Bacteria

Microorganisms are a heterogeneous group of several distinct classes of living beings. Based
on the difference in cellular organization and biochemistry, the kingdom protista has been
divided into two groups namely prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Bacteria and blue-green algae
are prokaryotes, while fungi, other algae, slime moulds and protozoa are eukaryotes. Bacteria
are prokaryotic microorganisms that do not contain chlorophyll. They are unicellular and do
not show true branching, except in higher bacteria like actinomycetales.

The prokaryotic cells have the following characteristics such as:

1. No organelles, all the action takes place in the cytosol or cytoplasmic membrane

2. Most bacteria possess peptidoglycan, a unique polymer that makes its synthesis a good
target for antibiotics

3. Protein synthesis takes place in the cytosol with structurally different ribosome’s

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Size 0.5-3um 2-100um

Kind of Cell Single-cell Multicellular

Cell Wall Cell wall present, comprise of Usually cell wall absent, if present
peptidoglycan or mucopeptide (plant cells and fungus), comprises of
(polysaccharide). cellulose (polysaccharide).

Presence of Well-defined nucleus is absent, rather A well-defined nucleus is present

Nucleus 'nucleoid' is present which is an open enclosed within nuclear memebrane.
region containing DNA.

Shape of DNA Circular, double-stranded DNA. Linear, double-stranded DNA.

Mitochondria Absent Present

Ribosome 70S 80S

 PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Golgi Apparatus Absent Present

Endoplasmic Absent Present

Reticulum

Mode of Asexual Most commonly sexual

Reproduction

Cell Divison Binary Fission, Mitosis

(conjugation, transformation,
transduction)

Lysosomes and Absent Present

Peroxisomes

Chloroplast (Absent) scattered in the cytoplasm. Present in plants, algae.

Transcription and Occurs together. Transcription occurs in nucleus and

Translation translation in cytosol.

Organelles Organelles are not membrane bound, if Organelles are membrane bound and
present any. are specific in function.

Replication Single origin of replication. Multiple origins of replication.

Number of Only one (not true called as a plasmid). More than one.
Chromosomes

Examples Archaea, Bacteria. Plants and Animals.

A Dutch merchant, named Antonie van Leeuwenhoek,in the half of the seventeenth century
discovered the world of bacteria. Leeuwenhoek observed scrapings from his teeth using his
simple microscope. Although he didn’t know it at that time, some of the tiny swimming
organisms he observed were bacteria.

SHAPE OF THE BACTERIA

Depending on their shape, bacteria are classified into several varieties

1. Cocci : These are spherical or oval cells

2. Bacilli : These are rod shaped cells

3. Vibrios are comma shaped curved rods and derive their name from their characteristics
vibratory motility.

4. Spirilla are rigid spiral forms.

5. Spirochetes are flexuous spiral forms

6. Actinomycetes are branching filamentous bacteria, so called because of a fancied

resemblance to the radiating rays of the sun when seen in tissue lesions (from actis meaning
ray and mykes meaning fungus)

7. Mycoplasmas are bacteria that are cell wall deficient and hence do not possess a stable
morphology. They occur as round or oval bodies and as interlacing filaments

Bacteria sometime show characteristic cellular arrangement or grouping. According to the

plane of cellular division, cocci may be arranged in pairs (diplococci), chains (streptococci),
groups of four (tetrads) or eight (sarcinae), or grape like clusters (staphylococci).

BACTERIAL STRUCTURE

The outer layer or cell envelope consists of two components, a rigid cell wall and beneath it a
cytoplasmic or plasma membrane. The cell envelope encloses the protoplasm, comprising the
cytoplasm, cytoplasmic inclusions such as ribosomes and mesosomes, granules, vacuoles and
the nuclear body

Cell wall

Beneath the external structures is the cell wall. It is very rigid & gives shape to the cell. Its
main function is to prevent the cell from expanding & eventually bursting due to water
uptake. Cell Wall constitutes a significant portion of the dry weight of the cell and it is
essential for bacterial growth & division. Chemically the cell wall is composed of
peptidoglycan.

A bacterium is referred as a protoplast when it is without cell wall. Cell wall may be lost due
to the action of lysozyme enzyme, which destroys peptidoglycan. This cell is easily lysed and
it is metabolically active but unable to reproduce. A bacterium with a damaged cell wall is
referred as spheroplasts. It is caused by the action of toxic chemical or an antibiotic, they
show a variety of forms and they are able to change into their normal form when the toxic
agent is removed, i.e. when grown on a culture media
Cytoplasmic membrane

Cytoplasmic membrane is present immediately beneath the cell wall, found in both Gram
positive & negative bacteria and it is a thin layer lining the inner surface of cell wall and
separating it from cytoplasm. It acts as a semipermeable membrane controlling the flow of
metabolites to and from the protoplasm.

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is a Colloidal system containing a variety of organic and inorganic solutes
containing 80% Water and 20% Salts, Proteins. They are rich in ribosomes, DNA & fluid.
DNA is circular and haploid. They are highly coiled with intermixed polyamines & support
proteins. Plasmids are extra circular DNA.

Ribosomes

They are the centers of protein synthesis. They are slightly smaller than the ribosomes of
eukaryotic cells

Mesosomes

They are vesicular, convoluted tubules formed by invagination of plasma membrane into the
cytoplasm. They are principal sites of respiratory enzymes and help with cell reproduction

Cytoplasmic Inclusions

The Inclusion bodies are aggregates of polymers produced when there is excess of nutrients
in the environment and they are the storage reserve for granules, phosphates and other
substances.

Nucleus

The Nucleus is not distinct and has no nuclear membrane or nucleolus and the genetic
material consist of DNA. The cytoplasmic carriers of genetic information are termed
plasmids or episomes.

Capsule

Capsule is the outer most layer of the bacteria. It is a condensed well defined layer closely
surrounding the cell. They are usually polysaccharide and if polysaccharide envelops the
whole bacterium it is capsule and their production depends on growth conditions. They are
secreted by the cell into the external environment and are highly impermeable.

Flagella

Flagella are long hair like helical filaments extending from cytoplasmic membrane to exterior
of the cell. It helps in cell motility.

The arrangement of flagella may be described as

(i) Monotrichous – single flagella on one side

(ii) Lophotrichous – tuft of flagella on one side

(iii) Amphitrichous – single or tuft on both sides

(iv) Peritrichous – surrounded by lateral flagella

REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA

Bacteria divide by binary fission and cell divides to form two daughter cells. Nuclear division
precedes cell division and therefore, in a growing population, many cells having two nuclear
bodies can be seen. Bacterial growth may be considered as two levels, increase in the size of
individual cells and increase in number of cells.

Spore

Some bacteria have the ability to form highly resistant resting stage called spores, which
helps them to overcome adverse environmental conditions that are unfavorable for vegetative
growth of cell. They are not a reproductive form and not a storage granule. These spores are
resistant to bactericidal agents and adverse physical conditions. Each spore can give rise to
only one endospore which plays a role in heat resistance. Spores consists of three layers
namely core, cortex and spore coat
Economic importance

Some bacteria produce chemicals called antibiotics that limit the growth of other bacteria. For
example, one type of bacteria that is commonly found living in soil produces the antibiotic
streptomycin.

Another kind of bacteria, Bacillus, produces the antibiotic found in many nonprescription
antiseptic ointments. Many bacterial diseases in humans and animals can be treated with
antibiotics.

A saprophyte is any organism that uses dead organisms as food and energy sources.
Saprophytic bacteria help recycle nutrients. These nutrients become available for use by other
organisms.

Most sewage treatment plants use saprophytic aerobic bacteria to break down wastes into
carbon dioxide and water.

Plants and animals must take in nitrogen to make needed proteins and nucleic acids. Animals
can eat plants or other animals that contain nitrogen, but plants need to take nitrogen from the
soil or air. Although air is about 78 percent nitrogen, neither animals nor plants can use it
directly. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria change nitrogen from the air into forms that plants and
animals can use. The roots of some plants such as peanuts and peas develop structures called
nodules that contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria. (Many of the cyanobacteria also can fix
nitrogen and are important in providing nitrogen in usable forms to aquatic organisms).

Bioremediation: Using organisms to help clean up or remove environmental pollutants is

called bioremediation. One type of bioremediation uses bacteria to break down wastes and
pollutants into simpler harmless compounds.

Bacteria were involved, they were used in the production of foods. One of the first uses of
bacteria was for making yogurt, a milk-based food. Cheeses and buttermilk also can be
produced with the aid of bacteria.

Bacteria in Industry: Many industries rely on bacteria to make many products. Bacteria are
grown in large containers called bioreactors. Conditions inside bioreactors are carefully
controlled and monitored to allow for the growth of the bacteria. Medicines, enzymes,
cleansers, and adhesives are some of the products that are made using bacteria.

Methane gas that is released as a waste by certain bacteria can be used as a fuel for heating,
cooking, and industry. In landfills, methane-producing bacteria break down plant and animal
material. The quantity of methane gas released by these bacteria is so large that some cities
collect and burn it.
Harmful Bacteria

Not all bacteria are beneficial. Some bacteria are known as pathogens. A pathogen is any
organism that causes disease.

Bacterial pathogens can cause illness and disease by several different methods. They can
enter your body through a cut in the skin, you can inhale them, or they can enter in other
ways. Once inside your body, they can multiply, damage normal cells, and cause illness and
disease. Some bacterial pathogens produce poisonous substances known as toxins.
Botulism—a type of food poisoning that can result in paralysis and death—is caused by a
toxin-producing bacterium. Botulism-causing bacteria are able to grow and produce toxins
inside sealed cans of food. However, when growing conditions are unfavorable for their
survival, some bacteria, like those that cause botulism, can produce thick-walled structures
called endospores. Endospores, shown