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2012

Opportunities for Public Aquariums to Increase the Sustainability

of the Aquatic Animal Trade
Michael F. Tlusty
New England Aquarium, USA

Andrew L. Rhyne
Roger Williams University, [email protected]

Les Kaufman
Boston University

Michael Hutchins
The Wildlife Society, Maryland

Gordon McGregor Reid

Chester Zoo, UK

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Recommended Citation
Tlusty, M., A.L. Rhyne, L. Kaufman, et al. 2013. "Opportunities for Public Aquariums to Increase the
Sustainability of the Aquatic Animal Trade." Zoo Biology 32 (1).

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Authors
Michael F. Tlusty, Andrew L. Rhyne, Les Kaufman, Michael Hutchins, Gordon McGregor Reid, Chris
Andrews, Paul Boyle, Jay Hemdal, Frazer McGilvray, and Scott Dowd

This article is available at DOCS@RWU: https://docs.rwu.edu/fcas_fp/140

 Zoo Biology 32: 1–12 (2013)

COMMENTARY

Opportunities for Public Aquariums to Increase the

Sustainability of the Aquatic Animal Trade
Michael F. Tlusty,1* Andrew L. Rhyne,1,2 Les Kaufman,3,4 Michael Hutchins,5 Gordon McGregor
Reid,6 Chris Andrews,7 Paul Boyle,8 Jay Hemdal,9 Frazer McGilvray,4 and Scott Dowd1
1
Prescott Marine Laboratory, New England Aquarium, Boston, Massachusetts
2
Roger Williams University, Bristol, Rhode Island
3
Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
4
Conservation International, Arlington, Virginia
5
The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, Maryland
6
Chester Zoo, Upton-by-Chester, Chester, United Kingdom
7
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California
8
Association of Zoos & Aquariums, Silver Spring, Maryland
9
Toledo Zoo, Toledo, Ohio

The global aquatic pet trade encompasses a wide diversity of freshwater and marine organisms. While relying on
a continual supply of healthy, vibrant aquatic animals, few sustainability initiatives exist within this sector. Public
aquariums overlap this industry by acquiring many of the same species through the same sources. End users are also
similar, as many aquarium visitors are home aquarists. Here we posit that this overlap with the pet trade gives aquari-
ums significant opportunity to increase the sustainability of the trade in aquarium fishes and invertebrates. Improving
the sustainability ethos and practices of the aquatic pet trade can carry a conservation benefit in terms of less waste,
and protection of intact functioning ecosystems, at the same time as maintaining its economic and educational benefits
and impacts. The relationship would also move forward the goal of public aquariums to advance aquatic conservation
in a broad sense. For example, many public aquariums in North America have been instrumental in working with the
seafood industry to enact positive change toward increased sustainability. The actions include being good consumers
themselves, providing technical knowledge, and providing educational and outreach opportunities. These same op-
portunities exist for public aquariums to partner with the ornamental fish trade, which will serve to improve business,
create new, more ethical and more dependable sources of aquatic animals for public aquariums, and perhaps most
important, possibly transform the home aquarium industry from a threat, into a positive force for aquatic conservation.
Zoo Biol. 32:1–12, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Keywords: aquaculture; fisheries; ornamental fish hobby; pet trade; public aquarium; sustainability; tropical fish

INTRODUCTION Public aquariums maintain diverse collections,

holding 1,218 freshwater (E. Holbrook, Shedd Aquarium,
Zoos and aquariums (hereafter referred to as aquari-
personal communication) and 1,397 marine fish species
ums, as the focus of this discussion is on aquatic fishes and
[AZA, 2010]. While some public aquariums collect their
invertebrates) are important institutions for entertainment,
own fishes, many fish obtained for these institutions are
education, and as drivers of in situ and ex situ conserva-
tion and basic and applied research on wildlife husbandry, *
Correspondence to: Michael F. Tlusty, Prescott Marine Laboratory,
nutrition, disease, physiology, and reproduction [Conde et New England Aquarium, 1 Central Wharf, Boston, MA 02110. E-mail:
[email protected]
al., 2011; Falk and Dierking, 2010; Gusset and Dick, 2010;
Hutchins and Thompson, 2008; Miller et al., 2004]. The Received 16 August 2011; Revised 5 March 2012; Accepted 9 March 2012
importance of conservation and research in these institu- DOI 10.1002/zoo.21019
tions is demonstrated by the 80% that have these terms in Published online in 1 May 2012 Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.
their mission statements [Wildes, 2003]. com).

© 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

2 Tlusty et al.
acquired from the same suppliers that provision the orna- ist to exhibit aquatic organisms for educational purposes,
mental fish trade. This is evidenced by the 54.3% overlap it is ironic that fish species destined for the plate currently
between marine species on exhibit at public aquariums have more sustainability efforts directed at them than do live
and those species imported into the United States [Rhyne fishes kept by private aquarists and public aquariums. This is
et al. 2012]. Given the overlap in diversity and acquisition, partially a function of the massive biological and economic
public aquariums are inextricably linked to the ornamental scales of food fisheries as compared to the relatively smaller
fish trade [Andrews, 1990]. We postulate that this overlap scales for the home aquarium live animal trade. This may be a
provides an opportunity for public aquariums to engage in misleading metric, as it does not necessarily reflect the poten-
research and conservation on ornamental fishes. This can tial for home aquarists and their suppliers to indirectly or di-
come in three ways: (1) through pure science initiatives rectly affect conservation in the wild. The broad and diverse
on physiology and reproduction [Rhyne et al., 2009b], (2) nature of the ornamental fish trade, the fact that the aquarium
through collaborative partnerships with the trade and hob- hobby reaches a great many young people who are just devel-
byists in order to provide guidance and incentive for de- oping their consumer and conservation habits, and the great
veloping sustainability in the trade, and to stimulate and emphasis on learning that is inherent to home aquarium keep-
promote a market for responsibly acquired aquarium fish- ing, all indicate that this sector should receive greater atten-
es, and (3) by engaging the aquarium trade in programs tion. Public aquariums could take advantage of the charisma
and measures that benefit conservation programs in source of the ornamental species to engage visitors about ocean con-
countries where the native fauna representing aquarium servation [McClenachan et al., 2011], and although not wide-
biodiversity are threatened in the wild. ly adopted, such programs have been suggested for over two
The ornamental fish pet trade is a large, biodiverse, decades [Marliave et al., 1995]. Within the ornamental fish
global industry. There are an estimated 192 million indi- trade, there has been prior interest in sustainability as demon-
vidual fish imported into the United States yearly [Barker strated through certification programs [Thoney et al., 2003].
and Barker, 2009], with the number of marine species ex- However, the implementation and effectiveness of the Marine
ceeding 1,800 [Rhyne et al 2012] and freshwater fish spe- Aquarium Council was limited. Only a handful of producers
cies exceeding 1,500 annually [Tamaru and Ako, 2000]. were certified resulting in little resonance with consumers
Domestic production of aquatic fish and invertebrates is and retail chains [Alencastro, 2004]. A few companies have
significant. A total of 358 farms producing ornamental individual sustainability initiatives (see www.drsfostersmith.
fishes in 41 states [USDA National Agricultural Statistics com/general.cfm?siteid=12&gid=190), but these have not
Service, 2005], and the state of Florida alone produces been combined with public relations campaigns, and thus are
over 400 species of freshwater fishes for the pet industry. less known by consumers [Alencastro, 2004].
Florida also harvests over 9 million marine invertebrates In this paper we address sustainability as it relates to
each year [Rhyne et al., 2009a]. While data are scarce, the trade in live ornamental fishes and invertebrates. We also
imports to the United States comprise a larger proportion define the role public aquariums could have in driving ef-
of the share of the trade, where for marine fish alone, 40 forts to implement sustainability initiatives for the hobby
countries export over 11 million marine fish [Rhyne et al. trade in these species. Finally, based on the recent decade of
2012]. effort by public aquariums to promote seafood sustainabil-
In North America, a number of public aquariums have ity, we outline the many opportunities that these institutions
been involved in efforts promoting sustainable seafood for have in working with the ornamental fish trade to increase
more than a decade [Koldewey et al., 2009; Tlusty, 2012; sustainability (thus maintaining a high diversity of fishes for
Ward and Phillips, 2008]. There are currently around 20 in- educational display purposes now and into the future), and
dependent certification programs for both wild-caught (e.g., to help shift the environmental impact of the ornamental fish
Marine Stewardship Council) and aquaculture-produced (e.g., trade from that of a threat to aquatic ecosystems (through
Global Aquaculture Alliance) fish and fish products [Jacquet over exploitation and exotic introductions) to an agent of
and Pauly, 2007; Ward and Phillips, 2008]. There are also positive change for conservation in the wild.
corporate-based advisory and consumer wallet card programs
that promote continual improvement toward sustainability in
WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY IN THE ORNAMENTAL
all aspects of the seafood trade (e.g., Conservation Alliance
FISH TRADE?
for Seafood Solutions, http://www.solutionsforseafood.org/
forbusiness). This involvement by public aquariums is based Sustainability is defined by the Brundtland Commis-
on the tenet that seafood is an important protein source for sion [World Commission On Environment and Develop-
humans, and that improving harvest and production methods ment, 1987] as when resource extraction meets the needs of
will broadly benefit oceans and freshwater ecosystems over the present without compromising the needs of future gener-
the long term. Public aquariums function as environmental ations. If this definition is strictly applied, the aquatic animal
non-governmental organizations to help promote environ- trade appears sustainable, as in wild fisheries, it is likely that
mental stewardship [Kuhlman and Farrington, 2010] of the the species being captured represent only a small propor-
seafood industry. However, given that public aquariums ex- tion of the total population [e.g., cardinal tetra, Chao and

Zoo Biology
 Public Aquariums and the Pet Fish Trade 3
Prang, 1997]. However, this narrow focus may fall short. If high mortality in captivity would benefit if either mortality
there is any inefficiency such as stress, disease, or high rates was abated, or they were not removed from the wild in the
of mortality throughout the transport chain, and because of first place. Self-interest can also benefit the well being of
this, more specimens need to be landed, it can be argued fishers, particularly in developing countries, provided they
that increased catches are potentially wasteful and not sus- are paid more for higher quality animals. Ultimately, many
tainable in a broad sense [Hueting and Reijnders, 2004]. If of the animals collected for the ornamental fish trade have
this species then arrives at retailers in a poor, stressed, or important ecological functions [Rhyne et al., 2009a], and
moribund state, the retailers may decide to not stock it be- thus sustainability initiatives can also positively affect the
cause of excessive loss prior to sale. In this case, then home services that the ecosystem provides. This enlightened self-
hobbyists cannot purchase representatives of this species, interest provides benefits both to the ornamental fish trade,
and there will be no continuing demand. While the fishery and the ecosystem in which it operates.
may have been sustainable in a narrow sense, the actions of However, efficiency is not the only sustainability issue
the trade post-harvest rendered the fishery no longer solvent facing the ornamental fish trade. Additional challenges to the
because of this lack of demand and thus the trade of this spe- industry can be initiated by public campaigns, as well as sig-
cies could not be sustained. The above example elucidates nificant concern regarding loss of biodiversity and the intro-
the point that sustainability needs to be broadly evaluated duction of invasive species. Within the last decade, a number
over the entire trade chain, as all of the nodes of the chain are of primary [Tissot and Hallacher, 2003] and Internet articles
inextricably linked. The complexities of the trade networks [Wintner, 2010] have implicated the ornamental fish trade as
[Amos and Claussen, 2009], make it important to take as having deleterious collection practices. Many of the detrac-
broad a view as possible to determine overall sustainability. tors point out significant mortality within the industry, with
Sustainability is not a single end point, but rather, it estimates of the average as high as 50% [Schmidt and Kun-
is a journey, and needs to be addressed through continual zmann, 2005], although complete loss of single shipments is
improvement at every step of the journey. Overall, the goal also possible [Hemdal, 2009]. By adopting a sustainability
of an ornamental fish trade network should be to assure that platform, the industry can demonstrate a proactive stance in
in toto, the sustainability trajectory [Costa-Pierce, 2010] monitoring itself, and affecting positive change. Even in the
is continually increasing, with specific targets for achiev- face of significant mortality events, a platform setting forth a
ing wild impact reduction milestones as well as broader sustainability trajectory can identify the specific challenges,
conservation objectives. While it is important to assure develop a plan to rectify it, and determine metrics that dem-
that fish stocks and aquaculture operations [Tlusty, 2002; onstrate positive change. This will not eliminate criticism
Tlusty, 2004] are maintained to promote sustainable objec- of irresponsible acts. However, it provides a context to any
tives, there are a number of post-capture processes that may challenge, and over time, can be used as a means in which
further affect sustainability [Tlusty et al., 2008; Tlusty and to engage consumers and ultimately the detractors. Develop-
Lagueux, 2009]. Tools such as Life Cycle Analyses (LCAs) ing and reaching metric-based benchmarks (e.g., measures
have been developed for a “cradle-to-grave” assessment, of survival or stress) will work to continually improve the
which can better account for these broader issues. A basic industry.
network for supplying wild species can be comprised of six Questions of impacts on aquatic biodiversity have
or more nodes, including a fisher, an intermediary, an ex- been raised regarding the introduction of non-native species
porter, an importer, a retailer, and the end consumer [Chao [Krishnakumar et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2009; Zajicek et
and Prang, 1997]. It would be shortsighted to merely assess al., 2009]. This issue recently materialized in the form of
the fishery for sustainability while ignoring the actions of legislative action (HR 669), the Nonnative Wildlife Inva-
the subsequent five nodes. sion Prevention Act, to eliminate the import and interstate
transport of non-native species (except for goldfish and a
number of terrestrial animals). While the invasive species
WHY IS SUSTAINABILITY IMPORTANT TO THE
issue is a large threat that has significant impacts beyond
ORNAMENTAL FISH TRADE?
ornamental aquatic species, there is nothing about this in-
Sustainability of the aquatic animal trade is impor- dustry that obliges it to be a contributor to the invasive spe-
tant because it makes good business sense [Saunders et cies problem. Aquatic ornamental species are occasionally
al., 1993]. The ornamental fish trade would benefit from intentionally released as hobbyists decide that they no longer
adopting a philosophy of “enlightened self-interest” [Ikerd, wish to hold an individual, as when a specimen outgrows
1999]. If sustainability is thought of in terms of efficiency, its tank. Species can also accidentally escape farms, hold-
then increased efficiency can also lead to greater profits (less ing/import facilities, or hobbyist ponds, provided there are
shrinkage, more fishes sold). However, this self-interest has direct links to natural waterways [Courtenay and Stauffer,
larger benefits for the industry and ultimately biodiversity 1990]. These issues can be effectively controlled through
because, in the case of fisheries, less waste means fewer commercial holding facilities adhering to best handling
fishes are removed from the environment helping to main- practices and biosecurity measures, and strong regulations
tain ecosystems in a more natural state. Species that suffer should be in place and enforced. The proactive education of

Zoo Biology
4 Tlusty et al.
consumers at the point of purchase regarding the negative rigor of renewable resource sustainability practices. Often,
effects (invasive species introduction, food and space com- the goal of this collaborative effort is to develop standards
petition with native species, potential hybridization) through to assess sustainability criteria, and in this role, NGOs pro-
the intentional release of unwanted pets can minimize the vide education, monitoring, social, and symbolic strengths
probability of escapes. The number of species in the trade [Boström and Hallström, 2010]. These provide a backbone
that easily outgrow their tanks is quite low and consumer of opportunities for public aquariums to effectively engage
education to reduce impulse buying or otherwise have hob- the aquatic animal trade in activities that promote both sus-
byists find themselves with a fish that has outgrown their tainability and conservation in the wild. The discussion that
tanks can dramatically reduce the rate of pet disposal into follows is by no means exhaustive. At the same time, while
the wild. Here, the industry has taken such proactive steps the list of opportunities is extensive, it is not implied that
through the development of the HabitatitudeTM program the full suite of suggested actions need to be tackled by
(http://www.habitattitude.net/). This joint initiative (U.S. each and every public aquarium. This is an a la carte list,
Fish and Wildlife Service, National Sea Grant College Pro- and individual institutions can engage to the best of their
gram, and the Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council, www. ability.
pijac.org/) was developed with the purpose of preventing the
intentional release of unwanted aquatic animals and plants Educational Strength
[although bacteria and pathogens are often overlooked,
Smith and Guégan, 2010]. While it is directly called for in An important source of science education within the
the HabitatitudeTM program, the key piece of the puzzle to United States is the informal infrastructure associated with
minimize hobbyists releasing unwanted individuals remains zoos and aquariums, museums, and nature programming
for retailers to reestablish the practice of accepting unwanted [Falk and Dierking, 2010]. While a natural role of public
specimens back at the point of sale. Several impediments aquariums is to inform its visitors about the diversity of
are a hindrance to this program. First, retail stores must aquatic life, recently, mission-driven programming has be-
have a policy in place to always accept, with no questions gun to systematically approach larger environmental issues.
asked, unwanted exotic pets, and perhaps a more difficult As an example, programming at the New England Aquarium
hurdle, are state laws preventing the transfer, trade, and gift (http://www.neaq.org) includes the thematic areas of global
of some species without proper licensing. HabitatitudeTM climate change, endangered species and habitats, conserva-
also advises consumers with an unwanted fish to use public tion medicine, and fisheries and aquaculture. The educa-
aquariums as a point of forfeiture (e.g., the animal donation tional role of NGOs, like public aquariums, should not be
form at Steinhart Aquarium, http://https://www.calacademy. underestimated since recent evidence indicates that, in North
org/academy/exhibits/aquarium/animal_donation America, most learning about science occurs outside of the
_form/). However, public aquariums have not broadly sup- classroom [Falk and Dierking, 2010].
ported this program as biosecurity issues and a lack of quar- Public aquariums have an opportunity to apply their
antine and holding space may prohibit participation. educational strength and capabilities to the ornamental fish
Industry groups do have some internal code of con- trade in a number of ways. Programmatically, displays of
duct initiatives [Ploeg, 2010], yet they are largely unknown ornamental fishes can benefit institutions by being space
to the consumer. Consumer knowledge of sustainability, and efficient (small interesting animals), and by allowing pre-
corporate social responsibility is increasing in renewable re- sentation and education about challenges to aquatic habitats
source industries (as seen in the seafood, timber, and coffee including the interdependency of aquatic and terrestrial hab-
trades), and this may make it as an opportune time for the itat, the impact of habitat destruction on ecosystem services,
ornamental fish trade to adopt a sustainability platform. By challenges associated with invasive species, and biodiver-
doing so, it will help control for unintended negative conse- sity conservation. Ornamental fishes can also be presented
quences, and demonstrate a proactive approach to problem in a manner demonstrating how the industry can be proac-
solving that can be translated into a positive industry mes- tive in addressing the issues, with the potential to encourage
sage then broadening the market base by connecting with a visitors to embrace biodiversity and habitat conservation as
new generation of aquatic home hobbyists. A failure to do important concepts (e.g., the Florida Aquarium’s Aquarium
so will most likely result in stricter regulations, as it is the Mania, http://www.tampabayaquarium.com/aquariumania.
taxpayers that are currently footing the bill to address par- htm). Public aquariums can educate visitors about the im-
ticularly harmful exotics. portance of fishes from various regions of the world where
ornamental fisheries provide the economic framework for
maintaining intact rural communities, particularly in devel-
THE STRENGTHS PUBLIC AQUARIUMS CAN oping countries. Elucidating and nurturing examples such
BRING TO THE ORNAMENTAL FISH TRADE as that demonstrated by the Rio Negro cardinal tetra fish-
Within the renewable resource arena, environmental ery [Chao and Prang, 1997] highlights the broader socio-
non-governmental organizations have worked cooperatively economic benefits of an industry that is occasionally por-
with industry, academia, and governments to improve the trayed as being unsustainable [Wintner, 2010]. Participating

Zoo Biology
 Public Aquariums and the Pet Fish Trade 5
in science-based market initiatives can yield outcomes such to capture, production, and transport as well as water quality
as environmental conservation, sustainable use of natural management. Furthermore, public aquariums have experi-
resources, and poverty alleviation. At the same time, the ence and ability with health assessment and treatment not
challenges the industry faces, including but not limited to limited to nutrition, disease prevention, diagnosis and man-
invasive species and species that grow too large need to agement, and the responsible and effective use of therapeu-
be exhibited as a cautionary tale [Marliave et al., 1995; tic agents. This includes providing oversight and statistical
Wabnitz et al., 2003] with constructive messaging regarding analysis of data derived from monitoring activities associat-
the necessary steps to prevent further negative impacts (see ed with shipping survival and performance. These ultimately
Section 5). can be worked into a formal plan for a multi-stakeholder
A further benefit of these educational messages is that derived best practices manual, an eco-label or a fair trade
they are likely to reach the world’s future leaders in aquatic designation.
sciences, industry, law, higher education, and conservation. Public aquariums have a great deal of knowledge in
Although qualitative data are lacking, the authors of this pa- the reproductive habits of the species on display [Thoney
per demonstrate multiple careers that were cultivated in the et al., 2003]. This knowledge can be cooperatively linked to
early years through participation in the ornamental fish trade universities and commercial producers, along the vein of the
and keeping fishes as a hobby. This industry can act as a Rising Tide Conservation (http://www.risingtideconserva-
gateway toward science-, conservation-, and aquatic-based tion.org) program, to advance rearing knowledge skills and
careers. ability with a desired end goal to enact in situ conservation
Thus in summary, the educational opportunities for efforts [Hutchins and Thompson, 2008]. Public aquariums
public aquariums to engage with the ornamental fish trade also have knowledge, skill, and ability of rearing and breed-
include: ing species that are known not to thrive in the ornamental
trade because they grow too large, are too delicate, or have
• Strategic implementation of an initiative that leads to vi- specific and difficult-to-meet food requirements. A further
brant, sustainable business practices at both the supply and expertise is in the design of secure breeding and holding
demand ends of the industry, including infrastructure de- facilities, which could reduce the risk of unwanted exotic
velopment and training. species introductions—an issue that ornamental fish farm-
• Using exhibits to foster positive examples of the ornamen- ers want to avoid at all costs. This knowledge can provide
tal fish trade. for new methods and practices that may be adopted initially
• Educating the public about the potential impacts of the by the more advanced hobbyists and breeders, and honed to
aquarium trade (invasive species, and those that grow too meet a more general audience. To date, however, there are
large) and the responsibility that hobbyists have in not con- few examples of where these parallel, aquarium fish-based
tributing to the problem. industries have engaged in substantive exchange.
Thus in summary, the technical and monitoring oppor-
tunities for public aquariums to engage with the ornamental
Monitoring Strength
fish trade include:
Public aquariums possess a unique set of skills and
assets that if directed toward a conservation objective within • monitor trends in the trade of this high biodiversity
the aquarium fish trade, can be of great value to the indus- industry,
try. The global ornamental fish trade is data deficient for a • participation in a multi-stakeholder process to formulate
number of reasons. Estimating the value of the industry is best industry protocols and standards, and the develop-
difficult because it crosses over to other hobbies (reptile, ment of monitoring programs to assure industry best prac-
bird, and plant husbandry) and industries (aquaculture), and tices are upheld,
thus it cannot be isolated. In addition, import data are prob- • scientifically document the entire life cycle of species that
lematic given the way fishes are coded upon import [Rhyne are long-lived, large, rare in the trade, or with unusual hab-
et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2009]. Thus, while the number of itat or food requirements, and
marine fish species in the global trade have been estimated • a source of novel broodstock.
at 1,437 [Wabnitz et al., 2003], it was observed that just over
1,800 marine species were imported into the United States in
Social Strength
2005 [Rhyne et al., 2012]. Researchers at public aquariums
can be involved in impartial oversight and data analysis of Social strength involves the access to “social capital”
this high biodiversity trade. via networks and alliances [Boström and Hallström, 2010].
Impartial oversight can carry into advisory capacity The keeping of ornamental fishes is one of the most popu-
for retailers. On a technical level, public aquariums possess lar hobbies in the United States, and can be greatly affected
expertise and resources that can reduce waste and maximize through social influences. For example, the release of the
market value of ornamental fishes. Such technical experi- movie Finding Nemo (Pixar, Emeryville, CA) increased
ence includes the minimization of trauma and stress related the sale of clownfish produced via domestic aquaculture by

Zoo Biology
6 Tlusty et al.
• Helping to develop market-based initiatives that link retail-
ers to sustainable fisheries projects.
• Creating social media campaigns to make visitors aware
of best options for purchasing ornamental fish for the
home.

Symbolic Strength
Trusted NGOs, such as public aquariums, can lend
credence to a process (such as standards setting), or when
goals are not upheld, they may also walk away in a dem-
onstration of protest [Boström and Hallström, 2010]. When
discussing the keeping and display of live animals, there is
also the symbolism in the messaging of how animals are col-
lected. There is much discussion within zoo and aquarium
professional societies [Penning et al., 2009] about how to
Fig. 1. Survey results from visitors at the New England Aquarium sustain captive populations [Thoney et al., 2003]. The con-
(bottom) and a Copley shopping district (top) when asked if they cern is that since global aquatic biodiversity is significantly
have ever (left) or currently own a fish tank (right). threatened [Helfman, 2007], the continued collection of spe-
cies from the wild cannot continue as currently practiced
25% compared to one year prior to the film’s release [Mc- [Conway, 2010]. This is where public aquariums need to
Clenachan et al., 2011; Prosek, 2010]. Aquarium visitors, work to balance their collection of animals procured through
while often seeking entertainment, have a stronger draw wild and aquacultured sources, and this idea will be covered
to fishes and aquatic life than the general public. Within in detail in the next section. But from a symbolic standpoint,
Boston, a survey was conducted at both the New England public aquariums have the opportunity to enact broad based
Aquarium (http://www.neaq.org), and 2 miles away at the cooperative strategies to help maintain rare and endangered
Copley Square shopping district. Visitors at each location (n species [Raven, 2004; Thoney et al., 2003]. They should
= 78 and 80, respectively) were randomly approached by in- make sure that they are also contributing to field conserva-
terviewers wearing a New England Aquarium uniform shirt tion efforts [Hutchins and Conway, 1995] and that intact
and were asked a series of questions. The questions assessed natural ecosystems and their services continue to exist with
the respondents’ past and current fish keeping status, as well extant native species, or where species are imperiled, that
as their future proclivity toward keeping fish. The three such areas are preserved into which captive bred individuals
questions included: Have you ever had a fish tank? (yes/no), can be restocked.
Do you have a fish tank now? (yes/no), and for those that As discussed previously, standards-based efforts have
answered no to the second question, How likely are you to not been adequately developed, while individual company
get one in the future? (no, low chance, high chance, yes). efforts are virtually invisible to consumers. Furthermore,
The answers differed significantly depending on the location these individual company efforts to improve acquisition are
of the survey (Figs. 1 and 2). Respondents at the aquarium not currently used by the average consumer to differenti-
were nearly twice as likely to answer each of these questions ate companies providing ornamental fishes with respect to
in the affirmative. The widest disparity was that nearly 50% sustainability. What remains is that while some of the in-
of the respondents at Copley Square indicated no interest in dustry is “doing it right,” the marine ornamental fish trade
ever having a fish tank in the future, while that number was as a whole still has a number of deficiencies to be rectified
less than 20% at the Aquarium (Fig. 2). [Amos and Claussen, 2009]. The lack of transparency in
Because of this interest, public aquariums can use so- sustainable sourcing policies makes it nearly impossible
cial networks derived from the base of visitors that arrives for consumers to distinguish the good actors from the bad
daily to engage in messaging about aquarium sustainability. at the point of purchase. While it has been questioned if
This can occur through educational activities (see Section consumers are even interested in such information [Wat-
4.1), or conveying monitoring efforts (see Section 4.2). The son, 2010], there is the counterpoint that consumers may
social capital can be implemented by linking exhibits [Mar- not have the ability to choose given a dearth of informa-
liave et al., 1995] to messages of how the fish were procured tion. The main crux of symbolic strength is to lend sup-
for exhibit, and decisions to consider when buying sustain- port to multi-stakeholder processes, and pull that support
able fish for the home. The variety of social media that is when goals and benchmarks are not being met [Boström
currently available to public zoos and aquariums can be and Hallström, 2010].
tapped for this purpose. Thus in summary, the opportunities for public aquari-
Thus in summary, the social opportunities for public ums to engage with the ornamental fish trade and improve
aquariums to engage with the ornamental fish trade include: its credibility include:

Zoo Biology
 Public Aquariums and the Pet Fish Trade 7
However, as stated, they lack a means for implementation
and thus fall short in providing specific guidance for both
public aquariums and the ornamental fish trade so that they
may reach their full potential as unique and powerful tools
for conservation. Both wild capture and captive breeding are
suggested as ways to move forward [Thoney et al., 2003],
but neither should be prioritized to the detriment of the other.
Furthermore, as captive propagation is developed, it should
not replace extractive fisheries that provide economic value
for extant communities and ecosystems [Tlusty, 2002].
Here, a decision path is developed to determine if a
species should be acquired from wild or aquaculture sources
(or even be in the trade). This decision path is comprised
of two questions: (1) should a species be in the trade? and
Fig. 2. Survey results for visitors to the New England Aquarium (2) if so, should the species be produced via aquaculture or
(light) and Copley shopping district (dark) who currently do not collected from wild fisheries? The enlightened self-interest
have fish tanks on their proclivity to start up a new fish tank.
of acquisition decisions of public aquariums should be trans-
parent and justifiable from a sustainability perspective. It
should also identify species that are not ideally suited for
• enact broad based cooperative strategies to help maintain a novice home hobbyist, and this information should be ef-
rare and endangered species, fectively communicated to the public. While this decision
• source fishes appropriately and communicate this informa- path addresses species and production systems, it must be
tion to hobbyists, remembered that this is an idealized context. The ornamen-
• engage in multi-stakeholder advising of the industry, and tal fish trade has a long history with respect to species and
limit support if agreed upon metrics are not met, and sources, and the intent of this decision path is not to com-
• provide advisory services and transparency to wholesalers pletely reformulate which fishes are in the trade and how
and retailers. they are produced within this industry, but to begin a serious
discussion of these processes, and encourage reform where
possible.
ACQUIRING FISH
Public aquariums have the opportunity to develop, prac-
Assessing Species That Should or Should Not Be
tice, and convey appropriate and sustainable acquisition poli-
in the Trade
cies for ornamental fishes. These institutions need to be seen
by their visiting public as leaders in fish procurement, and they Although by no means government regulatory agen-
need to help educate the public about appropriate fishes for cies, public aquariums can put forth a clear position on which
home aquariums [Marliave et al., 1995], along with developing, species they advocate for home fish keeping based on ani-
testing, and helping the industry derive acquisition practices that mal welfare, environmental, and social considerations. The
can be implemented at a commercial scale [Andrews, 1990]. left side of the decision path for acquiring sustainable orna-
Both the North American based Association of Zoos mental fishes and invertebrates for the pet trade is concerned
and Aquariums (AZA) and the global World Association of with species that should be in the trade (Fig. 3). Appropriate
Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) address collection sustain- species for the ornamental trade have been discussed for a
ability. The AZA [AZA, 2011] addresses collection ethics number of years, in both peer reviewed and hobbyist litera-
in their accreditation process (Box 1). WAZA recently de- ture, as well as on the Internet (i.e., Sustainable Aquarium
veloped a sustainability policy with the over-arching goal Industry Association (www.saia-online.eu), see virtually any
to “practice environmental sustainability, by showing by issue of Tropical Fish Hobbyist, Aquarium International,
example how sustainability can be achieved and how so- Amazonas or Coral Magazine). Overall, characteristics that
cial attitudes and behavior can be changed” [Penning et al., make fishes unsuitable for the general ornamental fish trade
2009, p 42]. The ultimate goal is for these institutions to include those that have the potential to become highly inva-
actively engage in and demonstrate to visitors how they are sive in the destined market, are not legal for trade, or may
contributing to ecosystem-based conservation. Zoos and be endangered, threatened, or protected. While this seems
aquariums need to make sure sustainability policies go be- as an obvious point, the increase in Web-based sales may be
yond merely maintaining populations for captive display, exacerbating this activity (http://www.practicalfishkeeping.
and a number of specific action items pertinent to acquiring co.uk/content.php?sid=847). There is also illegal activity
animals are listed in Box 2. within countries of production, and Brazil, with one of the
The points addressed by both associations are all valid most restrictive export policies, is routinely subject to biopi-
and overall will help to improve how fishes are acquired. racy [Chao and Petry, 2003]. In the United States, ownership

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8 Tlusty et al.
of piranhas is illegal in 25 states, but specimens have been tilapia becoming established in areas where they should not
observed in the wild in 13 states, with a breeding population theoretically be able to be established (e.g., Illinois) [Nico and
being established in Florida (http://www.angelfire.com/biz/ Schofield, 2010]. Finally, some fish have characteristics which
piranha038/Laws_and_Piranhas.html). make then unsuitable for entry level hobbyists (live feed, large
The next condition, being highly invasive and perceived sizes), but without specialized knowledge, the species should
as injurious, is a condition that with effort by industry could be not be in the trade. Any such lists must be fluid and allow for
proactively managed. Temperature tolerance is a major deter- advances in technologies and captive care as well as newly re-
minant of the probability of a species becoming established in alized threats a species may pose. Given the trade restrictions
a host ecosystem [Kolar and Lodge, 2002] and it is possible to on Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
determine the areas in which certain fishes could not establish (CITES) listed species, aquaculture does have an important
breeding populations because winter temperatures are too low function in providing such species to the hobby through desig-
(e.g., USDA grow zones). This would be difficult to achieve nated breeding programs [Bartley, 2000]. But greater effort is
as a large proportion of importers and production facilities are needed to assure that CITES species do not enter the trade, or
located in Florida and California. In the end, user, behavior enter it legally [Ng and Tan, 1997] with appropriate verifica-
cannot be assured, and may create improbabilities, such as tion or certification of legality.

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 Public Aquariums and the Pet Fish Trade 9

The Aquaculture: Wild Fish Dichotomy not only convey to their visitors [Marliave et al., 1995], but
also practice in their own acquisition decisions. Debating
Once it has been established that a species is suitable
which freshwater fishes should or should not be wild cap-
for the trade, it then needs to be determined if specimens
tured is a moot point. The overwhelming aquaculture produc-
should be collected from the wild or produced in aquacul-
tion of these species is a result of the interplay of technology,
ture [Tlusty, 2002]. Each production system has positive and
logistics, demand, and knowledge. However, deconstruct-
negative attributes, and one goal of acquisition will be to
ing the current state of affairs compared to an idyllic condi-
maximize the positive production attributes of each species.
tion can provide information on what acquisition strategies
The first questions of this decision assess if a wild fishery
could be implemented to improve the sustainability of the
maintains ecosystems, cultural traditions, or economic ben-
trade. The status quo should not be the implicit assumption
efits to local communities [Chao and Prang, 1997; Tlusty et
that all species should be produced in aquaculture [Tlusty,
al., 2008]. Next, one must determine (1) if wild collections
2002; Tlusty, 2004; Tlusty et al., 2008]. By assessing how
destroy habitats, and conversely, (2) if aquaculture can be
production should be distributed, novel solutions become ap-
used in a ranching manner, or (3) if aquaculture can be linked
parent and when such approaches are applied to fisheries,
to a decline of wild populations [Tlusty, 2002]. The salient
significant gains can be made while sacrificing little [Ban
feature of this decision is not to merely reduce impacts of the
and Vincent, 2009]. Although freshwater fisheries provide a
production of aquatic organisms, but rather pro-conservation
small percentage of the individuals within the current trade,
interventions should be highlighted and embraced. Finally,
those that still do exist provide positive examples [Chao
there are questions if the species is domesticated or geneti-
and Petry, 2003; Tlusty et al., 2008], which can be used to
cally modified [Lass, 2009], with genetically modified or-
drive development of sustainable fisheries practices in other
ganism (GMO) fish requiring captive propagation.
regions [Raghavan et al., 2007], and ideally within marine
The decisions about which species should or should
environments [Reksodihardjo-Lilley and Lilley, 2007]. Pub-
not be in the trade, along with the means by which they are
lic aquariums can interface with consumers to educate them
produced, are both questions which public aquariums should
about the environments from where their pets originate, as

Fig. 3. Decision tree to determine which species are suitable for the ornamental fish trade (left side) and if those fish should be produced
in wild fisheries or aquaculture (right side). Sp on the decision arrows indicates that specialists in the hobby have the ability to care for
these animals. This is a theoretical construct, and does not account for how historical market forces have shaped current acquisitions.

Zoo Biology
10 Tlusty et al.
well as understand that sustainable collection of fishes is can promote widespread public appreciation for the world
one strategy to maintain biodiversity both within the trade, of water and understanding of what must be done to pass its
as well as of the wildlife that remains in the species’ natural wonders down intact to future generations. Inaction contin-
habitat. ues and potentially amplifies the damage currently inflicted
by the trade, while a proactive stance can help to transform
Ensure Sustainable Production the large consumer base into a powerful agent for biodiver-
sity conservation and human well being. Public aquariums
Within the global industry, it is important to increas- can have conservation [Hutchins and Conway, 1995], edu-
ingly acquire ornamental fishes produced with better prac- cational and scientific [Falk and Dierking, 2010] impacts,
tices. Therefore, some level of assurance (accreditation or as well as play a cooperative role in helping define more
certification) is needed to help create this culture of contin- sustainable practices for the aquatic animal trade. Given that
ual improvement. This level of assurance will help point-of- our survey data demonstrates that public aquariums are more
purchase consumers to better understand their decisions, and frequented by visitors interested in keeping pet fish, public
will assist the retailers on the best sources of healthy fishes aquariums must take this leadership role seriously and pro-
to stock for their customers. vide measurable conservation outcomes. Furthermore, they
While third-party certification programs for wild should help ensure that their visitors are not responsible for
and aquaculture production would be ideal [Tlusty et al., the further demise of fisheries, destruction of habitats, and
2006], the diffuse nature of wild fisheries [Watson, 2005] other potential negatives that occur from this growing and
along with the implementation problems experienced by largely unregulated commercial trade.
the Marine Aquarium Council [Alencastro, 2004; Bellamy The attitude of public aquariums regarding the orna-
and Winsby, 2008] create hurdles to further development mental fishes and invertebrate trade needs to be similar to
of ornamental fish certification. In moving forward, public their approach a decade ago on sustainable seafood. In ad-
aquariums have the opportunity to be involved in the devel- dition, as collectors of wild harvested aquarium fishes and
opment of best practices or standards. The difficulty of cer- exhibitors of aquacultured fishes, public aquariums can
tifying numerous small producers over a broad geographic educate millions of visitors about the benefits as well as the
area has in part been addressed by seafood programs that fo- risks of the ornamental fish trade and conservation of the
cus on artisanal fisheries and aquaculture clusters. The past world’s aquatic resources. Through leadership and through
difficulties of certification are not reason to entirely abandon market-based initiatives, these institutions, working in con-
any type of assurance scheme. It may be that initial efforts junction with other environmental NGOs, professional soci-
will have to be focused on best practices, and as they gain eties, academia, and industry, can join together to transform
acceptance, can be moved into a more formal accreditation the ornamental aquarium trade into a positive conservation
or certification scheme. Public aquariums have the oppor- force.
tunity to assist with the creation and oversight of these best
practices.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
E. Flynn assisted with survey data collection. We
CONCLUSIONS
thank a number of people for discussions developing the
The ornamental fish trade is large, although true mag- ideas presented within. These in alphabetical order include
nitude of this industry is unknown. While survey data indi- B. Carlson, S. Kraus, D. Lass, M. Meyers, B. Ris, B. Spitzer,
cate that 79 million individual aquatic animals are held by L. Squires, G. Stone, D. Thoney, T. Taranovski, J. Watters,
hobbyists in the United States [AVMA, 2007], it is estimated and two anonymous reviewers. This paper is a contribution
that 190 million are imported annually [Smith et al., 2009]. from the “Blueing the Aquarium Trade” initiative of the
Past reviews of the trade have focused mainly on threats to New England Aquarium and Conservation International.
biodiversity from extraction and habitat destruction in the
source countries and on the negative impacts of species in-
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