1

Dear fellows in Business and Academia!

2
 Business Calculus- Math182
(Business Algebra is Pre-requisite to this
course)

Wiseman Teta

May 2015
ii
Contents

0.1 Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

0.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.3 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
0.3.1 Techniques for finding derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

iii
iv CONTENTS
CONTENTS 1

Preface
The purpose of this module remains to provide a ”cookbook” for implementing
analytical mathematics in Business for Optimisation purposes.
2 CONTENTS
0.1. LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 3

In business calculus, we are studying and solving problems that involve

changing situations with the aim to optimise business operations. We will
be answering questions like:

1. What is the rate of change of profit when sales reach 1000 units?

2. What is the rate of change of production when the workforce reaches

35?

3. How many units should we produce to maximise profit?

4. How many departments should we maintain so as to minimise cost?

Answering any of these questions involves formulating and or solving a deriva-

tive. Since the definition of a derivative hinges upon the idea of a limit, we
shall start of by studying limits of functions.

0.1 Limits of Functions

The notion of a limit is one of the fundamental ideas of Calculus. In this
course we shall cover a brief introduction to limits and their role in calculus.
As we shall see, the limit concept will allow us to define the notion of a
derivative.
In loose terms, a function is a rule(equation) that transforms input val-
ues(domain) into output values(range).
For example let the profit realised from the sale of 1Kg of Tomatoes be $ 2.
Letting x to denote the number of Kgs sold and restricting the values of x
to be only positive integers, we can have our profit function as:

P (x) = 2x (1)

In this case the input values are the number of Kgs sold and P (x) the profit
made. For example if the sales were 5 Kgs today, we input the value of x
into the function to get the profit made of $10
Example2
Suppose the total cost function of producing x units of a product is:

C(x) = 40 + 0.1x (2)

This function shows that there are total costs of 40 and each additional unit
of production will increase costs by 10 cents up to any level of production.
4 CONTENTS

However, with a minimal level of critique we can observe that in reality, the
constant relationship assumed in both cases do not hold at certain levels of
production. As economies of scale begin to set-in, for example in example
1, the costs of ordering can significantly fall at high levels of x i.e when the
order quantity increases, the ordering costs are more likely to fall as quantity
discounts are offered, large scale transport is used etc.
Now we face questions like:

1. what is the maximum level of profit that we can get if we continually

increase our order quantity?

2. What is the minimum cost level that we can attain by downscaling

production?

3. What output level can we reach by increasing fertilizer bags to 12?

It is the limits of functions that we will be evaluating in all these scenarios.

Mathematically we write each statement above respectively as,

a) lim f (x) (3)

x−→∞

b) lim f (x) (4)

x−→0

c) lim f (x) (5)

x−→12

Definition of a Limit
Let f (x) be a function and let a and L be Real numbers. If, as x takes
values closer and closer to to a the corresponding values of f (x) get closer
and closer to L, then L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a, written

lim f (x) = L (6)

x−→a

Example: To evaluate
x+3
lim (7)
x−→0 x−1
0.1. LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 5

x f(x) x f(x)
3.1 2.904762 2.9 3.105263
3.09 2.913876 2.91 3.094241
3.08 2.923077 2.92 3.083333
3.07 2.932367 2.93 3.072539
we make the following table of values: 3.06 2.941748 2.94 3.061856
3.05 2.95122 2.95 3.051282
3.04 2.960784 2.96 3.040816
3.03 2.970443 2.97 3.030457
3.02 2.980198 2.98 3.020202
3.01 2.99005 2.99 3.01005
In the first collumn from the left we can see that the values of x are ap-
proaching 3 from above and the values are approaching 3, the corresponding
values of f (x) are fast approaching 3. As well, as the values of x are also
approaching 3 from below in collumn 3, the corresponding values of f (x)
are monotonically approaching 3.
Now, we resort to a more handy way of evaluating limits:

Limit of a polynomial
Let f (x) be a polynomial function, a any Real number, then
lim f (x) = f (a) (8)
x−→a

Example Assume the farm manager in 2 wants to find out what value will
his total costs approach as his production approaches 1000 units. Thus,

lim f (x) = 20 + 0.1(1000) (9)

x−→1000
= 120

Ratioanl Fraction
p(x)
Let f (x) = q(x)
, where q(x) 6= 0, then
limx−→a p(x)
limx−→a f (x) = limx−→a q(x)
where limx−→a q(x) 6= 0

Examples Evaluate the following limits:

1. from 10
x+3 limx−→3 (x + 3)
lim = (10)
x−→0 x−1 limx−→3 (x − 1)
6 CONTENTS

3+3
=
3−1
= 3

2.

x2 + 2x + 7 1 + 2(1) + 7
lim = (11)
x−→1 3x2 3(1)
10
=
3
= 3.3

3. Task!

(x − 4)(x + 7)
lim (12)
x−→1 (x − 2)(x + 1)

Existence of Limits
The Limit of a function may not exist. This is concluded if any of the
following 4 properties hold:

1. If f (x) becomes infinitely large in magnitude and with a positive sign

as x approaches the number a from either side, we write

lim f (x) = ∞ (13)

x−→a

2. If f (x) becomes infinitely large in magnitude and with a negative sign

as x approaches the number a from either side, we write

lim f (x) = −∞ (14)

x−→a

3. If f (x) becomes infinitely large in magnitude and positive as x ap-

proaches a from one side and infinitely large in magnitude and negative
as x approaches a from the other side, then

lim f (x)@ (15)

x−→a
0.1. LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 7

4. If
lim f (x) = L (16)
x−→a−

and
lim f (x) = M (17)
x−→a+

and L 6= M ,then

lim f (x)@ (18)

x−→a

(2+h)2 −4
Task! Find limh−→0 h

Limit Theorems
Suppose limx−→a f (x) and limx−→a g(x) both exist. Then we have the
following results:
1. If k is a constant, then

lim kf (x) = k lim f (x) (19)

x−→a x−→a

Example

lim 3x2 = 3 lim x2 (20)

x−→4 x−→4
= 3(16)
= 48

2. If r is a positive constant, then

lim [f (x)]r = [ lim f (x)]r (21)

x−→a x−→a

Example

lim (5x3 − 15)2 = ( lim 5x3 − 15)2 (22)

x−→2 x−→2
= [5 lim x3 − lim 15]2
x−→2 x−→2
2
= [5(8) − 15]
= 625
8 CONTENTS

3.
lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) (23)
x−→a x−→a x−→a

Example

lim [8x2 + 4x] = lim 8x2 + lim 4x (24)

x−→1 x−→1 x−→1
= 8(1) + 4(1)
= 12

4.
lim [g(x)f (x)] = [ lim g(x)][ lim f (x)] (25)
x−→a x−→a x−→a

Example

lim [(2x + 1)(x2 − x)] = lim (2x + 1) lim (x2 − x)(26)

x−→10 x−→10 x−→10
2
= (2.10)(10 − 10)
= 1890
(27)

5. If g(x) 6= 0 and limx−→a g(x) 6= 0, then

f (x) limx−→a f (x)

lim = (28)
x−→a g(x) limx−→a g(x)

Example

2x limx−→1 2x
lim = (29)
x−→1 x+4 limx−→1 x + 4
2.1
=
1+4
3
=
5

Further Examples
1. Find
x2 − x − 1
lim √ (30)
x−→3 x+1
0.1. LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 9

Solution
x2 − x − 1 limx−→3 (x2 − x − 1)
lim √ = √ (31)
x−→3 x+1 limx−→3 x + 1
limx−→3 (x2 − x − 1)
= p
limx−→3 (x + 1)
2
3 −3−1
= √ (32)
3+1
5
=
2
2. Suppose limx−→2 f (x) = 3 and limx−→2 g(x) = 4, Use the rules of
limits to evaluate the following:
• limx−→2 [f (x) + 5g(x)]
Solution

lim [f (x) + 5g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim 5g(x) (33)

x−→2 x−→2 x−→2
= lim f (x) + 5 lim g(x)
x−→2 x−→2
= 3 + 5.4
= 23
[f (x)]2
• limx−→2 ln g(x)

Solution

[f (x)]2 limx−→2 [f (x)]2

lim = (34)
x−→2 ln g(x) limx−→2 ln g(x)
[limx−→2 f (x)]2
=
ln[limx−→2 g(x)]
32
=
ln 4
9
=
ln 4
As in the above examples, the Rules for limits actually mean that many lim-
its can be found simply by evaluation. This process is valid for polynomials,
10 CONTENTS

rational functions, exponential functions, logarithmic functions, roots and

powers as long as this does not involve illegal operations like division by zero
or taking the log of a negative number.
Division by zero represents particular problems that can often be solved by
algebraic simplification as the following example shows:

x2 +x−6
• Find limx−→2 x−2

Solution Clearly, Rule 28 is inapplicable in this case since limx−→2 (x−2) =

0, making the denominator zero, WHICH IS NOT ALLOWED. We can cir-
cumvent that pitfall by rewriting the function as

x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2)
= (i.ef actorisingthenumerator)
(35)
x−2 (x − 2)
= x+3

therefore,

x2 + x − 6
lim = lim x + 3 (36)
x−→2 x−2 x−→2
= 2+3
= 5
√
x−2
• Find limx−→4 x−4
[5]

Solution As x −→ 4, the numerator approaches zero and the denominator

also approaches zero, yielding a meaningless expression 00 . Suppose you want
to find what happen to your output when the number of employees approach
4 and you get such an expression!!
However, algebra can be used to rationalise
√ the numerator by multiplying
both the numerator and denominator by x + 2 .This gives:

√ √ √ √ √ √
x−2 x. x − 2 x + 2 x − 4
x+2
.√ = √ (37)
x−4 x+2 (x − 4)( x + 2)
x−4
= √
(x − 4)( x + 2)
1
= √
x+2
0.1. LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 11
√
x−2 1
lim = √
x−→4 x−4 4+2
1
=
2+2
1
=
4
Caution! Simply beacuse the denominator in a limit evaluates to zero does’nt
mean the limit does not exist. Before making that conclusion try to simplify
the expression using algebra.

Task!
x+1
• Find limx−→1 x2 +1
. Show why the limt does not exist.[10]

Limits at Infinity

For any Real number n,

1.
1
lim =0 (38)
x−→∞ xn
2.
1
lim @ (39)
x−→−∞ xn

3.
lim e−f (x) = 0 (40)
x−→∞

4.
lim ef (x) = 0 (41)
x−→−∞

Worked Examples

12x2 −15x+12
1. Find limx−→∞ x2 +1

Solution
12 CONTENTS

The trick is to devide every term by the HIGHEST POWER in the

function and then apply 38
12x2 15x
12x2 − 15x + 12 x2
− x2
+ x122
lim = lim x2
(42)
x−→∞ x2 + 1 x−→∞
x2
+ x12
15 12
12 − x
+ x2
= lim 1
x−→∞ 1+ x2
15 12
limx−→∞ [12 − x
+ x2
]
= 1
limx−→∞ [1 + x2
]
15 12
limx−→∞ 12 − limx−→∞ x
+ limx−→∞ x2
= 1
limx−→∞ 1 + limx−→∞ x2
1 1
limx−→∞ 12 − 15 limx−→∞ x
+ 12 limx−→∞ x2
= 1
limx−→∞ 1 + limx−→∞ x2
12 − 15.0 + 12.0
=
1+0
= 12

8x+6
2. Find limx−→∞ 3x−1
We can apply Rule 38 after dividing every term by the highest power
of x which is in this case x(please note, dividing every term by x only
means diving the numerator and the denominator by x) as follows:
8x 6
8x + 6 +
lim = lim x x
(43)
x−→∞ 3x − 1 x−→∞ 3x − 1
x x
limx−→∞ [8 + x6 ]
=
limx−→∞ [3 − x1 ]
1
limx−→∞ 8 + 6 limx−→∞ x
=
limx−→∞ 3 − limx−→∞ x1
8 + 6.0
=
3−0
8
=
3
3x+2
3. Find limx−→∞ 4x3 −1
Solution
0.2. CONTINUITY 13

We divide throughout by the highest power of x which is x3

3 2
3x + 2 x2
+ x3
lim = lim 1 (44)
x−→∞ 4x3 − 1 x−→∞ 4− x3
0+0
=
4−0

= 0
3x2 +2
4. Find limx−→∞ 4x−3
Solution
2
3x2 + 2 3+ x2
lim = lim (45)
x−→∞ 4x − 3 x−→∞ 4 − 3
x x2
3+0
=
0−0
3
=
0
Dividing by zero is not defined so this limit does not exist.

Exercise

1. Employee productivity
A company training program has determined that on average, a new
employee produces P (s) items per day after s days of on-the-job train-
ing, where

75s
P (s) = (46)
s+8
Find and interpret lims−→∞ P (s)[5]
x2 −4x−12
2. Find lims−→6 x−6

0.2 Continuity
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if the following 3 conditions are
satisfied:
14 CONTENTS

1. f(c) is defined

2. limx−→c f (x) exists

3. limx−→c f (x) = f (c)

if f(x) is not continous at c it is discontinous there.
Tell what values of x are the following functions continous and not
continous:

In a) we note that limx−→0− f (x) = −4 and limx−→0+ f (x) = 4 therefore

limx−→0 f (x)@,else since no single number is approached by the values of
f (x) as x → 0 we say the limit does’nt exist hence part 2 of the definition
of contuity fails.
In b) the function f (x) is not defined at x = −2 and limx−→−2 f (x)@

Continuity on a closed interval

A function is continous on a closed interval [a, b] if

1. it is continous on the open interval (a, b)

2. it is continous from the right of x = a and

3. it is continous from the left at x = b

When a function is given by a graph, any discontinuities are clearly visible

and when a function is givan by a formula it is usually continous for all values
of x except those where the function is undefined or possible where there is
a change in the defining formula for the function.

Increasing and decreasing functions

Definition
We say that a function f (x) is increasing in an interval if the graph of f (x)
continously rises as x rises.We alway trace the function from left to right
Similarly, we say that a function f (x) is decreasing in an interval if its values
continually fall as x increases.
What is the behaviour of the following functions at c?

In figure a) as x increases, g(x) is falling thus g is decreasing at x = c,

0.2. CONTINUITY 15

a) f(x)

0 x

-4

b)

f(x)

-2 0 x

Figure 1:
16 CONTENTS

a)

f(x)

g(x)

0 c x

b)

f(x)

m(x)

S(x)

t(x)

c x

Figure 2:
0.2. CONTINUITY 17

so is the function m in part b. We can see that f is neither increasing nor

decreasing at x = c. We say that x = c is a Stationary point. That is also
the case of s and t in b).

Extreme points/Stationary points

A relative extreme point or an extremum of a function is a point at which it
changes form increasing to decreasing or vice-versa. We shall consider the 2
most applicable forms ie the maximum and the minimum
Definition
A relative maximum point is a point at which the graph changes from in-
creasing to decreasing. A typical functions with maximum points are the
Revenue function and the Marginal utility function. Why?

Suppose you are an Agro-dealer who specialises in selling tomatoes and each
crate goes for $2 with cost price of $1 and lets further assume that the to-
tal demand for tomatoes in your market is 10 crates. When you order zero
crates of tomatoes, the net revenue generated is obviously zero. When you
order 5 crates, the net revenue will be $5, if you increase to 7 crates, revenue
also rises to $7, you increase your order quantity to 10 crates to get a total
revenue of $10, when you increase again to 14 crates, the net revenue falls
to $6. Therefore the optimal order quantity is 10 crates i.e when you order
10 crates that’s when you realise the maximum net revenue(profit). Now
the challenge is that in real life we won’t be knowing the total demand in
the market because of market complexities;however we can formulate our net
revenue function and locate its maximum point.

As a consumer increases the consumption, say of cake slices, the additional

satisfaction(utility) derived from the extra slice initially rises but as con-
sumption continues to rise, there will reach a point whereby the consumer
will be fed up. It this point(marginal utility) the satisfaction derived from
the consumption of an additional slice will be zero. It means total utility
at that point will be at its maximum. Of particular interest at this stage is
to find the number of slices that will maximise total utility given the utility
function of the consumer. This is yet another example of function with a
maximum point.

Similarly, a minimum point is the stationary point where a function changes

from decreasing to increasing, e.g the indifference curve;cost average cost
function. When the level of production is low, the average costs will be rel-
atively high. As the level of production tends to increase, the average costs
18 CONTENTS

start to fall, as the fixed costs are being shared amongst many products and
as this continues, breakages and defectives start to increase and also to con-
tinually increase output this can mean setting up another plant thus average
costs start to rise again. Now, since the AC starts by falling and later on
starts rising it means it a minimising function and the task is to be able to
locate that minimum point.
As you delve further into this exciting exploration we wish you Bon Voyage!

0.3 Differentiation
This the process of find gradients of functions.

The gradient of a straight line

MY
Grad = (47)
MX
Say, a line join 2 points, A(2,1) and B(0,4). This means that at the point A
the value of x is 2 and the corresponding value of y is 1 and at point B the
value of x is 0 and the corresponding y-value is 4. Now, to find the gradient
we are starting at either A or B then we take note of the change in Y and the
change in X and we substitute the values in our formula for finding gradient.

YA − YB
Grad = (48)
XA − XB
4−1
=
0−2
= −1.5

We employ the same idea when find the gradient of a function at a particular
point. Suppose you are given a function y = f (x) and you are required to
find the gradient at the point x = a. We create another point which is very
very near to x = a by moving by a VERY small magnitude which we shall
call h, now we will be at x = a + h. We then evaluate the Y or f(x) values
and we find the gradient as follows:
dy
The first derivative can be written in any of the following ways:f 0 (x), dx , Dx , y 0 , fx
0
Now, f (x) is given by the following:

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (x) = lim (49)
h−→0 a+h−h
0.3. DIFFERENTIATION 19

f(x)

f(a+h)

f(a) h

0 x=a x=a+h x

As the movement in h becomes very small the 2 points can be approximated by a straight line.

What happens when h gets large? = Answer

Answer implies when we are finding the gradient of a function we need a conditioning
statement of h to ensure that it is sufficiently small.

Figure 3:
20 CONTENTS

f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim
h−→0 h
Thus the derivative of a function f (x) at a point a is defined as,
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (x) = lim (50)
h−→0 h
0
The process that produces f (x) is known as differentiation.
Example
1. Find the gradient of f (x) = x2 + 2 at x = −1[4]

Solution
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (x) = lim (51)
h−→0 h
f (−1 + h) − f (−1)
= lim
h−→0 h
(h − 1) + 2 − (−12 + 2)
2
= lim
h−→0 h
2
h − 2h + 1 + 2 − 1 − 2
= lim
h−→0 h
h2 − 2h
= lim
h−→0 h
h(h − 2)
= lim
h−→0 h
= lim −2 + h
h−→0
⇒ f 0 (x) = −2 (52)

2. Find the gradient of f (x) = x2 − x atx = 0

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (x) = lim (53)
h−→0 h
f (0 + h) − f (0)
f 0 (0) = lim
h−→0 h
h2 − h − 0
= lim
h−→0 h
h(h − 1)
= lim
h−→0 h
= lim h − 1
h−→0
= −1
0.3. DIFFERENTIATION 21

NOTE:The derivative function is a function of x as f 0 (x) varies rela-

tive to changes in x.

3. Application Problem
Lindsay finds that after introducing her dog Buddy to a new brand of
food, Buddy’s weight in K.gs begins to increase. After x weeks on the
new food, Buddy’s weight is approximated by
√
w(x) = x + 17 (54)

• Find the weight of Buddy in week 4 and the rate of change of her
weight at that time.

Solution
w(a + h) − w(a)
w0 (x) = lim (55)
h−→0
√ h √
4 + h + 17 − ( 4 + 17)
= lim
h−→0
√ h √
4 + h + 17 − 4 − 17
= lim
h−→0
√ √h
4+h− 4
= lim
h−→0
√ h
4+h−2
= lim now refer to37
h−→0
√ h √
4+h−2 4+h+2
= lim √
h−→0 h 4+h+2
√ √ √ √
4+h 4+h−2 4+h+2 4+h−4
= lim √
h−→0 h( 4 + h + 2)
4+h−4
= lim √
h−→0 h( 4 + h + 2)

h
= lim √
h−→0 h( 4 + h + 2)

1
= lim √
h−→0 4+h+2
1
= √
4+2
1
=
2+2
22 CONTENTS

= 0.25

In week 4, x = 4

√
⇒ w(4) = 4 + 17 (56)
= 2 + 17
= 19K.gs

0.3.1 Techniques for finding derivatives

How can a manager determine the best production level to maximise profit if
the relationship bewteen profit and production is known?

1. Constant Rule
If y = k, where k is any real number(k ⊆ < ), then

dy
=0 (57)
dx

The derivative of a constant is zero.

Examples

dy
Find dx given that:
a) y = π b)y = 25 c) y = 100050

Solution

• a)Since π is a real number

dy
⇒ dx =0

That applies to b) and c) as well

2. Power Rule
If y = xn ,then

dy
= nxn−1 (58)
dx

The derivative of a power of x is founda by multiplying by the exponent

0.3. DIFFERENTIATION 23

and reducing the exponent by 1.

Examples

dy
Find dx given that:
1
a) y = x2 b)y = x100 c) y = x 2

a)

y = x2 (59)
dy
⇒ = 2x2−1
dx
= 2x

b)

y = x100 (60)
dy
⇒ = 100x100−1
dx
= 100x99

c)
1
y = x2 (61)

dy 1 1
⇒ = x 2 −1
dx 2
1 1
= x− 2
2
1 1
= 1
2 x2
1 1
= √
2 x
1
= √
2 x
24 CONTENTS

dy
3. Constant Times a function. Given that y = kf (x),k ⊆ <; if dx
∃
then,
dy
= kf 0 (x) (62)
dx
dy
Find dx
given that:
1
a) y = 8x4 b)y = 3x7

a)

y = 8x4 (63)

dy
⇒ = 8[4x4−1 ]
dx
dy
= 8[4x3 ]
dx
dy
= 32x3
dx
(64)

b)
1
y = (65)
3x7
1 1
= [ ]
3 x7
1 −7
= [x ]
3
dy 1
⇒ = [−7x−7−1 ]
dx 3
1
= [−7x−8 ]
3
1 −7
= [ ]
3 x8
7
= − 8
3x
0.3. DIFFERENTIATION 25

4. Sum or Difference Rule

If y = u(x) ± v(x) and if u0 (x) and v 0 (x) ∃ then
dy
= f racdudx + f racdvdx (66)
dx

The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives.

dy
Find dx given that:
√
a) y = 6x3 + 15x2 b)y = 12x4 − 6 x + x5

a)

y = 6x3 + 15x2 (67)

dy
⇒ = 6[3x3−1 ] + 15[2x2−1 ]
dx
= 6[3x2 ] + 15[2x]
= 18x2 + 30x
(68)

b)
√ 5
y = 12x4 − 6 x + (69)
x
1
= 12x − 6x 2 + 5x−1
4

dy 1 1
⇒ = 12[4x4−1 ] − 6[ x 2 −1 ] + 5[−1x−1−1 ]
dx 2
1 1
= 12[4x3 ] − 6[ x− 2 ] + 5[−1x−2 ]
2
1 −1
= 48x − 6. x 2 − 5x−2
3
2
1 1
= 48x3 − 3. 1 − 5. 2
x2 x
3 5
= 48x3 − √ − 2
x x
26 CONTENTS

5. Product Rule
If y = u(x).v(x) and if u0 (x) and v 0 (x) ∃ ,then:

dy dv du
= u. + v. (70)
dx dx dx

The derivative of a product of 2 functions is equal to the first function

times the derivative of the second function plus the second function
times the derivative of the first.
Examples

dy
Find dx
given that:
√
a) y = 4x2 (2x + 3) b)y = x(x + 4)6

a)

y = 4x2 (2x + 3) (71)

= 4[x2 (2x + 3)]

Now, let

u = x2 v = 2x + 3
u0 (x) = 2x v 0 (x) = 2

dy
= u(x)v 0 (x) + v(x)u0 (x) (72)
dx
= 4[x2 .2 + (2x + 3).2x]
= 4[2x2 + 2x(2x + 3)]
= 4[2x2 + 4x2 + 6x]
= 4[6x2 + 6x]
= 4[6x(x + 1)]
= 24x(x + 1)
0.3. DIFFERENTIATION 27

Verify this solution by first expanding the bracket in y and then differ-
entiating term by term.
a)
√
y = x(x + 4)6 (73)
1
= x 2 (x + 4)6

Now, let

1
u = x2 v = (x + 4)6
1
u0 (x) = 12 x− 2 v 0 (x) = 6(x + 4)5

dy
= u(x)v 0 (x) + v(x)u0 (x) (74)
dx
1 1 1
= x 2 .6(x + 4)5 + (x + 4)6 . x− 2
2
√ 5 6
1 1
= 6 x(x + 4) + (x + 4) . . 1
2 x2
√ 1 1
= 6 x(x + 4)5 + (x + 4)6 . . √
2 x
6
√ (x + 4)
= 6 x(x + 4)5 + √
2 x
√ (x + 4)
= (x + 4)5 [6 x + √ ]
2 x

u(x)
6. If y = v(x)
and if v(x) = 0 and v 0 (x) and u0 (x)∃

dy v(x)u0 (x) − u(x)v 0 (x)

= (75)
dx [v(x)]2

The derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the derivative of

the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denom-
inator ALL devided by the square of the denominator.
28 CONTENTS

CAUTION: Just as the derivative of a product is not a product of the

derivatives, the derivative of a quotient is not a quotient of derivatives.
It is therefore essential that you recognise that a function containts a
quotient or product then use the proper tool. No spoon in the garden,
neither is it acceptable to use a shovel in the kitchen.
Examples
dy
Find dx given that:
2x−1 2x2
a) y = 4x+3
b)y = x−1

a)

u = 2x − 1 v = 4x + 3
u0 (x) = 2 0
v (x) = 4

dy v(x)u0 (x) − u(x)v 0 (x)

= (76)
dx [v(x)]2
(4x + 3).2 − (2x − 1).4
= (77)
(4x + 3)2
8x + 6 − 8x + 4
= (78)
(4x + 3)2
10
= (79)
(4x + 3)2
(80)

b)

u = 2x2 v =x−1
u0 (x) = 4x v 0 (x) = 1

dy v(x)u0 (x) − u(x)v 0 (x)

= (81)
dx [v(x)]2
(x − 1).4x − 2x2 .1
= (82)
(x − 1)2
0.3. DIFFERENTIATION 29

4x2 − 4x − 2x2
= (83)
(x − 1)2
2x2 − 4x
= (84)
(x − 1)2
2x(x − 2)
= (85)
(x − 1)2
(86)

7. The chain Rule If y is a function of u, say y = f (u) and if u is a

function of x, say u = g(x), then y = f (u) = f [g(x)] and

dy dy du
= . (87)
dx du dx

Assuming that du’s on the RHS cancel we have the RHS = LHS

You have Profit as a function of Sales;P = f (s), and you have Sales
as a function of Time;S = g(t), Now if you want the rate of change of
Profit with respect to time:

dP dP dS
= . (88)
dt dS dt
Examples
dy
Find dx given that:

√
(a) y = u and u = 3x2 − 5x
3
(b) y = u and u = x

a)

1
y = u2 u = 3x2 − 5x
dy du
du
=1 dx
= 6x − 5
30 CONTENTS

dy dy
= . (89)
dx du