in moderate temperatures (between 20 to 40C) so all foods should be
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stored in the shade and out of the sunlight. Storage areas and surfaces should be kept dry so microbes do not have the
moist environment they need to breed.
CHAPTER 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andrighetti, L. Bassi, G.F. Capella, P. de Logu, A.M. Deolalikar, A.B. Haeusler, G. Malorgio, G.A. Franca,
F.M.C. Rivoira, G. Vannini, L. & Deserti R. 1989. The world cashew economy. L. Inchiostroblu, Italy.
Brown, R. 1991. Honduran cashew fruit drying. Report to Fine dried foods, 1992.
Caribbean Technological Consultancy Services (CTCS) Network, 1993. Information package on cultivation,
processing and marketing of cashews. St Michael, Barbados, Caribbean Technological Consultancy Services Network.
Cashew Nut Board of Tanzania, 2000. Production and processing of cashew nuts (the experience of Tanzania).
CDI, 1995. Cashew nuts: potential in Africa. Partnership, 18, 6-7.
The Clipper, 1994. US cashew kernel imports remain strong. The Clipper, 4.
Coulter, J. 1982. The market for cashew nuts and cashew nut shell liquid. London, TDRI Market Note.
Dillon, M. & Griffith, C. 1995. How to Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point: an illustrated guide. MD Associates,
Grimsby, UK.
Errington, M. & Coulter, J.P. 1989. The international market for cashew products. Overseas Development Natural
Resources Institute, Chatham, Kent, UK.
FAO. 1969. Cashew nut processing, by D.C. Russell. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 6. Rome.
FAO, 2000. FAO production database. http://apps.fao.org/page/collections
Fellows, P. Hidellage, V. & Judge, E. 1999. Making safe food. ITDG Publishing, London.
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Fernandopulle, M.N. 2000. Fertilizer use in cashew. Cashew Bulletin, 3(1): 1-6.
Hanlon, J. 2000. Power without responsibility: the World Bank and Mozambican cashew nuts. Review of African
Political Economy, 27(83).
ITC, 1990. Edible nuts: a study of the market in the United Kingdom. International Trade Centre, UNCTAD/GATT,
Geneva.
ITDG, 2000. Cashew nut processing technical brief. Rugby, United Kingdom, ITDG.
ITDG Sri Lanka. Cashew processing. Project profile. Sri Lanka, ITDG.
Jaffee, S. & Morton, J. 1995. Marketing Africa. s high value foods: Comparative experiences of an emergent private
sector. The World Bank, Washington, USA.
Jain, R.K. & Kumar, S. 1997. Development of a cashew nut sheller. Journal of Food Engineering, 32, 339-345.
Nayar, K.G. 1995. Cashew: a crop with unlimited potential. The Cashew, Jan/March, 1995.
Newafrica.com, 2000. Tanzania policy for cashew processing.

http://www.newafrica.com/agriculture/tanzania/cashew/policy.asp
O. Farrell, P., Blaikie, S. & Chacko, E. 1998. The New Rural Industries . A handbook for farmers and investors.
Australia, RIRDC.
Ohler, J.G. 1979. Cashew. Amsterdam, Department of Agricultural Research.
Panafrican News Agency, 2001. 26th January http://allafrica.com/stories/200101260364.html
Partnership, 1995. Cashew nuts: potential in Africa. Partnership 18, March/April 1995.
Ranaweera, B. 2000. Management of tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii) in cashew. Cashew Bulletin, 3(1): 1-6.
Vaidehi, M. P. & Ray, Babu, R. M. 2000. Cashew apple and nut recipes with nutritive value. Bangalore, India,
Division of Rural Home Science, University of Agricultural Sciences.
Wimalsiri, P. Sinnatamby, A. Samaranayake, S. & Samarasinghe, C R. 1971. Cashew Apple Wine. Industry
Prospect Report, 44. Industrial Development Board, Sri Lanka.
CHAPTER 8
SELECTED REFERENCES AND CONTACTS
Published sources
Cashew Bulletin, the publication of Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation.

SecretaryEditorial Board Cashew Bulletin
Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation
349 Galle Road
Colombo 03.
Tel: 01 576057, 01 576054.
The Clipper
Hall, F. J. 1965. Cashew nut processing part II. Trials of equipment in western Nigeria. Tropical Science, 8(4).
Hartley, A. (1977). The cashew nut in Papua New Guinea. Department of Primary Industry.
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Wilson, R, 1975. The market for cashew nut kernels and cashew nut shell liquid. London, Tropical Products Institute.
Internet sites
http://www.steele.com/cashew/cashew.html
General information on cashew
http://www.pavich.com/products/cashew.htm
Cashew Background Information
http://www.palmerint.com/overview.htm
A site focussing on Cashew Nutshell Liquid
http://www.newafrica.com/directory/agriculture.htm
Contact details of organizations involved in cashew
http://www.cashews-driedfruits.com/cashewsfactory.htm
A range of information on cashew grades, production, whole kernels
http://www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/spring98.htm
Links to a handbook on cashew production
http://apps.fao.org/pagr/collections?subset=agriculture
Database of annual production statistics
http://www.vedamsbooks.com/no7104.htm
Information on publications
http://www.amberwoodtrading.com/
Includes a cashew market report
http://www.financialexpress.com/fe/daily/20001129/fco29028.html
Current market information
http://www.marketag.com/markets/uk/imports/080130.stm
Market prices
http://www.cashewindiaonline.com/register.html
Up-to-date information from India on the following:
1. Information on cashew producers and products.
2. Cashew trade news.
3. Information on all segments related to cashew-planters, factories, exports, imports, traders, transports machineries etc.
4. Information on new projects.
5. Online access to raw cashew and processed nuts on the world wide web/net
6. Online directory of members/who's who in cashew.
http://kar.nic.in/cashew/
National Research Centre for Cashews - India
Includes a list of publications.
http://www.expressindia.com/fe/daily/19990726/fec26012.html
Information on cashews in India
http://worldcashewcongress.com/html/c0000hom.htm
World Cashew Congress 23-25 Feb 2001
http://www.hindubusinessline.com/2000/04/01/stories/070103y8.htm
Current information on cashew trade and prices
http://www.cashewindia.com/
The cashew export promotion council of India
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http://www.enet.slt/lk/itdg/index.html
Papers from the Cashing in on Cashew conference. November 2000
http://allafrica.com/stories/200101260364.html
Recent news from Africa
http://www.africapolicy.org/docs97/moz9711.htm
Includes information on the cashew industry in Mozambique
http://www.humanapeopletopeople.org/projekterne/adpp_cashew_plantation_bissora.htm
Information on the cashew market in Guinea Bissau
http://www.a16.org/resources/cashew.txt
IMF and World Bank policy on cashews in Mozambique
http://www.newafrica.com/agriculture/tanzania/cashew/policy.asp
Information on the Tanzanian policy for cashew processing
http://www.safpp.co.za/FB%20-%20Cashew%20Processing%20Guinea.htm
Cashew processing in Guinea
Equipment manufacturers and suppliers
Cashew nut decorticators
Capacity: 5 to 10 kg/man/day
Power Source: Manual
Kunasin Machinery
107-108 Srisatchanalai Road
Amphoe Sawankaloke
Sukhothai
Thailand
Tel: +66 (0) 55 642119 / 641653
Capacity: 16 kg/hour
Rajan Universal Exports (Manufacturers) PVT. Limited
Post Bag No. 250
162, Linghi Chetty Street
Chennai - 600 001
India
Tel: +91 44 5341711 / 5340731 / 5340751 / 5340356
Fax: +91 44 5342323
Cashew shellers
Kaddai Engineering
PO Box 2268
Kumasi
Ghana

349 Galle Road
Colombo 3
Sri Lanka
Tel: +94 01 576054
Fax: +94 01 577627
Driers
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The Bombay Engineering Works

1 Navyug Industrial Estate
185 Tokersey Jivraj Road
Opposite Swan Mill
Sewree (W)
Bombay
India
Tel: +91 22 413 7094/413 5959
Fax: +91 22 413 5828
Email: [email protected]
Sri Venkateswara Industries

C-37, Industrial Estate
Yadavagiri
Mysore - 570 020
India
Premium Engineers PVT Ltd
603, Chinubhai Centre
Ashram Road
Ahmedabad - 380009
India
Tel: +91 (0) 79 657 9293/5987
Fax: +91 (0) 79 657 7197

349 Galle Road
Colombo 3
Sri Lanka
Tel: +94 01 576054
Fax: +94 01 577627
E-mail: [email protected]
Organizations involved in cashew processing
ADRA
PO Box 1435
Accra
Ghana
Agricultural Research Institute

Cashew Research Project
PO Box 509
Mtwara
Tanzania
Cashew Board of Tanzania

PO Box 833
Mtwara
Tanzania
Cashew Improvement Programme

PO Box 698
Mtwara
Tanzania
CIRAD
42, rue Scheffer
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75116 Paris
France
http://www.cirad.fr
CSIRO
Australia
http://www.csiro.au
FAO
Information Network on Post Harvest Operations
via delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome
Italy
http://www.fao.org/inpho/index-e.htm
GRET
211-213 Rue Lafayette
Paris
France
http://www.gret.org/
ITDG South Asia

5 Lionel Edirisinghe Mawatha
Kirulapone
Colombo 5
Sri Lanka
ITDG
The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development
Bourton on Dunsmore
Rugby
CV23 9QZ
UK
http://www.itdg.org/home.html
Agro Food Technology Division

Industrial Technology Institute (ITI)
363 Bauddhaloka Mawatha
Colombo 07
Sri Lanka
Midway Technology Ltd

St Oswalds Barn
Hay on Wye
HR3 5HP
UK
NRI
Central Avenue
Chatham
Kent
ME4 4TB
UK
http://www.nri.org/
Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation

Australia
http://www.rirdc.gov.au
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349 Galle Road

Colombo 3
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Export Development Board

42 Navam Mawatha
Colombo 2
Sri Lanka
Techno Action
61 Mulgampola Road
Kandy
Sri Lanka
Technoserve Inc
Av 25 de Septembre No 63
Nampula
Mozambique
ANNEX 1
TRENDS IN GLOBAL PRODUCTION (1961 to 2000)
Country
2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991
Africa
Tanzania 106 500 106 500 93 200 63 000 82 000 63 400 46 500 42 300 41 300 29 850
Mozambique 35 000 51 894 51 716 43 325 65 000 33 423 23 000 23 935 54 217 31 134
Nigeria 176 000 176 000 152 000 125 000 110 000 95 000 85 000 75 000 55 000 45 000
Others 115 455 115 455 108 355 97 006 87 338 83 148 73 924 70 009 67 065 57 680
Total 432 955 449 849 405 271 328 331 344 338 274 971 228 424 211 244 217 582 163 664
% of world 35.6 37.6 37.8 30.4 30.9 29.1 24.6 25.7 27.3 21.1
Asia
India 440 000 440 000 440 000 430 000 417 830 321 640 350 000 350 000 305 310 294 590
Indonesia 69 027 69 027 69 027 66 878 67 676 74 995 72 077 69 751 62 217 57 247
Vietnam 41 200 41 200 54 000 66 900 59 100 52 800 78 000 65 000 58 000 32 000
Others 52 010 52 010 51 010 49 575 49 210 44 943 42 920 39 050 38 250 36 850
Total 602 237 602 237 614 037 613 353 593 816 494 378 542 997 523 801 463 777 420 687
% of world 49.5 50.3 57.3 56.8 53.4 52.4 58.4 63.8 58.2 54.1
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South America
Brazil 167 123 130 841 39 836 125 397 167 211 164 156 149 804 77 098 107 955 185 965
Others 8 895 8 895 5 630 5 131 4 692 4 565 4 224 4 250 3 680 3 463
Total 176 018 139 736 45 466 130 528 171 903 168 721 154 028 81 348 111 635 189 428
% of world 14.5 11.7 4.2 12.1 15.4 17.9 16.6 9.9 14.0 24.4
World Total 1 217 210 1 197 822 1 070 774 1 080 212 1 113 057 944 070 929 449 820 393 796 994 777 465
Country 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981
Africa
Tanzania 17 060 19 260 22 470 18 490 19 200 32 750 38 100 33 070 43 200 64 000
Mozambique 22 524 50 225 45 000 35 000 30 000 25 000 20 300 35 600 61 000 71 100
Nigeria 30 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000
Others 56 161 63 901 44 823 39 927 38 794 32 045 39 600 21 800 25 584 26 754
Total 125 745 158 386 137 293 118 417 112 994 114 795 123 000 115 470 154 784 186 854
% of world 20.7 24.5 22.6 22.6 20.7 22.0 26.0 25.0 31.9 37.8
Asia
India 285 590 274 330 260 260 245 580 234 480 221 330 210 870 201 440 195 760 185 250
Indonesia 29 907 27 990 23 305 24 042 22 515 21 114 19 411 18 047 16 830 11 444
Vietnam 26 000 8 500 8 000 12 000 10 000 9 000 8 500 7 700 7 000 6 500
Others 32 930 34 897 41 302 39210 36 156 31 560 30 640 22 970 23 827 22 900
Total 374 427 345 717 332 867 320 832 303 151 283 004 269 421 250 157 243 417 226 094
% of world 61.7 53.4 54.7 61.2 55.6 54.3 56.9 54.1 50.1 45.8
South America
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Brazil 99 367 136 130 128 080 75 000 120 000 115 000 74 000 90 000 80 000 74 000
Others 3 546 3 655 4 179 4 202 4 339 4 226 3 105 3 520 3 108 3 04
Total 102 913 139 785 132 259 79 202 124 339 119 226 77 105 93 520 83 108 77 404
% of world 17.0 21.6 21.7 15.1 22.8 22.9 16.3 20.2 17.1 15.7
World Total 606 681 647 665 608 533 523 874 544 866 520 973 473 435 462 719 485 398 494 167
Country 1980 1979 1978 1977 1976 1975 1974 1973 1972 1971
Africa
Tanzania 41 416 57 128 68 478 93 285 83 637 115 840 121 704 145 080 125 559 126 409
Mozambique 71 100 66 000 61 000 91 500 122 000 188 000 213 400 240 000 200 000 202 000
Nigeria 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000
Others 24 986 27 560 45 500 44 160 35 660 29 195 23 747 22 658 19 356 26 450
Total 162 502 175 688 199 978 253 945 266 297 358 035 383 851 432 738 369 915 379 859
% of world 35.0 38.4 40.9 48.9 52.5 63.5 65.6 69.3 66.3 68.0
Asia
India 180 266 171 817 165 323 162 457 161 536 144 254 135 451 129 766 130 000 127 223
Indonesia 9 074 9 764 8 799 7 370 7 176 9 122
Vietnam 5 600 4 900 4 900 4 900 4 900 3 500 3 500 3 500 3 500 3 500
Others 23 980 23 665 25 525 23 650 23 860 22 140 21 170 14 060 11 790 12 100
Total 218 920 210 146 204 547 198 377 197 472 179 016 160 121 147 326 145 290 142 823
% of world 47.2 45.9 41.9 38.2 38.9 31.8 27.4 23.6 26.0 25.6
South America
Brazil 75 000 65 000 77 000 60 000 36 800 20 490 34 901 36 936 35 000 28 602
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Others 3 394 3 068 2 892 2 552 2 522 2 512 2 650 2 587 2 543 2 548
Total 78 394 68 068 79 892 62 552 39 322 23 002 37 551 39 523 37 543 31 150
% of world 16.9 14.9 16.3 12.0 7.7 4.1 6.4 6.3 6.7 5.6
World Total 464 215 457 696 488 657 519 629 507 544 563 795 585 246 624 348 558 142 558 846
Country 1970 1969 1968 1967 1966 1965 1964 1963 1962 1961
Africa
Tanzania 107 445 95 700 92 500 83 800 83 200 76 000 71 000 50 000 70 000 50 000
Mozambique 184 000 154 200 185 900 101 000 119 600 136 000 156 000 149 000 108 000 107 000
Nigeria 25 000 25 000 25 000 24 000 23 000 22 000 19 000 15 000 14 000 7 000
Others 29 327 13 510 14 605 17 582 15 460 14 350 14 650 12 250 12 150 8 050
Total 345 772 288 410 318 005 226 382 241 260 248 350 260 650 226 250 204 150 172 050
% of world 67.5 63.7 65.8 58.4 63.3 64.3 68.0 64.8 62.8 59.8
Asia
India 123 319 120 438 118 542 114 182 103 818 100 000 95 000 92 000 88 000 85 000
Indonesia
Vietnam 2 100 2 100 2 100 2 100 2 100 700 700 700 700 700
Others 11 620 10 440 13 180 12 950 13 870 15 600 9 610 7 690 9 820 10 340
Total 137 039 132 978 133 822 129 232 119 788 116 300 105 310 100 390 98 520 96 040
% of world 26.8 29.4 27.7 33.3 31.4 30.1 27.5 28.8 30.3 33.4
South America
Brazil 20 309 23 443 23 683 24 181 13 677 13 789 9 643 13 621 11 987 9 670
Others 2 504 2 510 2 466 2 471 2 427 2 389 2 334 2 327 2 238 2 275
Total 22 813 25 953 26 149 26 652 16 104 16 178 11 977 15 948 14 225 11 945
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% of world 4.5 5.7 5.4 6.9 4.2 4.2 3.1 4.6 4.4 4.2
World Total 511 939 452 676 483 538 387 776 381 318 386 303 383 437 349 088 324 895 287 535
ANNEX 2
PRODUCTS CONTAINING CASHEW APPLE AND CASHEW NUT
Cashew apple fruit chutney
Ingredients
3 kg cashew apple slices

3 kg sugar
168 g salt
84 g onion (peeled and finely chopped)
21 g cumin powder
21 g black pepper
21 g cardamom powder
42 g green ginger (peeled and grated)
7 g cinnamon (coarsely powdered)
7 g coriander
42 ml acetic acid glacial (vinegar)
Method
Type 1
The cashew apples are immersed in a two percent brine solution (common salt solution) for three days. After washing
free of salt, the apples are steamed for five to seven minutes at 10lb pressure. The steamed apples are then cooled and
washed in water. Any bad portions are trimmed off before the apples are sliced into segments. The apple slices are
cooked with the addition of salt, sugar, spices and the acetic acid. The ginger, cinnamon and coriander are tied loosely in
a cloth bag and added to the mixture. This bag is removed when the chutney is cooked.
Type 2
Soak cashew apple slices in a two percent brine solution for three days, remove from the brine and wash in clean water.
Remove any undesirable portions and then slice the apples. Chutney is prepared as usual, using 1 kg sugar, 1 onion (large
size), 30 g ginger, 1 teaspoon of cumin seed, pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and coriander powder, salt to taste and 20ml
glacial acetic acid for every 1 kg of fruit slice.
Tie all the powdered spices in a clean thin piece of cloth, (such as muslin). Prepare a sugar syrup by adding an equal
quantity of water to the sugar. Add the sliced apples, chopped onion, grated ginger, vinegar and salt to the sugar syrup.
Drop the spice bag in when the mixture begins to boil. Boil the mixture until it is sufficiently thickened and hot-fill into
clean, sterilized jars.
Cashew apple pickle
Ingredients
65 g cashew apple pieces

12 g salt
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5 g chilli powder
5g coriander
2 g fenugreek seeds
5g mustard powder (fried and ground)
1 g turmeric
1 g acetic acid
1.5 to 2 g citric acid
5g jaggery
5 g ginger oil
Method
Soak cashew apple pieces for 10 days in a 12 percent brine solution and then wash thoroughly in water. Heat the oil and
add the spices. Pour the oil and spice mixture over the brined apple pieces, mix well and allow to cool. Add preservatives
(acetic acid and citric acid) to the apple mixture, cover with the remaining oil and store in a sterile container.
Sweet cashew pickle in oil
Ingredients
1 kg cashew apples
63 g salt
20 g chilli powder
1.5 g ginger paste
30 g chopped onion
3 g mustard seeds
3 g cumin
3 g cloves
1.5 g cardamom
3g cinnamon
3 g garlic paste
125 ml vinegar
125 g sugar
edible oil (enough to immerse the pickles in the container)
Method
Soak cashew apple cubes in a 12 percent brine solution for 10 days and then thoroughly wash in clean water. Heat a
small quantity of oil until it is bubbling and add the mustard seeds, onion, garlic and ginger. When the mustard seeds stop
popping, add the remaining spices and the fruit cubes and heat for a few minutes. Cool the mixture to room temperature,
then leave to stand in the sun for three or four days. After this time, add the sugar and vinegar and stir into the mixture.
Heat sufficient oil to immerse the pickle in the container, cool it and pour over the pickle mixture. Seal the container and
store at room temperature.
Recipes using dried cashew apple powder.
Cashew apples are highly perishable as they cannot be stored for more than 24 hours. To resolve this problem, the pulp
can be dried and ground into a powder that can be used in a range of products.
Preparation of cashew apple powder
Cashew apple pieces are dried (either with or without cashew apple juice) for 12 hours (with juice) or 4.5 hours (without
juice) at 70C. The dried pieces are ground and stored in airtight containers for use in a range of recipes.
Cashew apple sweet cookies
Ingredients
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72 g wheat flour
8 to 16 g cashew apple powder
50 g ghee (clarified butter)
40 g sugar
5 g baking powder
Method
Cream the ghee or butter and sugar to form a light and fluffy cream. Sieve the wheat flour, cashew apple powder and
baking powder into the mixture and mix to form a stiff dough. Roll out the dough into a layer an eighth of an inch thick
(3 to 4 mm) and cut out small biscuits. Bake at 180C for 20 minutes until golden brown.
Cashew apple masala cookies
Ingredients
135 g wheat flour

75 g ghee or butter
l0 g sugar
5 g salt
5 g baking powder
45 g curds
20 g green masala
(made from a mixture of coriander leaves, green chillies, curry leaves and ginger in equal quantities)
Method
Sieve the wheat flour with the cashew apple powder, baking powder and salt twice to ensure that it is well mixed. Rub
the ghee or butter into the flour until the mixture resembles breadcrumbs, then add the sugar and stir well. Add the green
masala and curds and knead the mixture into a soft dough. Roll out to form a thin sheet of one eighth of an inch thickness
(3 to 4 mm)and cut with a fancy biscuit cutter. Bake in an oven at 180C for 20 minutes until golden brown in colour.
Cashew apple porridge mix
Ingredients
70 g malted wheat flour

15 g powdered sugar
Method
Sieve all the ingredients thoroughly to form a uniform mixture. Add 100 g porridge mix to 600 ml of water and cook,
stirring continuously for about 5 to 10 minutes.
Cashew apple sweet doughnuts
Ingredients
90g wheat flour

10 g cashew apple powder
1.5 g baking powder
3 g yeast
15 ml + 35 ml water
4 g milk powder
20 g sugar
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20 g ghee or butter
1.5 g salt
half an egg
a few drops of vanilla essence
oil for frying
Method
Sieve the flour, salt, cashew apple powder and baking powder together twice. Gently rub the ghee or butter into the
sieved powder mix. Mix the yeast with 15 ml water and 1 tsp of the sugar and leave to stand for about 10 minutes until it
froths. Add the rest of the water (warmed to about 35 C) to the yeast and mix. Add the sugar, lightly beaten egg and
milk and beat until a soft dough is formed. Knead lightly until smooth and rest for 30 minutes. Roll out to about one
quarter of an inch (6 to 8 mm) thick and cut with a doughnut cutter. Rest for 10 minutes. Fry the doughnuts in oil until
golden brown in colour, then roll in sugar powder.
Cashew apple masala doughnuts
Ingredients
90 g wheat flour
10g cashew apple powder
teaspoon yeast
15+35 ml water
5 g (1 teaspoon) milk powder
5 g sugar
teaspoon salt
half an egg
10 g ghee or butter
40 g onion (chopped)
6 green chillies
4 g curry leaves (chopped)
10 g coriander leaves
Oil for frying
Method
Sieve the flour, baking powder, cashew apple powder, milk powder and salt together twice. Dissolve the yeast in 15 ml of
lukewarm water with a pinch of sugar. Chop the onion, green chillies, curry leaves and coriander leaves. Dry them a little
by keeping in an oven or frying for a short time in a pan. Cream the butter or ghee and the sugar together until smooth
and then fold in the flour mixture. Add the yeast, the egg and the masala (mixed leaves and chilli) and leave to ferment
for about 1 hour. Knead to a smooth dough add a little water and rest for 30 minutes. Roll out to a quarter inch (6 to 8
mm) in thickness. Cut with a doughnut cutter and rest for 10 minutes. Deep fry in oil until golden brown.
Cashew apple sponge cake
Ingredients
90 g wheat flour
10 g cashew apple powder
teaspoon baking powder
50 g ghee or butter
100 g powdered sugar
1 egg
teaspoon vanilla essence
teaspoon salt
milk to mix
Method
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Sieve the flour and cashew apple powder along with a pinch of salt and baking powder. Cream the ghee or butter and
sugar until the texture is light and fluffy. Beat the egg thoroughly and add to the creamed mixture a little at a time. Mix
well, then gently fold in the flour. Add the milk to bring the mixture to a dropping consistency, spoon into a lined tin and
bake at 150C for 35 to 40 minutes.
Cashew nut vegetable kurma
Ingredients
100 g cashew nuts

100 g carrot (chopped)
100 g peas
100 g French beans
100g paneer (cottage cheese)
2 tomatoes
2 onions sliced
teaspoon turmeric powder
1 teaspoon red chilli powder
1 teaspoon coriander-cumin powder
1 teaspoon ginger-garlic paste
1 clove cardamom
pinch of powdered cinnamon
1 lemon
salt to taste
1 bunch coriander leaves (chopped)
ghee or oil for frying
Method
Boil the carrots, peas and French beans for two to three minutes. Slice the onions and fry in ghee or oil. Add the ginger
and garlic paste and fry. Add tomatoes, tumeric, chilli powder, coriander-cumin powder and salt and stir together. Add
the paneer pieces, boiled vegetables and cashew nuts. Mix all the ingredients and cook for five minutes. Remove from
the heat, add the juice of a lemon to taste and coriander leaves to garnish. Serve with hot chapattis.
Green mango with cashew nuts and raisins
Ingredien
100 g cashew nuts

3 mangoes (green, medium size)
100g raisins
6g garlic flakes
2.5 cm (1 inch) ginger piece
vinegar
8 chillies (red)
sugar
salt to taste
Method
Peel the mangoes and grate them. Grind the garlic, ginger and red chillies to a fine paste with a little vinegar. Melt the
sugar, salt and vinegar over a low heat. Add the chilli paste and heat until it dissolves. Add the grated mango, raisins and
nuts and cook over a medium flame until thickened. Hot-fill into clean sterile jars.
Cashew nut mushroom curry
Ingredients
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75 g cashew nuts (green, tender)

100 g mushrooms
2 chillies (red)
turmeric
1 teaspoon coriander
1 g (a pinch) cumin
lime
2 onions
2 chillies (green)
l0 g ginger
4 cloves garlic
coconut
1 teaspoon oil
1 sprig curry leaves
1 pinch mustard seeds
salt to taste
Method
Clean the mushrooms and cashew nuts in hot water. Grate the coconut and extract the coconut milk from three-quarters
of the coconut. Boil the cashew nuts and mushrooms. Grind the remaining coconut, red chillies, coriander, turmeric and
cumin into a fine paste. Slice the onion, ginger, garlic and slit the green chillies. Heat the oil and add the mustard and
curry leaves. When the seeds start to pop, add the ground spices and sliced ingredients. Cook until the onions are soft.
Add the cooked cashew nuts and mushrooms, lime juice and salt. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add the coconut milk and
simmer for 5 minutes. Season and remove from the heat.
Cashew nut banana cake
Ingredients
1 cup cashew nuts (grated or milled)

1 cup flour
11 cups sugar
1 mashed ripe banana
cup butter
4 teaspoons sour milk
2 eggs
1 teaspoon soda
1 teaspoon baking powder
teaspoon salt
Method
Cream the butter and sugar together, add the banana and beat well. Add the soda, dissolved in the sour milk and beat the
eggs well before adding to the mixture. Mix in the flour, baking powder and salt. Add cashew nuts and bake in a
moderate oven for about 40 minutes.
Source: Vaidehi, 2000.
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cashew http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/agsi/Cashew/Cashew.

S H Azam-Ali and E C Judge

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1.1 The importance of cashew

1.2 Cashew products

1.2.1 Cashew kernels

1.2.2 Cashew nut shell liquid

1.4 Opportunities for small-scale processors

1.5 The way ahead

Chapter 2 Cashew production

2.1 Botanical characteristics

2.2 Agricultural practices, propagation and culture

2.2.4 Seasonal planting

2.2.5 Raising seedlings in a nursery

2.2.7 Approach-grafting or inarching

2.3 Land preparation

2.5 Fertilizer use in cashew

2.5.1 Basal dressing at planting

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2.5.2 Rate of application of fertilizer

2.5.3 Method of fertilizer application

2.5.4 Frequency and timing of application

2.8.1 Drying of the raw material

2.10 Infestation of harvested nuts

2.11 Post harvest handling

Chapter 3 Uses of cashew

3.1 Uses of cashew nut

3.2 Uses of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL)

3.3 Uses of cashew apple

3.3.1 Using cashew apples in recipes

3.4 Dried cashew fruits

Chapter 4 Trends in cashew nut production and trade

4.1 Global cashew production

4.2 Cashew production in Africa

4.2.1 Production in Mozambique

4.2.2 Production in Tanzania

4.2.3 Production in Nigeria

4.2.4 Production in other African countries

4.3 Cashew production in Asia

4.3.1 Production in India

4.3.2 Production in Indonesia

4.3.3 Production in Vietnam

4.3.4 Production in Sri Lanka

4.3.5 Production in Australia

4.4 Production in South and Central America

4.4.1 Production in Brazil

4.5 Global trade trends

4.5.1 International classification

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Chapter 5 Traditional methods of cashew processing

5.1 Cashew processing in Africa

5.1.1 Cashew processing in Guinea-Bissau

5.2 Cashew processing in Asia

5.2.1 Traditional processing in India

5.2.2 Traditional processing in Sri Lanka

5.3 Traditional manual shelling

5.3.1 Quality control in shelling