Structural Surveying

Structural Surveying
MACMILLAN BUILDING AND SURVEYING SERIES

Series Editor: Professor Ivor H. Seeley
Advanced Building Measurement Ivor H. Seeley

Applied Valuation D. Butler
Asset Valuation M. Rayner
Building Economics Ivor H. Seeley
Building Maintenance Ivor H. Seeley
Building Quantities Explained Ivor H. Seeley
Building Surveys, Reports and Dilapidations Ivor H. Seeley
Building Technology Ivor H. Seeley
Civil Engineering Contract Administration and Control Ivor H. Seeley
Civil Engineering Quantities Ivor H. Seeley
Civil Engineering Specification Ivor H. Seeley
Contract Planning and Contractual Procedures B. Cooke
Contract Planning Case Studies B. Cooke
Environmental Science in Building R. McMullan
Guide to the l.C. T. Standard Form of Building Contract 1980 R. Fellows
Introduction to Building Services C. Howard
Introduction to Valuation D. Richmond
Principles of Property Investment and Pricing W.D. Fraser
Quantity Surveying Practice Ivor H. Seeley
Structural Detailing P. Newton
Urban Land Economics and Public Policy Paul N. Balchin, J. L. Kieve and G. H. Bull
Title of related interest

Microcomputers for Building Surveyors S.L.J. Mika (published by Surveyor Publications)
Structural Surveying
S.L.J. Mika
ARICS, MCIOB
Lecturer, Consultant and Chartered Building Surveyor
and
S.c. Desch
QC, BCL, MA (Oxon); of Gray's Inn;
a Recorder
Second Edition
M
MACMILLAN
EDUCATION
© H.E. Desch 1970
© S.L.J. Mika and S.C. Desch 1988
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of
this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied
or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance
with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended),
or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred
Place, London WCIE 7DP.
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this
publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil
claims for damages
First edition (by [the late] H.E. Desch, with legal notes by
Stephen Desch) 1970
Second edition 1988
Published by
MACMILLAN EDUCAnON LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG 21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Mika, Stephen
Structural surveying - 2nd ed
1. Surveying 2. Building sites 3. Real property
surveys
I. Title 11. Desch, S.C. Ill. Desch, H.E.
692 TH153
ISBN 978-0-333-31824-9 ISBN 978-1-349-19570-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-19570-1
Contents
List of Illustrations ix
Preface I xi
Preface II xii
Acknowledgments xiii
1 The Survey 1
Types of survey
Procedure 2
Equipment 3
Instructions from the client 5
Background to the survey 5
Practice notes 6
Form surveys 6
Notes 7
Measuring building plots 7
Measuring buildings 11
2 Decay 14
Change of appearance 14
Weathering 16
Failure 16
Performance and reliability 17
Cause and effect 20
Contributory factors 21
3 Substructure 22
Building plans 22
Foundation depth 23
Geological survey maps 23
v
vi Contents
Soil investigations 23
Tree roots 26
Soil recovery and trees 27
Recognition of tree root damage 29
Claims for damages 30
Erosion and movement of subsoil 31
Mining subsidence 31
4 Floors 32
Underfloor ventilation 32
Beetle infestation 36
Fill 36
Upper floors 36
Framed floors 37
Baths and WC floors 42
Floor repairs 42
Attic floors and conversions 43
Skirtings 44
Cellars and basements 45
Cellar and basement floors 46
Underground room regulations 47
Sound-proofing of floors and partitions 48
5 Walls 49
Stone walls 49
Flint walls 52
Pise de terre and cob walls 52
Brick walls 53
Features for further investigation 55
Weatherboarding and cladding 55
Shingles 57
Vertical tile and slate hanging 57
Timber-framed buildings 58
Walls and floors 59
Damp-proof courses and rising damp 60
Ventilation 63
Ground levels 63
Penetrating damp 65
Condensation 66
Contents vii
Defective rainwater goods 66

Cooling flue gases 66
Boundaries 67
Cracking 68
Wall ties 76
Corrosion of steel 77
Cavity insulation 77
Non-traditional walls 79
6 Roofs 80
Roof forms 84
Roof coverings 85
Thatch 86
Wood shingles 86
Slate and stone roof coverings 86
Tiles 88
Ridges and hips 89
Copings 90
Flashings 91
Chimneys 92
Rainwater disposal 92
Balconies, porches and projecting features 94
Roof construction 97
Inspection of roof voids 101
Fungal infection of roof timbers 104
Flat roofs 105
7 Joinery and Finishes 111
Defects during construction 111
Survey of external joinery 112
Windows 113
Doors 114
Ceilings, cornices and picture rails 114
Skirtings 115
Glazing 115
Timber references 116
Door and window furniture 116
Decorations 117
Paintwork 117
Fixtures and fittings 117
viii Contents
8 Services 119
Water services 119
Drainage 120
Electrical installations 121
Gas 122
9 Report Writing 124
The written word 124
Limitations 125
Setting out 126
Report writing synopsis 129
10 Legal Aspects 131
Introduction 131
Legal liability of the surveyor 132
Liability of the surveyor for the acts of others 134
Professional Indemnity Insurance 135
Public Health and Environmental Requirements 136
Sundry aspects of property ownership 136
Limitation of action 139
Damages and other remedies 140
Appendix A: Wood-boring Insects 142

Beetle identification 143
Bats 152
Appendix B: Decay and Fungi 153
Wood-rotting fungi 154
Appendix C: Specimen Reconnaissance Survey Report 159
Report of survey 159
Appendix D: Period Classification 170
Listed buildings 172
Bibliography 173
Index 176
List of Illustrations
Site survey 8
2 Measuring buildings 10
3 Typical notebook sketches 12
4 Site sketch of construction 19
5 Tree heights and foundations 25
6 Solid and suspended floors 33
7 Framed floors 38
8 Flitch beams 39
9 Timber housings and supports 40
10 Stone walling 51
11 Typical causes of rising damp 61
12 Typical causes of penetrating damp 64
13 Recording and measuring cracks 69
14 Cracking patterns 74
15 Cracking patterns 75
16 Construction and defect of Airey houses 78
17 Simple roof forms 81
18 Twin pitch and flat roof forms 82
19 Internal gutters 83
20 Roof trusses 96
21 Removal of roof members 99
ix
x Illustrations
22 Check list 128

23 Pin-hole damage 144
24 House longhorn beetle and frass 145
25 Lyctus beetles, damage and frass 146
26 Common furniture beetle and frass 147
27 Common furniture beetle damage and weevil damage 148
28 Death watch beetle and frass 150
29 Wood-boring weevils and frass 151
30 Dry rot fruiting body 155
31 Dry rot damage 156
32 Cellar fungus damage 157
Preface I
When my father died in 1978 he had begun work on a second edition of this book. I persuaded
a mutual colleague, Douglas Harrington, to undertake the work instead, but sadly he had not
long embarked on it when he too died in harness. Happily, further enquiries led to Leonard
Moseley at the College of Estate Management and finally to Reading University where Stephen
Mika kindly agreed to accept the task. They have brought to it the resources of these institu-
tions as well as their own considerable talents. On their behalf I also gratefully acknowledge
help given by Peter Sealey.
The resulting book no longer bears the marks of my father's personal and particular in-
terests in timber and trees, but it is hoped that as a result it may appeal to a wider audience
whose members are otherwise essentially the same as those addressed in the first edition.
The scope of my notes on legal aspects is as limited as before. In these busy and fast-moving
times the caveat at the start of them is especially important.
This illustrates a wider problem. The independent professions cannot hope or deserve to
survive into the 21 st Century unless they give an excellent service. The complications of modern
building technology and the financial restraints of commercial and private clients make it in-
creasingly difficult for surveyors to provide such a service. There is no chance of them doing
so unless they attract new recruits of the highest ability who are prepared to dedicate most
of their waking hours to their work, with their eyes on long-term achievement rather than short-
term gain. My father believed passionately in the old aphorism, 'What's worth doing is worth
doing well' . If this book converts others to the implementation of that view it will have served
its object.
Temp/e, London. Stephen Desch
xi
Preface 11
When I was approached by Macmillan Education to contribute to this revised edition it was
with some trepidation for not only had Desch senior and Douglas Harrington sadly passed
away, but Leonard Moseley was taken ill during the revision and was unable to complete the
work. However, undaunted I agreed to take the reins and decided to start afresh with the original
manuscript.
In this second edition I have restructured the book into what I hope is a simpler and more
logical layout for its readers. The chapters do not follow the survey procedure itself but are
loosely based upon individual elements and their interrelationship. I have retained a limited
amount ofthe original book but have rewritten, updated and rationalised the text. I have add-
ed new material and included a number of additional illustrations. I hope readers will learn
a little from this revision, and, if criticism can be made of its technical content, then this must
fall upon my head alone.
I did not have the privilege of meeting Desch senior but having read his work over and over,
I have come to respect the skilled surveyor he must have been. If he has been looking over
my shoulder while I have been revising and extending his book, then I hope the changes I have
made have met with his approval.
To Leonard Moseley I owe a great deal. His clear head and systematic approach has helped
me not only in revising this publication but also, like so many others who have studied with
the College of Estate Management, to pass their professional exams.
My final acknowledgements are to Philippa Sell for typing the manuscript, to Peter Dornan
for his excellent drawings and to Jeanne Lapsley for her moral support.
University of Reading Stephen L.J. Mika
xii
Acknowledgements
Extracts from Building Research Establishment (BRE) Digests are reproduced by permission
of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
Permission to reproduce extracts from Surveying Cracked Property-A Guidejor Pynjord
Engineers was kindly given by John F.S. Pryke MA, CEng, FICE, FIStructE, FBIM.
Permission to reproduce the extract from Maintenance Management-a guide to good
practice was kindly given by the Chartered Institute of Building.
xiii
1 The Survey
Types of survey
The term 'structural survey' has in recent years tended to acquire a restricted meaning,
being applied to surveys of properties on behalf of prospective purchasers and aimed at
discovering defects or shortcomings that might influence the decision to pursue negotiations
further. Those who carry out such surveys inevitably work under considerable difficulties
-usually they can only observe what is visible on the surface, relying on their professional
skill to deduce the significance of any symptoms. Sometimes a surveyor may be permitted
to take up a floorboard here or there, lift manhole covers, probe timbers without damaging
decorations and apply tests to drains, wiring, and other services. In many cases, because
of the problems of making good damage caused in opening up, he cannot cut holes in
ceilings to gain access to roof voids not provided with access hatches, nor can he take up
flooring to either examine the joists and plates underneath or to determine the nature of
the oversite concrete. Normally he cannot expect to investigate foundations, particularly
if this involves breaking up concrete paving or damaging flower beds. Even where he can
locate and have a sight of the deposited plans at the Local Authority's offices, there is no
guarantee that the building was in fact erected strictly in accordance with the submitted
details and drawings.
When floors are covered with fitted carpets and rooms are overfull with furniture, the
task of the surveyor is made all the more difficult, unless he attends with expert removal
men, carpet layers, joiners and the like. Most vendors would object to so large a party
arriving to carry out an apparently simple operation and an average prospective purchaser
would not be prepared to incur the cost.
Thus a structural survey is really an exercise in intelligent guesswork, carried out
by someone able to interpret the significance of what is visible. The value of structural
surveys of this kind obviously depends on the skill and thoroughness of the surveyor,
and on his ability to set down his observations and their significance in a carefully
written report. Such 'surveys' inevitably fall short of the definition of the word, as given
2 Structural Surveying
in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary: "The act of viewing, examining, or inspecting
[a property] in detail."
For certain purposes it is essential to carry out a more detailed structural survey.
The objective of such a survey goes much further than discovering the existence of
defects that should be reflected in the purchase price. It could involve determining the
load-bearing capacity of floors and walls and the practicability of adapting the property
to a different use, for example changing domestic accommodation to office use and the
use of sophisticated equipment.
The two kinds of survey are so different that it is desirable to adopt distinctive terms-
the popularly termed structural survey could be called a Reconnaissance Survey, and the
true structural survey referred to as a Detailed Structural Survey.
Detailed structural surveys are naturally much more elaborate than reconnaissance sur-
veys and the surveyor may require a set of measured drawings, at least of each floor and
the roof. These should be true to scale and conveniently prepared on translucent paper so
that the plan of anyone floor can be superimposed on the plans of others. In addition to
technical assistants, the surveyor may require carpenters and labourers to do the necessary
opening up of floors and the like. A programme of work is very important, otherwise the
surveyor will lose much time in waiting for flooring to be taken up and for holes in ceilings
to be cut. It is advisable to make a preliminary inspection of the whole building, perhaps
with a competent building contractor's foreman, to decide how much opening up will be
necessary and when this work should be commenced. Ideally there should be three teams-
one working ahead of the surveyor, one with him and a third team reinstating the floors,
ceilings, etc., as the survey is progressing. Such detailed surveys can only satisfactorily be
carried out in unfurnished buildings but they take time and they are costly.
In some respects the reconnaissance survey calls for almost more skill than the detailed
structural survey, for the surveyor is constantly having to draw inferences that he cannot
confirm by direct observation. Concentration is vital and neither the client nor the vendor
should be permitted to accompany the surveyor.
In accepting instructions to carry out a reconnaissance survey, the surveyor renders him-
self liable in negligence to his client should he unreasonably fail to discover and report on
defects. It may be no defence to a court action to have stated in the report that no guarantee
can be given that there is no fungal decay or serious beetle infestation. The aggrieved client
may seek to show that even in a superficial survey there were matters that ought to have put
the reasonable surveyor, and not only an expert, on the alert. The surveyor could be liable
in negligence if he failed to recognise and report on stained brickwork behind downpipes,
ground levels outside above floor levels inside and blocked or an insufficient number of air
bricks, should the existence of timber decay come to light subsequently. Areas of patched
flooring, air bricks of more than one pattern, areas of recent repointing and evidence of
plaster cracks having been filled are other matters that obviously should be reported. If
however, the surveyor, in good faith draws the wrong conclusions from the evidence he
has considered, he has not necessarily been negligent and so may not be liable.
Procedure
The principles in structural surveying are the same, whichever type of survey is required.
They should follow a definite programme, probably commencing with the outside of the
building and its boundaries and then working from the roof down to the foundations or
The Survey 3
vice versa. In the room by room inspection the same sequence should always be followed to
ensure that nothing is overlooked-for example, ceilings, cornices, friezes, walls, windows,
doors and door furniture, floors, fireplaces, electrical and other fittings.
As already stated, surveys should follow a definite programme or pattern and a
number of publications are available which can help the surveyor when determining a
sequence for a survey. One publication series which includes procedures for surveying
traditional and unusual properties is Structural Survey which is published quarterly by
Henry Stewart Publications.
Equipment
Notebooks, tapes, a measuring rod and a scale ruler are basic items of equipment. A piece
of hardboard, probably A4 size, with a strong clip or a block of squared paper is convenient
for sketching. A suitable tool for probing timber is useful, a small electrician's screwdriver
is particularly suitable for testing for fungal decay because it is not too sharp, an ordinary
pen-knife is dangerous as the blade tends to shut too easily. A really sharp knife or razor
blade is required for cleaning up any cross section of a splinter of wood if identification
with a pocket lens (say x15 magnification) is to be undertaken. The lens may also be needed
for identifying beetle frass (bore dust) and for distinguishing the crystalline structure of
efflorescence on plaster from fungal or mould growths. A pocket compass to fix notional
compass points is much to be preferred to describing rooms as right or left, front or rear.
A length of wire for testing that the vents in air bricks are unobstructed is useful, for it
should never be accepted that air bricks are functional since they may be rendered virtually
useless by wall plates or joists on the inside face of the wall blocking the air bricks. When
inspecting two, three and four storey older dwellings, a plumb line will be essential for
checking the vertical alignment of walls. A builder's 'one metre' spirit level is vital on some
occasions, particularly when ascertaining the amount of fall in gutters and the falls on flat
roofs. A camera is also useful to record and reinforce the observations made on site.
Overalls or a boiler suit are necessary and a breathing mask to wear in roof voids or when
crawling under floors is really essential. Binoculars can be a useful aid, but they are not a
substitute for close inspection where this is possible. A small mirror, about 100 x 100 mm
will be useful to have sight of the conditions that cannot be observed directly.
Where electricity is available a wandering lead with a lOO or 150 watt protected lamp
is preferable to a torch and 50 metres of cable should suffice for most occasions. The
cable and connections must be maintained in first-class order; the bulb should be housed
in a wire cage and a spare one always carried. The lamp should never be put down in
a roof void, because a bulb gives out a surprising amount of heat when in use, and the
risk of fire is always present.
Some surveyors like to carry ladders, a range of tools for lifting floorboards and manhole
covers, equipment for testing drains and the like, but there are many advantages in having
a local builder in attendance for major operations.
Fibre optic equipment is now available to provide inspection without the need to cut away
and expose hidden detail. This equipment is portable and can be combined with photography
and display screens to provide clear pictures of defects normally hidden from view. Clearly
the use of this equipment can save much inspection time and give visual access to areas
which otherwise might never have been reached. Typical situations that lend themselves to
the use of such fibre optic equipment include the following:
(a) Inspection of traditional cavity walls with problems of wall tie failure, missing or
broken damp-proof courses or cavity trays.
(b) Inspection of cavity fixings behind wall coverings.
(c) Identification of retaining cramps to cladding panels.
(d) Inspection of inaccessible areas under floors or behind panels where dry rot or beetle
infestation is suspected.
Going a stage beyond this, it is now possible to see beyond the visible and to take
advantage of the fact that everything emits infra-red radiation. Equipment is available that
will detect and display on a television screen a continuous thermal picture. On the display,
black sections are those which are coldest and the progression to light sections indicates
the increasingly warm to hot areas. Consequently the camera and the technique which is
known as thermography, detect heat loss and inconsistencies or flaws which allow such
heat flow and therefore loss. Equipment is operated by specialists who can work in a wide
range of situations including using the equipment from the air. Photographic records can
be made of display scenes. The association of thermography with energy surveys, insulation
performance, the investigation of underground mains and so on has a special and useful
application to buildings.
A copy of a county street atlas such as the Geographers' A to Z Atlas for London,
together with Ordnance Survey maps for local areas, will save much time in locating the
property to be inspected and a Geological Survey map of the area could be most useful
where foundation problems are suspected.
Electronic moisture meters are used for testing the moisture content of timber and walls
and, provided their limitations are appreciated, they can often be of considerable assistance
to the surveyor. When determining the moisture content of timber it is important to remem-
ber that the instrument is measuring the electrical conductivity of wood, which is a straight
line relationship within the range of 6-24 per cent moisture content. Moreover, resistance
increases with a falling temperature and decreases with a rising one, also the resistance for
any given moisture content and temperature is not constant for different species of timber.
For precise determinations it is therefore necessary to have the instrument calibrated for a
particular temperature and species. In addition, unless the instrument is fitted with deep-
probe electrodes, the moisture content reading is that of the surface of the timber, which
may be appreciably below the mean moisture content of the whole piece. False readings
may also be obtained where foil-backed plasterboard or where sheet foil has been used in
damp-proofing repairs. Walls which contain salts and high carbon breeze blocks will give
high readings as will timber which has been tanilised and walls which are badly affected
by condensation. For these situations deep probe and hygrometer type meters are required,
which do not give instantaneous readings, but must be left in position for periods of time
depending on the particular type used. In most cases however, the surveyor should use the
electronic moisture meter as an early indicator of potential problems which will require
highlighting in the report. These early indications may well lead to more comprehensive
testing with sophisticated equipment, at a later date.
Specimen tubes for collecting beetles or samples of frass, polythene bags for soil samples,
tie-on labels for root samples, envelopes for samples of plaster or wallpaper suspected of
being salt-contaminated may also be essential on occasions.
In general, splitting the work between two or more surveyors is not recommended,
because it is often necessary to follow up some point that has attracted attention from room
to room or floor to floor. There is less objection to using an assistant for specific tasks such
The Survey 5
as probing stiles, mullions and bottom rails or windows for 'wet rot', nQting that casement
stays, fasteners and the catches of windows are in good order, checking door furniture, and,
externally, checking boundaries, fences and the lay-out of drains.
Instructions from the client
It is essential to obtain proper instructions, particularly for reconnaissance surveys where

these are often initiated by no more than a telephone call, which must always be confirmed
in writing. An adequate reconnaissance survey of even a small semi-detached house can take
several hours on site even with some assistance in moving furniture, emptying cupboards
under stairs and the like. Often a surveyor may be asked to advise about forming a second
bathroom or the feasibility of making certain alterations, which can pose difficult structural
problems and add appreciably to the time required for the survey.
For a small house, a report is likely to be a document of some 5000-7000 words. The type
of report that gives little more than the usual sale particulars is worthless to a prospective
purchaser, who will presumably have already checked such details for himself. Because the
surveyor cannot anticipate the complications it is unwise to undertake reconnaissance sur-
veys for an inclusive fee. A surveyor's reputation is his most important asset and the only
way to preserve it is to carry out each job thoroughly.
In fairness to the client, the surveyor should advise deferring carrying out the recon-
naissance survey until the purchaser and vendor have agreed terms 'subject to survey and
contract' and the purchaser knows he can make the necessary financial arrangements. A
'quick survey' is only justified when the surveyor undertakes to abandon it if, early on,
he finds such serious defects that he has no alternative but to advise against purchase on
any terms. A surveyor should be able to arrive at such an assessment within a short time
of being on site, when it is not fair to the client to complete the reconnaissance survey
at possibly some considerable cost to the client. Clients seldom realise that virtually no
house ten or more years of age is likely to be ready to move into without some remedial
work; even in quite small houses expenditure may have to be incurred to put the property
into first-class order.
Background to the survey
It is essential that the purpose of any inspection should be understood by the surveyor
before he visits the site, but whatever this may be, when actually carrying out his inspection
he will be considering:
(a) The initial architectural design-complicated geometry is often an indication of

problems.
(b) Any subsequent conversion or adaptation.
(c) The use for which the building was erected and any change of use since that
time.
(d) The initial constructional detailing.
(e) The original specification and that of any additional works.
(f) The initial standard of workmanship and possibly the supervision experienced.
(g) The standard and adequacy of maintenance that has been carried out.
(h) How the building is presently being used-for example the volume occupied by goods
or furniture and the effect of this on say a heating or ventilating installation.
(i) Surrounding activities that may become hazardous-air-borne chemicals which will
attack materials or rain in conjunction with combustion gases, producing sulphuric
acid.
These factors will all have influence on the standard of performance of both materials and
elements and of course some are more easily observed and established than others. It must
be remembered that every building has performance limits.
Practice notes
Essential reading for any surveyor when carrying out building surveying work are the
many practice notes published by the various professional institutions. Of particular merit
are those practice notes produced by the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, such
as Structural Surveys of Residential Property. This document is essential reading for it
gives excellent advice on:
(a) Taking Instructions.

(b) Preparing for the Survey.
(c) The Inspection.
(d) The Report-General Guidance.
(e) Contents of the Report.
(f) Leasehold Residential Property.
(g) Fees and Charges.
(h) Professional Indemnity Charges.
Form surveys
In the last ten years a number of forms have been produced to help the surveyor when
carrying out his survey. Unfortunately the inflexible nature of a number of these forms
has hindered rather than helped many experienced surveyors. It is well to remember that
buildings vary considerably, unlike the standard form with its set format. Surveyors can, and
often do, rely too heavily on such documentation when walking around a property, and this
can lead to defects in the unusual building being missed. Standard format survey forms are
useful however, and do have a part to play provided the surveyor realises their limitations.
Two useful survey forms prepared by the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors are the
House Buyers Report and Valuation and Flat Buyers Report and Valuation. These forms
are not intended to be used for the very large period, highly complex dwelling or for the
extremely dilapidated house, but are intended as an alternative type of report to the full
structural survey for less than unique properties. The Institution's intention in producing
these two standard report documents was to create a format which set out precisely the
terms of reference with which the surveyor contracted with his client to supply answers to
a set number of questions, in other words, a precise framework within which the surveyor
could operate. The success of these schemes is reflected in the large sales of the forms from
the Institution's bookshop.
The Survey 7
Notes
A surveyor can either make his own notes or record them on a tape recorder. Provided the
secretary who deals with the recording is very experienced there is much to be said for dic-
tation, which allows the surveyor to concentrate on his observations. A sequence should be
developed and followed throughout the inspection and such a system will help to eliminate
failure to observe and record all the points that are, or might become, very important.
An ability to draw is a useful skill for the surveyor who undertakes large numbers of
investigations. Various methods of recording observations can be used and figure 13«i)
and (ii», illustrates one method advocated by John Pryke, a consulting engineer with
considerable experience in the inspection and repair of buildings. These sketches show
cracks which are recorded in three dimensions to give a true impression of the defects.
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate other sketch approaches which show various observations and
areas for further investigation.
Measuring building plots
It may be necessary to prepare line drawings of the plot to form details to be included as
an appendix. In principle, the work involved in measuring buildings and building plots does
not differ from that involved in simple land surveying, but different equipment is used and
different methods of booking the measurements are adopted.
A sketching block or a notebook of squared paper is preferable to the ordinary double-
ruled field book, which is too narrow to be convenient for the sketch plans of buildings.
The measurements are taken usually with a tape and rod. The tapes may be of steel or
linen. Steel tapes are more accurate than linen and should be used on precise work, but in
most cases linen tapes will suffice. It is useful to have two tapes, one 50 metres long, so
that long dimensions can be obtained conveniently, and the other, 20 metres in length and
used for measurements from the main tape line and for all other dimensions of moderate
length. For short dimensions a rod is more useful as only one person is needed to hold it.
Indeed it is an advantage to have two such rods, one kept by the surveyor and the other by
his assistant so that dimensions can be taken by either of them. Electronic equipment of
pocket size is available for taking dimensions, but its use is limited, in some cases by the
purpose and degree of accuracy of the measurement required and in others by the many
obstructions encountered.
Just as the planning of the survey lines in a field or on an estate will depend on its shape
and the positions of obstructions, so the scheme of measurement of a building site will
depend upon its shape and the position of the house or other buildings upon it. If a block
plan is required one could start by making a sketch of the site. A base line is then chosen,
such as a long straight wall or fence, which possibly could be the wall or fence along the
road frontage, see figure l(i). Usually however, the frontage of a building plot is much less
than its depth, so that in most cases one of the side fences will be preferable.
The base line will be measured with the long tape, chalk marks being made on the fence
or wall at all points from which long diagonal measurements are to be taken to other
fences, and the distances to these marks booked. Ties to corners of buildings will be taken
with the short tape, while the long tape is lying on the ground in position. Other fences, if
straight, will correspond to the main survey lines of a chain survey, sufficient measurements
being taken from the base line to enable them to be plotted. Offsets or ties will be taken
8 Structural Surveymg
.
)1
(Hi)
fl!
I
I
C-
r-
I
I
I
I .
t
. ,
",
Figure 1 S'Ite survey

The Survey 9
from them to any nearby corners of buildings,trees and other features. When all the site
measurements have been taken and an adequate number of corners of the building 'tied'
or 'offsetted', then the length of each wall of the building will be measured.
A few examples are illustrated of the various problems which can arise. Figure l(i) shows
a site of large frontage with a low boundary wall between it and the road. A suitable base
line is the inside face of this wall, though the thickness of the wall will need to be measured
as the outside face will be the boundary of the plot. The frontage can be measured and ties
taken to the two front corners of the house, two ties to each corner from noted points as
shown by dotted lines. Chalk marks are made on the wall at suitable points for the long ties
to the side walls, and the distances of these marks along the base line are read and noted.
The side boundaries cb' and cc' are then measured and the ties et' to them from the
chalk marks made on the base line. If when measuring 'b', it is not possible to get behind
the shed to the corner of the plot, the measurement must be made up by dimensions taken
inside the shed, making due allowance for the thickness of its walls. When measuring 'c',
ties will be taken to the back corner of the house in case the building is not quite square
and also as a check on the other measurements taken to the building.
The length of the back boundary cd' is measured and this will be a check on the correct
taping and plotting of sides 'a', cb' and cc' and the two ties 't'. Because of the shortness
of the ties 't', additional ties's', across the rear corners, may be taken as a further check.
Wherever possible, the diagonal ties across the corners are so arranged that two of them
are from the same point, for instance, the two ties's' meet at a point on the rear boundary
'd'. Although this is not essential, it is less likely to cause confusion of chalk marks on
the walls, and fewer number of distances need to be recorded. In two cases ties have been
arranged to touch the corners of the buildings as an additional check to the position of the
building. Diagonal ties, such as's' and 't', should be as long as is reasonably convenient,
but generally should not exceed that of the type with which they will be measured.
If the corners of the building are square (and buildings are much less likely to be out of
square than are building plots) all that is now needed is to measure all the wall projections
(porches and bays) and recesses. In order to have space for these dimensions it is usual to
put these on another sketch, showing more detail and sketched to a larger scale than that
used for the plot, figure l(ii). The shed is dealt with similarly, but as it is out of square,
the lengths of its four sides and its two diagonals are measured. These measurements
will be taken internally (since the diagonals could not be measured externally) and the
thickness of the sides noted.
Figure l(iii) shows a method which can be adopted for buildings whose corners are not
square. This difficulty could be overcome by taping every angle of the building by ties to
points on the boundary walls, but a very large number of measurements would be needed.
If the corners' A', 'B', cC' and '0' are tied from the boundaries and corners 'A', 'E' and 'F'
are square, then the points at which the continuation of 'EC' intersects the east boundary,
'DG' intersects the north boundary, 'HO' intersects the west boundary and 'CB' intersects
the south boundary, are noted and marked with chalk on the boundary lines before the
lengths of the latter are measured. Whenever a chalk mark is made on a wall or in the
ground it should be done in a distinctive way, usually in the form of an arrowhead, the
point of the arrow being the precise point at which the measurement is taken.
Sometimes the boundary fences of a building plot are not straight, in which case some
modification is needed to the methods described and figure l(iv) shows such a case. The
western boundary can be dealt with by taping from corner 'A' to corner 'D' and taking
offsets to the fence. The tape cannot be laid down in a straight line from corner to corner
/ /
///
(Hi)
iJ
Figure 2 Measuring buildings

The Survey 11
on the eastern boundary, but must be put in some such position as 'EF', and again offsets
taken from it to the fence. Taking offsets from a tape acting as a base line tends to intro-
duce errors owing to the difficulty of keeping the tape straight and there may be occasions
where the use of a chain will be preferable.
Figure 2(i) shows a typical case of a block plan for a semi-detached house. The long
western boundary fence' AD' could be the base line and the corners 'B' and 'e' tied from
it by the measurements of the front and back walls and the two ties '1'. The corner 'E' of
the house is tied from the base by the measurements 'r' and's', and the corner 'F' from
the front plot boundary by measurements 'u' and 'v'. The principal corners of the house
would be fixed by ties or offsets from the most convenient fence lines and the usual detailed
measurements of the house taken.
Measuring buildings
When measuring long walls, broken by details such as doors, windows, bays, porches etc.,
there are two methods of procedure. One is to take each straight length independently, as
shown by the dimension lines recorded close against the building in figure 2(ii), and the
other is to take 'running measurements', all read from one position at the zero end of the
tape, as shown by the bottom recording. The latter method is the quicker and it avoids the
'cumulative error' which may occur when a number of dimensions are added together. If
however, there are big projections from the main face of the building, so that in order to
take running measurements it would be necessary to hold the tape at a considerable distance
from the main face, the method is not so reliable. A better method is to take separate
measurements of each straight length and to check their total at the time of measurement
by an overall dimension. When plotting the work the overall dimension should be set out
first and then divided into parts from the separate measurements.
In order to prepare a block plan of the site of a building, the whole of the measuring can
be done outside the building, but in the case of a terraced house, particularly if it is out of
square, many of the measurements must be taken indoors. Even in this case however, it is
only the principal dimensions of the rooms and the thicknesses of the walls which have been
ascertained, for the objective is the preparation of a plan of the site and an outline of the
building in its proper position upon the site. It may be however, that the client requires an
accurate plan of the interior, either of the ground floor or any other floor. All the details
of the interior on that floor, such as doors, windows, chimney breasts, fixed cupboards,
etc., have to be measured and shown on the plan. On the other hand, it will not be
necessary to show garden, yard, boundary fences, etc., consequently, all the measuring
is carried out indoors, except that the exterior measurements of the walls should also be
taken, so far as is possible.
The first thing to be done is to go over each floor making a rough sketch plan of the
rooms, corridors and staircase, with the walls being shown merely by single lines. No dimen-
sions need be taken at this stage and this will act merely as a key or guide in preparing the
more detailed sketch or sketches, on which the dimensions are written, see figure 2(iii).
The detailed sketches need to be drawn large enough to contain all the necessary
dimensions without crowding the figures. If the building is a small one and the sketch and
the figures are made very neatly, it may be that all the rooms can be contained on a single
detailed sketch. In most cases it will be better to have a number of detailed sketches, each
containing a single room or a group of rooms and the key plan will show how they all fit
~--i'~
/,.. ,
- --- :l¥
- ---: \
• I·~ I
I I I
q. . : \I
lA 11
+-------.1
•
'-
-I
- - - 4-
I
f--~--L A. I
@) ~---- m
1. -4jO:.. .-~
~""""'r' I
•
Ibhu. .
A-A
. hrztE:.X C.t..IUN.Er .
.f'AtE.RW WALL:S.
· fo~I-\ .'¥l . ~ ·
·PM-Itw cblNE-K(.
Figure 3 Typical notebook sketches

The Survey 13
together. If it is decided to include all the building in one detailed sketch it need not be
sketched out immediately. One could start with one long wall and add the rooms one by
one as they are measured. A good draughtsman will be able to sketch the whole layout
freehand, without using a straight-edge or set-square, and yet manage to get the rooms in
good proportion. One less skilled will be wise to rule the walls and sketch the rooms roughly
to scale, and probably the most convenient method of achieving this result without loss of
time is to do the work on a sketch block with squared paper. The 'scale' can be made any
convenient number of squares according to the size of the house and the sketch block.
A surveyor should never be satisfied with only the length and breadth of a room. All four
walls and the two diagonals should be measured. If the opposite walls have equal length
and the diagonals are also equal, the length of the diagonals need not be recorded, and only
one dimension of length and one of breadth need to be noted, for in these circumstances
the room is rectangular. If however, the opposite walls or the diagonals are not equal, all
these dimensions must be entered, for one diagonal will be needed to enable the room to
be plotted and the other to enable the work to be checked.
The thicknesses of walls and partitions, positions and widths of doors and windows,
widths of chimney breasts and depths of recesses on either side, are items which must not
be missed. Both sides of all projections and recesses should be measured, for the thickness
of a wall will sometimes change at such points and the eye is very liable to be deceived. If
both sides have the same projection only one dimension need be booked. Fixed cupboards
are usually shown, along with items such as lifts, serving hatches, etc., but trivial fittings
may be ignored.
It is always advisable when circumstances permit, to take overall dimensions right
through the building and to check these with the sum of the separate measurements and
wall thicknesses before leaving the site. In the case of a detached building these overall
dimensions can be taken on the outside of the house, but in the case of a terraced house, the
surveyor must do the best he can indoors. If a complete overall dimension is impossible, it
may still be possible to measure some fairly long lines through the open doors of continuous
rooms, along corridors and so on.
Some typical notebook sketches are shown in figure 3.
2 Building Decay
Change of appearance
The change of appearance, as well as the behaviour and performance, of materials,

components and elements, has always been significant when examining buildings. This
consideration may have been an important factor at the design and specification stage
of a building and it must also be taken into account when inspecting and reporting on
buildings. Laboratory testing of materials to predict weathering and performance is not
always reliable because the testing applied to the material may in fact lead to a breakdown
of the sample, when in a normal situation, this may not be the case. On the other hand,
some tests are very appropriate and the surveyor would be wise to temper his observations
with researched facts. There is considerable knowledge and experience of weathering to be
gained from examining existing buildings; after all, examples of weathering and failures
are all around us and these should be carefully observed. In addition to looking around, a
surveyor should be aware of the large number of books, journals and investigative reports
on materials, building components, performance and defects, which are published regularly.
A number of reports produced by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) will be of
particular use to the building surveyor, these include Digests, Information Papers, Defect
Action Sheets, Current Papers and Technical Notes.
Factors causing weathering, and possibly therefore change of appearance, include rain,
moisture and thermal movement, frost, heat, wind, atmospheric pollution and biological
agencies. Contributing to these phenomena is the situation in the building (where stresses,
for example, may change), inadequate design detailing (for example, no coping to a para-
pet wall) or sudden changes of environment. In these days it is possible to have building
work, previously below ground, exposed for a comparatively long time for new road
construction or some similar engineering work. When in a covered state the performance
may have been perfectly adequate but in the changed situation, failure or at least change
of appearance is possible.
The enclosure or envelope provided by buildings to protect man and his activities from
14
Building Decay 15
the weather is, of course, exposed to the weather and consequently subjected to regular
and sometimes quite dramatic changes. Sometimes the cycle is so rapid that mechanical
failure is experienced, but usually the time scale is not critical. At times, the change of
appearance may be considered to be an improvement, for example, the patina forming on
copper changing its colour to green. Changes, however, are part of the inevitable process
of decay and eventual ruin of buildings which cannot be stopped. The process can be
slowed down of course by maintenance, and to a point retarded by replacement of the
failing materials with new ones.
As a reporter on decay the surveyor should be concerned about the physical, biological
and chemical degradation of materials and their weathering performance when assembled,
fixed, applied and so on in buildings. There may be some dangers when considering single
materials in this way and in some cases, it is perhaps more sensible to consider larger
assemblies or elements. For example, single bricks can be exposed for weathering tests
establishing certain qualities, but to demonstrate the effect and effectiveness of damp-proof
courses, mortar, pointing, copings and other design features, panels of brickwork in its
various forms will need to be built.
BRE Digests 45 and 46 cover 'Design and Appearance', and although principally
concerned with the effect of design on weathering and the appearance of Portland stone
and other facing materials, these digests do provide a most useful background for the
whole problem of appearance. As part of the problem one should consider the cleaning of
external surfaces for this may be a maintenance activity which can be important, particu-
larly when contemplating the arresting of deterioration. Clearly, if cleaning is undertaken
the appearance of a building can be dramatically changed. The choice of cleaning method
should have been carefully selected and undertaken and the type and condition of the
surfaces must be carefully inspected before a specification is written. BRE Digest 280
'Cleaning external surfaces of buildings', gives the background to this activity and describes
the methods that may be adopted.
It is in the external appearance that the greatest changes can be observed, but the problem
arises internally as well, for example, pattern staining on ceilings. This can be caused by a
number of factors such as the deposit of dirt by convection from the heating system; the
normal occupation movement and activities in the use of the building, industrial processes
and so on, can all have a significant effect on appearance as indeed can the cleaning
processes that are employed.
Externally, the interaction of dissimilar materials, their juxtaposition, the possible pres-
ence of water soluble constituents and organic growths, all can combine or act singly with
the micro-climate to produce an irregular change of appearance, even on the one-building
elevation. In some materials, irregularity in surface texture and even shape are tolerable and
indeed desirable, handwrought timber for example, but in others, and particularly those that
are applied as finishes in a thin form, any irregularity is objectionable. Certain materials in
combination also produce an appearance that is quite different to their individual appear-
ance. For example, stone in conjunction with large areas of glass will appear very shabby
even when very slightly weathered, when in fact on its own, the appearance of the stone
would be considered enhanced when in this 'weathered' state.
Weathering
Another cause for change of appearance which is usually considered detrimental is the
weathering away of a surface. Some materials which have the same composition throughout
can lose their surface without change of appearance but with those that are finished with
an applied surface, the change or loss of surface can be dramatic and disturbing.
It is clear now that we live in a state of rapid change. Building techniques also change
so quickly that frequently traditional methods are abandoned in favour of the new. The
experience reflected in traditional practices is forgotten or even worse, is considered old-
fashioned. What had become almost second nature in building quite suddenly is left out of
current techniques and it is possible that in some instances we may have to reconsider old
habits and traditions. Frequently new buildings are disappointing and to a discriminating eye
the signs and ingredients of change and even failure are apparent. Visible change is inherent
in most building materials, after all they are continuously exposed and in some situations
change can occur very quickly. It is possible in certain climates and situations for change
from atmospheric pollution and rainwater washing down to be evident very early on. This
can occur even before any chemical or physical change begins. It follows that the cleaner
and drier geographical regions are less likely to produce buildings suffering from changed
appearance than those which are 'dirtier' and wetter.
Careful designing and detailing initially will combine to reduce the effects of appearance
changes and this should be coupled with some knowledge of the chemistry of the materials
when drafting specifications and details. As always, careful observation of existing buildings
will be a first class guide for the surveyor. The experience gained in this way will be most
useful in predicting performance and appearance changes when reporting on the present
condition of a building.
It should be remembered that certain changes tend to enhance rather than destroy
or disturb appearance. For example, Portland stone elevations may weather naturally
and take on a beauty that can be destroyed, or at least marred, when cleaning takes
place.
Failure
The client as occupier or owner of the building will have certain expectations for his property
and will anticipate that these expectations will be satisfied for a long time, subject perhaps
to reasonable maintenance (if the client is aware of property management responsibilities).
It is quite likely that the first notice of any defect is a lay one, and lay observation will
likely exaggerate a defect to failure level rather than attributing it to natural decay or
some external factor. It may be that the failure constructionally is trivial and therefore
will involve little expense in repair and can in fact be left without attention. On the other
hand, a serious fault is likely to be expensive in repair and may be disturbing if left with-
out attention. At the extreme, the defect may be dangerous and will require temporary,
followed by permanent, attention.
This anticipation of failure in performance is a matter of concern as is the frequency
of failure in buildings and services. Reference to the published information in research
documents, the professional journals, the press, radio and television programmes will
emphasise these problems and illustrate the growing awareness of clients. Common faults
are continually being reported and they include the following:
Building Decay 17
(a) moisture condensation, dampness, mould growth, water penetration;

(b) frost damage spalling, heave, thermal, moisture, structural movement;
(c) corrosion;
(d) structural collapse.
It is with this background knowledge that one should look at buildings, perhaps
wondering why such a state should exist, considering all the accumulated experience pos-
sessed by those in the construction industry (especially as the construction industry in the
United Kingdom is probably the most controlled industry in the world). Buildings start to
deteriorate as they are being constructed and materials, elements and components may be
damaged even before assembly and delivery to the site.
Materials not only react with other materials when in contact, but they also react to the
environment in which they are placed. Therefore, when inspecting materials one should
consider the macro, mezzo, micro and crypto-climates for the building in question and
assess the performance in use. A variety of hostile environments exist in the UK which
directly affect building materials-environments such as high or low temperatures, high
humidities, corrosive atmospheres, vibrations and stresses, and misuse. Failure to appreciate
the effect of these agencies may have resulted in a poor specification or constructional detail
which often leads to a reduced performance standard. If the building being inspected is a
new one, then it is a knowledge of these points that may help to predict the performance
of materials or elements.
Performance and reliability
The prediction of performance or reliability can be difficult, and buildings which may
have a design life of say sixty years may be removed in only a few years for reasons quite
unconnected with failure. Where buildings have existed for a long period of time, some
parts or components may have been renewed, possibly more than once, but this may be due
to changing requirements as well as to failure or to substandard performance. However,
irrespective of the difficulty, clients and prospective purchasers will often require accurate
predictions from surveyors.
The following table is extracted from the book Maintenance Management-a guide to
good practice published by the Chartered Institute of Building and gives some basis for
predicting performance.
Life
Item expectancy
(years)
Brickwork
pointing first 50-60
subsequently every 25
Roofs
slates 60
tiles 50
asphalt 20
felt 10
Electrical installations 25
These figures are indications only and many examples can be given where they are exceeded
without anxiety or not achieved owing to extraneous factors.
It would be prudent for any building owner to arrange for a programme of testing and
inspection to be commenced as soon as building is completed or even during the physical
construction, if this is possible. Without this ideal situation, a surveyor has to be some-
thing of a detective and must apply testing procedures and performance standards that are
appropriate for the particular circumstances. Testing obviously has to be non-destructive
when being carried out in an inspection, and may involve elaborate equipment requiring
specialists, but often decisions and opinions may be sufficient which are the result of direct
visual observation, knowledge and experience. A systematic approach can be developed for
all the element~ of a building and an association of ideas in this connection is shown in the
following list and illustrated in figure 4.
Defect or Substandard Performance
Symptoms for example, a damp patch on the ceiling under a

flat roof
Diagnosis damaged roof covering
Investigation of cause structural, thermal or moisture movement, differential
movement of materials, mechanical damage, design
specification, workmanship faults maintenance, sun-
light moisture ingress, pollutants, biological agencies,
proximity of unsuitable materials
Recommendations estimate of cost and specification of remedial measures
and possible improvement in design/construction.
Building Decay 19
• t/RIVIN~ RAIN
Jo\JDe-X. •
S06f'ENOED
Gt:.(LJ~ .
- =--=-=
===~~~= -- -
Figure 4 Site sketch of construction

It is essential to reach an assessment of any defects that is impartial and based on the
investigations carried out. The assessment may depend on how much is to be investigated in
the survey and the degree of accuracy that is required, but whatever these factors may be, a
thorough knowledge of building construction, and the performance of materials, elements
and components, is absolutely necessary.
The survey procedure will involve the seeking of clues and evidence, recording, testing
and checking references. A defect may have more than one cause and these in turn can
have several sources, but fundamentally we are concerned with dampness, movements due
to different factors and chemical or biological changes. If the building under inspection was
built comparatively recently or is well documented, then written sources of information may
be available, possibly even the contract documentation. It will be necessary at times to see
parts which are normally hidden and this can mean having the construction opened up or
the use of optical probes. These probes should be operated by those who have training and
experience, especially in the interpretation of what is seen. Lyall Addleson has written of
the techniques where greater accuracy is required in his book Building Failures-A Guide
to Diagnosis, Remedy and Prevention published by the Architectural Press.
Cause and effect
When considering older buildings, for example, the pre-1900 housing stock, it is clear that
a level of performance has been achieved to some acceptable standard, in order for them
to have survived. This may be attributed to several reasons including the standard of the
original design and construction, modest changes in the way the building is occupied and
used, and the in-built flexibility of the structure and careful maintenance. A changing pat-
tern of use with the consequently different expectations of the occupiers may lead to work
being undertaken that may upset the balance outlined above. Prospective purchasers will
almost certainly have a performance expectancy that could very well affect the building if
implemented. Some of these activities that are undertaken by or for clients and occupiers
are set out below.
Requirement Possible effect

Insertion of a damp course Drying out, drying shrinkage
Repointing using inappropriate mortar Loss of flexibility, efflorescence in bricks
Brushed waterproofing to wall Restriction of drying out and respiration of
the original materials
Applied renderings of inappropriate As above and reduction in flexibility
specification
Installation of central heating systems Thermal movements, drying out, conditions
for dry rot attack
Introduction of stormwater drainage and Effect on normal moisture content of soils
hard landscaping, for example, pavings, and thus on the bearing characteristics
patios
Large scale site de-watering Historic bearing capacities and ground con-
ditions may change.
New electrical installations Effect of notching joists
Building Decay 21
New plumbing installations As above, and also increased loads from

tanks, etc.
Insulation of roof spaces Thermal equilibrium changed, thermal
movement and condensation
Structural alterations Weakening of the structural integrity of the
building
Extensions Differential movements incompatible
materials
Contributory factors
In modern construction, among the many factors that may produce an unsatisfactory
performance and which should be looked for while carrying out the inspection are:
(a) The use of concrete which is not so sympathetic to movement.

(b) The association of elements with different thermal movement characteristics.
(c) Thermal and drying shrinkage of materials.
(d) Minimum size timbers and other materials.
(e) A poor standard of initial workmanship.
(f) Condensation and the lack of ventilation.
(g) The dramatic growth of 'do-it-yourself' which may have caused damage to the
construction.
(h) The effect on buildings of soil movement,
particularly clay soils.
(i) The presence of asbestos products and the effect on health.
G) The use of mastic sealants.
(k) The corrosion of metals, including rusting of reinforcement and cavity wall tie failures.
(1) Carbonation of concrete and the use of high alumina cement.
(m) Inadequate falls to flat roofs, gutters and drainage.
Two useful guides for surveyors on the typical defects found in buildings are BRE
Digest 176 'Failure patterns and implications' and BRE Digest 268 'Common defects in
low-rise traditional housing'.
3 Substructure
Building plans
It is rarely necessary to inspect the foundations in the course of reconnaissance survey,

unless there is evidence of settlement damage, the cause of which is not obvious. Even
when desirable it may not always be practicable because of the proximity of drains, paving,
or flower beds. If the house was built within the last fifty years, some information may
be obtained from inspection of the deposited plans at the offices of the Local Authority,
although there is no guarantee that a property has been built strictly in accordance with such
plans. With older properties, enquiry at the appropriate office will often yield some useful
information. Since 1947 it has been necessary to submit plans and obtain planning permis-
sion for structural alterations. Not all owners have done this, and a new owner wanting
to make further alterations may have to carry out additional work to earlier alterations to
make these conform with statutory requirements.
For property within the former Greater London Council (GLC) boundaries, District
Surveyor's offices (now Building Control under London Boroughs, the Temples and the
City Corporation) will have plans of any structural work that has been carried out, such
as underpinning. Similarly, major remedial work completed in the course of dry rot repairs
may also be recorded. For property outside the former GLC boundaries, building control
offices within Local Authorities will hold such information.
Wherever practicable, it is advisable to inspect these plans before carrying out the
site reconnaissance survey. Many Authorities will not allow plans to be inspected without
prior authorisation by the owner, and this should be secured in advance. With post-war
houses the Local Authority may have Building Control Officer's Notes on site inspections,
or the Building Control Officer for the area may, from memory, be able to fill in useful
details or clear up points not readily explicable. For example, during the investigation of
foundations in connection with damage from tree root action, foundations substantially
deeper than normal for light domestic work in the locality were discovered. A call on the
Building Control Officer provided the explanation. The foundation trenches, which were
22
Substructure 23
in London clay, had been dug in very wet weather, resulting in the bottom of the trenches
being reduced to a slurry, and the Officer had insisted on the foundations being deepened
by 300 mm (one foot). This removed the earlier supposition that the deeper foundations had
been necessary because of some local defect in the load-bearing properties of the clay. On
another occasion, the cause of minor cracks in an external wall could not be established.
The deposited plans could not be traced because at the time, that Local Authority filed
plans under the name of the original owner of the property. Exploratory digging showed
that there was no strip foundation concrete under that particular wall, although the house
was only about thirty years old. The purchaser was advised that minor movements might
persist, and an adjustment of the purchase price was agreed with the vendor.
Foundation depth
It is important to investigate the depth of foundations of pre-war or earlier houses

for it is not uncommon to find that substantial and apparently well-built houses have
foundations no deeper than 375-500 mm (15-18 inches). Investigations are particularly
important if there is a proposal to add to the existing structure, for such shallow
foundations would not be permitted for modern extensions. These new additions would
have to conform to the current Building Regulations, and bonding in the new work with
its deeper foundations to existing walls with relatively shallower foundations can give rise
to differential movement between the old and the new work. In addition to the problem
of connecting new to old, shallow foundations on particular soils such as shrinkable clays
can encourage foundation movement following prolonged dry spells. BRE Digests 240,
241 and 242 'Low-rise buildings on shrinkable clay soils, Parts 1, 2 and 3' elaborate
on this problem.
Geological Survey Maps
It is always desirable to inspect the Geological Survey map for the area, selecting a scale
that is adequate to pinpoint a single property. It should be remembered that some of the
maps were published many years ago and much residential development has occurred since.
Some Local Authorities have copies of the maps of their area, and some have produced
their own geological maps. These may be more accurate than the official Geological Survey
maps because details have been filled in from actual excavations and investigations made in
the course of development of the whole area.
Soil investigations
Investigation of the soil should be an essential preliminary to any building work, and
it is to be recommended when surveying a newly built house or bungalow because there
may not have been time for settlement to develop. It is of course essential if the surveyor
has been asked to advise on alterations and additions to existing property. The subject of
soil investigation is dealt with at some length in BRE Digests 63, 64 and 67 'Soils and
foundations, Parts 1, 2 and 3'. See also British Standard Code of Practice, CP 2001:
1957 'Site investigations'.
It may be argued that soil investigations are more the sphere of the architect or structural
engineer developing a new site, but it is pointed out in BRE Digest 64 that:
"It is of particular importance at the present time, when the possible use of sites that
have been avoided as building land in the past is being considered. This may seem to be
stating the obvious but in fact it is known that schemes have been prepared, and in some
cases work actually started before any consideration has been given to below-ground
conditions at the site and whether they are suitable for the project in hand. The extent of
the investigation will depend largely on the situation, size and type of proposed work."
This Digest is intended to emphasise the need for an early appraisal of the site so that
any special measures that may be required to deal with difficult conditions can be planned
at the outset. Many other aspects which bear on the intended use of the site, and which
will need to be considered, such as leases, wayleaves, limitations on use and so on are
outside the scope of the Digest.
The warning cited should certainly be borne in mind when carrying out a reconnaissance
survey of a house or bungalow on a new estate. The powers of Local Authorities in
regard to development of sites are appreciable, but, provided the Building Regulations are
observed by developers, the powers of Building Control Officers are, in practice, limited.
For example, on one occasion a dispute arose between a purchaser of a new bungalow and
the developer when dry rot resulted from flooding of the oversite concrete because the site
had been inadequately drained. The trouble in this case was that the site had been subject
to inundation before it was developed, because a hard pan existed under the sandy top
soil, and below the pan was a soft clay. As a result of the development much of the land
was covered with impervious materials such as the roofs of the bungalows and the tarmac
roads. Deepening of an existing stream proved inadequate to cope with the large volume
of water in times of heavy rain, and, with so much of the porous sandy soil being covered
by the buildings and roads, there was insufficient land available to absorb surplus water on
some parts of the estate. The result of this situation caused the water table to rise above safe
levels and flooding of the concrete oversite had occurred. The development was completed
before the advent of the guarantees that are now available on new property, and the owner
had to resort to court proceedings. The developer was required to remedy the inadequate
drainage and to eradicate the dry rot.
On another occasion the original object of enquiry was a row of trees close to the
boundary of a new estate, but not under the control of the developer. The Geological
Survey map of the area indicated that the soil was not a shrinkable clay, and hence the
risk of damage from tree root action to foundations did not arise, and no drains were
sufficiently near for there to be a risk of them becoming blocked. Some of the trees
were, however, too close to the house the client was interested in because of a potential
risk from falling branches. It seemed advisable to check with the Building Control Officer
the precise nature of the soil and depth of the foundations. These enquiries revealed
important matters that could not have been deduced from site observations. The site was
apparently one known to be subject to inundation and the Building Control Officer had,
in consequence, insisted on the foundations being taken to a depth of 1500 mm (5 ft). This
ensured that settlements would not be a problem, but it meant that the gardens would be
wet for long periods and lay-out would have to be restricted to what would grow in such
unfavourable soil conditions. Of no less importance to the new owners were the council's
plans for developing tall blocks of flats on the adjacent land, which would overshadow
Substructure 25
I
k-~,
I
[J
1-11
(ii) ~cW fRE.-L
(Hi) 1RE,~ tyrE-5.
Figure 5 Tree heights and foundations

the houses, unquestionably adversely affecting their value. This experience underlines the
importance of making enquiries at the offices of the Local Authority when surveying
houses on new estates.
Tree roots
The risk of damage from tree root action in shrinkable clay soils is something that
the surveyor should have very much in mind when surveying properties or inspecting
potential building sites in such areas. A suggestion has been that to reduce the risk of
damage as far as possible, it is advisable as a rough guide, not to erect buildings on
shallow foundations closer to single trees than their height at maturity, see figure 5(i).
The roots of groups or rows of trees competing for water over a limited area can be more
extensive than just indicated and again, as a rough guide, one and a half times the mature
height of the tree is suggested as the limiting distance. It is of course equally important
that young trees should not be planted closer to buildings than these distances, see figure
5 (ii).
Settlement caused by tree root action is not a new phenomenon, although it is only
comparatively recently that roots have been linked with damage of this kind. The first
case to reach the courts was Butler v. Standard Telephone & Cables Limited (I A.E.R.
121), which was decided in 1940; this case concerned Lombardy poplars. The Geotechnics
Division of the Building Research Establishment commenced studies on the subject in
about 1943, and the first Digest, BRE Digest 3 'House foundations on shrinkable clay
soils' (now out of print) was published in February 1949. Previously it appears to have
been accepted that cracking of plaster and similar minor damage to houses on clay soils
was inevitable in dry summers, and anything more major called for underpinning of the
foundations. Comparatively few cases have been determined by the courts and of those
that have been reported in the Law Journals, the majority have been cases of damage by
poplars. It is a mistake, however, to think that this is the only tree species the surveyor
need consider. Elms, willows and ash can cause no less devastating damage at very consid-
erable distances from the bole of the offending tree, see figure 5(iii). In fact all trees, and
even shrubs and climbers, can cause damage. Cherry, elder, fruit trees, horse chestnut,
lime, London plane, oak, sycamore and even wistaria and rambler roses, have all caused
substantial settlement damage; even a hydrangea has been known to be responsible for a
fracture in a wall. In effect, no tree or shrub can be regarded as innocuous in a shrinkable
clay soil if it is growing sufficiently close to a building, boundary wall, drain or paving.
BRE Digest 298 'The influence of trees on house foundations in clay soils' is an
excellent text on this subject as it summarises quite clearly the solutions to tree root
problems.
The problem does not arise on sandy, gravel or chalk soils, unless these are relatively
thin layers, for example, 1200-1800 mm (4-6 ft), overlying a shrinkable clay. In some
areas where the soil is chalk, there may be superficial glacial drifts on the top of the
chalk, either of gravel or firm shrinkable clay such as that found in parts of Folkestone.
Soils in many districts vary over quite small areas, for example, parts of Chelsea are on
the River Terraces, whereas not very far away the soil is London clay. Similar variations
are to be found in the city of Oxford; the college buildings of Corpus Christi college are
on gravel, whereas houses in the Iffley Road are on the Oxford clay beds. In Hampstead
there are three different formations, London clay over the greater part of the area, and
Substructure 27
Claygate beds, capped with Bagshot sands, on higher ground. London clay has been
encountered in an area where the soil was predominantly gravel, and there was substantial
damage from tree root action to a block of flats. The explanation was that old gravel pits
had been used for depositing clay excavated in the course of constructing one of the first
underground railways.
Soil recovery and trees
The other aspect to be considered in connection with trees is soil recovery after trees have
been felled. Attention is drawn to the following passage from BRE Digest 63:
"Swelling caused by tree removal. When trees are felled to clear a site for building,
considerable time should be allowed for the clay (which was previously dried by tree
roots) to regain water. Otherwise there is a serious risk that as the clay swells it will lift
the building. And because the swelling is most marked close to the site of trees which
have been removed, damage is likely from relative movements ... The pressures that dried
clays develop when reabsorbing water are often greater than those applied by shallow
foundations, and the resulting, upward movements can continue for several years. For
example, regular measurements made by the Building Research Station on an office block
built in 1959 on a site cleared of trees a year previously, show an upward movement of
about 6 mm per annum since construction was completed. Observations suggest that these
movements may continue for up to ten years."
In another case, much more substantial movement had occurred in a row of single-storey
cottages built over the root systems of two elms, felled to permit building operations.
Parts of the walls of these cottages were lifted by as much as 125 mm (5 inches) over
a period of eleven years, causing persistent cracking of the walls because soil recovery is
not uniform. Such massive movement of walls in the course of soil recovery appears to be
associated more with land occupied by the root systems of trees prior to buildings being
erected than from movement following removal of trees whose roots have trespassed under
the foundations of an existing building. There is no doubt, however, that some movement
does occur in these latter circumstances if the offending trees were close to the damaged
building for example, 3000-4500 mm (10-15 ft) away. Even more surprising can be the
severity of damage that follows repair of defective drains or leaking mains water supplies
where there are substantial trees in the vicinity. Severe fractures develop in as little as
nine to twelve months after the repairs have been effected if abnormally dry weather
follows. Most new developments today enjoy the benefit of an agreement and insurance
policy issued under the National House-Building Scheme by the National House-Building
Council (NHBC). The NHBC is an independent non-political, non-pro fit-making body
approved by government and recognised under statute in Section 2 of the Defect Premises
Act 1972. A surveyor must study the precise wording of the NHBC guarantee being
offered with a property if he is to advise a client on the action to take when a defect
arises on a new property.
In shrinkable clay soil areas the proximity of near-by trees is obviously most sig-
nificant, but it is equally important in such areas to discover whether trees have been
felled to permit the development. Not all Local Authorities are aware of the possible
consequences of developing well-wooded sites in shrinkable clay areas, and they may
permit traditional 'shallow' foundations in circumstances where short-bore piles should

have been used. Subsequent problems arising from soil recovery after the trees have
been felled may not be covered by the guarantees if these provide only for damage
arising from subsidence.
In the New Towns and similar large scale development there is the additional hazard
that may arise as a result of the policies of their landscape architects, when trees that
are really unsuitable in the middle of urban development are retained. The position is
made all the more difficult where such trees are the subject of a Tree Preservation
Order. Protracted negotiations may be necessary to persuade the Authority to set aside
an order once made. If the soil is a shrinkable clay a new owner would, of course, be
able to fell the trees on his land that are the subject of a Preservation Order to abate a
nuisance to his neighbour but, in turn, his own property might suffer damage from soil
recovery. There is always the possibility that he will be confronted with a prosecution for
breach of the Preservation Order, and such prosecutions, even when not well-founded,
are costly to defend.
Having stressed the seriousness of the problem, both from settlement damage from
standing trees, and damage resulting from soil recovery when trees are felled, it is as well
to recognise that there may be no need to prohibit development on well-wooded shrinkable
clay soils provided suitable precautions are taken. For most developers the recommendations
made in BRE Digest 63 of allowing the site to regain water after trees have been felled is
uneconomic because it would take too long. To avoid this delay the following alternative
methods may be considered:
(a) Anchoring the building by using reinforced concrete bored piles sleeved from the
ground over their top 3000 mm (10 ft) and providing suspended floors. Beams spanning
between the piles must be well clear of the ground surface.
(b) Using flexible framed construction without brickwork or plastering.
(c) Making the building rigid by either constructing a basement or reinforcing the founda-
tions and brickwork. Buildings erected close to standing trees should be supported on
piles of sufficient depth, and for small structures bored piles are likely to be the most
economical. Where nearby vegetation is insignificant, strip footings 1050 mm (3 ft 6
inches) deep are usually adequate.
On one particular site it would have been necessary to fell a large mature oak to permit
development. There was a similar tree in the neighbour's garden, which the developer
could not require the neighbour to fell until damage had actually been caused to the
new development. It was found that short-bore piles, 2400 mm (8 ft) in depth, reinforced
in tension, and with suspended ground-floor floors about 150 mm (6 inches) clear of the
oversite, would be an entirely satisfactory solution. Moreover, provided the architect and
piling specialist co-operated at the design stage, the cost of short-bore pile foundations,
even for a single house, would be very little more expensive than traditional foundations
1050 mm (3 ft 6 inches) deep. BRE Digest 298 stresses the unwillingness of developers to
use pile and beam foundations in potential ground heave situations. The Digest points out
that the deepened trench-fill, preferred by developers in this situation, is vulnerable as it is
subject to lateral movement, rotation and large uplift forces. Digest 298 suggests that for
general design guidance for house foundations in swelling soils, reference should be made
to Digests 241 and 242.
Substructure 29
Recognition of tree root damage
Both professionals and householders are sometimes in ignorance of the influence of

the roots of vegetation on foundations until a major settlement occurs. Then, confronted
with damage, they tend to jump to the conclusion that trees are responsible, particularly
if there is a near-by Lombardy poplar. This species, being fast-growing and retaining
a compact shape has probably figured in more cases of settlement damage from tree
root action than any other, because frequently it has been planted as a screen to hide
development. The position, however, is not as simple as this, and not all fractures in
brickwork are settlement damage.
In investigating these cases it is essential to establish that the soil is a shrinkable clay
soil. Although a geological map should be consulted, the precise nature of the soil under
the foundations must also be determined from excavations taken to the bottom of the
foundations. This will establish whether the foundations are in firm shrinkable clay and
not made-up ground or any other soil possessing inadequate load-bearing properties, for
example, seams of soft yellow clay, such as occur in parts of Chingford, Essex. Excavations
will also determine the depth of the foundations, which may well be criticised later if they
are less than 900 mm (3 ft) in depth. Such criticism is not well-founded if they are 375-450
mm (15-18 inches) or more in depth, as this is below the depth where soil movements can
be induced by climatic conditions alone.
Where the foundations are exposed it is essential to collect and identify any roots present
under the foundations, remembering that it is not necessary to find large roots, although
these are easier to identify. Settlement damage is caused by the extraction of moisture
from the shrinkable clay in excess of what is recovered by way of precipitation of rain in
abnormally dry seasons, and extraction of moisture is done by the fine root hairs. Sometimes
while there may be, say, a poplar in the neighbour's garden, there are also trees or large
shrubs in the garden of the damaged property as near as, or nearer to, the house than the
neighbour's tree. Hence, quite extensive excavations are needed to ensure collecting repre-
sentative samples of all roots. It is not always possible to link a particular item of damage
with a particular root, and assessing damages in such cases has to be on a percentage basis,
say 60 per cent to the client's vegetation and 40 per cent to the poplar, depending on the
proportions of different roots found.
Excavating often produces surprising evidence that may greatly complicate the making of
a claim. For example, if there are several trees of the same species, it is not possible to state
categorically that a particular root has grown from a particular tree merely because the root
appears to be growing in the line of that tree. Roots may, and often do, change direction.
In an extreme case, roots were found to cross a boundary at a depth of about 1200 mm
(4 ft) but, almost immediately, to change direction, growing parallel with the house, and
diving to a depth of 3000 mm (10 ft). These roots were traced for a distance of about 10.5
metres (35 ft), parallel with the house, and then they changed direction, growing towards
the house, but at a depth of 2100 mm (7 ft), and they were finally traced to within about
1500 mm (5 ft) of the house. In another case there was a row of poplars opposite a flank
wall, and about 16.5 metres (55 ft) away. The position for the first excavation was selected
close to a large fracture in the wall, expecting to find poplar roots. Instead, the majority
of the roots proved to be oak from a tree in the garden of the damaged house, and 19.5
metres (65 ft) from the excavation.
Other complications that may arise are the finding of water in an excavation, when the
defendant's expert, not unnaturally, endeavours to argue that the damage cannot be tree
root damage because there is obviously no shortage of water. The weather immediately pre-
ceding digging is important. The excavation will initially be in the back-filling of the trench
removed for the original foundations, and such ground forms a natural watercourse when
the water table is high following prolonged wet weather. This does not alter the fact that in
a prolonged dry spell, when the water table is low, the clay under the foundations will be
dried out by the roots in the clay. Water in the trench may be found from two other sources,
storm water drains that have been breached by roots and mains water leaks possibly as a
result of settlement. It is helpful to call in the Water Authority's Inspector, whose 'listening'
staff will detect leaks, or alternatively, the Inspector may be able to detect whether the water
is from his Board's supplies without the necessity for analysis. Fractured drains, or leaks
in the mains water supply, are often the explanation for only relatively slight damage to a
property in spite of the close proximity of trees. The explanation is that a constant source of
water may go a long way towards satisfying a tree's requirements. Several cases are known
where the re-laying of defective drains or repairing leaks in a mains water supply, without
felling near-by trees, have resulted in extensive damage in the next dry season because the
extraneous source of water had been cut off.
Excavations may also reveal the presence of underpinning, the existence of which
was unknown to the present owner and which may not have been documented. Having
established that the soil is a shrinkable clay, that there are roots growing up to and under
the foundations and that the foundations are below the depth where soil movement may be
caused by climatic factors alone, it remains to consider whether the damage is characteristic
of damage from tree root action and, finally, when the damage occurred. Typically, there
is damage not only to external walls but also to internal partitions and to ceilings, often
more extensive on the upper floors than on the ground floor. There are likely to be cracks
at junctions of walls and ceilings, gaps between the skirting and the floor that cannot be
explained by normal shrinkage of floor joists, and picture rails and skirtings in the angles
of rooms at different levels on adjacent walls. Corners of window and door openings, where
stresses are concentrated will also show cracks, see figures 14 and 15.
When the damage occurred is a vital question, because unless cracks or fractures first
appeared during or shortly after an abnormally dry season, they are unlikely to have been
caused by tree roots. The lady of the house is usually of more assistance than her husband
in remembering when damage first occurred. The dates of holidays are helpful, because
damage usually occurs late in the summer or early in the following autumn. Once severe
damage has occurred it is likely to be progressive, but further substantial damage usually
only occurs in a subsequent, abnormally dry year.
Claims for damages
It has been firmly established that trespass of roots from adjoining land that cause damage
to a neighbour's property gives rise to an action in nuisance, and substantial damages have
been awarded by the courts to the offended party. There is no certainty that a plaintiff
will succeed even if he can show that the soil is a shrinkable clay, that the foundations are
of adequate depth, that there are roots growing up to and under the foundations, that the
damage is characteristic of tree root damage, and that it occurred during or shortly after
an abnormally dry season.
Dispute as to the true position of boundaries may enable a defendant to repudiate own-
ership of a particular tree. This not infrequently arises in urban areas where a developer
Substructure 31
has acquired land and built several houses, which are subsequently sold off separately,
resulting in a strip of land being excluded from the deeds of all of the separate properties.
If the offending tree is on this piece of land, it may be impossible to establish ownership.
If several trees are involved, they may make for a multiplicity of defendants. Change in
ownership of offending trees is another complication as it may be necessary to relate the
items of damage to the particular times that different owners were in possession.
Erosion and movement of subsoil
Where trees are not present, leaking water mains or fractured drains on their own can
cause severe damage to a property. In the case of a house in Chislehurst, see figure 14(iii),
back-fill was washed away by leakage from the water mains. This action resulted in the
creation of a large void under the party wall foundation, which eventually settled, causing
cracks to appear in the wall above. The fact that the house was also built over part of a
disused quarry exacerbated the failure. In addition to leaking services, sulphates within
the subsoil or back-fill material can attack the concrete foundation, reducing its structural
integrity and creating the conditions for settlement to occur. Houses built on sloping sites
may also suffer movement where the subsoil is unstable or where the presence of ground
water increases the likelihood of slippage. This is most likely during wet seasons when clay
soils are present and where slopes are severe.
Mining subsidence
Houses built above mine tunnels may well suffer subsidence over long periods. Often
buildings subside initially when tunnels are bored and then recover to a level below their
original position after a period of time. Cracking patterns tend to be random in position
as shown in figure 15(iii). A surveyor, working within a mining area, must be aware of the
problem and the indications and consequences of mining subsidence on housing. A number
of industrialised building systems for housing have been developed to overcome or reduce
the effect of ground movement, caused by mining works. The surveyor should know of the
various systems and be able to recognise each system when inspecting properties.
4 Floors
Floor construction is of paramount importance in regard to both the load-carrying capac-

ity of floors, and in relation to the stability of the internal and external walls. Floor joists
may provide essential ties for walls that might well not be adequate in themselves were they
free-standing structures. For example, a 215 mm (one brick thick), free-standing boundary
wall 6 metres (20 ft) high, would not be stable in itself (even assuming it had adequate
foundations) whereas many houses at least 6 metres (20 ft) from ground level to eaves,
with walls one brick thick, are still perfectly stable half a century later. This is because the
cross-walls of a house, and the floor joists, coupled with the roof load, make for rigidity
that does not exist with a free-standing wall.
The important consideration of a floor's load-bearing capacity will depend on several
factors such as floor type and construction, span, length of bearing, age, condition and
so on. One important factor is the distribution of loads upon the floor, loads from such
things as baths, tanks and partitions. Partitions built off floors will also be of concern to
the surveyor, for example, if work is necessary to repair a floor then the demolition and
rebuilding of such partitions will add to the expense.
The surveying of floors calls for examining each floor in turn, and room by room, in a
regular sequence. On the topmost floor, immediately under the roof voids or attic, there may
be the additional task of checking that the trough and centre gutters, located in the course
of investigating the rainwater disposal arrangements, have not given rise to outbreaks of
fungal decay in the rooms underneath. When inspecting the ground and basement floors, the
surveyor must also be on the lookout for evidence of rising damp and, if the ground-floor
rooms are of appreciable size, evidence of any sagging of partitions in the rooms above.
Underfloor ventilation
In smaller properties with suspended timber floors on the ground floor, and no basements
or cellars underneath, it is important to check that through ventilation and cross-ventilation
32
Floors 33
<G~WAU-~
~1f>-Su/
I/J~ WAll6 to+f).'.t-
A~~1E:.. ",Mo to)J.!O'fI
1H~' PkSGA<if;. Cf N~ ,
Figure 6 Solid and suspended floors

under the floor are adequate and that they are not impeded by areas of solid floor and
internal partitions taken down to the oversite in solid brickwork. Obviously, in semi-
detached houses there will be no cross-ventilation, and the adequacy of ventilation from
front to back is all the more important. Checking that air bricks are not obstructed does
not, of course, ensure that there is through ventilation under the floor between rooms, as
there may be no voids in the partitions that have been taken down to the oversite. Where
practicable, floorboards to be taken up should be those against internal partitions and in
the recesses between projecting chimney breasts. Figure 6 ((i)-(iii» reproduced from an
early BRE Digest, illustrates the good practice that was advised in the 1950s for suspended
timber floors with adjoining solid floors. It also indicates the points to look for when
inspecting suspended floors, including the provision of ventilation by means of pipe ducts
through the adjoining solid floors.
Figure 6(iv) reproduced from the same Digest shows a typical detail of a solid floor but
the surveyor is unlikely to be able to check such details in the course of a reconnaissance
survey. The floor finish on solid ground floors most likely to give trouble is the boarded
or strip floor on battens. In the older properties the battens will almost certainly not be
pressure-treated, and there is unlikely to be an impervious membrane in any position under
the boarded floor. There is frequently a small gap between the top of the oversite concrete
and the underside of the floorboards, see figure 6(iv), and, with no impervious membrane,
such floors have a very uncertain life, particularly if the boards are a non-durable species
such as European redwood. High relative humidities can build up under the boards, creating
ideal conditions for the development of dry rot. Such solid boarded floors, if of softwood,
require very careful scrutiny, including tapping and probing for any signs of decay.
Unless the floors are hardwood strip floors, laid by a specialist flooring contractor, it is
most unlikely that the flooring will have been kiln-dried prior to laying, and the width of
gaps between the boards or strips should be noted. If the boards are still tight in properties
or new extensions more than a few years old, the surveyor should suspect that either the
under-floor ventilation is not adequate or that the builder has made a great error and that
there is no oversite concrete. Boards or strips are sometimes so tight that the floor can be
seen to be wavy, but curvature in the boards is sometimes only apparent if one rubs the
palm of one's hand over the floorboards. If floors are of some age and the floorboards are
still tight, there is a considerable risk of there being fungal decay in the joists or wall plates
underneath, and therefore it is imperative to investigate further. Gaps between skirtings and
floorboards may provide a clue, but a search should also be made for areas of patched floor-
ing, particularly in bay windows and in the recesses between projecting chimney breasts.
In older houses, short lengths of skirting should arouse suspicions because at the time such
houses were built, timber in good lengths was usually readily obtainable, and the existence
of short lengths is a pointer that it has been necessary to effect repairs. The surveyor must
be on his guard against being misled by the piecing in of the skirting where partitions have
been taken down, or wall fittings have been removed. It is not only in old houses that there
is a risk of fungal decay developing in the joists and plates under the ground floor. Severe
decay has been known to develop within eighteen months of completion of construction
when the first occupants cover floors with impervious floor coverings and where low quality,
unseasoned and non-treated timber has been used. The risk is not great in modern estate
development because ground floors are almost invariably solid floors.
The floors of kitchens and cloakrooms should receive particular attention as not
only do many solid ground-floors impede through or cross-ventilation of the floor joists,
but there is the possibility that quarry tiles have been laid on a screed on top of a timber
Floors 35
sub-floor. In addition, the covering of kitchen floors with linoleum or similar impervious
floor coverings, if this is taken up to the wall under a sink unit, may also give rise to a
higher risk of decay. The floor covering should always be turned back under the sink to
permit inspection of the flooring.
It is often impossible to inspect the floor or wall at the back of the sink unit in the course
of a reconnaissance survey because of fitted cupboards under the sink with a plywood/chip-
board base and back to the units. If this is the case the fact must be mentioned in the survey
report, stressing that it has not been possible to inspect the most vulnerable part of the floor.
As already stated, modernisation of kitchens by laying thermoplastic coverings on the origi-
nal timber floor often increases the risk of fungal decay. Even with tongued and grooved
flooring there is a prospect of some air movement by convection, through the floor, but,
if the top surface is effectively sealed by some form of impervious covering stuck down to
the existing timber floor, such air movement can no longer occur. In such circumstances the
relative humidity of the air under the floor is liable to rise to critical levels, and the moisture
content of previously 'dry' timber will also rise until it reaches levels that can support the
growth of wood-rotting fungi. Moreover, depending on aspect, the nature of the subsoil,
and the amount of heating enjoyed in the kitchen, condensation under the floor may occur
from time to time leading to saturation of the flooring joists. These conditions can cause the
development of fungal decay in as short a period as eighteen months. Hence the necessity
for warning a client of the decay hazard created by sticking impervious floor tiles or floor
coverings stuck down to existing timber floors. The sealing of floors with impervious floor
coverings on the ground floor is not confined to kitchens. To provide smooth floors to
receive carpets, sheets of hardboard are often laid over the old boards, and this material is
equally effective in preventing air movement through the gaps in the floorboards.
It is important to check that all air vents are of the same pattern, and if the house is one
of several similar houses in the same road, that the number and pattern of the air vents in
the property being inspected are identical to those in the neighbouring properties. In the
course of the external inspection, the surveyor should have noted where new, larger, or
additional air vents have been inserted and the floors and skirtings in the vicinity of such
vents should be carefully investigated. It is more than likely that new floorboards, or new
lengths of skirting, will be found opposite the new vents, and floorboards should be taken
up to ascertain whether any joists or wall plates have been renewed, and that there is no
evidence of recurrence of any trouble. Unfortunately, even if previous attacks under floor
in one part of the room have been dealt with adequately, this is no guarantee that attacks
do not exist at the opposite end of the room, from the same causes-for example, ingress
of water at other points, or poor underfloor ventilation. This is particularly likely with
true dry rot (Serpu/a) infection.
If fruiting bodies have been produced at one end of the room, spores will drift across
the room, and if they alight on timbers whose moisture content has been built up to 24-28
per cent, there is a considerable risk of several separate outbreaks becoming established. It
is this possibility that detracts from the value of most guarantees given by commercial dry
rot treatment firms, which are often transferable to a new owner. As a general rule these
twenty-year guarantees are limited to the actual timbers treated when the guarantee was
issued, and timbers in the same room that were not treated are not covered by the guarantee.
This should be pointed out to the client if the vendor produces such a guarantee as evidence
that a previous outbreak was dealt with by a responsible firm. The surveyor must not him-
self rely on the guarantee, for he must satisfy himself that there are no other outbreaks in
the same, or adjacent, rooms. The initial attack may be close to the external front wall, or
against an exposed flank wall, or in the vicinity of a faulty downpipe attached to the wall.
Where this is the case, floorboards should be taken up in the area where repairs have been
carried out, and against the partition at the other end of the room, and in the recesses on
both sides of the chimney breast.
Beetle infestation
Apart from looking for infestation in floors, skirtings and picture rails, as on the upper
floors, there are two points on the ground floor that appear most vulnerable-these are
cupboards under stairs (including the backboards for meters and fuse boxes) and larder
shelving. If the soffit to the staircase is not plastered, the glued blocks in the angles of
treads and risers appear to be particularly vulnerable to attack. It is always worth while to
clear everything out of the cupboard under the stairs to permit a thorough inspection. In the
larder it will be possible to see from the underside of the shelving whether there is sufficient
sapwood in it to warrant removing everything to permit examination of the shelf tops.
Fill
Since the Second World War, increased demand for housing has encouraged developers to
use land which in the past was thought unsuitable for building. Examples of such marginal
sites were those that sloped severely, supported large numbers of trees, had drainage prob-
lems or required large amounts of fill.
With respect to the last difficult site, one common problem of post-war housing with
solid floors was that of settlement, this being mainly due to the inadequate consolidation
of the sub-floor filling and/or the use of unsatisfactory fill materials. The surveyor when
inspecting such properties should search for evidence of 'dishing' or 'sloping' of the floor
and/ or the existence of gaps between the skirting board and the floor. The surveyor should
be aware that gaps may not always be found where settlement has occurred, for it is not
unknown for skirting to be removed and replaced at a lower height to cover up the defect.
By using a one metre spirit level the surveyor should be able to recognise any deficiency
and report this to the client.
Upper floors
In a reconnaissance survey an important consideration is the soundness of the floor

whereas in a detailed structural survey determining its load-bearing capacity is likely to be
the primary object. As regards soundness, the important considerations are the extent and
significance of any beetle infestation and/or fungal infection in the timber members.
The first matter to be determined is whether the joists are parallel with, or at right-angles
to, the external walls. In smaller properties it is usually relatively simple to establish this
from the direction of the floorboards because there is unlikely to be a sub-floor. If how-
ever, the floorboards are tongued and grooved, the surveyor is in difficulties because he
will not be able to take up any flooring without breaking out at least one floorboard. If
joists are parallel to the external wall, the risk of decay below the floor is governed largely
by whether or not the first joist in is tight to the wall or 25 mm (1 inch) or so back from
Floors 37
the face of the wall. The surveyor should be able to determine this from the position of
the nails, provided the boards are face-nailed. If the flooring is tongued and grooved and
secret-nailed, the surveyor's only hope is to probe with a piece of wire under the skirting in
an effort to locate the position of the first joist in. With joists housed in the external wall,
decay is most likely to exist where the ends of joists are housed in exposed solid walls or
in walls close to external downpipes (when the condition of the face of the wall behind the
downpipes is all important). If the surveyor is not able to take up floorboards he should
examine the skirting very thoroughly, feeling for any curvature in the skirting, and probing
it where it is close to such damp walls. Jumping on the floor is not a reliable test because
the amount of give in a floor will depend on many factors such as the relationship of the
depth of the joists to their span, the weight of the surveyor, where the floor is tested and
so on. Only with experience can a surveyor use this test with confidence, and in those cases
where a problem may exist, further scientific tests should be carried out.
Special attention has been drawn in respective chapters to the hazards presented by
balconies, flat roofs over bay windows and other projections in the vicinity of the floors
being inspected. If the surveyor is not in a position to lift floorboards adjacent to such
features in the course of his reconnaissance survey, he should examine balcony floors and
areas of flat roof very thoroughly, noting the extent of repairs, and whether the fall is away
from or towards the external walls. If there are 'French windows', the thresholds should be
probed, as should the sills of any windows close to balcony floors or areas of flat roof. If
the thresholds or sills are oak, and the timber is soft, the likelihood of there being decay
in the floor timbers should certainly be suspected. This is because the joists may well be of
softwood, which is more prone to decay than oak sills. The surveyor must make it clear in
his report that he was concerned about a possible defect and the extent to which he was able
to investigate. He should endeavour to give some indication of what sum for repair might be
involved, if his suspicions that decay is present prove to be well-founded. The prospective
purchaser can then decide whether he is prepared to gamble, or whether he is willing (if the
vendor agrees) to incur the cost of opening up and making good any damage done.
Framed floors
In a detailed survey, opening up against external walls is essential to establish the

condition and dimensions of joists and wall plates. In the larger properties it is to be
expected that the floors are framed floors-that is, the floor construction consists of one
or more large beams spanning the shorter dimension of the room, with the floor joists at
right-angles to the beams, and housed in them, see figure 7. The main beams are usually
of timber or steel, but occasionally are of cast or wrought iron. In buildings 100 years of
age or more, the construction of framed floors is often very complex, with a combination
of single beams of timber or cast or wrought iron. In such older buildings, particularly
if spans are large, various types of composite beams may be found (that is, two beams
bolted together, with a distance piece between, or flitch beams) as shown in figure 8
«i)-(iv». The framed floors of large rooms are likely to consist of two or more main
beams, in which the principal joists are housed at centres varying from 900 to 1200 mm (3
to 4 ft), up to 2400 mm (8 ft) or more, with secondary joists at 300-350 mm (12-14 inch)
centres, at right-angles to the principal joists, and notched over them. In older buildings,
neither the beams, principal joists nor secondary joists, even in one room, are likely to be
of uniform sectional area.
,./" ./ /' /'
/'
/' .
5faN~.r16t·
~=======n====~~~-f~~~'
f.{AIN ..
~ -
-- f'RI ~AR\ dOi'S1-
I----''--------t
Bf:N.{. Co.
Figure 7 Framed floors

Floors 39
t
fT'""'l1
p- ,1
,
r
I "',
~\ (
f
I
I ~. ,
11'-
I
I I
v I
1~ ,
,
j
I I ,
\ \
I I ~. \ I
\It
II
Figure 8 Flitch beams

/' /
/
-+
/
/ "
/
470 (l'iPYZ")
Figure 9 Timber housings and supports

Floors 41
The nature of the housing for the principal joists in the main beam is also likely to
vary. In addition to tenons of conventional pattern, others of unusual shape and size
may be encountered, or the principal joists may be simply slotted into the main beam as
shown in figure 7«ii) and (iii» and figure 9«i)-(iii». The simple slotting of principal joists
into the main beam has certain advantages over conventional tenons, in that shrinkage of
the main beam does not result in the principal joists becoming dependent only on their
tenons, probably no more than one-third of the depth of the joists. Many of the elaborate
housings involve huge mortices in the main beam, and, as a result of shrinkage, the fit of
one member in the other is no longer tight, reducing the effective cross-sectional area of
the supporting beams appreciably.
In older buildings additional services are likely to have been installed from time to
time, and plumbers and electricians are given to notching beams with a total disregard for
the weakening effect of the notches. As the original main beams in older properties were
nearly always of inadequate size, loss of effective sectional area from mortices and notches,
coupled with the destruction of sapwood edges by old beetle infestation, can be extremely
critical, particularly if deep notches occur in the middle third of the span. It is not unusual
to find that the main beam has been still further weakened by a groove cut close to the
bottom or top edge of the beam to house the ceiling joists after the main floor structure
has been framed up, see figure 7(iii).
To permit mathematical analysis of the floor construction, it is necessary in a detailed
structural survey to plot all the members accurately on a measured drawing, and, as
the construction is often complex, this frequently necessitates taking up the whole of
the flooring, and even patches of ceiling under, to obtain the necessary data. If the
floor construction is uniform, that is, consisting of a series of beams at 2750-4600
mm (9-15 ft) centres, with subsidiary joists at right-angles to the main beams, it is
still necessary to take up the floorboards both sides of the beams to determine the
quality and condition of the beams, and whether the subsidiary joists are still properly
housed into the main beams.
In the course of detailed structural survey it is essential to check the condition of the
ends of the main beams housed in external walls. These initially may have had a spreader
in the wall under the beam figure, see figure 9(iv), but it is not unusual to find that the
spreader has been cut out because of decay, and the void left has been built up in brick-
work. In consequence, the beam imposes a point load on the wall, and this can lead to the
development of fractures in the wall under the beam. Repairs carried out in the nineteenth
century were often indescribably shoddy.
Finally, the extent of beetle infestation must be investigated. In oak timbers the
important borer is, of course, the death watch beetle, because this infestation is almost
always secondary to fungal decay. If the surveyor learns that the timbers have been treated
by a commercial servicing firm he should ascertain precisely what work was done. In-situ
insecticidal treatments carried out by inexperienced operatives can result in important struc-
tural members being more severely weakened by the remedial measures than any damage
that might have been done by the beetle infestation. For example, in one case all the main
floor beams of a school assembly hall had been bored close to both edges, and almost for
the full depth of the beams, at regular intervals throughout their length; the borings were
8 mm (S iI6 inch) in diameter. Since the beams were oak the boring would not have
materially assisted the spread of the insecticide in the timber, but the effective width of the
beams had been reduced by about 50 mm (2 inches) which had an important influence on
the load-carrying capacity of the floor.
Bath and WC floors
Fungal decay in bathroom floors from plumbing leaks and persistent condensation should
always be suspected, particularly where floors have an impervious covering, or worse, where
impervious tiles are stuck to the timber floor. Wet rot and furniture beetle attack are often
found around the base of the WC pan.
The surveyor is in a real difficulty when he encounters a solid bathroom floor in a house
where the floors of other rooms on that floor are ordinary timber floors. In a reconnaissance
survey, there is usually no means of determining how the floor has been constructed. The
likelihood that it has been properly constructed, with an adequate damp-proof membrane,
cannot be assumed. As often as not in smaller properties, the structural floor members will
be timber joists with mass concrete between the joists. This then supports a screed of up to
38 mm (Ilh inches) thick over the whole floor, on which the finish of tiles will have been
laid. Water is very likely to have found its way through the tiles and screed, so that the
timber joists may have become infected with dry rot. All the surveyor can do is to search
for any symptoms of dry rot anywhere in the bathroom or in the ceiling underneath, and
for cracks in the tiles. If there is a panelled bath the bath panel should be removed so that
the state of the floor under the bath can be inspected. In his report, the surveyor should
draw attention to the advisability of establishing the construction of the floor, if necessary,
by breaking up a small area under the bath. The risk is that by the time timber dry rot
becomes manifest, the floor may be in imminent danger of collapse.
Floor repairs
In old houses with wide oak and elm floorboards it has often been necessary to patch such
floors because of excessive sapwood edges, which were destroyed by Lyctus and furniture
beetle infestation over the years. This is no more than normal wear and tear. The patching
of softwood floors of later date may be of much greater importance, depending on where
the patches are located. For example, two or three 'new' floorboards against external walls
and particularly under windows, may be an indication that it has been necessary to deal
with an outbreak of either dry or wet rot. It is imperative to lift such new boards and to
make a thorough examination of the joists and wall plates underneath. This precaution
has often revealed that the repair work has not been carried out properly, and it may
lead to the discovery of a continuing attack that the surveyor could not possibly have
detected in the course of a reconnaissance survey, at any other point in the property.
One such case led to the discovery that dry rot existed in the ground and basement
floors, but only after linings around window openings were dismantled and substantial
areas of wall plaster had been hacked off. The remedial works at that time cost close
on £2000. It is just such features, apparently insignificant in themselves, that should put
a surveyor 'on enquiry'. The inclusion of 'escape' clauses in the survey report would be
unlikely to provide any defence if the areas of patched flooring ought to have been seen.
Admittedly vendors are often not prepared to allow fitted carpets to be lifted, but if then
are factors that give rise to suspicions, for example, scoured brickwork behind downpipes,
or hardboard or plywood panels under windows, then the surveyor should advise his clien1
not to complete negotiations for purchase if permission is not granted for a reasonablf
amount of opening up, unless the client is prepared to risk having to spend substantia
sums of money later.
Floors 43
Attic floors and conversions
Since attics and store rooms are accommodated within the roof, it is important to check
that their formation has not weakened the roof construction. To obtain adequate head
room in the attic, collars almost invariably have to be fixed more than halfway up the roof
slope. In these cases, resistance to the outward thrust of the roof is dependent on the floor
or ceiling joists tying in the feet of the rafters. Provided these joists are at right-angles to
the roof slopes, and that they are fixed to the feet of the rafters, spreading of the roof will
be restrained. The joists must be adequate to support the loads from the internal partitions
parallel with the joists, and the weight of the ashlaring walls. Further, the rafters must be
of adequate section, and adequately supported by purlins, to ensure that the roof load is
not transmitted via the ashlaring walls to the floor. The surveyor must also check that
any trimming of rafters, to accommodate dormer openings, has not weakened the roof
construction. In smaller properties with simple double pitch roofs, there should be no
problem, but in old properties it may be found that the floor is framed-that is, there is a
main longitudinal beam in which subsidiary joists at right-angles are housed. As with such
framed floors at lower levels, the main beam, although often of considerable size, may not
be adequate for the very substantial floor load it has to carry. Moreover, the main beam is
not always parallel with the ridge, but at right-angles to it. In this case the feet of the rafters
may not be tied adequately by the subsidiary joists.
In large houses the attics frequently present more complex structural problems. Often the
roof slopes are mansard slopes, with a large area of flat roof between, supported in part off
load-bearing internal partitions. In houses 100 years old or more, the floors of large rooms
will almost certainly be framed, where the main beams will often bear on to the external
walls, usually under a parapet gutter. It is imperative to check the condition of the ends of
these beams, and the condition of the wall plates and the feet of rafters, even in the course
of a reconnaissance survey. In a detailed structural survey the position and dimensions of
all the floor timbers must be plotted on the floor plan of the attic floor. The housing of the
subsidiary joists in the main beam must always be investigated. Moreover, the main beams
of ancient buildings were never seasoned timber when fixed, and a 300 x 300 mm (12 x 12
inch) beam, particularly of oak, will have shrunk appreciably with the passage of time, and
serious splits or shakes may have developed. It is not unusual to find that as a result of
shrinkage, the subsidiary joists are no longer adequately housed in the main beam.
When the whole of the roof void has been used for attic accommodation, one room is
likely to house the cold storage tank or tanks. It should be borne in mind that plumbing on
the upper floors of older properties may well have been installed long after the house was
built, and hence the adequacy of the tank room floor for supporting the substantial load of a
large tank warrants close investigation. In the larger country houses, particularly if the water
supply originally was not mains water, the cold storage tanks are often of alarming capacity.
Tanks of 9000-13 600 litres (2000-3000 gallons) capacity are by no means exceptional, rep-
resenting a dead load of 9-13.6 tonnes, apart from the weight of the tank. Such large tanks
may be of lead or even slabs of slate, adding still more to the load on floors not designed
for such abnormal loading. It will usually be found that, at best, an attempt has been made
to distribute the weight of the tanks, although often by means that will horrify a structural
engineer. Timber in the vicinity of the tanks must be examined for evidence of decay, and the
route of overflow pipes to the outside should be followed. This precaution on one occasion
brought to light the fact that the end of the main beam of the framed tank room floor was
in an advanced state of decay, as indicated by the size of the fruiting bodies of Serpula.
The surveyor will obviously look for evidence of furniture beetle infestation in the attic
floors. If the property is more than fifty years of age it is more than likely that there will be
no continuing active attack on articles in the attic rooms. In light rooms, as opposed to roof
voids and the voids behind ashlaring walls, the colour of the frass is a useful indication as
to whether the infestation is still active, and a search for dead beetles may be rewarding.
Where the attic floor covers a large area there are likely to be lantern lights, and these
require close inspection, including a further visit to the flat roof above to check on the
condition of the flashings to such lights. It will often be found today that attic floors of
many of the larger country houses have not been occupied for some years, being used only
for storing discarded furniture, packing cases and other articles that may have been much
better burned. Since no one has occasion to visit the attic floor regularly, serious structural
deterioration may occur without the owners being aware of anything amiss, and this is
something that the surveyor should have very much in mind when inspecting unoccupied
attic accommodation. Often such floors were used for staff rooms and elaborate precautions
may have been taken to render them sound-proof, usually by pugging supported on battens
or thin boards 50-75 mm (2-3 inches) below the floorboards. This pugging is normally hair-
lime mortar, but many different materials have been used, including sawdust. When there
is absorbent pugging under the attic floors, rainwater may often have been getting through
defects in the roof covering at several points over a long period, without the owners being
aware of the fact. Hence, unless the survey is being carried out on a wet day, the flooring
of all unoccupied attic rooms should be searched for tell-tale water stains, and such stained
floorboards must be taken up and a thorough search made for any traces of fungal attack.
The points of ingress of water must also be traced.
In one case sound-proofing took the form of a thick layer of felt under the attic
floors which, with the passage of time, had become the breeding ground of clothes moths
and carpet beetles in enormous numbers. Insecticidal sprays in the bedrooms underneath
having failed to keep the moth population in check, entomologists of the Pest Investigation
Laboratory were consulted. They recommended inspecting the voids behind ashlaring on the
attic floor, where the felt introduced for sound-proofing was found to have been reduced
to little more than particles of fluff. It was necessary to take up the whole of the flooring
to remove the remains, sprinkling insecticidal powder in large quantities between the floor
joists before re-laying the flooring.
On completing his survey of the attics, the surveyor should check that all windows,
and doors or dormers giving access on the roof, have been shut and properly fas-
tened.
Skirtings
The importance of checking on the condition of skirtings against external walls must be
stressed, because buckling is often the first indication of the presence of fungal decay. In
close-carpeted rooms the skirtings may also provide evidence of the existence of furniture
beetle infestation. As a paint finish provides some protection against egg-laying of wood
borers, any unpainted skirting should be inspected for signs of attack. Skirtings should also
be tested to ascertain whether they are of timber or plaster. If made of plaster when the
floors are joist floors, this may indicate that old timber skirtings have had to be renewed
in plaster because of earlier decay. The life of the timber floor in these cases should be
suspect, even if no decay can be detected.
Floors 45
Cellars and basements
These must be inspected thoroughly, particularly if soil below ground level has not been
dug out to provide an external open 'area' around the perimeter walls. In practice it is
rare to find a continuous open area, and damp conditions are therefore common. This is
because it is exceptional in older properties for there to be a vertical damp-proof course
between the soil and the brick or masonry wall below ground level. If conditions generally
are damp, the base of walls should be inspected in a strong light for any tell-tale marks
indicating periodical flooding.
It is a costly matter to make a really damp cellar dry, because the only certain solution is
to tank the cellar, usually with asphalt. This will entail raking out the joints in the brickwork
or masonry to provide a key for a rendering coat, trowelled smooth, to receive the asphalt.
It is then necessary to apply a loading coat, to keep the asphalt in position. The thickness
of this depends on the degree of dampness and the depth of the cellar. Before tanking the
walls the cellar floor must be dealt with similarly. That is, the floor must be prepared to
receive asphalt, which is taken up the walls to ensure a continuous impervious membrane.
The asphalted floor will require a loading coat of reinforced concrete of adequate thickness
to resist the pressure of water when the water table in the soil is high.
If cellars are no more than about 2400 mm (8 ft) below ground level, and the water table
is generally below floor level in the cellar, a 102 mm (4 inch) brick skin built about 50 mm
(2 inches) back from the cellar walls, and back filled with concrete, is likely to suffice. If
however, there is any likelihood of the water occasionally rising 2-3 metres (6-10 ft), the
internal support for the asphalt needs to be a reinforced concrete box, designed to withstand
the full thrust on the floor and walls. Some cellars are equipped with self-priming pumps
to deal with recurring water percolation. Apart from the fact that these can break down,
allowing water to rise dangerously high in the cellar, the cutting in and out of the pumps
can be annoying if they are located beneath one of the reception rooms.
It is unwise to tank such a cellar in the manner described above unless the source of
percolating water is first traced. If percolation occurs because of a rise in the water table
following heavy rain, the effect of tanking the cellar may be to cause water to rise above
the oversite in those parts of the house where there are no cellars, and the result of tanking
is then to make the rest of the house damper than before.
If it is necessary to have a pump in the cellar, it is essential to make exhaustive
investigations regarding the possibility of flooding. The past history of a property can be
misleading if land that previously belonged to the house is sold off. If the land includes a
stream, a previous owner has often been in a position to divert water by means of sluices,
to prevent flooding of the house, but when these head waters are in separate ownership the
new owner may be deprived of such facilities, and the risk of flooding becomes very much
greater. Although it is helpful to make enquiries from local residents, the surveyor should
not rely on such information but should consult the Water Authority for the area.
If there is no ceiling in the cellar the ends of joists housed in external walls should be
probed. Frames to window openings and chutes should also be examined carefully, particu-
larly for evidence of fungal decay. Some cellars have brick or stone vaulted ceilings which,
structurally, may be entirely satisfactory, but this usually means that there is very little
space between the top of the vaults and the underside of the ground-floor flooring. In such
circumstances the surveyor should pay particular attention to the flooring above the vaulted
cellar ceilings. This will be necessary to ensure that lack of ventilation under the floor is not
causing the build-up of high relative humidities in the timbers. If the boards or strips are
tight and the surface of the floor is at all wavy, there. may well be fungal decay in the joists.
Cellars and basement floors
The problems likely to be encountered in basements are similar to those that occur on the
ground floor of properties without basements, but rising damp, and decay in timber floors,
skirtings, door linings, and frames are likely to be more general, even in otherwise well-built
properties. Basements are invariably partly below ground level, but if intended to be used
as living accommodation there is usually an open area all around the perimeter walls, below
ground level. Frequently, however, these areas are not sufficiently deep to permit adequate
underfloor ventilation for suspended timber floors and thus may encourage fungal attack.
Such conditions may also cause secondary infestation by wood-boring weevil. The measures
to be taken to overcome the decay will eliminate weevil infestation without the necessity
for insecticidal treatment.
If there are no open 'areas', rising damp problems will extend much higher up the walls
than in ground-floor rooms with no damp-proof courses, and large areas of wall plaster may
well be perished. The surveyor should be suspicious of basement walls covered in whole or in
part with 'matchboarding', a not infrequent solution fifty or so years ago when timber was
relatively cheap. Although such boarding may be fixed to horizontal grounds, it is probable
that the grounds, if not the matchboarding itself, will contain wet rot. The boarding should
be probed for decay and even if none is located, the surveyor should nevertheless record
that covering damp walls with matchboarding is not a permanent solution and the risk of
decay developing later is great.
If it is intended to use basements below ground level as habitable rooms, the minimum
satisfactory solution is to hack off existing wall plaster, applying 'Romanite' lathing or
similar to the walls before re-plastering. The client should be warned that re-plastering in the
basement, or for that matter, the laying of solid floors, will cause appreciable delay, because
basement rooms are not as well ventilated as ground-floor rooms, and the drying of plaster,
concrete, or even a new screed on an existing concrete floor, may take twice as long.
Evidence of patching of joist floors should be searched for and floorboards should be
lifted to check whether they are original. If the boards are more than about 140 mm (5 1/2
inches) on face, and the quality of the timber is good, the flooring is almost certainly of
some age, but the type of nails should settle any doubt. Taking up floorboards also permits
the depth between the underside of the floor and the top of the oversite to be determined,
and the type and nature of the oversite. If the present floor is sound but not original, the
surveyor should stress in his report that the further life of the floor must be regarded as
uncertain and, ultimately, it will be necessary to renew the floor again, and then a solid
floor should be substituted. An important factor affecting the life of boarded basement
floor (apart from the type of floor covering) is the nature of the oversite. Original base-
ment flooring has been found in houses eighty years of age where there was no concrete,
and poor underfloor ventilation, but the subsoil was gravel. Similarly constructed floors in
clay areas might well last not more than twenty years. The depth between the underside of
the floor and the oversite affects the cost of laying solid floors, but the type of floor finish
selected is the major cost factor.
Even if there is good oversite concrete but no membrane, and reasonable ventilation
under the basement floors, the surveyor should warn against laying thermoplastic cover-
ings on top of an existing timber basement floor. If there is no oversite concrete and poor
Floors 47
underfloor ventilation, he should make it clear that a new owner would be well advised
to budget for laying solid floors within a few years. In modernising an existing basement
kitchen by installing elaborate wall fittings and a sink unit, the prudent course is to lay a
solid floor at the same time.
In recommending the laying of solid floors, attention should be drawn to the importance
of not bridging the horizontal damp-proof course in the walls. There should be an imper-
vious membrane in the solid floor, either 500 gauge polythene on top of the hardcore, or a
membrane sandwiched between two 75 mm (3 inch) layers of concrete, or one laid on top
of the concrete but under the porous screed. Before laying polythene on hardcore, the latter
should be levelled with sand or lean-mix to ensure that the membrane is not punctured when
laying the concrete. If the membrane will be level with the existing horizontal damp-proof
course in the walls, the joint should be raked out so that the membrane in the floor can be
tucked into this joint to provide a continuous impervious barrier in both floor and walls.
If, however, it must be positioned either below or above the damp-proof course in the walls
because of the finished floor level required, the floor membrane must extend up or down
the wall so that it can be tucked into that joint. These points are discussed in BRE Digest
54 'Damp-proofing solid floors'. Even if certain parts of the basement have apparently
adequately ventilated boarded floors, there will probably be some areas of solid floor with
a variety of finishes, for example, brick on edge, stone slabs, quarry tiles, or only concrete.
Such areas are likely to interfere with through and cross-ventilation, and the surveyor should
look in cupboards against internal partitions for grilles let into the floor. Grilles against
internal partitions opposite external walls help to prolong the life of a poorly ventilated
floor but, if located in cupboards, they may be of little assistance.
In the larger, older urban houses, areas of wood-block flooring may be encountered in
the basement. The whole of such floors should be carefully inspected for loose blocks, traces
of decay, and water stains. The adhesives used for sticking down the wood blocks tend to
become brittle with age and if the oversite is damp, the life of a wood-block floor may be
short. When it is necessary to take up and renew such a floor, cleaning off the remains of
the adhesive, which is essential, adds appreciably to the cost.
Having checked on walls, floors, skirtings and external joinery, door frames and linings
should be thoroughly inspected for any traces of decay. This will often spread up behind
door linings, much higher than any rising damp, even up to the head of the opening
because humidity levels will be higher in the voids between the back of the linings and the
reveals of the door opening.
The services should be inspected as on other floors, but in addition, the surveyor must be
on the look-out for drains under basement floors. They should be in cast iron or clayware
surrounded in concrete. Manholes within basements should be of a superior type and be
properly sealed. Often in older properties the drains under the floor are ordinary salt glazed
clay pipes and the manholes may well not meet the requirements of the Environmental
Health or Building Control Officers.
Underground room regulations
Basement rooms used in the past for human habitation may fall short of the requirements
of present-day regulations, and the surveyor should point out that the Environmental Health
Officer has powers to prohibit the use of some or all parts of the basement for human
habitation unless substantial and expensive alterations are made.
Dampness may be stopped by laying solid floors, incorporating an impervious membrane,

and replastering both external walls and internal partitions on 'Romanite' lathing or similar.
Light and ventilation may cause difficulty if it is not possible to enlarge open 'areas' in
front of external walls because such walls are too close to the street or the boundaries of the
property. Local Authorities may require the execution of specified works or repair, or, if
they are satisfied that the accommodation is unfit for human habitation and is not capable
at a reasonable expense of being rendered so fit, may invite the owner to put forward his
proposals for bringing the rooms up to the required standard. In certain circumstances the
Local Authority may not be satisfied with re-plastering on 'Romanite' lathing, and may
insist, in addition, on the provision of a horizontal damp-proof course. Until the work
has been done, and approved by the Authority's officers, the basement accommodation
cannot be used. Failure to satisfy the Authority may result in the issue of a Closing Order
on certain rooms, or even the whole basement. Owners have often embarked on conversion
operations without obtaining planning permission or building regulation approval, and these
conversions may not be acceptable to the Authority's officers. A new owner intending to
continue to use the basement as converted must be warned about this. The Authority's
officers have powers to inspect even when it has not been necessary to call them in about
proposed alterations. If an officer is refused permission to inspect, a formal application for
permission may be served, and, in the last resort, the Authority can obtain a court order.
Sound-proofing of floors and partitions
The surveyor is not infrequently asked to advise on the sound-proofing of floors and
partitions, for which there is rarely an easy solution and, in many properties, it is imprac-
ticable other than at prohibitive cost. As regards floors, there are two sources of noise to
be circumvented, namely, transmitted noise, from walking overhead, and air-borne noises.
The former can usually be reduced to an acceptable level with thick underfelts and thick
carpets on the upper floors. The cutting out of air-borne noises is much more difficult
and is dependent on mass or weight, which was the usual practice in the larger houses of a
hundred years ago or more. In such houses it was usual to interpose a 50-75 mm (2-3 inch)
layer (pugging) of hair lime mortar between the floorboards and the ceilings underneath.
An alternative to hair lime mortar was a 75 mm (3 inch) thick layer of sand. It will be
appreciated that a 75 mm (3 inch) layer of sand can add a substantial dead load of about 200
kg per sq. metre (40 lb per sq. ft) to the floor, and few first floor joists were of sufficient
section to support such an additional load for long periods. In addition to a sound-absorbing
material between the floorboards and the ceilings, the laying of an independent floor on
top of the first floor is a further benefit to reduce sound transmission. Further guidance on
improving sound insulation is given in BRE Digest 266 'Sound insulation of party floors'
and BRE Digest 293 'Improving the sound insulation of separating-walls and floors'.
5 Walls
External walls may be of stone, flints, cob walling, brickwork, half-timber, weather-
boarding, vertical tile hanging or shingles. Solid brickwork can be rendered externally with
a lime and sand mix, or, more recently, with a cement, lime and sand mix. If trowelled
smooth, whether marked in courses to simulate stone walling or left plain, the finish is
usually called stucco. In smaller domestic work, pebbles are frequently incorporated in
the second coat of rendering. The pebbles may be mixed in the second coat before it is
applied, when the finish is called rough cast or wet dash finish. Alternatively, the pebbles
may be pressed into the second coat after it has been applied and before it has set, this is
pebble dash rendering.
Stone walls
In many parts of the UK and abroad, stone has been widely used as a building material
but, except in repairs and for more important buildings, it has largely been superseded by
brick for reasons of cost. Building stones are naturally formed rocks, quarried or mined
to provide building material. There are four basic types: granite, marble, sandstone and
limestone. These stones are composed of various minerals which are inorganic substances,
crystalline in structure and of different definable chemical composition. The age of these
rocks is measurable in hundreds of thousands or millions of years, but once quarried and
exposed to the air, they begin to deteriorate. The exposed faces can be worn away by the
effect of wind, rain, high and low temperatures, sulphur and other gaseous impurities in
the atmosphere of urban and industrial areas. The effective life of some may be less than
100 years, whereas granites and several of the harder sandstones last some hundreds or even
thousands of years, for example, the granite blocks of Stonehenge, the marble temples of
ancient Greece, and the pyramids of Egypt.
Granites are course-grained rocks containing free quartz, the other main constituent
minerals being feldspar and mica. Granites have a wide range of colours and the precise
49
mineral content varies with the region. All are known for their durability. In the UK,
granites are quarried in Devon and Cornwall, parts of Westmorland and in several areas
in the Highlands of Scotland. Some granites can take a polish finish.
Marble is a stone in the metamorphic rock class for it has been subjected to incredible
pressure and heat, causing a structural change in the material to take place. Marble is a hard
and durable material but sometimes can be weakened by veins of coloured minerals which
run through the stone. Marble takes an excellent self polish, similar to granite. However,
it is attacked by acids and its finish can suffer in polluted atmospheres. Most marble is of
foreign import from such places as Belgium, Italy, Greece, Spain and Portugal.
Sandstones are among the most durable building stones and consist chiefly of quartz
grains (that is, pure sand) bound together with mineral solutions of dolomitic, ferruginous,
or siliceous cements. Small amounts of other minerals, particularly iron compounds, give
them their distinctive colour, which may be grey, green, yellow, brown or red. They are
widely distributed in central and northern England, the borders of Wales and in Scotland.
Probably the best known is York stone, which varies appreciably in colour, texture and
strength. It is known for its hardness and resistance to crushing, which explains why it is
virtually always specified for templates, padstones and bedstones.
Limestones contain mainly calcium carbonate, but they differ considerably in character
and durability. Chalk, for example, is a limestone, being almost pure calcium carbonate.
Limestones vary appreciably in hardness depending on geographical area. That in south-
eastern England is soft and only used locally as a building material, whereas chalk from
northern England, Scotland and Ireland is reasonably hard. Bath stone is relatively soft
and although it hardens on exposure, most forms do not last well when exposed to urban
conditions. Portland stone is also a limestone which, properly selected, is one of the most
durable stones available.
There are a number of quarries producing granites, sandstones and limestones
and these are listed with suppliers, fixers, cleaners and restorers in the Handbook &
Directory of Members of the Stone Federation, (S2 New Cavendish Street, London, WIM
SAD). The 19S6 directory has 122 suppliers of limestones, 103 suppliers of sandstones,
26 suppliers of slate and SO suppliers of marble and granite. In addition to these facts
the handbook contains information on the use of sealants in stone buildings, guidance
notes on the use of stone, standard specification clauses and a useful bibliography of
publications on natural stone.
Identification of all the varieties of stone is beyond the scope of architects or surveyors,
although those who practise in districts where the local stone is extensively used will no
doubt recognise the two or three characteristic varieties. Even in a reconnaissance survey
of a stone building, the stone should be named and an indication given of its wearing
qualities. If the surveyor is not a specialist, he should obtain his information from a
competent firm of stone-masons.
Stone walls may be built in courses with all the stones in anyone course of the same
height but not necessarily of the same length. Also, stones may be in random sizes, either
square, rectangular or irregular in shape. It is not unusual to find occasional stones equal
in height to two or even three courses-these are called jumpers. The exposed faces may
be rock faced, which is the natural surface of the stone as found in the quarry, but freshly
fractured, when it is supplied as random rubble. Alternatively, the exposed face may be
worked with mason's tools to give a variety of finishes. Stone finished to a smooth surface
is known as ashlar, whether built in courses or as random work. Some examples of stone
walling are shown in figure 10.
Walls 51
- I-
- r--
VI
Figure 10 Stone walling

Only a small proportion of stone external walls are likely to be built in solid work,
bonded from face to face. This is particularly true of thick walls, 750-900 mm (2 ft 6
inches to 3 ft), of older buildings. Behind the face, whether rubble or ashlar, there is likely
to be a core, often of inferior material. Modern stone buildings usually have no more than
a cladding of stone 100-150 mm (4-6 inches) in thickness, backed by brickwork or other
building materials. The surveyor can rarely establish what is behind the stone face in other
than modern buildings with joist floors. If there is room to crawl under the suspended
ground floor it may be possible to see the interior faces of the external wall, then at air
vents positions, the core material may be identified.
When reporting on the condition of the wall, the state of the pointing is very important.
In recommending cleaning an old stone wall, washing with water should be discouraged.
This is because much damage to the internal face of thick walls and to timber housed in
such walls has been caused by excessive use of water, often before open joints have been
re-pointed. An entirely satisfactory finish can be achieved on rubble walls without using
water. The loose face must be removed by scaling off and brushing down. This will reveal
any small areas or single perished stones that have to be cut out and replaced by matching,
irregular-shaped stones. Final cleaning down, including removal of blackened areas, is
done by lightly tooling the face of the stones with a mason's hammer. For re-pointing, a
mix of 1 part of cement to 3 parts of hydrated lime and 12 parts of stone dust is suitable
for ashlar, dressed stone and all stonework with thin bed joints. In random rubble walls
the joints are often wide, and frequent re-pointing may have resulted in the arrises of the
stones becoming lost. The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) at 37
Spital Square, London El 6DY, has produced a great deal of literature on treatment and
remedial work to old stone walls.
Flint walls
Flints are one of the purest forms of silica, which occur in veins in certain geological
formations, particularly natural chalk. They are typically grey in colour and covered
with incrustations. Although drab in appearance, they are extremely hard and resistant to
exposure. Where available locally, flints were extensively used for cottages, farm houses,
churches and boundary walls. They were set in mortar, usually with quoins, and dressings
to window and door openings in stone or brickwork. Building with a random-sized material
is a laborious process, calling for true craftsmanship but, when wages were low, it was
economical to use the local material. With the development of transport facilities and
low-cost machine-made bricks and concrete blocks, the advantages are no longer sufficient
to offset the high cost of labour and materials. Flints are little used today, except in repairs
or enlargement of existing buildings.
Pise de terre and cob walls
Soils with cohesive qualities were extensively used in many parts of the world for walling.
Basically, pise construction is well-rammed soil containing several constituents, including
a high· sand content, sufficient clay to bind the soil and improve compressibility, and then
enough silt to produce a rough grading of material. Various construction methods were
used, for example, sometimes the material was consolidated in situ by ramming using timber
Walls 53
shuttering, and sometimes it was made into blocks and built as brickwork. Pise construction,
incorporating modern improvements, will continue to have severe limitations, such as the
necessity for craftsman to work the material, the need for a generous eaves overhang to
provide protection from the rain and, finally, the demand for proper maintenance in respect
of rainwater disposal arrangements. In the UK it should be regarded as suitable only for
sheds, garden houses, apple stores, and the like.
Cob walling, associated with certain parts of the UK such as Kent, for example, involves
differing techniques. Materials are ground chalk or clay and straw mixed with water,
compacted into a soft but coherent mass. The cob wall requires a footing wall of brick or
rubble, 450-600 mm (18-24 inches) wide, raised 225 mm (9 inches) above ground level. It
is then raised in courses about 300 mm (12 inches) high.
Brick walls
Bricks have been used for hundreds of years in all parts of the world where suitable soils exist
for their manufacture. The raw material clay or shale consists mainly of aluminium silicate,
derived mostly from the decomposition of felspathic rocks. Natural clay deposits vary in
chemical composition, depending on the proportions of their different mineral constituents.
Deleterious salts in some clays, particularly gypsum, iron sulphide and magnesium sulphate,
affect the durability of bricks when exposed to the weather. There are very considerable
differences in properties of bricks from different types of clay, for example, the extremely
hard Staffordshire blue engineering bricks, and, say, the flettons made from Oxford clay.
A wide variation also occurs in bricks from the same district, or even from a single batch,
depending on the thoroughness of the firing.
Bricks have also been made from mixtures of sand and lime which, after pressing into
the required shape, are heated in steam to give them strength. These sand-lime (calcium
silicate) bricks are produced in qualities suitable for internal, external, and special-purpose
walls. Their resistance to damage by frost is related closely to their strength. They do not
cause efflorescence trouble, but suffer a larger drying shrinkage than do clay bricks and
this can cause cracking in large panels of brickwork. If the mortar is weaker than the
bricks, the cracks follow the mortar joints, whereas with strong mortar, the cracks may
run through bricks and joints indiscriminately. It is important when investigating cracks
in walls built of sand-lime bricks to recognise the cracking pattern associated with such
bricks. It is often the case that cracks are attributed to foundation movement, when in
fact the amount, size, disposition and the age of the cracks together with the brick and
mortar type and the size of the brick panel investigated, clearly indicate that shrinkage of
the walling material is the true cause.
Concrete bricks or blocks are also widely used in many parts of the UK. These are
made from Portland cement and sand and have the same drying shrinkage characteristics
as sand-lime bricks. Some concrete blocks are made with dense aggregate, and others with
light-weight aggregate, or in an aerated form. Special concrete blocks made with natural
stone aggregate in the facing layer are known as 'cast-stone'. The best of these may, at a
distance, be mistaken for natural stone. They share with concrete bricks the tendency to
promote cracking at the mortar joints.
Bricks are available in many shades of white, grey, yellow, brown, red, green, blue,
purple, black, and multi-coloured, and in a variety of textures. A surveyor cannot be
expected to identify the many different kinds of bricks and, unless certain, he would be
wise not to name them. What is important is the condition of the brickwork and the state
of the pointing. He should particularly note the condition of bricks below the damp-proof
course, or if there are none, those at ground level and in exposed positions, for example, in
parapet walls and chimney stacks. It is advisable to test bricks in such positions with the
point of a sharp tool to establish that the surface is hard. Flaking or spalling calls for fur-
ther investigation. It is unwise to diagnose the cause of such defects from visual inspection
alone, for the trouble may lie in the inherent characteristics of the brick. The smooth-faced
stridently red, soft facing bricks so extensively used in the Victorian suburbs for example,
are particularly prone to flaking. Spalling may stem from the inclusion of a small proportion
of under-burned bricks, or it may be the result of frost damage. If only occasional bricks
are affected, they may be cut out, but their replacement can present considerable difficulties
if they are hand-made and from a brickyard no longer in production. Matching is then a
real problem, although a good builder's merchant can usually find a suitable replacement
or may know of a source of sound, second-hand matching bricks.
If there are large areas of defective brickwork, the surveyor must be extremely cautious
about remedial measures. If failure is the result of rising dampness, re-facing without
eliminating the root cause will not effect a long-term cure. If, however, the trouble stems
from the exposed nature of the site or the porous nature of the bricks, re-facing the bad
areas followed by rendering the whole wall may provide a lasting solution. It is important
in recommending rendering to specify a suitable mix, which should be weaker than the
background to which it is to be applied, see BRE Digest 196 'External rendered finishes'.
If it appears that the trouble stems from soluble salts in the bricks, chemical analysis is
necessary before deciding the appropriate remedial measures.
Defective pointing calls for careful examination. If the cause is deterioration of lime
mortar from age, it is important to stress that the mix for re-pointing must be as weak.
Now that the production of Lias lime has ceased, it is necessary to use a small quantity of
cement in the mix. When recommending re-pointing, advice about the mix should be given
because clients are apt to regard re-pointing as a simple maintenance item that can be left
to the local builder, without professional guidance. For old lime mortar brickwork, a mix
of 1 part of cement to 2 of lime and 8 of washed sand would. be appropriate, whereas for
brickwork in cement mortar a mix of 1:1: 4-6 would be more appropriate. BRE Digest 160
'Mortars for brickwork' gives helpful advice on jointing and pointing mortars. Particular
attention should be paid to small areas of re-pointing such as behind downpipes, or making
good in patches. Such re-pointing frequently appears sound at first sight and if tested, the
face may be found to be hard, but it can sometimes easily be dug out in strips because of
shrinkage of the mortar in the joint. The trouble usually stems from using too rich a mix,
but can result from failure to rake out the joints sufficiently first.
For domestic work today, cavity wall construction is used where the wall is built in two
leaves, with a 50-75 mm (2-3 inches) cavity between the leaves. In more substantial older
buildings of more than two floors, the inner leaf is often a full brick, or 215 mm (9 inches)
in width. Cavity wall construction can almost invariably be detected because the facing work
consists only of stretchers, but the thickness of the wall should be checked at window open-
ings to establish that the construction is true cavity work. In modern estate development,
the inner leaf is often built in timber, breeze or cellular concrete blocks which possess good
thermal insulation qualities. Cellular concrete blocks have the disadvantage of shrinking
appreciably as the building dries out, and plaster cracks are often a considerable problem.
When cavity wall construction was first used, the spacing of ties was apt to be rather
poor and, therefore, such walls may be far from stable. Severe corrosion of a number of
Walls 55
steel wall ties has also occurred causing extensive failure of several cavity walls, and this is
covered later in the chapter.
In addition to these cavity wall problems, where the wall plate is bedded on the outer
leaf of the wall and the feet of the rafters are not adequately tied, the thrust of the roof
may result in the top of the cavity wall tilting outwards, making the roof and the top floor
unstable if not actually dangerous.
Features for further investigation
Brick and masonry walls frequently reveal the changes a building has undergone. For
example, because of 'Window Tax' in olden days, it is not uncommon to see the outline of
a window with the frame and glass area built up in brickwork or stone. Window openings
may have become redundant for many other reasons and the old craftsman were often
content to build up the void without removing lintels or arches, jambs or sills. This has
sometimes resulted in old timber lintels or frames being sealed in, giving rise years later to
fungal decay or beetle infestation.
Extensions tended to be butted to the original work, instead of being properly bonded
in, and the resultant straight joints provide ready access for water. The positions of built-
up voids and straight joints should be noted for later careful examination of the internal
faces. Some alterations call for re-distribution of loads, and this problem did not always
receive the necessary attention with the result that settlements have subsequently occurred.
Such settlements require the fullest investigation. Scoured surfaces behind downpipes, algal
growths and areas of defective pointing should be recorded and any timbers housed in walls
in the vicinity investigated during the internal survey. Projecting string courses should be
viewed with suspicion since, with age, the weathered top edge may be worn away, resulting
in water being led into the wall. Balconies are another feature that warrant close attention.
Cracked sills may be particularly insidious in older buildings where large-sized timbers have
probably been used as grounds for window boards or panelling under windows. In one
case, a severe outbreak of dry rot was traced to defective external sills on the second floor
of a house for there was extensive weevil attack in the grounds, although this wood-boring
weevil is usually only found in decayed basement or ground floor timbers, and it is not
known to be capable of flight.
Weatherboarding and cladding
In some parts of the UK, particularly parts of Surrey and Kent, the external walls of
both cottages and more important buildings are often of weatherboarding on studding,
the internal faces being lath and plaster. If the buildings are old there is usually no
thermal insulation between the weatherboarding and the internal plaster face and no felt
behind the weatherboarding, unless it has been renewed in toto within the last fifty years
or so. If original, the weatherboarding will almost invariably be feather-edged European
redwood, usually painted.
In barns and in buildings where only part of the wall is of weatherboarding (usually
gable ends), the boarding may be random-width elm boards. Provided such buildings have
been well-maintained, including regular repainting and upkeep of gutters and downpipes,
they are often in remarkably good condition, largely because the softwood timber available
prior to the First World War was relatively free from sapwood, and hence will have escaped
serious furniture beetle attack. Inspection of these weatherboarded buildings presents very
real difficulties because the vital structural members (the studs) are hidden. In a building
one hundred years old or more it is most unlikely that there will be any continuing active
furniture beetle attack unless new timber has recently been introduced in repair, and old
flight holes are likely to have been concealed by frequent re-painting. When inspecting such
buildings the surveyor has very little to go on in assessing the soundness of the hidden tim-
bers. This makes it imperative to inspect roof voids thoroughly, and to take up floorboards
against external walls, as the condition and quality of roof timbers and joists will provide
some indication as to the probable condition of the studding.
When recommending thermal insulation to weatherboarded houses, changing domestic
habits should not be overlooked. Today, much more water vapour is produced within the
house from frequent baths, the use of tumble driers and similar appliances. This factor could
lead to condensation occurring within the studding which will be a problem. For kitchens
and bathrooms, it is advisable to recommend applying a vapour barrier on the warm side
of the wall in addition to the thermal insulation. A suitable finish to insulation board which
has been fixed to the wall would be foil-backed plasterboard.
In the USA and Canada most houses outside town centres are still timber-framed
with timber cladding, that is weatherboarding or shingles. Houses and bungalows built to
Canadian standard in this country are usually entirely satisfactory. Unfortunately, weather-
boarding has been used here for external sheathing without basic principles being properly
understood at the time, particularly in houses and blocks of flats where it was used as an
architectural feature, either from first floor joist level to the eaves, or in panels, usually
under windows. The cladding has been applied on battens to breeze concrete or cellular
concrete walls without a vapour barrier on the warm face of the wall. In addition, instead
of a breather-type paper behind the battens, a common mistake was to use a bituminous
felt paper or, even worse, an aluminium-backed felt, fixed between the battens and the
back of the boards. This effectively retarded drying out when water penetrated the face
of the boarding. Moreover, instead of traditional overlapping weatherboarding, V-jointed,
tongued and grooved boards were widely used. This was and still is permissible in the USA
and Canada, where the cladding is western red cedar or a similar decay-resistant softwood
and only breather-type papers were used. In the UK the timber was more often European
redwood containing an appreciable amount of sapwood, which was not at all resistant to
decay. Further, at this time, it was exceptional for the timber to be pressure-treated or
kiln-dried to an appropriate 15 per cent moisture content. In consequence, early failure of
such cladding was all too common.
As cladding is not a traditional method of construction in this country, other mistakes
occurred. Inferior pink primers were commonly used. These were rarely applied to top and
bottom edges and cross-cut ends, but sometimes to the back of the boards, as well as the
face, thus reducing the chances of escape of the excessive moisture originally in the timber.
This often resulted in early paint failures or fungal infection. Galvanised rather than alu-
minium nails were often used, or even ordinary wire cuts which produced early rust staining.
Nailing technique was often wrong, encouraging splitting of boards and loss of support.
Tongued and grooved boards have been known to be fixed upside down, that is, with the
groove for the tongue upwards, with the result that water ran down the face of the board and
into the groove for the tongue. European redwood, unless pressure-treated and kiln-dried,
should not be used as horizontal tongued and grooved boards. In preference, western red
cedar, kiln-dried to 15 per cent moisture content, followed by a deluge treatment with a 5
Walls 57
per cent solution of pentachlorophenol or similar, should be used. The boards should then
be stacked between battens to allow the carrier solvent to evaporate before being primed
on face and on the top and bottom edge and crosscut ends. One undercoat of paint on the
primed surfaces prior to fixing is recommended. In addition to using a breather-type paper
behind the pressure-treated battens, and aluminium nails for fixing, provision of adequate
ventilation behind the boarding must be provided.
V-jointed timber boarding on new property should be viewed with suspicion, particu-
larly if it is painted, indicating that the timber is almost certainly European redwood and
not western red cedar. Unless the surveyor is satisfied that the faults described above have
been avoided, and that the boarding, if European redwood, has at least received a dipping
treatment with an appropriate fungicide, he must stress that the life of the panels could
be very short. Moreover, if the V-jointed panelling is open to criticism, there may also be
faults in assembly of the external joinery. The surveyor should advise against purchase of a
property if he is not entirely satisfied with the V-jointed cladding, because, having found a
failure to appreciate the significance of certain vital design details, there may well be others
that he is in no position to discover, for example, an unventilated flat roof void, constructed
of inadequately treated timbers, and possibly with no vapour barrier.
Where combustible materials are permitted for external wall surfaces, plastic as an external
cladding material is becoming more prevalent, particularly for the modern timber-framed
house. Extruded rigid PVC sections in sheet or narrow board form has increasingly replaced
traditional timber cladding, because it is said to be maintenance free and relatively cheap.
The surveyor should inspect the fixings of such claddings as these can fail owing to the
high rate of thermal expansion of the PVC. Cracks may be evident around fixings where
supporting nails and screws have been driven home without allowing for movement to take
place via the preformed slots within the sections. In addition during cold weather, PVC
cladding will become brittle and thus more prone to impact damage.
Attention should be drawn in the survey report to the high cost of insurance of buildings
and their contents when the building is constructed of combustible material, that is, those
in other than brickwork or masonry.
Shingles
Wooden shingles involve the same principles as vertical or horizontal cladding. It is to be

presumed that the shingles will be 'rift-sawn' western red cedar, which is a very durable
timber, and they are usually fixed to horizontal or diagonal boarding. The Canadian
Authorities approve of the shingles being nailed direct to the sheathing, but there must
be a vapour barrier on the warm side of the wall, with the thermal insulation the vapour
barrier or between the studs.
Vertical tile and slate hanging
This treatment has been extensively used in some parts of the UK in both old and modern
housing. In old houses the tiles will be hand-made clay tiles, and the slates those commonly
used in the district as a roof covering. These are fixed to horizontal battens nailed to stud
walls. Before bituminous felt papers became available, no provision was made to prevent
penetration of water into the studding should tiles become dislodged. For insulation it was
not unusual to pack hay behind the tiles. Such buildings are as difficult to survey, if not
more so, as those with external weatherboarding, and for the same reason, the studding
is inaccessible. The surveyor must try to ascertain whether the tiles or slates are fixed with
timber pegs or nails and if these are still sound. The tiles or slates must be even more care-
fully scrutinised than those used as a roof covering because the backs cannot be seen. It is
important to look for evidence of patching. If there is extensive algal growth the battens
may have been damp for long periods, and may be decayed. Unless there are gaps where
tiles have slipped, allowing examination of the battens, the surveyor must either insist on
lifting a few tiles or slates, or advise his client to budget for having to strip the covering
and renew the battens at an early date. Improving the thermal insulation of such tile-hung
external stud walls calls for similar precautions to those recommended for weatherboarding.
Tile hanging, in particular, has continued to be used down to the present day, usually on
only part of some elevations, for example, from first-floor joist level to the eaves, or as
aprons under first-floor windows. The tiles of houses built prior to the Second World War
are likely to be fixed to studding, but usually with an impervious bituminous paper behind
the battens, and they require as careful an examination as in older houses. The tiles of houses
built after the Second World War are likely to be fixed on battens to breeze concrete blocks,
with the added hazard that the nails may become more rapidly corroded. Every effort must
be made to establish how the tiles are fixed.
Timber-framed buildings
The stability of the original timber-framed building, with brick or wattel and daub infilling,
is difficult to assess, since few of such framed walls are likely to be plumb and the signifi-
cance of bulges is not easy to determine. Moreover, the method of construction, with the
horizontal members housed in tenons at the ends of vertical posts, means that the original
construction cannot be restored when the tenons decay, short of shoring up the roof and
dismantling whole walls. Usually, recourse is had to iron straps to tie walls together. Exami-
nation of the external framework has to go hand in hand with the survey of the interior.
Outside, the condition of the sole plates and that of the ends of the vertical posts require
careful inspection, and the bottom edges of the sole plates should be probed for decay
which is likely to be of greater consequence than any death watch beetle infestation. If the
death watch beetle attack is still active the surveyor can be certain that the attacked timbers
contain appreciable fungal decay. Flight holes can be misleading, because many original
period cottages and houses were constructed of salvaged timbers from earlier buildings,
and the infestation may date from then. Had the attack continued for 200 or 300 years,
collapse would certainly have occurred long ago. For recognition of death watch beetle,
see appendix A. Woodworm (common furniture beetle) attack is unlikely to be significant,
because it will almost certainly be old attack, unless new timbers, particularly of softwood,
have been introduced in recent repairs. Probing quite heavily attacked surfaces may well
produce a shower of frass (borer dust), but this is unlikely to be evidence of continuing active
attack. It is much more important to examine the rims of flight holes with a pocket lens as
sharp rims and light-coloured frass spilling out indicate continuing attack which, in sound
as opposed to decayed wood, will be confined to the sapwood of oak and almost entirely
to the sapwood of softwoods. A surveyor should not accept instructions to survey these
traditional timber-framed buildings without some knowledge of timber identification. He
must be able to distinguish softwoods from hard woods and to identify the few hardwoods
Walls 59
normally used for the framing members, such as oak, elm and sweet chestnut. Identification
of the joists, particularly ceiling joists and rafters in smaller cottage properties, may present
greater difficulties because locally available poles of a variety of species were often used.
Modern methods of timber-frame construction were introduced from North American
and Scandinavian countries into the UK, in the 1960s. This type of construction consists of
panels of timber studwork clad in masonry or composite external veneers. The external
skins are not of themselves structurally significant, for the internal panels are self-supporting
and normally take the roof load. These internal load-bearing timber panels are protected by
timber sheathing, vapour barriers and breather papers.
Bad publicity in 1983 caused a sharp decline in timber-frame construction but recently
numbers have increased as public confidence has returned. The cause of the down-turn in
production was the publicising (perhaps overdone)of investigations which revealed a number
of defects in the construction, these defects included:
(a) High moisture contents in studwork, particularly in members close to the floor plate.
(b) Missing or defective vapour and breather papers.
(c) Cold-bridging and condensation.
(d) Inadequate or missing cavity closers (these prevent the spread of fire).
(e) Missing or inadequate wall ties.
When faced with a timber-framed house, initial observation may not indicate the
form of construction as the exterior may resemble the traditional brick and block
dwelling. Timber Research and Development Association (TRADA) information sheet No
10 'Structural surveys of timber frame houses' lists a number of details which will help
the surveyor to determine whether it is timber-frame construction or not. The information
sheet is also a comprehensive guide for the surveyor as it highlights the critical areas
of timber-frame construction which require particular attention when carrying out the
survey. When reporting on such houses, the surveyor must inform his client of the
problems of extending or altering the structure. And in order for the surveyor to advise
on alterations and the like, he must be knowledgeable about the construction. TRADA
information sheets No. 3 'Introduction to timber framed housing', and No. 5 : 'Timber
framed housing-Specification notes' are useful texts on the subject for the
surveyor.
Walls and floors
The surveyor will be concerned with internal partitions as well as the external walls.
He will want to establish the thickness of partitions, and whether they are of masonry,
brickwork, breeze, concrete or cellular-concrete blocks, or studding. He should ascertain
which are load-bearing partitions and which are not, and whether the latter are built off
the floorboards because this construction will add greatly to the cost of repairs should
he have to advise taking up and re-laying such a floor. With stud partitions, and even
more so if such partitions are true framed partitions incorporating some form of truss,
the surveyor should be on the look-out for any alterations that may have been carried
out. In many instances it is not unusual to find that some structurally vital truss member
has been cut through to form a doorway in a new position. As long as the precise
function of structural members is determined, it is perfectly feasible to cut off such
an important one as a principal rafter, provided the load it is carrying is properly

re-distributed.
Doorways out of square are an indication that settlements have occurred, but it is
not sufficient merely to record the fact. Even in a reconnaissance survey the cause of
the settlement must be established. For example, doorways to two facing bedrooms with
a corridor between were found to be out of square. This defect had developed because the
partitions on the ground-floor rooms beneath had been removed by a previous owner in
order to make one large reception room. Thus the partitions on the first floor had been
deprived of adequate support. In this case it was a matter of urgency to introduce steel
beams under the partitions to prevent the collapse of the floors. More often, distortion of
door openings can result from settlements in the foundations which occur from a variety of
causes. Settlements in walls, and particularly of lintels or brickwork over door and window
openings, may also be caused by decay in buried timbers such as bond timbers in walls and
timber lintels over openings.
It is vital in a detailed structural survey to check that partitions on upper floors are
immediately over partitions on the lower floors, although with large reception rooms on
the ground floor, the internal partitions on the upper floors may well be carried on large
beams in or just below the ceilings of the ground-floor rooms. The adequacy of such
beams must, of course, be checked. Surprisingly often, in larger houses of some age,
partitions on upper floors are not immediately above the partitions on floors below,
sometimes being off-set only a few inches, which careful measurement of the rooms alone
will reveal. In such cases, the problem of dividing up the accommodation differently on lower
floors becomes more difficult.
Damp-proof courses and rising damp
The surveyor should check that damp-proof courses exist; they are by no means always
easy to detect, for example, when they are obscured by mortar or by a cement and sand
plinth at the base of walls. In this position such plinths may defeat the purpose of the
damp-proof course by bridging it on the external face. In older dwellings, damp-proof
courses were compulsory under the 1875 Public Health Act and these should be at least
75 mm (3 inches) above the external ground level, whereas current Building Regulations
demand a minimum height of 150 mm (6 inches) and this is obviously preferable. Constant
feeding of flower beds at the base of walls, or the laying of concrete paving after a house
is built, not infrequently results in the horizontal damp-proof course being buried, and this
is something the surveyor must not fail to observe and record. If ground levels outside are
above floor levels inside, vertical damp-proof courses are as necessary as horizontal ones.
The search for vertical damp-proof courses will usually necessitate excavating, and should
be deferred until the condition of internal faces of the walls has been established.
Damp-proof courses serve a very necessary function although they are only found
in more modern buildings. Many buildings without them are, however, basically sound,
although there may be plaster problems in ground floor or basement rooms because of
persistent rising damp. This rising soil moisture draws up salts from the soil, which work
through to the face of the plaster. Being hygroscopic, the salts deposited on the face of the
plaster attract moisture at times of above average humidity, discolouring the decorations.
Persistent absorption of moisture by these salts, and subsequent drying out when the
humidity falls, cause wallpapers to peel and paint finishes to blister. Rising damp usually
Walls 61
(i) 50fL WILt ()f' AboY& p.P-c....

LE-'vt.L.
r .
lV)OI~\INUlt\ &E:-\Wf:t:,.N cf.'<'., f (Vi) No p.f'.c...-soLtO W.A.U..
PP-t<! .
Figure 11 Typical causes of rising damp

only rises to about 1050 mm (3 ft 6 inches) above the external ground level, unless the walls
are treated with a 'water-proof' paint externally or a 'water-proof' plaster internally, when
it may travel up higher. Such treatments provide no permanent cure unless taken up from
floor to ceiling. In most cases, the height attained by rising damp will depend on the pore
structure of the wall and the rate of evaporation. In this way the internal environmental
conditions will affect the symptoms and appearance of rising damp, for example, the
installation of central heating or the fixing of double glazing. The changed conditions
may lead the occupier to think that the problem of rising damp has been eliminated.
BRE Digest 245 'Rising damp in walls: diagnosis and treatment' stresses the importance
of distinguishing between rising damp and other causes of damp conditions. The length
of time of the attack might be indicated by smell, deteriorating decorations, efflorescence
and rot. If the problem is a recent one or the cause is intermittent, then these visible
indications may not be present. The diagnosis, however, may not be conclusive, and
the causes could be damp penetration due to defective construction, plumbing defects,
condensation or hygroscopic salts.
In addition to spoiling decorations, rising moisture can cause decay in skirtings
and panelling fixed to the wall, the decay usually being caused by a so-called wet rot
rather than dry rot. Attack may spread behind door and window linings to considerably
greater heights than moisture will rise in the solid walls. This will be due to the build-up
in the relative humidity of the still air behind such linings, providing ideal conditions for
fungal growth. Attack may even reach the head of a door opening although moisture in
the solid walls has only risen to about 1050 mm (3 ft 6 inches). Figure 11 illustrates
typical causes of rising damp.
When building costs were lower and the value of the property justified the outlay,
it was not unusual to insert horizontal slate or lead damp-proof courses where none
existed, working in short lengths of 600-900 mm (2-3 ft) at a time. Today, the process
is much simplified by the use of hand or power-driven saws to cut the slot into which the
damp-proof membrane is inserted. Modern damp-proof courses used in these situations
are half-hard or soft copper, two layers of bitumen felt, or high/low-density polythene
sheets, see BRE Digest 77 'Damp-proof courses'. The insertion of a horizontal damp-proof
course eliminates rising damp, but does not cure salt contamination. Even hacking off
contaminated plaster and re-plastering with special plasters may not completely eliminate
salt contamination of brickwork, for some salts are likely to continue working their way
through to the face of the new plaster, sometimes in as little as five years. One solution
is to batten out the walls with pressure-treated battens, to which a dry lining should
be fixed. This solution, however, may present numerous problems with openings,
skirtings, architraves and cornice members, apart from upheaval to the occupants
and high cost.
Various patented methods are claimed to eliminate rising damp, but for some of
these, for example, electro-osmotic processes, there are no impartial scientific data to
suggest that they effect a permanent cure. Several proprietary techniques which have
proved successful aim to produce a moisture barrier in the wall. These techniques involve
the injection of water-repellent substances in holes drilled at regular intervals along the base
of the wall. Basically, these measures rely on silicone solutions with water-displacing fluids
or siliconate-Iatex mixtures. As with the insertion of conventional horizontal damp-proof
course, the boring and injecting of walls does not overcome the problem of salt contami-
nation induced by prolonged rising damp which will have to be overcome as previously
outlined for dry lining.
Walls 63
Ventilation
Timber floors in ground floor or basement rooms require to be ventilated, and air vents
should be found in the perimeter walls below floor level. The surveyor should record the
position of such vents in the external walls, particularly noting whether the vents are all of
the same size and pattern. If they are of more than one size or pattern, suspicions should
be aroused. They may indicate a previous history of fungal decay, evidence of which should
certainly be searched for during the room-by-room survey of the basement and ground
floor rooms. The surveyor should check that air vents are at least 75 mm (3 inches) above
ground level, or that there is a sunken area, protected by a kerb, in front of them to ensure
that water is not led through on to the oversite. He should also check that no air vents are
obscured by dense vegetation on the external walls or by the soil having been raised above
them by enthusiastic gardeners. It is not sufficient merely to observe that there are air
vents, and in sufficient number. Each vent should be tested to establish that it is functional
and not blocked by a wall plate or joists on the internal face of the wall; this is where the
piece of stiff wire recommended earlier will be found invaluable. The surveyor must not be
misled by air bricks that are blocked on the inside by concrete when an original joist floor
has been replaced by a solid floor, without the air bricks being cut out and the wall built
up solid. Apparently sufficient air vents are no guarantee that ground or basement floors
are adequately ventilated beneath. There may be areas of solid floors interrupting through
or cross-ventilation and, in larger buildings, it is unlikely that air vents alone will secure
sufficient under-floor ventilation unless there is an impervious membrane in, under, or on
top of the oversite concrete. Such a membrane will eliminate rising soil moisture and so
reduce the likelihood of high relative humidities being built up under the floor. Provision
of an impervious membrane in the oversite concrete makes it all the more important to
ensure that water is not led through the walls on to the oversite, where it cannot escape by
seeping through the concrete into the hardcore underneath.
The subsoil is often all-important, for as previously ·mentioned, where it is gravel,
unventilated basement floors with no oversite concrete have been found to be still sound,
eighty years later. On the other hand, gravel provides an easy entrance for water and in
low-lying areas close to rivers, the water may on occasions rise above the gravel oversite.
Ground levels
The relationship between walls and the ground levels, outside and inside, is particularly
important and should be noted on the survey report. If the ground level outside is above
floor level inside, then there should be both a vertical and horizontal damp-proof course
to provide a continuous barrier to moisture. Ground or basement floors in such cases are
unlikely to be adequately ventilated and, unless they are solid, the possibility of appreciable
fungal decay in the floor timbers should be suspected. Ground levels outside may have an
important bearing on possible flooding, particularly if there are watercourses or streams
in the vicinity. It may be necessary to check with Local Authorities or Water Authorities
to establish whether or not a risk exists. It is not uncommon for apparently insignificant
streams to take very large quantities of water at times of abnormally heavy rain. The danger
from flooding is often increased in residential areas if such streams are taken under roads in
culverts. Failure to keep these culverts clear can result in the water rushing over the road,
., .
I
QilN1lt:61Nq. 0
·(:':'· ~JH t-Ht,
CGf'IN9 -6fcNb.
(
\
(vi) h1Olt>tLJe£:. WILL WN r:cwJ ;..

WALL 1lL lW1 \lllS Do\llNW~
Figure 12 Typical causes of penetrating damp
Walls 65
flooding property that might otherwise escape were the flood water to have kept to the
course of the stream. Where the ground slopes towards an external wall, the position of
air vents is important. If these are close to ground level, particularly if there is paving or
concrete against the external wall, there is a considerable risk that water may be led through
on to the oversite concrete. Water laying on the oversite is very liable to produce wet rot in
the floor joists and flooring even when there is an appreciable distance, for example, 600 mm
(2ft) between the oversite and the underside of the floor timbers.
Penetrating damp
Rain penetration will be established by the type, orientation and condition of the wall and
the pattern of internal wetting, for example, following a period of prolonged and heavy rain.
Older buildings with solid walls of poor quality (under-fired) bricks are very susceptible to
penetrating damp. Poor jointing and pointing will also increase the moisture penetration
of brickwork and stonework. Often the cause of penetrating damp will be a combination
of a number of such factors which together cr~ate the conditions suitable for the defect to
occur. Figure 12 illustrates typical causes of penetrating damp.
The surveyor must not miss the obvious when finding dampness on the inside wall
of a house; for example, leaking water pipes and defective roof coverings are the most
common instigators of damp penetration. In addition, broken downpipes and gutters,
poorly connected plumbing equipment and leaking domestic appliances are all potential
sources of moisture which can penetrate masonry. Plumbing in old properties is usually a
confusing tangle of pipes some of which may be buried within the walls, and old lead pipes
are frequent sources of minor leaks. Short overflow pipes can also create damp conditions
on windward elevations and therefore should be checked.
The surveyor must be able to differentiate between condensation and penetrating
damp, for a wrong deduction can lead to unnecessary expenditure, loss of confidence and
continuation of the problem.
The remedial work to be recommended for penetrating damp can only be specified with
confidence after exhaustive investigation. The cure may be one of the following:
(a) Clearing obstructions in the cavity-if cavity walling.

(b) A silicone water repellent treatment to the external surface (a short-term
solution).
(c) The application of rendering or cladding.
(d) Cutting out of porous bricks or stone and replacement with more durable
materials.
(e) Re-pointing with a suitable mortar.
(f) Injecting further insulation, if the cavity is insulated.
(g) Demolition and removal of faulty cavity insulation and proper
replacement.
With regard to cavity insulation, the effect of the inserted insulation will be to raise the
moisture content of the outer skin and to lower its temperature. These levels may be very
marginal and have little effect unless the outer skin is already deteriorating, in which case
an increased rate of deterioration might be anticipated.
Condensation
Condensation is a major problem with domestic properties built prior to the Second World
War, and with a number of high-rise concrete dwellings. It has also appeared in a number
of low-rise timber-framed houses, which were built in the 1960s and 1970s. Its occurrence
can be attributed to changing use of buildings, increased and fluctuating heating levels,
restricted ventilation by sealing off open fireplaces, draught proofing and the replacement
of poorly fitted windows and doors, and inappropriate design and poor workmanship.
Condensation can affect walls in two important ways. Firstly, it can create the envi-
ronment which promotes the decay of structural timbers by dry/wet rot, as well as beetle
infestation. Secondly, condensation (or to be more concise interstitial condensation) can
increase saturation levels within the wall, leading to timber decay in panel walls and, over
time, slow degradation of masonry walls, particularly the jointing material. Condensation,
its causes and remedies is covered in detail in BRE Digest 110 'Condensation' and in Digest
297 'Surface condensation and mould growth in traditionally-built dwellings'.
Defective rainwater goods
Improper maintenance, poor design and bad workmanship are reasons why rainwater
goods, such as gutters, downpipes and gullies, fail. Some of the most common problems
are blocked, cracked, broken and missing gutters and downpipes. These defects can lead to
water penetration of masonry at all levels. Evidence of such defects in rainwater goods is
best obtained during periods of rainfall. Alternat"ively, testing can be carried out by playing
a hose pipe across the roof and observing the effect. Leaks will become evident as well as
damp staining of the masonry.
The backs of downpipes should be examined. Most often they will not have been painted
for many years with the result that an apparently sound and well-maintained downpipe is
actually badly corroded or paper-thin at the back, if not completely split. The nature of
fixings for pipe nails should be noted and, if of timber, whether these fixings are still sound.
Walls should be examined for evidence of gutters and pipe runs having been re-routed, often
without removal of the old timber fixing plugs. Thus there may well be decay in timbers
housed in walls in the vicinity of these former runs.
Cooling flue gases
Water-vapour, when produced in large quantities in domestic flues, can lead to condensation
penetrating the chimney walls. In addition, salts and other products of combustion can be
carried by this moisture through the wall to appear as staining on plaster and decorations.
The risk of condensation occurring is greatest when coke, anthracite and similar slow-
burning fuels are burned in enclosed spaces such as boilers and continuous-burning grates,
but not with coal burned in open fireplaces. One reason why condensation occurs with
such appliances is that the temperature of the flue gases from slow-burning fuels is lower
at the top of the flue. Also, these gases are not drawn up the chimney by the fast moving
air currents that are so prevalent with open fires.
With the change over to electric fires and central heating, many fireplaces are sealed,
but not their flues. This can result in rain penetrating the flue and, with no heat to dry off
Walls 67
this rain, damp staining, discoloured by deposits on the walls of the flue, may appear on
plastered breasts of rooms on the top floor. Such stains are very likely to reappear after
redecorating unless the old plaster is completely removed. The stains are nearly always
caused by contamination with chlorides (common salt) derived from the soot. These chlo-
rides enable the plaster to extract moisture from the air at times of above-average humidity,
producing discolouration of the decorations on the chimney breast. The contaminated plas-
ter must be removed and the mortar joints of the brickwork raked out squarely to give a
good key. The brickwork can then be rendered with a mix of 1 part of Portland cement to
3 parts of clean sand, keyed to receive a finish of gypsum plaster. Any areas of contami-
nated ceiling should be replaced, preferably with a vapour barrier such as sheet polythene
separating such areas from the wall. Having dealt with the problem of discoloured plaster,
disused flues should be sealed if they are not to be used for ventilating rooms. To seal flues,
chimney pots and flaunching to the pots should be removed and replaced with a reconsti-
tuted stone coping bedded on a damp-proof course on top of the stack. When flues are no
longer required it is preferable to take down disused stacks to below the roof line, making
out the roof with slates or tiles to match the remainder of the roof covering. This disposes
of the problem of future maintenance of the stack and its flashings. Flues are, however, a
useful means of ventilating rooms and can assist in minimising possible condensation prob-
lems. The course to be adopted in these circumstances is to seal off the fireplace openings,
inserting a plastic louvred vent in each flue just below the ceiling level. The stack is dealt
with by removing the chimney pots and flaunching, capping the stack with a coping, bedded
on a damp-proof course, and inserting one air brick in one side of the stack in each flue.
Boundaries
Boundary walls must be inspected for condition and structural integrity. Being free-
standing, without piers and often 2 metres (6 ft 6 inches) or more in height, support may be
found lacking, particularly if the wall is only 215 mm (one brick) thick. The highest part of
the wall should also be closely inspected, for in many cases deterioration will be advanced
because of inadequate or missing copings.
Boundaries may complicate maintenance, for example, if an external wall is so close to
the boundary, there may be insufficient room to erect ladders to paint gutters, downpipes
and external joinery. Also, it will be difficult to erect scaffolding to permit repairs to roof
slopes or re-pointing of walls, without trespassing on to a neighbour's land. Thus, it may
be impossible to carry out essential maintenance and the surveyor should be aware of this
when inspecting the house. Except in leasehold property where one ground landlord may
own whole streets, it is most unlikely that there is provision in the deeds of a property for
an owner to go on to his neighbour's land, to repair his own property. In these cases, the
owner would be dependent on the goodwill of his neighbour. Often, however, an existing
owner has an understanding with his neighbour and permission is readily obtained. Such
gentlemen's agreements, however, have no force in law. Moreover, there is the possibility
that the adjoining property may change hands and the new owner may be unwilling to grant
concessions. The surveyor should certainly draw attention in his report to such boundary
complications where they exist and not leave such warning to the solicitor dealing with the
conveyancing side of the transaction.
Party walls of semi-detached and terrace properties can also give rise to difficulties. In
practice, there is joint responsibility for defects in party walls, or chimney stacks straddling
a party wall, but it may not always be easy to agree that repairs are essential, and the
adjoining owner may just not have the funds to discharge his share of the joint liability.
Other complications can arise, for example, in small semi-detached properties, water from
certain roof slopes is often taken away by a downpipe attached wholly to the adjoining
owner's property. An owner has no right to go on his neighbour's land to repair this pipe,
yet its continuing want of maintenance may cause an outbreak of dry rot in his property.
Finally, boundaries may be important because of the possible consequences of road-
widening schemes, or the construction of new roads, or the future development of adjacent
land which could spoil the existing amenities. The surveyor carrying out a reconnaissance
survey should certainly report on these aspects in his report, stating where enquiries should
be made if, in fact, he does not make them himself. The County Highway Authority will be
able to advise on road-widening projects or new roads, if these have already been decided
upon. The planning officers of the Local Authority will provide information as to future
development plans where these have been determined.
Close proximity of adjacent buildings may affect intended alterations, even where there
is sufficient room to do the intended work. For example, the owner of a new building has
no right of light from his neighbour's land. Moreover, if a building owner forms new win-
dows in a flank wall and the neighbour then erects a high boundary on his land, thereby
obstructing light, the building owner has no redress. There is also no right of privacy, and
an owner cannot restrain his neighbour from forming a window which overlooks his own
property, although planners may take a different view.
Cracking
When cracking occurs in walls, a client will want to know quite early on whether the failure
is serious and if collapse is imminent, or whether some reduction in performance is likely.
Frequently a state of anxiety has been introduced by external sources, for example, the press
and television reporting on extreme weather conditions or by inadvertent conversation with
those having little technical knowledge, which is difficult to alleviate or qualify later.
It will have been seen from previous chapters that there is seldom only a single cause for
a failure in an element or component and that, frequently, the failure is only a nuisance
initially which may go unnoticed for some time and occasionally for too long. Some fail-
ures are more likely to be observed than others of course, especially by those who clean
internally. For example, cracking in plastering is usually quickly noticed and given a high
anxiety rating, but cracking in brickwork would go for some time without comment, even
if it should be noticed. On many occasions, only when attention is drawn to the crack do
occupiers seek advice. Often by then, it is usual to find that the crack has been categorised
as a serious failure, and by this time it is difficult to reassure a client, when such a degree
of seriousness has been assumed for some time.
When inspecting walls which have crack-patterns showing, it is important to appreciate
the following factors pertaining to the wall:
Walls 69
u) CuILll\l~
0?k:.¥..G .
~
0 [J / '
WklL WALL WALL WAJ...L
LOD~G
f"i.ooR
(1)
Figure 13 Recording and measuring cracks

(a) length;
(b) height;
(c) thickness;
(d) original specification, bond, mortar designation, etc.;
(e) original design, materials, finish, etc.;
(f) perforation pattern;
(g) subsequent maintenance;
(h) any alterations since completion (physical or in loading);
(i) changing or changed environment (trees, subsoil characteristics, etc.);
(j) physical life cycle of the building and the element in question.
In order to understand what is happening to a building which contains cracks, John Pryke
recommends a simple method of recording cracks by using a diagram, unfolding every room
as shown in figure 13(i) which represents figure 13(ii), the isometric view of the room. By
recording cracks in this manner and relating the drawing to a floor plan, it is possible to
build up an accurate three-dimensional record of the cracks for further analysis.
From a table published by John Pryke & Partners, which they have kindly given permis-
sion to reproduce here, a definition scale of cracking is possible, and this classification is
a most important stage in the inspection procedure. However, the whole problem resulting
from this defect can be very subjective and consequently the application of the analysis
must be tempered by the situation presented at the time. With respect to the table below
the definitions of crack width and size are given in figure 13(iii).
Class of Crack Physical maximum Notes

crack size width (B), shown
mm full size
PO Less than 0.1 Hairline cracks which are difficult to see

unless walls are smooth plastered
PI 0.1-0.3 Fine cracks which require close observa-

tions of brick, block or stone masonry to
detect them. Typically found as crazing
patterns in plastered or rendered walls.
Easily obscured by wallpaper
P2 0.3-1.0 Noticeable cracks, generally not seen by

a householder or property owner unless
they have been made aware of a possible
personal loss, or the cracks are in a con-
spicuous position. Often difficult to date
first appearance of cracks for this reason.
May be associated with wrinkling or wall-
paper but easily masked by an embossed
or heavy pattern. Typically found at ends
Walls 71
of lintels, junctions between walls and

ceilings and between dry lining or ceiling
boards, also at junctions of differing
materials, for example, where wall-plate
at eaves is below ceiling line in upper
rooms, and over doors in slender brick or
block partitions, whether or not the door
framing continues up to ceiling level
P3 1-2 Cracks more easily observed when ap-

proaching 2 mm in width. At this size,
cracks can usually be detected by touch
as wallpaper is likely to stretch, wrinkle,
or tear. In clear light, may be seen at
a distance of a few metres. Thus may
be detected by careful visual inspection
from ground level when investigating
upper elevations of two and possibly
three storey buildings. May fracture
building components such as bricks,
blocks, cills or lintels
P4 2-5 Cracks may be conspicuous on most

structures, and at upper limit very
conspicuous whether the building is well
maintained or not. Usually causes prop-
erty owners to become alarmed, especially
if they develop within a few months. At
upper limit, draughts may occur through
outer walls; doors and windows may 'stick'
or fail to close; brick arches may loosen.
Likely to be associated with a pattern
of cracking in which a mechanism of
movement can be discerned originating
at support level. Diagonal cracks may
develop in ceilings.
P5 5-15 Cracks of this size are associated with

severe damage, especially in the upper
range of this class. Doors and windows
may jam, glass may crack or shatter,
walls crack right through, draughts devel-
op, severe shear patterns may develop
including diagonal cracking in ceilings.
Cracks may split into two or more par-
allel fractures leading to shattering of a
panel of brickwork. At the upper limit,
masonry arches may fail, service pipes
distort or fracture, noticeable gaps will

appear in expansion joints, roof tiling
or similar finishes that would normally
accommodate or mask smaller move-
ments. Weather-tightness is likely to
be impaired. Services may be damaged.
Likely to be associated with a mechanism
of movement clearly following from dif-
ferential movement of supports. Support
is usually the foundation, but could be
sagging floor or beam
P6 15-25 Cracks likely to develop in groups with

a clear pattern in which a mechanism of
movement can be recognised. In older
structures there is an increased risk of
falling plaster and masonry. Distortion
obvious to the naked eye, even at a
distance, walls may bulge, especially in
older properties. Horizontal movements
at bearings and/or at d.p.c. level often
develop. Unless the damage is caused by
sudden and severe removal of support
(for example, mining subsidence, swallow
holes, sewer or trench collapse) cracks of
this size may have been partially filled in
during previous 'making good' opera-
tions, thus masking the total distortion
P7 Greater than 25 As for Classes P5 and P6 but damage

greater and usually more widespread.
The risk of the structure becoming dan-
gerous increases rapidly with advancing
maximum crack size, and is greater in
older brick or stone masonry buildings.
Bearings may be dangerously weakened
If the information scheduled is now considered in the context of a domestic building, a

further tabulation is possible and is shown below:
Walls 73
Class of Degree of damage Effect on structure

crack and building use
PO Insignificant None
Pt Very slight None
P2 Slight } Aesthetic only,
accelerated weathering to
P3 Slight to moderate external surfaces
P4 Moderate } The serviceability of the
building will be affected
P5 Moderate to severe and, towards the upper
boundary, stability may
P6 Severe to very severe also be at risk
P7 Very severe to Increasing risk of structure
dangerous becoming dangerous
It will be obvious that the 'Degree of damage' column must be regarded as being in
general terms and in this way reflects particularly the traditional two-storey domestic con-
struction of conventional planning. It is important to have in mind always a construction
that for some reason is not typical or conditions which are not normal. It will be seen too
that, what may be considered severe or dangerous in one construction has a lower rating in
another. It is important not to rely totally on classifications or categories in any case and
to treat every new situation as special.
Having decided into which classification the cracking should fall, it is important to
decide if any temporary work is required and secondly if any permanent work is to be
recommended. If the brief is explicit on these points, or if consultants are to be briefed, a
whole range of action is possible. It is convenient to consider the two categories of remedial
work used by John Pryke, which are detailed in the following list.
Temporary work
(a) Wedging horizontal cracks.
(b) Temporary strutting to bearings.
(c) Strutting openings.
(d) Removal of loose plaster.
(e) Shoring bulged walls.
Permanent work
(a) Routine maintenance.
(b) Chemical rebonding.
(c) Underpinning.
(d) Jacking to lighten horizontal cracks.
U)CLAY SHi\tNKI9t-
+tRees.
Grj NeW t.XtEJ..-!SIOt-..l

AoJo\t'.H~9 ~CU'5t.
liii)a11SLtliDRs t
FAIWRC- .
Figure 14 Cracking patterns

Walls 75
~'1'TTTTT11-rrr--"""'j------rti) ~9!t-Jy
j
SE,VE.RAL~
t?C~IAfER~
Of'E)J f:t-NARPS
tHE.~.
scl;fJ:AL c..f.Aas
PE.V~ 1~1N<-1
~jo~
7"!o
p-!C 0fld.lNP.
9, °gg
. ,,
t '
I'·'
tt
[[J
Figure 15 Cracking patterns

(e) Easing doors and windows.

(f) Re-hanging doors and windows.
(g) Tie-bars.
(h) Jacking to re-level.
(i) Re-levelling floors.
(j) Stitching masonry.
(k) Installation of jackable foundations.
(I) Demolition and rebuilding.
If the walls being inspected are 'traditional' then the construction is likely to be
cavity walling of brickwork and blockwork with a strong mortar, whether of cement or
cement/lime mix. This mortar would have produced strength in compression and shear, but
nothing like the same standard in tension. It is important to appreciate the performance of
different mortars over time, because if their strengths reduce, and this is common in old
buildings, then the pattern of cracking can be modified. For example, mortars initially weak,
such as lime mortars, will accommodate some movement, which may be differential and
continuing, and therefore such movement may not be observed in a casual visual inspection.
Some cracking patterns are shown in figures 14 and 15, which may act as a guide when
observing and reporting fractures and when determining likely causes.
The surveyor, when investigating cracked structures, should compare John Pryke's
definition scale of cracking with that contained in BRE Digest 251 'Assessment of
damage in low-rise buildings'. This digest also contains useful advice on the incidence
and causes of damage in low-rise buildings and, as such, should be essential reading
for all building surveyors.
Wall ties
In cavity masonry walls, the life expectancy of the zinc coating to the steel wall ties appears
in practice to be less than expected. In some cases the protection to the steel is well under
the notional 60 years' life expected of the walls. The result of this deterioration of the tie
can mean problems of stability, not only in old buildings but also in those constructed more
recently. During the early stages, rusting ties are not likely to cause any visible damage and
so no warning of this defect is usual. However as the situation worsens, an indication of
the extent of the corrosion may be horizontal cracking in the joints at normal tie spaces.
In many cases, the reduction or total loss of structural connection between the two leaves
may occur unnoticed until collapse suddenly occurs.
The seriousness of this condition will depend on several factors, for example, the nature
of the loads and the way the walls were originally designed and incorporated in the building.
The use of aggressive mortars such as black ash mortar and the use of inferior coatings (that
is, bitumen) or substandard thicknesses of galvanising, have also contributed heavily to wall
tie failure. The nature of the problem of wall tie failure is outlined in BRE Information
Paper IP 28 / 79 'Corrosion of steel wall ties: recognition, assessment and appropriate
action', and BRE Paper IP 4 /81 'The performance of cavity wall ties'. A performance
specification for wall ties has also been produced by the BRE and this is outlined in BRE
Paper IP 4 / 84 'Performance specifications for wall ties'.
The remedial work could involve on-site replacement with suitable ties, local stabilisation
and, in severe conditions, the demolition and re-building of the wall, in part or totally.
Walls 77
A variety of proprietary replacement systems has been developed, including a system of

injecting foam into the cavity to stick the two walls together. Choice of repairing system
will depend on the construction, the extent of decay and the finance available. BRE
Digest 257 'Installation of wall ties in existing construction' provides useful advice on
the subject. If the building is of the conventional domestic type with a typical plan, some
reduction in the strength of the walls due to loss of tie efficiency can be tolerated. This
condition could be a more serious consideration if the building is framed and multi-storey
with brick in-fill panelling.
Corrosion of steel
In BRE Digest 263 'Part 1 Mechanism of protection and corrosion', Digest 264 'Part 2
Diagnosis and assessment of corrosion-cracked concrete' and Digest 265 'Part 3 The repair
of reinforced concrete' , attention is given to the durability of steel in concrete. The original
protection provided to the steel can be damaged in a number of ways, and when the steel
is exposed to air and moisture, corrosion quickly develops. The degree and conditions of
exposure will influence the rate of deterioration and the classification of this is
(a) mild
(b) moderate
(c) severe
(d) very severe
The causes of the damage will usually be obvious and in Digest 264 a flow chart showing
the investigation process is reproduced. This is worthwhile reading if a surveyor wishes to
assess the structural implications of the defects he has observed. The surveyor can check
the construction such as the concrete cover to reinforcement by using a covermeter, but
if the building contains prestressed concrete, then the investigation and analysis should be
carried out by a structural engineer.
Cavity insulation
In recent years many cavity walls have been upgraded by cavity filling to increase thermal
insulation. Difficulties have arisen when this work has been carried out badly or where the
existing wall is of poor construction. Clearly if defective workmanship has occurred, then
cavity filling will certainly exacerbate the situation. For example, if fissures or voids have
occurred in the fill, then water may pass easily from a saturated outer leaf to the finish on
the internal leaf. Another point which has been raised in BRE Digest 236 'Cavity insulation'
is the effect of placing thermal insulation around electric cables that run through the original
voids. In these circumstances, overheating and extra loads on the cable can occur.
In the UK, urea-formaldehyde in the form of foam has been used frequently for
insulating traditional cavity walls. Generally, it has proved to be an efficient and effective
insulant, but in the past the injection has occasionally been performed carelessly or in
circumstances that are inappropriate. From these cases there have been a relatively small
number of complaints from occupants who have reported discomfort and even irritation of
the hair and eyes. BS 5617 and BS 5618 were published to specify the quality of the foam
f...X~I--lAL Vltw or
CDWf4N5 .t P'ANt:l-S.
t/M~U f1utt.
~\'i1~11t..
~l.U* 1{J@t Il. .f. - -
~A1M~l1-f -
~.<p{ce..
co~i~
~.
i
t-- -
~f'f
.::1;-,;
~ ~.
1 T
-_ -~
I-- -- tbl.l.dil
~ .'.~l -~
~ri.f..
A t" . ,.~,
:~-I)"F~·~
~/.
,--'; ..
~'"
r- - TCVt-lDA.t leN
y -~ L
Figure 16 Construction and defect of Airey houses

Walls 79
and the latter is the code of practice for the thermal insulation of cavity walls. If these
standards are followed, there should be no risk from the formaldehyde vapour which is
inevitably produced during the curing process. Certain constructions are inappropriate for
filling by urea-formaldehyde, for example, timber-framed construction and other forms of
wall without a masonry inner skin. In these cases where there is a risk of vapour penetration,
this form of insulant is not recommended. BS 8208 gives guidance on the suitability of cavity
walls for filling with insulant.
Non-traditional walls
Non-traditional construction was developed shortly after the Second World War and was
due mainly to the shortages of skilled labour, the high erection costs for traditional build-
ings and the massive demand from Local Authorities wishing to complete their housing
programmes. Low-rise, low-cost, steel-and-concrete system buildings were erected in their
thousands. The majority of these systems used concrete as their main load-bearing material.
These PRC houses fall into two distinct types:
(a) The post and panel dwelling, in which the precast concrete panels span between
load-bearing precast columns.
(b) The panel type, where the main load-bearing elements are storey-height precast panels.
Many defects with these early PRC houses have come to light over the last few years,
with the main problem being one of corrosion of the reinforcement. This is due in many
cases to a lack of sufficient cover to the steel, the carbonation of the concrete and finally
the presence of chlorides in the concrete which accelerates the corrosion.
When the surveyor is faced with a non-traditional (PRC) house it may be difficult
to determine the type of construction without carrying out extensive investigations. A
Department of the Environment publication, called Housing Defects Act 1984, The Housing
Defects (Prefabricated Reinforced Concrete Dwellings) (England and Wales) Designations
1984, Supplementary Information, contains a number of photographs of the most common
types of non-traditional dwellings. Once the type has been determined the surveyor can
then identify particular defects by referring to the various BRE Information Papers which
summarise BRE reports on the structural condition of prefabricated dwellings. An example
is BRE Information Paper IP 16/83 'The structural condition of some prefabricated
reinforced concrete houses of Boot, Cornish Unit, Orlit, Unity, Wates and Wool away
construction' which summarises a number of BRE structural condition reports. One of
the most publicised PRC systems which has failed in large numbers is the Airey house,
designed by Leeds' builder the late Sir Edwin Airey. Figure 16(i) indicates the typical post
and panel construction of an Airey house. Figure 16(ii) shows a section through an Airey
precast column, indicating the position and extent of cracking that may be found with this
type of construction. Figure 16(iii) shows the position of maximum corrosion which should
be investigated during a survey of such houses. A number of repair systems have been devel-
oped for the Airey house and other PRC low-rise dwellings, and the surveyor must be able
to advise his client on the feasibility of repair and selection of the most suitable system.
6 Roofs
The roof can be considered as the building's primary defence against the weather. If it is
breached, decay of other elements, such as walls and floors, will quickly follow. The roof in
addition to excluding rain and wind must have adequate fire resistance, thermal and sound
insulation and strength and stability. In order for the roof to perform its functions it must
be properly constructed with sound materials by competent craftsmen. The main features
of a roof that concern surveyors are its shape and form, its construction, the nature of the
roof covering and the rainwater disposal arrangement.
To ensure that nothing is overlooked when inspecting roofs, it is advisable to follow
a rigid sequence, perhaps commencing externally with the roof covering, ridges and hips,
copings, flashings, chimneys, rainwater disposal arrangements, balconies, porches and
projecting features, and then internally, the roof construction and insulation. In the course
of a reconnaissance survey the surveyor may have to be content with examination of external
features from the ground, when a good pair of binoculars is useful. Every effort should
be made to see all roof slopes, as well as ridges and hips, and the chimney stacks, but in
built-up areas this may not always be practicable because of the impossibility of getting
sufficiently far away from the building.
In addition to taking full notes, it is a golden rule to record any feature that it is
impracticable to see, and such omissions must be specifically enumerated in the survey
report. This is also true if it has not been possible to fill in missing details when inspecting
the roof void and rooms on the top floor. Moreover, it should not be regarded as sufficient
merely to record what could not be investigated for various practical reasons. If missing
information may have a bearing on the surveyor's ultimate conclusions, supplementary
instructions should be sought. This should clarify how far the client requires the surveyor
to go in calling in builders to attend on him with ladders and other plant, and in negotiating
with the vendor as regards further opening up that may cause damage which the prospective
purchaser will have to pay for making good.
80
Roofs 81
t-!A:'-f ~ND
R1'9f:., 11LL-
?1ftE6
~1t~ .
-HAlf I2oLlNO
9Dttcf
f.ACaA--
£vtfl[ &#ZO ) F===9
Figure 17 Simple roof form

\
.~ ~LJNVf.Q
~ lfX) t.A¥£N i f
£o::fSl.a:'S ~d!.
~ ~
lee> to 22:5--
Figure 18 Twin pitch and flat roof forms
Roofs 83
c.wtRf:. ge ttf:..R·
>-L"-f'- ' - / c.of'lN9 '61oNE-.
Figure 19 Internal gutters

Roof forms
The simplest form of sloping roof is the mono-pitch or lean-to roof, but the most common
form is the double-pitch, the two slopes meeting at the apex in a ridge as shown in figure
17. Such roofs are used both for cottages and large buildings, with spans up to 12 metres
(40 ft). They may terminate at both ends in gables, the pitch roof over-sailing the end walls
of the building, the last rafters at each end being protected by a fascia board or barge
board. Alternatively, the end walls may rise above the roof slopes where they are capped
with coping stones or the slopes may be hipped back at both ends.
For spans of more than 12 metres (40 ft) the double-pitch roof is normally uneconomic
because of the excessive height from eaves to ridge, and the complexity of the construction.
Therefore, in older domestic work, the problem of spans larger than 12 metres (40 ft) were
frequently overcome by using twin double-pitch roofs, with a centre gutter between the
two slopes, figure 18. With other than rectangular plans, subsidiary double-pitch roofs at
right-angles to the main roof offered a simpler solution, except for the necessity for valleys
where two slopes at right-angles meet. The older, larger country house, square in plan, often
has a completely internal gutter surrounded by the four internal roof slopes, figure 19(i), or
the area between the four external roof slopes may have a slightly domed flat roof.
In urban development in terraces eighty years or more ago, architects appear to have
been at pains to hide the roof slopes from view. A common solution was to provide twin
double pitch roofs with ridges parallel with the roof, and a centre gutter between the two
internal roof slopes, the rainwater from which was taken through one or both roof voids
via trough gutters, see figure 19(iii). By erecting a parapet wall or pediment, enclosing the
parapet gu,tter on the front elevation, the roof was effectively screened from view. Access
to the centre gutter was provided by means of a dormer, usually only in one roof slope, and
then often far from easy to negotiate. Ladders or cat walks were provided to give access
to the external front and rear slopes and gutters, but all too often these are in a decayed
state and quite unsafe to use. Trails of broken or cracked slates mark the routes taken by
those sent up to clean out gutters. Because of difficulties of access, the gutters and roof
slopes of such houses are all too frequently neglected until water penetrates the ceilings of
rooms on the top floor. The task of surveying such houses is made the more difficult since
there is rarely entry to both roof voids, and the accessible one is usually obstructed by the
cold storage tank, which it is often virtually impossible to inspect internally. The surveyor
should particularly note whether the access hatch is large enough to allow the renewal of
the old storage tank, should the need arise. Where the access hatch is small, it is often
necessary to renew the existing tank with two smaller ones coupled together, an arrangement
that is not always satisfactory.
Where houses are of no great depth, two lean-to pitch roofs with ridges parallel to the
front and rear elevations, and with a centre gutter, provide an alternative solution to the
roofing problem, the centre gutter sometimes being almost a small flat roof. Rainwater from
the centre gutter is usually taken through the rear roof void into a trough gutter to discharge
via an outlet into a hopper head and downpipe on the rear wall. Access to the centre gutter
will consist of a hatch covered with lead, or a skylight, in one of the roof slopes, which is
even more difficult to get through than the dormer of larger houses.
On narrow frontages two lean-to roofs, with ridges at right-angles to the front and
rear elevations, and a centre gutter discharging through an outlet into a hopper head and
downpipe, appear to be particularly common in central London, see figure 19(ii). There is
usually an access hatch in one of the roof slopes, again far from easy to negotiate. Although
Roofs 85
the centre gutter is usually very narrow to walk along, it is to be preferred for obvious
reasons to a trough gutter taken internally through a roof void. In country districts there
is often no access hatch or dormer to a centre gutter between two internal roof slopes, the
only means of access being either an attic window looking on to the centre gutter, or a
ladder from the ground. The condition of the centre gutter and internal roof slopes is so
important that the surveyor must acquire ladders of adequate length to permit inspection.
Rooms are often formed in the roof spaces of pitch roofs, involving dormer windows or
mansard slopes. Every effort must be made to check that the openings for windows have
been properly constructed, that the rafters performing the function of trimmers are of larger
section than rafters between the openings, and that the dormer cheeks and roofs are sound.
In a reconnaissance survey the surveyor will be restricted in the extent to which he can check
on the construction of the dormers if there is no access door in the ashlaring. In a detailed
structural survey it is imperative to have holes cut in the ashlaring to permit a thorough
examination, not only of the dormer construction, but also of the feet of the rafters, wall
plates, and the ends of the floor joists of the attic floor. Moreover, the condition of the
plaster laths of the ashlar walling will also warrant investigation. The significance of any
beetle infestation present in the laths must be assessed.
Externally, the condition of dormer cheeks and roofs is very important. If there are
parapet gutters in front of dormer windows it is usually possible to get out into the gutter,
when they can be adequately inspected. Failing such access, it may be possible to see the
cheeks and roof by sitting on the window board, or base of the window frame, getting out
backwards as far as is safe. If the dormer windows are double hung sashes there is likely
to be insufficient room for the surveyor to get out, when he will either have to gauge the
condition of the dormers from the state of the plaster on the internal faces of the cheeks
and soffit or the dormer roof, or defer completion of his survey until ladders are available.
Since dormers of old properties are prone to decay, every effort must be made to examine
them adequately. The bases of dormer frames and jambs must be probed and any evidence
of water penetration noted. In older properties that have not been exceptionally well
maintained the plaster on the cheeks and soffit is likely to be perished, and the external
sills and bases of frames and jambs are likely to contain wet rot. Externally, the cheeks
and roofs may have been covered with zinc, and nothing short of complete reconstruction
of the dormer opening and window frame can be recommended. Since the reconstruction
of a dormer window, at no great height from the ground, may well cost £1000 or more, it
is imperative to give them the closest attention.
Roof coverings
In the UK a variety of roof coverings abound which, before mechanised transport, reflected
the character of the surrounding area. Except for a few important public buildings, which
may have roof slopes covered with metal such as copper or occasionally lead, traditional
covering materials are slates and tiles, and where stone is extensively used for walls, stone
slabs or stone slates will often be found. In rural areas, thatch and sometimes shingles were
used on dwellings while asbestos-cement slates or tiles and corrugated steel sheeting were
usually confined to the roofs of outbuildings or substandard properties.
Corrugated steel sheeting, used as temporary war damage first aid, may still exist
on hidden slopes of otherwise good-quality properties. When examining roof coverings
it is essential to check the abutment of such coverings with other elements. Any change
in direction or perforation through the roof covering will warrant closer inspection as will
chimney stacks and flashings because of their exposure.
Thatch
Thatch provides a well-insulated roof covering, with a life varying from up to twenty
years for straw thatch and up to sixty years for reed thatch. This roof covering is only
suitable in rural areas and then, preferably, only for detached properties, well away from
any neighbours. Even so, it provides a fire hazard which is reflected in high insurance
premium rates, both for the building and its contents. The problem of the high cost of
insurance should certainly be stressed in the survey report, because it may come as a shock
to the prospective purchaser.
From the surveyor's standpoint the condition of the thatch is obviously important,
but the roof construction no less so. In many period cottages and houses where thatch
has been used, the rafters are often found to be no more than half-round 'hardwood'
poles of whatever species was readily obtainable in the district. As often as not, these
half-round poles contained upwards of 75 per cent of sapwood. If a susceptible timber,
it is likely therefore to have been attacked, first by Lyetus infestation and subsequently by
the common furniture beetle. If the attack is severe, only a fraction of the original sectional
area of the rafters may be of any structural value. In-situ insecticidal treatments are of no
practical value, even where there is continuing active beetle population (unlikely in an old
cottage or house), because the chemical treatment does not restore the strength properties
of the attacked timbers. Moreover, the most common ties used for tying bundles or reeds
and straw together before and during laying are of hazel, which is particularly susceptible
to Lyetus infestation. Hence, although the condition of the thatch may suggest that it has a
further serviceable life of several years, the condition of the hazel ties and half-round poles
used as rafters may necessitate advising complete reconstruction of the roof and renewal of
the roof covering, at an earlier date. Such adverse comments will invariably disappoint the
client, who has probably allowed the picturesque appearance of the property to overrule
all practical considerations.
Wood shingles
Wooden shingles are likely to be found only on comparatively modern buildings and will
almost certainly be of rift-sawn western red cedar. This is a particularly decay-resistant
timber, and shingles laid to an adequate pitch (that is, not less than 45°), are likely to
outlast the nails with which they are fixed. The Canadian authorities, who have extensive
experience in this covering, recommend aluminium nails or, as a second choice, hot-dipped
galvanized nails. The proximity of trees to shingle roofs is important because the constant
dripping from overhanging branches has a particularly adverse effect on their life.
Slate and stone roof coverings
Slates are quarried in several parts of the UK, but production has dropped off considerably
in the last few decades since man-made asbestos composition slates have become available.
Roofs 87
Slates have also been imported from continental quarries some of which are as good as
home produced slates, but many of them are of inferior quality.
The slates from North Wales are mostly blue, blue-grey, and blue-purple; from South
Wales they are green and silver-grey; from Cornwall grey, green, and russet-red; from
North Lancashire grey-blue; from Westmorland various shades of green; and from western
Scotland bluish-black and black. After quarrying, the individual slates are produced by
splitting the quarried blocks along natural planes of cleavage.
The slates from North Wales are available in several different sizes, the whole of one roof
slope being laid in slates of the same size, and of much the same colour. Slates from South
Wales, Westmorland and Western Scotland are in random sizes, and are laid in graduated
diminishing courses from the eaves to the ridge. The sorting to size and varying the spacing
of battens up the roof slopes can add appreciably to the labour cost, compared with laying
those of uniform sizes. The slates from Cornwall and North Lancashire are available both
as random and sized slates.
Westmorland slates are appreciated for their decorative qualities, but they contain a high
proportion of calcium carbonate. In spite of this, the slates have a very high reputation
for lasting qualities, both in London and other large cities. The slates from South Wales,
Cornwall, North Lancashire, and the bluish-black (but not the black slates) from Western
Scotland also have a reputation for durability. The sized blue slates from North Wales are
very widely used, and they make a satisfactory, relatively light-weight roof covering, which
is less expensive to lay than random-sized slates. They do, however, lack the aesthetic qual-
ities of the more variable slates from other districts. The different roofing slates outlined
previously, vary appreciably in weight from as little as 27 kg/sq. metre (5 1/2 lb/sq. ft),
for the best Bangor slates up to 49 kg/sq. metre (10 lb/sq. ft), for Thirds, compared with
44 kg/sq. metre (9 lb/sq. ft), for Best Westmorland up to 73 kg/sq. metre (15 lb/sq. ft),
for Thirds. Stone slates and slabs are appreciably heavier than slates, being about 88 kg/sq.
metre (18 lb/sq. ft), to little short of 146 kg/sq. metre (30 lb/sq. ft).
Concrete 'slates' to imitate stone are now being produced. These concrete slates are
a reasonable imitation of the genuine product but, being regular in shape and size, they
lack the interest of a true stone slate roof which has been laid in diminishing courses. In
addition, they do not weather to the attractive shades of natural stone and, as yet, there is
no reliable data for comparing the life of concrete slates with that of natural stone.
It will be appreciated that more substantial battens and roof scantlings are called for with
the heavier stone roof coverings. The fault of such roof construction is usually the lack of
adequate framing together of the different roof members, rather than the inadequate size
of scantlings. In ancient buildings the roof construction is almost invariably less substantial
than it might otherwise be because rafters and purlins were usually fixed with the lesser
scantling dimension in depth, in other words, showing the wider face to the stone covering.
Other defects of such old roofs are likely to be associated with subsequent beetle infestation
or fungal decay, but poor selection of timber is also a factor. In addition, the proportion
of sapwood in different members is likely to be very variable and large knots that even the
worst 'jerry builder' would reject today, were accepted by the real craftsmen who framed
up these old roofs with such skill and care.
The condition of the roof covering viewed from above is often misleading, and the
surveyor should endeavour to check on the condition of the slates or stone slabs from inside
the roof void. It is only from inside the roof that the means of fixing can be established.
Roof coverings of buildings 100 years of age or more are likely to be fixed with wooden pegs,
and the surveyor should know sufficient about timber identification to be able to determine
whether the pegs are of oak or a softwood. If they are softwood, large numbers of pegs
are likely to be decayed, necessitating early stripping and recovering of the roof. Oak pegs
on the other hand, may still be remarkably sound, even outlasting the roof covering itself.
The danger with wooden pegs is the likelihood that when pegs failed because of fungal decay,
the slates or stone slabs were re-fixed by bedding in mortar. This makes it very difficult
to get at adjoining slates or slabs when carrying out repairs, without breaking those bedded
in mortar. Iron nails succeeded wooden pegs and, when of sufficient gauge, they had a
serviceable life of forty to sixty years. Thin wire nails on the other hand are very inferior,
and are unlikely to have a life of more than thirty years. In high-class property, copper or
yellow composition nails (an alloy of copper, zinc and tin) were often used, and these are
very satisfactory and likely to outlast the roof covering. More recently, galvanised nails have
been widely accepted and, provided they are coated with an adequate thickness of zinc, they
can be expected to give a reasonable service life. Still more recently, aluminium nails have
become available and, if of sufficient gauge and length, and with shanks conforming to the
recommendations in BS 1202: Part 3: 1974, then they will be quite satisfactory.
Tiles
Tiles differ from true slates, stone slates and stone slabs in that they are a manufactured
product, made either from natural clay deposits (clay tiles), or from cement, colouring
agents and sand (concrete tiles). There are two classes of both clay and concrete tiles, the
first being the plain tile which is a comparatively flat unit and the second being the single-lap
interlocking tile whose distinctive feature is its corrugated profile. Plain tiles are laid to laps
varying from 65 to 100 mm (21/2 to 4 inches) and single-lap interlocking tiles, including
Pantiles, Double Roman and many other varieties, are laid to differing laps, depending
on their profile. Tiles may be classified in four categories: hand-made, machine-made,
machine-made sand-faced, and concrete. At one time all tiles were hand-made exclusively
from local clay deposits, and once extracted they were compressed to the size and thickness
required, allowed to dry, and then fired in a kiln. Today, machine-made clay tiles are iden-
tical in composition to the hand-made product in that they are shaped from natural clay
deposits, dried, and then fired, but with improved methods of manufacture starting with
the preparation of the clay through to drying and firing. The best machine-made clay tiles
of today possess better characteristics for longevity, homogeneity of the clay and freedom
from lamination. Plain tiles will have a very long life if laid to a sufficient pitch (that is, not
less than 40°), however, in older buildings, slopes may have to be stripped and re-covered,
reusing the bulk of the original tiles, because of failure of the wooden pegs or nails with
which they were originally fixed. On older buildings where the tiles appear irregular in
colour, shape and size, then it is likely that they will be hand-made. There is a texture,
mellowness and absence of rigid conformity in hand-made clay tiles that cannot be matched
by the machine-made product, although the tile of today is a very great improvement on
the shiny tiles produced at the turn of the century.
In the past, single-lap interlocking tiles, including the various types of pantiles, were
less uniform and often exhibited a wide range of sizes and profiles, even those from
the same batch. These generally were of foreign manufacture, particularly from the
Netherlands. Such tiles can be laid to a pitch as low as 30°, but the roof slopes should
have been boarded, battened and counter-battened and felted with a breather-type paper.
Some of these single-lap tiles were nailed through the head, some through the nib, and
Roofs 89
others have special clips at the sides or bottom of the tile, or they were wired through
the lug on the underside.
Today, tiles used on new housing estates and the smaller private houses are almost
invariably made of concrete and usually of the single-lap interlocking type rather than the
plain tile type. With plain tiled roofs where tiles are only holed for nailing, each tile has to
be secured with nails, although formerly these were likely to be wooden pegs. Tiles that are
both holed and nib bed should normally be nailed at every fifth course, relying on the nib
at the top of the tile clipping the tiling batten and the weight of the overlapping tile to hold
down those not nailed in position. Nails used for fixing tiles are similar to those used for
fixing slates, but of appropriate gauge. In good-quality work the nails should be of copper
or composition alloy, but the majority of tiles are likely to be fixed with galvanised nails
and more recently, aluminium.
Hand-made plain clay tiles often vary in size from 250 x 150 mm (10 x 6 inches) for tiles
holed for nailing, to 275 x 175 mm (11 x 7 inches) for tiles holed and nibbed. The standard
size for holed and nibbed machine-made clay or concrete plain tiles is 265 x 165 mm (lOYz x
6Yz inches). Weights will vary but for double-lap hand-made clay tiles laid at a 40 pitch,
the installed weight is approximately 78 kg/sq. metre (16 lb/sq. ft.), and for double-lap
machine-made, plain clay tiles, 68 kg/sq. metre (14Ib/sq. ft). Concrete plain double-lap tiles
laid at the minimum pitch of 35° weigh approximately 78 kg/sq. metre (16 lb/sq. ft).
Interlocking single-lap clay and concrete tiles are larger than plain tiles and are produced
in a much greater variety of sizes ranging from 290 x 215 mm (111/2 x 81/2 inches) to
381 x 225 mm (15 1/4 x 9 inches). Weights also vary between 39 kg/sq. metre (8 lb/sq. ft.)
and 50 kg/sq. metre (10 lb/sq. ft.). The interlocking tiles can be laid to pitches as low as
18° although the average is around 22°.
Manufactured tiles should be made in accordance with the recommendations in BS
402: 1979 'Clay plain roof tiles and fittings', and BS 473 and 550: 1971. 'Concrete
roofing tiles and fittings'. Various special shapes of tiles are made for forming ridges,
hips and valleys.
Ridges and hips
Apart from lead ridges and hips, which are fixed with nails to timber rolls, the ridge and
hip units will be bedded direct on to the roof covering with mortar. Where two units abut
one another, the joints are pointed with mortar which should contain a proportion of stone
dust, if the ridge and hips are of natural or reconstituted stone. Again, it is a common failing
of those who bed and point ridges and hips to use too strong a mix, with the result that
shrinkage of the mortar occurs, and the bedding material and pointing falls out. Missing
bedding and pointing must be recorded and the importance of making good these defects
stressed, because of the risk of rainwater blowing up under the ridge, or penetrating through
the joints, creating conditions favourable to fungal attack in the timbers at the apex of the
roof. At the ridge the fungal attack is more likely to be wet rot rather than dry rot. This is
because temperatures within the roof void in hot summers are likely to be too high for the
commonest form of dry rot. With hips it is important that the hip unit is properly bedded
particularly if there is no bracket (hip iron) to prevent it from slipping off the roof. The
owner would be liable in negligence to any passer-by injured by any part of the roof falling
on to him if the cause were lack of maintenance. Similarly, the surveyor owes a duty to his
client to observe and report on such defects.
Slate ridges and hips on buildings of some age appear to be particularly prone to splitting,
and replacements may be virtually unobtainable, or at any rate, decidedly costly. Defective
slate ridges and hips of buildings 100 years old or more are likely to have to be replaced in
toto because of the impossibility of obtaining replacements to match. Stone ridges may last
for a very long time and then disintegrate suddenly under exceptional weather conditions,
for example, a few days of severe frost following a prolonged, excessively wet period.
With lead ridges and hips the important considerations (apart from sufficiency of
overlap in the separate lengths of lead) are the state of the lead, the condition of the nails
securing it to the timber rolls, and the condition of the rolls themselves. The nails are
usually broad-headed and either of galvanised iron or copper. It is unlikely that anyone
using lead rolls would fix lead with iron nails, liable to rust and corrode quickly, butit
is unwise to take anything for granted as unskilled labour used on repairs can make the
most extraordinary mistakes because of lack of technical knowledge. There is a tendency
for the nail-holes through lead to become enlarged, particularly in hips, and hence the
heads of nails through lead should be covered with lead dots. The life of galvanised nails
is very variable depending on the thickness of the zinc. Copper nails are satisfactory, but
expensive. Composition or yellow metal nails are also suitable, and probably less expensive
than copper. More recently aluminium and silicon-bronze nails have been used, the latter
only being available to special order, and expensive. The different types of nails are dealt
with in BS 1202: 1974: Parts 1, 2 and 3.
Copings
Copings should be in a hard, natural or reconstituted stone, or concrete so that they

withstand conditions of severe exposure. All too frequently however, the top of a parapet
wall or gable end is merely rendered or covered with a course of bricks on edge, laid on
creasing tiles as a damp-proof course. Copings may be weathered both sides of a centre
line, or laid with a weathered face sloping to one side. There should be throats both sides
on the underside of the over-sailing portions of copings. The throat should be a least
12 mm (1/2 inch) from the outer edge of the coping, semi-circular in section, 12 mm
(1/2 inch) in diameter, and 25 mm (1 inch) out from the vertical face of the wall on
which the coping is bedded.
Copings should be bedded on an impervious damp-proof course; ideally there should
be a second damp-proof course, just above the gutter or roof line. It is exceptional to
find a damp-proof course in either position in older buildings. At the most, there may
be two courses of tiles in lime mortar, which do not constitute an impervious barrier to
water penetration into the brickwork or masonry below. The soft stone copings of older
buildings are all too often in a deplorable condition, spalling on the top surface and
breaking away on both edges, rendering them both completely ineffectual as a protective
covering for the wall, and positively dangerous to those passing underneath because of
slippage or lateral displacement. Well-burned, purpose-made, half-round bricks bedded
on a lead-cored damp-proof course, make a very suitable coping for a garden wall or
parapet wall of an outbuilding.
The pointing of joints in the separate units forming a coping is also important. All too
frequently, too strong a mix is used and it is found that water is penetrating at every joint.
In old buildings brass or copper cramps are frequently found linking two coping stones.
There is a tendency for the grooves and mortices formed in the stone which hold the cramp
Roofs 91
to become enlarged when water penetrates both the joint and the coping stone, hastening
deterioration. The surveyor should always look for evidence that iron cramps have been used
with stone as oxidation of the iron will, in time, burst stones in which the iron is embedded.
Because of neglect of maintenance, the absence of damp-proof courses or the use of
unsuitable coping materials, the masonry below the coping and the coping itself will fre-
quently be in a very poor condition. It is not unusual to see vertical fractures in brick parapet
walls and in stone parapets backed with brickwork. The trouble is usually sulphate attack
which occurs because of the chemical reaction, in the presence of water, between tricalcium
aluminate present in ordinary Portland cement and the soluble sulphates within the clay
bricks. The chemical reaction results in expansion of the mortar joints and, if the amounts
of soluble sulphates in the bricks are high, the bricks themselves may split, or they may
disintegrate from the face inwards. The sulphates can only be transferred from the bricks
to the joints by percolating water, hence the importance of sound copings, with water-proof
joints on parapet walls, free-standing walls and gable ends. The copings should be bedded
on a good-quality damp-proof course such as lead-cored bituminous felt. Parapet walls are
particularly vulnerable because of their exposed position and, if there are no throats on the
underside of the over-sailing coping stones, water will run down the parapet wall, saturating
the brickwork for long periods, and creating conditions ideal for sulphate attack. BRE
Digest 89 'Sulphate attack on brickwork' makes recommendations for minimising the risk
of sulphate occurrence, both in facing brickwork, and in parapet and free-standing walls.
Flashings
Flashings are essential where chimney stacks emerge through roof coverings and where
sloping roofs abut vertical walls. All too frequently these flashings are only cement fillets,
very liable to craze or shrink away from the vertical faces of the stack or wall. It is a common
failing to use a mix as strong as· 1 part of Portland cement to 3 parts of sand, and such a
mix is liable to shrink and craze within a year, making the cement fillet useless for keeping
out water. It is important to draw attention to such defective cement fillet flashings because
their replacement with proper lead soakers and flashings is expensive. If there are soakers
under the cement fillets, these are liable to rapid corrosion unless they have been coated
with bitumen prior to fixing.
Where roof slopes meet the vertical faces of stacks and walls, flashings should be in lead,
tucked into a joint of a course of brickwork or into a chase in masonry, and then wedged
and pointed. It is important to see that such cover flashings are in position, and well
pointed. Where loose and away from the stack or wall, the cause may be insufficient tuck-in
of the flashings, or the face of the brickwork or masonry may be eroded until no chase is
left into which they can be re-dressed and re-pointed. In such circumstances it is likely to
be necessary to re-face the brickwork or masonry so that a proper fixing can be provided.
Where roof slopes meet vertical faces of stacks, or gable ends and pediments, on the splay,
there should be lead soakers, covered by stepped lead flashings. It is often only possible to
ascertain whether soakers are present from inside the roof void, when the surveyor should
satisfy himself that the soakers are of the same metal as the flashings, otherwise electrolytic
action between two different metals may result in rapid corrosion.
Where flashings are found to be in zinc, it is usually an indication that cost has been
a paramount consideration and the surveyor should be on the alert for other evidence of
want of adequate maintenance.
Gable ends that rise above roof slopes are exposed to the further hazard of defects in
the flashings where the roof slopes abut the gable ends. If these flashings are comprised
of cement fillets with no soakers beneath, the brickwork or masonry abutting the roof
slope can remain in a saturated condition for long periods. This may cause rapid
deterioration of the wall and increase the likelihood of decay in any roof timbers
in contact with the gable ends.
Chimneys
In old buildings, chimney stacks may be out of plumb without rendering them necessarily
dangerous and in need of re-building. Lack of plumbness will be of much greater
significance in a tall free-standing one-flue stack, compared with a multiple-flue stack
only rising a few feet out of the roof. The state of the pointing must be noted, for in an
otherwise well-maintained building the pointing of chimney stacks often leaves much to be
desired and, because of the cost of scaffolding, even the simple operation of re-pointing a
stack can be costly.
Stacks should be carefully examined for any fractures, or staining by flue gases. Water
vapour produced in large quantities in domestic flues can lead to condensation penetrating
the chimney walls. Salts and other products of combustion can be carried by this moisture
through the wall to appear externally on the chimney stack. This will eventually lead to
decay because of the chemical reaction caused by the condensate, which is by sulphuric
acid dissolving the mortar. The sulphates produced in this way then attack the Portland
cement or hydraulic lime in the mortar, causing it to expand. Expansion may be sufficient
to produce fractures in the brickwork or masonry of the stack, and even vertical splits
through the brickwork or masonry. The risk is much greater when there is a change over
to slow-burning fuels in enclosed grates or boilers after many years of burning coal in an
open fireplace. With the passage of time, flue walls will have become coated with hard
deposits containing a considerable proportion of chlorides, which cannot be removed
however thoroughly the flue is swept. The problem is often encountered when gas-fired
boilers are installed in old flues without taking precautions to line the flue adequately.
This is because the products of complete combustion of domestic gas supplies are water
vapour and carbon dioxide, and the temperatures of these flue gases being relatively low,
the resulting condensation accelerates the chemical reaction between the sulphur deposits
and the mortar joints. Chimneys are also liable to damage by frost as they are often frozen
when saturated with water.
In an extreme case the installation of a gas-fired central heating boiler in a London house
split the flue from the first floor upwards in the space of eighteen months, and sufficient
water seeped through the fractured brickwork to cause an outbreak of dry rot where the
plaster wall finish was applied to battens fixed to the brickwork of the chimney breast.
Rainwater disposal
Whether it is a sloping roof or a flat roof, the surveyor must pay particular attention to
the disposal of rainwater. The lead or copper (it is to be hoped that the metal is not zinc)
in parapet, centre, internal, trough, and valley gutters should be carefully examined for any
Roofs 93
splits or repairs. Where the repairs are merely soldered patches these warrant the closest
scrutiny because they frequently have a short life. This is particularly so if the sole of the
gutter is wide and the parapet wall is not high enough to shade it from the heat of the sun.
The position of large splits or old repairs should be noted on a rough sketch drawing so that
the condition of the timbers under the splits or repairs can be checked during the inspection
of the roof void. In one case, failure to do this resulted in a widespread outbreak of dry
rot being overlooked when a mansion was being re-decorated to a very high standard and
at great cost. A year later a fruiting body appeared on a door lining and the extent of the
attack had to be traced. The plastered wall face of the bedroom underneath was applied to
battens and attack had spread down the battens, with the result that not only door linings
and lintels were involved, but also much of the wall face and expensive new decorations.
A common failing of older buildings is the length of the bays in parapet gutters which,
preferably, should not exceed 2250 mm (7 ft 6 inches) between drips. With the heavier lead
used 100 years ago or more the size of bays may not have been so important, but now that
lead heavier than Code 5, 25.4 kg/sq. metre (6 lb) is rarely used in gutters, re-laying often
involves forming additional drips, which may be difficult to accommodate particularly if
the parapet wall is low.
It may not be possible to determine how far up the roof slope the lining has been taken,
but every effort should be made to establish this inside the roof space. The amount of the
upstand against the parapet wall must be established by turning back the cover flashing. It
is to be hoped that the surveyor will not encounter the thoroughly bad practice of taking
the upstand up the parapet wall for a short distance, and then tucking it into the wall with
no cover flashing; such a case has been met in an expensive property in central London.
If the surveyor has to advise re-laying the gutter, he should always recommend renewing
the gutter boarding in pressure-treated timber. By taking up the boarding of a parapet
gutter it is possible to check on the condition of the bearers and soldiers and the wall plate,
which it may well not be possible to probe or even see adequately from inside the roof void.
When parapet and centre gutters have been re-lined relatively recently, zinc, bituminous felt
or asphalt may have been used in lieu of lead or copper. As already indicated, zinc is not
a suitable material, but felt or asphalt can be satisfactory if properly laid, provided their
comparatively short life of say up to thirty years is appreciated. The surveyor then has to
consider whether, in changing over to a cheaper material, the previous owner has insisted on
the repairs being carried out thoroughly, including searching for other ancillary defects.
Outlets through walls should receive attention, and also the condition of hopper heads
into which they discharge. If these hopper heads are in cast iron and tight to the wall, it is
more than likely that the backs will be badly corroded, necessitating renewal. The sizes of
downpipes are also important and these should have been noted in the course of the external
inspection. Size should be governed by the area of roof to be drained and the number of
separate outlets and, in consequence, the number of downpipes. In most cases a 75 mm (3
inch) diameter pipe should suffice for an ordinary domestic property, but if the outlet is
large, as from a main centre gutter, a 100 mm (4 inch) downpipe may be required. On large
public buildings larger diameter pipes are used. Where the roof area is small, as for example
a small flat roof over a bay window or porch, downpipes as little as 50 mm (2 inches) in
diameter may theoretically be ample, but such small-bore pipes are very liable to become
blocked in autumn by leaves.
Those who designed parapet gutters half a century or more ago did not make the
mistakes that those who have no experience of the maintenance of old buildings are
making today. Where an additional storey has been added, particularly if a mansard roof
has been introduced to gain floor area, the parapet gutter may be so reduced in width that
it is impossible to repair or replace the gutter lining without taking down the parapet wall.
This is a point that the surveyor should always watch for and bring to the attention of
the client. The linings to trough gutters are much less likely to call for adverse comment
compared with parapet gutters, being protected by the roof covering from the direct rays of
the sun. The commonest faults of trough gutters are their shallowness and the inadequacy
of the openings at the inlet and outlet ends. The route of a trough gutter should be noted,
as this may well lead to discovery of outbreaks of dry rot in lintels or linings of doors
openings in the middle of the building. It is equally important to note the line of centre
gutters between two internal roof slopes. A common failing in an internal gutter between
two pitched roofs of houses on a narrow frontage is settlement in the length of the gutter,
caused by shrinkage of the bearers and other timbers under the gutter. Where the fall
in both directions to the inlets of the trough gutters was small in the first place, slight
settlements can result in the fall being reversed, so that water builds up in the gutter,
finding its way up under the roof covering on to ceilings of the rooms underneath. This
is where a spirit level becomes essential and it is always advisable to check the amount
of fall in an internal gutter.
Eaves gutters can usually only be inspected with the aid of ladders, although the
commonest defects of leaks at joints and gutters out of alignment can readily be seen if it
rains while the survey is in progress. The alignment of eaves gutters around bay windows
and balconies is of particular importance, especially if the stopped ends are tight to the
main wall of the building. If the gutters are out of level and fall towards the stopped ends,
rainwater is likely to run down the main wall of the building. There will often be the ends
of a bressummer in the wall at the back of the stopped ends of such eaves gutters, often
no more than 112 mm (4lh inches) behind the face of the wall and, if the gutter is out of
alignment, there is a considerable risk of decay developing in the bressummer. Particular
attention should be paid to the condition of brickwork under such stopped ends in order
to detect tell-tale marks of water running down the wall.
A warning has already been given regarding box gutters on tops of walls where buildings
have been built up to the owner's own boundaries. This construction means that the owner
cannot clean out such a gutter, replace slates or tiles on the roof slope, or re-point the wall
without the permission of the adjoining owner. Moreover, in the course of a survey the
surveyor may not be able to inspect the gutter, roof slope or wall if the neighbour will not
grant him permission to go on his land. The serious disadvantages of buildings built tight
up to the boundary must be stressed in the survey report. Even if the owner has been able
to obtain permission from his neighbour to go on to the land to erect ladders and re-paint
gutters, it is certain that painters will not have removed the gutter to permit painting of
the underside where it is bedded on the wall. In consequence, the sole of the gutter is
very liable to become corroded and leak. If this is the case, the wall below will frequently
be saturated. Wall-plates and the feet of rafters in such circumstances are very prone to
become attacked by dry or wet rot, and their condition warrants the closest attention when
continuing the survey of the building.
Balconies, porches and projecting features
It is appropriate after completing the survey of the main roof and the rainwater disposal
arrangements to direct one's attention to any flat roofs over projecting porches, bay
Roofs 95
windows and any balconies. All too frequently these features are laid to falls towards
the main external wall of the building, so that the outlets and downpipes can be tucked
out of sight, behind the projecting features. Moreover, the bore of the outlets and of the
downpipes is often very small, rendering the outlet liable to blockage. When this happens
water will build up on the flat roof, often rising above the skirtings to asphalt roofs or
above the cover flashings if the roof is covered with lead or copper. Any timbers such as
wall plates, joists or bressummers, housed in the external wall behind such roofs, are then
liable to attack by dry rot. If the rooms inside have parquet floors, the surveyor will not
be able to expose such timbers in the course of a survey. The most he can do is to probe
skirtings and examine the base linings to window openings. In good-class property, skirtings
are often as much as 32 mm (1'/4 inches) thick, and merely probing the surface may not
disclose decay at the back of such skirtings. If there are sills low down or thresholds to
'French windows', then the underside of these should be very thoroughly examined. The
surveyor should also look for water staining of the flooring against 'French windows',
and for gaps between the base of the skirtings and the floor level of the suspect floors.
Walking along the floor close to the external wall may reveal squeaking in the floor. It is
also advisable to check the soffits of window and door openings in the room or entrance
hall underneath.
It is important to set out very clearly in the survey report the extent of the investigations
made, and a warning should be given of possible hidden trouble that the surveyor is in
no position to discover. If a bressummer is involved and there are elaborate linings to
window openings and decorated cornices or enrichments to the ceilings underneath, the
cost of the remedial work when decay is discovered may well run into many thousands
of pounds.
In carrying out a detailed structural survey it is, of course, necessary to establish
whether any suspect timbers are in fact decayed. The surveyor will have to decide whether
he will do less damage by making holes, say 225 x 225 mm (9 x 9 inches) in area, through
the external wall, instead of taking up parquet or secret-nailed flooring. It is important to
bear in mind that the sub-floor underneath may run at right angles to the external wall, or
there may be two sub-floors, one at right angles to the other. In these circumstances, the
area of finished flooring to be disturbed will be substantially greater than where there is
only one sub-floor, with floorboards parallel to the external wall. Opening up may reveal
that the bressummers or main bearings are neither timber nor steel, but cast or wrought
iron, the quality of which is too uncertain to permit applying accepted engineering formulae
for calculating safe working loads for the floors. Such calculations of ancient beams are
of course, not the province of the ordinary building surveyor, who should advise calling
in a structural engineer.
Tiled floors to balconies, and even York stone slabs, should be viewed with suspicion,
because such floor coverings are not completely impervious to water. Over the years, water
is liable to seep between the tiles or stone slabs, finding its way into the external wall, and
setting up fungal decay in any timbers housed in the external wall. When the house being
surveyed is one of a terrace it is advisable to ascertain whether the balconies of adjacent
houses are still tiled or covered with stone slabs, or whether asphalt or lead has been
substituted. If this is the position, it is an indication that trouble in one form or another
has been experienced in some of the adjoining houses, and similar defects may exist in
the property being surveyed. It is the surveyor's duty to make as thorough a search as is
possible for any signs of decay in timbers in contact with, or housed in, the external wall
at or below balcony level.
(iii)
Au... t-.tU1l'5t.U er
1~D~~
M}.CHINW Cf..t
f,Aa;.c:>·
Figure 20 Roof trusses

Roofs 97
Roof construction
The surveyor should be knowledgeable of the many different forms of construction found
within roofs. The geometry of loading and stress distribution must be understood in order
for the surveyor to identify potential areas of weakness.
The simplest form of roof construction consists of wall plates, rafters and a ridge board
in the configuration shown in figure 17. As the span increases, collars are introduced to
restrain the outward push of the roof, and the nearer the collars are to the feet of the
rafters, the more effective they are in preventing this outward thrust. In the simple lean-to
(mono-pitch) roof, or in double-pitch roofs for garages and outbuildings, it is not unusual
to find collars on only every third pair of rafters when, provided they are of sufficient depth,
they can constitute the ceiling joists. In poorly designed speculatively built, older houses,
the rooms on the top floor are often partly accommodated in the roof void, with the result
that the collars are pushed up nearer to the apex of the roof, progressively reducing their
effective function of restraining the outward thrust of the rafters.
In buildings sixty years of age or more, it is usual to find some form of roof truss at
about 2100 mm (9 ft) centres, with common rafters between the trusses. The commonest
types are king-post and queen-post trusses which are used for spans up to 12-15 metres
(40-50 ft), see figure 20«i) and (ii». King-post trusses may also be found in the older, much
smaller, cottage property. Such trusses called for great skill in manufacture and assembly
which was mainly due to the complexity of the carpentry joints. Often the king and queen
posts were further secured to the tie beams with iron straps, as were the principal rafters.
In earlier examples of such trusses, the different members were tenoned into mortices in
adjacent members, the tenons being secured in their mortices with timber dowels. In these
older buildings, the condition of the dowels will warrant close inspection for it is likely that
the dowels will have been completely eaten away by old beetle infestation. Also, the distance
pieces between the inner and outer wall plates are particularly vulnerable to fungal decay,
resting as they do on top of a thick wall and often under the sole of a parapet gutter.
There are usually no ridgeboards in such old roofs, rafters being halved over one another
at the apex of the roof, and secured by timber dowels. Alternatively, one rafter may be
tenoned into a mortice in the opposite rafter, the two rafters being secured with a timber
dowel. Collars were similarly secured to rafters by dowels and, again, the condition of the
dowels should receive close attention. Slate or tile battens were usually of cleft timber and
slender by present-day standards, even allowing for the fact that the battens will almost
certainly be oak and not softwood. Although the early craftsman were capable of doing
very elaborate work extremely well, they did not always appreciate the engineering aspects
of their complex designs. In consequence, the dimensions of the timbers they used were often
unnecessarily generous, and not used to best advantage. In particular, the lesser dimensions
of rafters and purlins were almost invariably used in depth, with the result that the roofs
were not as strong as they might otherwise have been. Further, the craftsman did not
appreciate the significance of knots nor the objection to using timbers containing excessive
quantities of sapwood. When these roofs are inspected 300 or 400 years later, several timbers
are likely to be found to have failed mechanically because of the large size of the knots or
destruction of the sapwood by beetle infestation or fungal decay.
With such old buildings the roof covering of slates or tiles, unless slopes have been
stripped within the last eighty years, will be secured by timber pegs, which, if of oak, are
often surprisingly sound. Lime mortar 'torching' and hair plaster on the underside of the
roof covering was a common method of insulating and draught-proofing, within the roof
void. With the passage of time this rendering is likely to have disintegrated, adding to the dirt
in old roof voids. In surveying such roof voids, often with 30 metres (lOO ft) of wandering
lead, the surveyor is likely to suffer considerable discomfort unless he wears a mask.
When surveying such roofs today, it will be found that time will have taken its toll.
Often, substantial repairs will have been carried out by old craftsmen, without reference
to structural functions of the members, with the result that positive harm may have been
done. Unless a surveyor has specialist engineering knowledge, he would be well advised
to confine himself to determining the extent of fungal decay and beetle infestation in the
roof timbers. He should make sketches of the roof components, leaving it to a consulting
structural engineer with a specialist knowledge of timber engineering to carry out a
mathematical analysis of the construction, and to design appropriate remedial measures.
It will be necessary to cut out lengths of seriously affected timbers, no longer capable of
performing any structural function, but the expert in the engineering field will know where
to introduce steel rods or straps, and even plywood gussets to restore structural strength in
such a way that the essential features of the old roof can be preserved.
Packing out of old roof timbers to permit re-laying the roof covering appears to
have been common practice in the nineteenth century. Unfortunately, the timber used for
this purpose was often poor quality softwoods, with the result that the packing pieces are
frequently found to be in a worse condition than the original timbers, perhaps 400 years
old. When such roofs have to be stripped and re-covered today, repairs to the roof timbers
are likely to be a large proportion of the total cost of renewing the roof covering.
The timbers that should be given the most careful scrutiny in the course of a survey of
really old roofs are the wall plates, the feet of rafters, the ends of tie beams, and the distance
pieces between two wall plates, particularly when these timbers are close to, or actually
under, parapet gutters. Timbers of the end trusses tight to external gable walls should
be individually inspected, as should the backs of wall posts of hammer beam and similar
trusses. Timbers in these positions may suffer decay and often secondary death watch beetle
infestation, although the remaining roof timbers of the same age are still perfectly sound.
Often, when in the attic it will be impossible to make an adequate inspection of the ends of
tie beams, the feet of rafters and the wall plate. However, where fungal fruiting bodies are
seen on the internal face of the wall or, where probing discloses decayed timber such as at
the ends of tie beams emerging from under the sole of a parapet gutter, it will be necessary
to insist on bays of the gutter being lifted, to permit a proper inspection from above. Even
though the original lead may be in sound condition, it is never prudent to re-lay and re-dress
old lead, further adding to the cost of repair.
Another common failure of nineteenth-century restorers was to cut out lengths of decayed
wall plates, building up the voids in brickwork without introducing spreaders, figure 9(iv),
under the tie beams. As a result of point loads, there is a tendency for cracks to develop in
the re-built brickwork. Another important aspect the surveyor should always have in mind
when inspecting period properties, is the possibility that a previous owner in the course of
modernising the property may have cut away some vital structural timber without taking
steps to re-distribute loads adequately. It is very common to find that a purlin has been
cut through to improve access to an attic without carrying out the necessary construction
work to prevent the lateral spread of the roof. It is, however, perfectly possible to remove
part of a vital structural member such as the lower length of a principal rafter, provided
the re-distribution of loads is properly designed and configured with other timber members.
Figure 21 illustrates how this was done to provide staircase access to a roof void that was to
be converted into a flat. The scheme was designed by a timber engineering consultant and,
Roofs 99
I ,
I I
I 1
I :
~.
Figure 21 Removal of roof members

from so detailed a drawing, local carpenters had no difficulty in providing the headroom
for the new staircase, which was an essential part of the conversion.
As roof span increases, longer rafters are required between ridge and wall plate. To avoid
sagging in these cases, rafter depth has to be increased or the rafters have to be supported in
their length by purlins. These are usually positioned midway up the roof slope but sometimes
when loads are considerable or where spans are excessive, two purlins to each roof slope may
be found. With purlins of adequate size and suitably spaced, simple close-coupled, double
pitch roofs can be used for spans up to 9 metres (30 ft), with rafters 100, 125 or 150 mm (4,
5 or 6 inches) in depth, depending on the steepness of the pitch, and the type and weight of
the roof covering. Such roofs dispense with elaborate carpentry joints being framed up with
nails. In older work of poor quality, there has been a tendency for carpenters to skimp on
nails thus encouraging possible collapse. In this roof type, the rafters normally over-sail the
wall plates, being either spiked to the plate or birdsmouthed over the plate. Where a gutter
board is ftxed to these over-sailing rafters, the eaves gutter is likely to be well clear both of
the wall plate and the vertical face of the wall and, in consequence, fungal decay problems
at eaves level are rare with such a roof construction.
It is relatively easy for the surveyor to satisfy himself whether the roof members
of such simple roofs are adequate. Together with measuring the size of roof members,
it is important to check that the rafters which will be cut on the splay at the ridge are
still tight to the ridge board. Also, that the puriins are straight and adequately supported
where necessary by struts off partitions and that the partitions used for supporting such
struts are load-bearing. If purlins are of inadequate section, or, if they are not adequately
supported in their length, sagging may occur to the extent that the purlins slip off their
bearings at either or both ends. As a result of shrinkage or distortion of purlins, rafters are
sometimes found not to be bearing on the purlins and, in these cases, wedges between the
rafters and the purlins are required. If the roof void is rectangular in shape and the roof
slopes are hipped back at both ends, the purlins will be very much dependent on struts for
their support and therefore, these struts should be carefully inspected. In this situation it is
also important to check that where the two purlins at right-angles meet at splay-cut ends,
the splayed faces are in contact.
It remains to check the condition of the battens, the nature of the fixings for the slates
or tiles, whether there are soakers at abutments and whether stacks within the roof void
are rendered. If the roof void is close-boarded, the surveyor will be in some difficulty
when checking ftxings, but if slate or tile nails show through a close-boarded roof, it is an
indication that the roof slopes are not battened and counter-battened, as they should be
and, in these circumstances, the condition of the boarding will need close attention. With
a felted roof, it is usually possible to see something of the underside of the slates or tiles,
close to chimney stacks or valley gutters.
In roofs with eaves gutters it is in the valley gutters that decay is most likely to be found.
If the decay is wet rot, the attack may no longer be active. Any roof timbers and boarding
that are water-stained should be probed to make certain that persistent seepage of water has
not set up any fungal decay. The stained areas should be probed to confirm that there are
no continuing leaks in the roof covering.
Apart from the trusses discussed previously, there are several types of framed trusses
known by the names of the original designers, for example, Fink, Pratt and N-trusses.
These trusses may be constructed of steel or light metal alloy, as well as of timber. In
modern construction the trussed rafter has become commonplace for traditional low-rise
housing. Figure 20(iii) illustrates a typical trussed rafter. These factory produced trusses
Roofs 101
are strong, light, economic in material costs and have a number of other advantages related
to the ease of on-site erection. However, recent investigations have uncovered a number of
defects with trussed rafter roofs which the surveyor should consider. Such defects include
the lack of adequate diagonal bracing to prevent racking sideways of the trusses and the
omission of galvanised steel strapping on the last two or three trusses to the gable-ends.
In addition, with the risk of high humidity levels occurring in some badly ventilated roof
voids, corrosion of the galvanised steel connectors can develop which will affect the struc-
tural integrity of the trusses.
Inspection of roof voids
Unless access is impossible there should be no excuse for not inspecting roof voids. Because
roof voids are apt to be dirty, a surveyor may as a matter of convenience, defer inspection
of them to the last, although for many surveyors the proper sequence is to commence with
the roof construction, which means getting into the roof voids. Unfortunately not all are
provided with access hatches, and even those that are may still defy a detailed inspection
of the roof timbers if the pitch of the roof slopes is shallow. In a survey the surveyor
obviously cannot have holes cut in ceilings to gain access, but in a detailed structural survey
access must be obtained to all voids. Where rooms have been formed in the roof space it
is important to gain access to voids behind ashlaring to inspect the feet of rafters, the wall
plates and the ends of floor joists, and also to check on the condition of the plaster laths.
The information the surveyor will be seeking is the adequacy of the roof timbers,
their condition and whether the roof has been properly framed together. He should have
sufficient knowledge to be able to determine whether the roof timbers are of softwood or
hardwood and, if the latter, whether the timber is oak, elm, or sweet chestnut, or a species
he is unable to identify.
As more and more insulation is placed in roofs there is an increased likelihood of
condensation occurring. Where insulation is placed between the ceiling joists, roof voids
will be cooler and, in cold weather, water vapour from below may form droplets on cold
surfaces within the void. To overcome the problem it is essential to ventilate the roof,
usually via grilles set in the soffit board. The surveyor must ensure that ventilation is
adequate in these circumstances and check that grilles are not blocked by the over-zealous
application of insulating materials. BRE Digest 270 'Condensation in insulated domestic
roofs' discusses the problem of condensation and offers suggestions on reducing the risk
of it occurring.
While in the roof void he should note the condition of any electrical wiring lying on top
of the ceiling joists and, particularly, whether the junction boxes have protective covers,
although, of course, he will leave it to an electrical engineer to test the wiring. If lagging
to pipes and cold storage tanks is of felt, a warning should be given that this fosters the
breeding of clothes moths and carpet beetles and should be replaced by a more effective
inorganic lagging. Storage tanks should be inspected internally for evidence of rust, as
should the tappings. In old roof voids it is often advisable to recommend the clearing away
of accumulated debris and of flammable materials such as straw and twigs brought in by
birds. If the ceilings of the rooms underneath are of lath and plaster, then the condition of
the plaster key should be checked.
When in the roof space of terrace or semi-detached houses, the surveyor should check
the condition of the party wall. This wall should be taken up through the roof void and,
often in older properties, may pass right through the roof between each dwelling to rise
well above the roof covering. Such party walls are not always present, even in good-class
semi-detached houses, particularly those built just prior to the close of the nineteenth
century. The party wall is essential in reducing the risk of spread of fire from one dwelling
to the next. For this purpose the wall should be non-combustible and all junctions between
the wall and roof should be fire-stopped.
It is important to discover whether there is any beetle infestation in the roof timbers, what
beetles have been at work and whether the infestation is still active. Even if the attack is
quite extensive, provided no real structural damage has occurred, there will be no need for
any remedial work where infestation is no longer active. The search for evidence of attack,
particularly of the common furniture beetle, is likely to take longest-size for size of roof
void-if the house is only ten or fifteen years of age. This is because there will not have been
time for frequent re-infestation to have occurred, and there may be very few flight holes,
which may take much searching to find. The places to search initially are the framing to
the access hatch and any boarded areas of the roof void where discarded articles have been
stored, particularly plywood chests and wicker-work furniture, linen baskets and the like. A
warning should be given to the client that storage of such articles is inadvisable. In his survey
report, it is important for the surveyor to state precisely how thorough his search has been.
A close inspection of all faces of every roof timber could well demand the greater part of
a day in the roof void of a three-bedroom terrace house, less than thirty years old. This is
the only method open to a surveyor required to give an absolute guarantee that there is not
a single flight hole in the whole of a roof void. With experience a surveyor will be able to
assess the position with something less than this. During his inspection he should shine his
torch up every rafter, and along each purlin and ceiling joist. In the roof of a house twenty
or more years old, he will probably find some evidence of furniture beetle attack within the
first few minutes of his inspection of the roof void. He can then much more usefully employ
himself in his client's interest in assessing whether attack is of any practical significance and
what, if any, remedial measures should be recommended.
If there is evidence of widespread attack in an old roof, the surveyor should look, when
crawling across the ceiling joists, for beetles lying on top of the plaster ceiling. If only
remains of beetles are found, or beetles that have obviously been dead for some years, it is
most unlikely that there is any continuing active infestation. The appearance of frass in a
roof void may be misleading, for example, it may still be in little piles and spilling out of
flight holes and comparatively light in colour, some years after the last adult beetle emerged.
When there is real doubt as to whether there is an appreciable amount of continuing active
infestation, it is advisable to recommend that the roof timbers and the top of the plaster
ceilings should be cleaned down with a powerful vacuum cleaner, which will make it easy
to determine the extent of continuing active infestation in subsequent flight seasons.
House longhorn beetle infestation may be important, but experts know of no case
of continuing active attack in the original roof timbers of any building more than fifty
years of age. In the Home Counties, where attack is known to be endemic in houses from
the 1930s onwards, a very thorough search for house longhorn infestation is obviously
necessary. Rafters on each side of chimney stacks, with flues in use, will often provide
the first evidence. The warmth from such flues creates appropriate habitat conditions for
hatching and development of house longhorn beetle larvae. It is thought that adverse
weather conditions in certain years, coupled with the long life cycle of seven to ten years,
explain why attack has often died out in older buildings. Since the larvae feed on sapwood
they are inevitably near the surface of the timbers in which they are feeding, and hence are
Roofs 103
exposed in hard winters to temperatures too low for the larvae to complete even one life
cycle. Moreover, because of the long life cycle, male and female beetles may not emerge in
the same year, making re-infestation impossible.
Holes of much the same size as the flight holes of the common furniture beetle may in
fact be the galleries of the pin-hole borer which are of no consequence, since infestation
occurs in the forest, not after conversion of logs to sawn timber.
In assessing the practical significance of any beetle infestation, but particularly attack
of the common furniture beetle and the house longhorn beetle, what matters is the amount
of sapwood in the timber. House longhorn beetle infestation is confined to the sapwood,
and although common furniture beetle attack is not, the amount of infestation in sound
heartwood is often negligible. In houses built before the First World War, the amount of
sapwood in carcassing timbers then available was so small that widespread furniture beetle
attack is unlikely to be of any structural significance. This is also the case even if the
plaster laths at the back of the ashlar walling are riddled with flight holes. In the lesser
period houses and cottages where round hardwood poles were used for rafters and ceiling
joists, it is probable that the sapwood will have been completely eaten away, first by Lyetus
infestation, and later by furniture beetle attack. In these houses, if attack is severe, there will
be insufficient timber left to perform its structural function and hence the proliferation of
sagging roofs and plaster ceilings so often seen in such properties. In these circumstances
an insecticidal treatment is pointless and renewal of ceiling joists and rafters would be
advisable. In most properties, instead of spending a large sum of money on attempting
to eradicate a possible small amount of continuing active furniture beetle attack, the client
should be advised to treat any valuable pieces of furniture prophylactically.
Active Lyetus infestation should not be a problem in roof timbers today because
hardwoods generally, but oak in particular, are rarely if ever used in roof construction. If
repair or renewing in oak or similar Lyetus-susceptible timbers is specified, for example, in
the roofs of buildings of historical interest, the timber used in repairs must be absolutely
free from sapwood. In old buildings where the roof timbers are of oak, evidence of death
watch beetle attack may be found, and a thorough search should then be made for fungal
decay, which is likely to be of greater structural importance than the secondary death watch
beetle infestation. Death watch beetles are much more sluggish than furniture beetles and
apparently dead beetles may begin to move after being placed in the palm of one's hand
for a minute or so. What is of assistance in assessing the extent of continuing attack is the
number of live beetles found, assuming the survey is being carried out during the flight
season, which is usually late April or early May. In conditions that are marginally suitable
for the death watch beetle, the life cycle may be very prolonged so that the occasional adult
may emerge long after an infestation has ceased to be of any practical significance.
Because it was quite common in medieval England to demolish buildings and to reuse
the timber, death watch beetle flight holes are often seen without there being any traces of
frass. If there is continuing active attack a sharp lookout should be kept for the steely blue
beetle, Coryeorinetes eoeruleus Deg, a predator on the death watch beetle. It is exceptional
not to find this predator if there is any significant continuing active death watch beetle
infestation. When surveying a large high room such as a college dining hall and where death
watch beetle infestation is known to exist, the extent and location of continuing attack can
often be usually assessed by crawling over the floor during the flight season. It will usually
be possible to find some beetles, apparently stunned, on the floor, and of course if they are
at all numerous it will be necessary to obtain a tower scaffold to permit examination of the
roof timbers at close quarters.
The only other wood borer that the surveyor may encounter in attics is the wood-boring
weevil. This however is unlikely for the habitat of this beetle is typically basements and
poorly ventilated ground-floor floors, not roof voids. Wood-boring beetles are discussed
in more detail in appendix A.
Fungal infection of roof timbers
Fungal attack is likely to be a more serious matter than beetle infestation because the
strength properties of attacked timber, are seriously reduced. Moreover, in-situ chemical
treatments will not suffice to deal with fungal infection. By the time fungal attack is
discovered, actual structural damage is likely to have occurred, necessitating renewal of
some timbers. It is the ancillary work that is usually the most costly part of the remedial
measures, particularly when elaborate plaster cornices and panelling are involved.
Fungi are plants that differ from other members of the plant kingdom in that they do
not manufacture their own food requirements, but feed on the tissues or the cell contents
of other plants and living organisms, including man. Fungi responsible for decay in timber,
feed on the cell wall substances of which wood consists. Five essential conditions are
necessary for fungal attack to occur:
(a) A source of infection, that is, spores (the equivalent of the seeds of higher plants) or
mycelium (the vegetative parts of fungi).
(b) Food material, which means most wallpapers or timbers, although some species are
more resistant to decay than others, and the sapwood of all species is more readily
attacked than the heartwood.
(c) Oxygen, which is available from the atmosphere.
(d) Suitable temperatures, as fungal growth is either at a standstill in unheated build-
ings during winter or it is extremely slow, becoming progressively more active as
temperatures rise in the warmer months of the year.
(e) Moisture, which is as necessary for the so-called dry rots as it is for the wet rots.
On finding mycelium or fruiting bodies, the surveyor needs to direct his attention to
locating the source of moisture that has made attack possible. In roof voids defects in
flashings, valleys and roof coverings are the most likely sources of water that give rise
to fungal attack. At wall-plate level and in the vicinity of parapet gutters, breakdown of
the rainwater disposal arrangement is the most frequent cause of trouble. At lower levels
downpipes, string courses and defects in the fabric of the building provide opportunities for
ingress of water. Pipe runs, plumbing generally and persistent condensation, provide water
or water vapour within the structure. At ground-floor or basement-floor levels, the absence
of effective damp-proof courses and adequate oversite concrete result in the build-up of
high relative humidities which, in turn, raise the moisture content of wood above the critical
minimum necessary for fungal attack.
It is important to be able to identify the fungus, that is, whether dry rot (Serpula' or Poria)
or a wet rot, which is nearly always Coniophora in softwoods and Phellinus, Poria spp., or
Coniophora in oak. 'serpula is rarely found attacking oak. In very wet conditions, as under
leaking parapet gutters, Paxillus panuoides Fr. may occasionally be found. The fruiting
bodies of this fungus are rather attractive in appearance, being bell-shaped, olive-green in
Roofs 105
colour with deep gills on the under surface. It is sometimes a little difficult to distinguish
Serpula' from Poria in the early development of the fruiting body. If the surveyor takes a
piece of the fruiting body or some thick strands of mycelium back to his office, and exposes
them to the air overnight, identification should not be difficult by the time he comes to write
his report the next day: Serpula will have become brittle, whereas Poria will have remained
leathery. The common wood-destroying fungi are described in greater detail in appendix B.
In practice the surveyor will primarily be concerned with Serpula, Poria and Coniophora
in softwoods, and Coniophora and Phellinus in hardwoods, and it is essential for him to
familiarise himself with the distinguishing features for identifying these four fungi. He
should, however, be able to recognise elf cups (Peziza sp.) and a species of inky cap
(Coprinus sp.) to be found growing on plaster ceilings that have been saturated, following
defects in plumbing or frost damage. Identification is important because, although these two
fungi do not attack timber, they are an indication that dangerously damp conditions exist,
and rapid drying out is called for if serious outbreaks of dry and wet rot are to be avoided.
,Serpula and Poria can be identified from their mycelium or fruiting bodies, Coniophora
from its mycelium (a surveyor is most unlikely to find the fruiting bodies of Coniophora)
and finally, Phellinus by its fruiting body. Attack may well be present without there being
any visible mycelium or fruiting bodies, or even a characteristic musty smell, and this is
where the surveyor's expertise is so vital to his client. It is impracticable to probe every
square millimetre of timber in a building and in fact, this is not necessary, but it is essential
to investigate wherever attack is to be expected.
The presence of advanced decay should present no problem but it is the early stages of
attack, or the existence of deep-seated attack, that give rise to real difficulties. Often the
surveyor will have no more than symptoms to go on, for example, damp stains on walls
or ceilings, curved surfaces of skirtings, door linings and floorboards and, of course, the
various signs that he will have noted in the course of the examination of the building
externally, that provide evidence of water penetration of the fabric.
Flat roofs
Flat roofs have been used successfully for over three centuries for large and small houses.
Unfortunately, flat roofs erected over the last fifty years have attracted a very poor image
because of a large number of factors such as the use of innovative but inadequate designs
and the incorporation of untried and untested materials. Little was known about the
problems that could be met with such inadequate designs but as time has moved on,
designers have acquired more and more knowledge. However, although such technical
knowledge is readily available today, developers and designers of properties, in all price
ranges, still continue to make the most elementary mistakes in design and construction with
the result that serious defects in flat roofs are often occurring within eighteen months to
five years of completion of the building. In fact, there is more justification for suspecting
trouble in flat roofs of developments constructed after the Second World War than in
those of period houses and public buildings 200 to 300 years old or more. The reasons are
many but include the following:
(a) Modern planning of the accommodation under flat roofs.

(b) Labour-saving appliances such as washing machines, tumble driers, etc., which
produce vast quantities of water.
(c) The habits of occupants, often dictated by economic considerations.

(d) The absence of open fires with their invaluable flues to provide some ventilation.
(e) Inadequate design such as the specification of inferior materials both for the con-
struction and the roof covering and also, the lack of any fall to the flat roof to
aid the removal of storm water and the omission of vapour checks, ventilation and
insulation.
(f) Poor workmanship.
The original coverings of flat roofs of buildings a hundred years of age or more will be
either lead or copper. The thick cast lead of sixteenth and seventeenth-century buildings
is often still sound today, for example, that used on the large expanse of flat roofs of
Wollaton Hall, Nottingham.
The 34 kg/sq. metre (7 lb) and 39 kg/sq. metre (8 lb) milled lead of the Victorian era can
be expected to have a useful life of eighty to a hundred years, assuming it was properly laid
in the first instance and that it has been well maintained. Copper is used in thinner sheets
and is more prone to suffer damage from impurities in the atmosphere and, therefore, it
usually has a shorter life than lead. As for the roof timbers in flat roofs, until well into
the eighteenth century those of the large private houses and public buildings will be of
hardwood and not softwood, and the walls in which the ends of the timber are housed are
likely to be appreciably thicker than in more modern buildings, hence the timbers will have
been less exposed to the hazards of decay.
Today, except in important buildings, lead and copper are little used because of their
relatively high cost. Towards the end of the nineteenth century a cheap alternative, zinc,
was common in less expensive suburban properties. Unfortunately, zinc has also been used
abundantly in repairs, particularly for small areas of flat roofs, parapet gutters and dormer
cheeks. The life of zinc may be as little as twenty years and, as has already been indicated,
its use in repairs should put the surveyor on his guard as there may well be other and more
serious defects in buildings as a result of such economising.
The most recent metal to be used for roofs is aluminium which has the great advantage
of light weight and relatively low cost, but can give rise to condensation problems if
suitable precautions have not been taken. On clear cold nights the drop in temperature
of aluminium roofs, as a result of radiation, can be as high as SOC, causing formation
of ice both on the top surface of the metal, and on the underside. When temperatures rise
during the following day, dripping of water on to ceilings can be severe, causing dampness
in the building. Ventilation of the roof space cannot alone prevent condensation on the
underside of the roof sheeting when the roof is radiating heat to a cold night sky, but it
is useful in getting rid of water by evaporation during the day. A combination of vapour
barriers, ventilation and insulation may suffice but careful detailing is necessary to prevent
interstitial condensation forming.
Since the turn of the century asphalt has been widely used and, if it is good-quality mastic
asphalt of adequate thickness, and properly laid, it is a satisfactory roof covering and one
that can be easily repaired when damage occurs. In the early days, asphalt was laid direct on
to the roof and much blistering and cracking resulted. Today, asphalt is laid on an isolating
membrane in compliance with CP 144: 'Roof coverings Part 4: 1970 Mastic asphalt', and
blistering and cracking from this earlier bad practice has been eliminated.
In the last twenty years probably the most frequently used material for flat roofs is
bituminous felt. Provided it is three-ply felt, conforming to CP 144 : 'Roof coverings Part
3: 1970 Built-up bitumen felt', and is laid strictly in accordance with the recommendations
Roofs 107
of this Code of Practice, it is a satisfactory roof covering with a thirty year useful life, if
properly maintained.
Another development in flat roof construction was the use of the thermal insulation
boards to replace the traditional timber decking. In earlier work the two most frequently
used materials were Stramit board and woodwool slabs. Stramit board is compressed
straw which was supplied in standard-size sheets wrapped in a paper envelope, the top
side of which was impregnated with bitumen to protect the board during laying. The
top surface was no more than a water-check, and the roof was to be properly sheeted
should rain occur before the first layer of felt could be applied. Unfortunately, this did
not always happen which then resulted in early failure of the decking material. With
Stramit, it was also important for the board to be laid in the direction recommended
by the manufacturer, namely, with the straws at right-angles to the supporting joists.
Further, when it was necessary to cross-cut a board, the raw ends were to be sealed with
tape supplied by the manufacturer. Being an organic product, it was vital for the roof void
to be ventilated to the atmosphere, and for a vapour barrier to be applied to the warm
side of the ceiling. Failure to take these precautions often had devastating consequences.
Condensation within the roof void and on the underside of the Stramit created ideal
conditions for fungal and mould growth within the straw, which quickly reduced it to
humus, destroying its structural properties as a suitable base for the usual three-ply roof
covering.
Woodwool is an open textured board comprised of wood fibres bound together with
Portland cement. Woodwool, although predominantly organic, is not normally susceptible
to fungal attack, but even so, ventilation of the roof void is necessary to protect the roof
timbers. This material has been, and still is being, used successfully as a decking material
for flat roofs.
Another alternative to timber decking is chipboard, but this material does have its
problems in that it shrinks and swells appreciably, particularly in its thickness, with changes
in the temperature and relative humidity of the atmosphere. Moreover, cyclic changes in
moisture content are likely to cause a reduction in its inherent strength properties. Care
should be exercised when inspecting such materials, and any bowing or saturated areas
should be highlighted for further investigation.
The most frequent cause of early deterioration of asphalt and felt-covered roofs, where
the construction is not at fault, is failure to protect the decking against inclement weather
while laying is in progress. With timber decking and three-ply felt, it is important that the
first layer of felt is nailed and not stuck down, and the decking on which the felt is laid
must be in a stable condition. Local stretching of felt, by as little as 2 per cent, can render
it porous without there being any visible splits in the felt.
The suitability of the material used for covering flat roofs, including correct laying and
its present condition, are points that the surveyor has to assess from his visual inspection.
With lead, copper and aluminium, it is important that bays should not be more than 825
mm (2 ft 9 inches) between rolls and not more than 2400 mm (8 ft) between drips. Where
larger bays or longer lengths in gutters have been used, there is likely to be evidence of
much repairing of old splits. It is exceptional to find properly burned-on patches in recent
repairs, the usual method being a soldered patch, which is very liable to split again after
a few years. It is usually possible to ascertain the thickness of the metal at a drip. In the
absence of positive signs of deterioration, the age of a building provides a useful yardstick
for assessing the further life of the roof covering, bearing in mind that even 34 kg/sq. metre
(7 lb) milled lead eighty years old will be approaching the time for renewal.
If the timber decking shows through the metal covering, or the roof is springy to walk
on, replacement of the roof covering and boarding underneath will be essential. In addition,
where lead roofs or gutters are found to be coated with bitumen or felt it is an indication that
early renewal of the lead will also be necessary. Furthermore, a coating of heavy-consistency
bitumen found in such places should be regarded as giving a further serviceable life of not
more than five years. When properly treated by a specialist firm with hessian and bitumen,
some firms will give a guarantee of ten years, provided subsequent dressings of bitumen
are applied every three years.
Lead treated by any of the methods described above should give rise to doubt not only
about the condition of the decking, but also of the roof timbers themselves, and this point
should be made in the surveyor's report. Further, in drawing attention to splits in lead or
copper roofs requiring patching, he should stress the importance of employing only really
competent firms for effecting repairs because of the potential fire hazard of contractors'
burning equipment. Fire extinguishers should always be to hand when repairs to lead flats
and gutters are being undertaken.
With copper roofs, it is important to check whether rainwater is being taken away in cast
iron pipes for, unless these pipes have been coated internally with a bituminous paint, they
will have a comparatively short life. The tear marks on lead upstands caused by dripping
water from the eaves courses should be checked to ascertain how much metal has been worn
away. If this is appreciable, the metal may be paper-thin and probably full of pin holes.
Since asphalt and felt are not laid in bays or with drips, the surveyor has only the
superficial appearance of these roof coverings to assist him in assessing their future life. The
appearance of creases in asphalt and blisters in felt may be a warning that early replacement
will be necessary. Bearers for water tanks can also be a source of trouble when they rest
directly upon the roof covering, but most damage arises from the use of such flat roofs as
gardens, when the legs of chairs and stiletto heels frequently puncture the covering.
Disposal of rainwater from flat roofs is very important, particularly where falls are
negligible. In older buildings there are usually parapet gutters with outlets through the
parapet wall discharging into hopper heads. With smaller areas there may be a slope in only
one direction, discharging into an eaves gutter. There is an increasing tendency today to
return to outlets discharging into downpipes, with the attendant risk of the outlet becoming
blocked, particularly where there is no hopper head. Such outlets should be protected by
wire cage balloons, which require frequent inspection in autumn to ensure that the outlets
do not become blocked with leaves. Advice on such points should always be given in the
survey report. The surveyor should be particularly suspicious of flat roofs to bay windows,
particularly when the bay is not carried up to the full height of the building, for example,
only to first-floor level. In such circumstances the external wall of the upper storeys will be
built off a bressummer. which in many older buildings is likely to be of timber. Where the
flat roof over the bay slopes towards the external wall, there is a risk that rainwater will
penetrate under the cover flashing to run down behind the upstand of the roof covering,
and on to the bressummer below. Repeated seepage of rainwater in this manner creates ideal
conditions for the development of dry rot in the bressummer. There are often no visible signs
of any trouble from within the house unless the decay has reached an advanced stage. The
surveyor should be aware of such a risk and must sound a warning in his survey report as
replacement of a bressummer will be a costly operation.
As has already been stated, the surveyor is rarely able to check the construction of flat
roofs, other than those of outbuildings and garages that have no ceilings underneath. All
he can normally do is to draw inferences, based on his professional skill, from the condition
Roofs 109
of ceilings and walls under flat roofs and of other parts of the building, and give suitable
warnings in his written report. He may be able to estimate the depth of joists at access
hatches, but he should have been able to form as useful an assessment of the adequacy of
the timbers in walking over the roof. Obviously the condition of ceilings immediately under
flat roofs is important, but if these have recently been re-decorated, defects will have been
covered up. Recently re-decorated ceilings should always arouse the surveyor's suspicions.
Other clues may be provided if the ceilings under hollow flat roofs are of different
construction from the ceilings in other parts of the building, for example, plasterboard or
similar materials under flat roofs where ceilings elsewhere are of lath and plaster. It is always
worth looking for electric light fittings. recessed in ceilings under flat roofs, removal of which
may give some indication as to the roof construction and condition of the timbers.
Faults in construction and design are so prevalent in flat roofs of modern blocks of flats
and maisonettes that every effort should be made to see the original plans and specification.
The commonest faults are:
(a) Want of ventilation of the roof void.

(b) Use of untreated timber or, at best, timber that has only received either a dip or brush
treatment, instead of being pressure-treated.
(c) Omission of a vapour barrier on the warm side of the roof.
(d) Lack of sufficient fall to the roof to remove storm water.
Given these shortcomings in construction, condensation troubles can produce devastating

consequences in a very short space of time. Lack of ventilation of the roof void, together
with a vapour barrier on the cold side of the roof and roof timbers not pressure-treated,
should be regarded as sufficiently serious shortcomings to necessitate advising against
purchase. When there have been previous occupants, a careful search will usually reveal
evidence of condensation having occurred in the past. Condensation problems stem from
the want of ventilation in the roof void and modern planning, such as the open plan where
there is no permanent division between the kitchen and the living room.
The appliances in an occupied flat or maisonette should be noted, as gas cookers, washing
machines and tumble driers are a frequent cause of condensation problems, particularly
where fanlights or permanent ventilation to the outside have not been provided in kitchens
and bathrooms. The method of heating is also an important factor. All too often there is
only partial central heating perhaps confined to the living room and corridor and sometimes
in the kitchen with only electric fires on the full domestic tariff in the bedrooms, and prob-
ably no form of heating in the bathroom or WC. If the heating system is of the ducted air
type, the location of the inlet grille should be carefully considered. It is not unknown in
this form of heating for the inlet grille to be in the kitchen. This will result in warm wet air
being delivered to the rest of the accommodation, causing condensation on cold surfaces
such as window reveals. If such accommodation has been occupied by couples out all day,
the likelihood of a past history of persistent condensation is all the greater. Each adult
releases one pint of water in breathing every ten hours. Further, in the morning, more water
vapour is released in cooking and bathing, which does not condense while the heating is in
operation. If however the heating is turned off on leaving the flat, and for security reasons
windows are shut, condensation occurs as the temperature falls.
In the evening before there has been time for the accommodation to become adequately
heated, more water vapour is produced when cooking the evening meal and in any clothes
washing that may be done then. Thus further condensation is likely to occur. Where oil
burners are used, there can be devastating consequences as heavy mould growths may
develop and pools of water may accumulate against external walls in unheated rooms. This
is because the burning of paraffin results in the release of water vapour which is equivalent
to the volume of paraffin burned.
If the flat roof is of timber construction, unventilated, with no vapour barrier, and the
timber has not been pressure-treated, condensation can result in serious decay in the roof
timbers in as little as eighteen months. In one such case, mould growths in the flat roof
over an operating theatre were so severe within a year of construction as to necessitate
running the pressurising plant night and day, instead of only when the theatre was in use,
until the roof could be stripped and the defects in design made good. It is for this and
similar reasons that the surveyor when carrying out a reconnaissance survey of flat roofs
on a large number of dwellings such as blocks of flats, should pay particular attention to
any evidence of a past history of condensation or rain penetration, which may already have
set up decay in the roof timbers.
Condensation problems from the same causes are likely to arise in flats with solid floors
and roofs, and although structural damage may not result, it can render the accommodation
virtually uninhabitable. Condensation in dwellings is discussed in greater detail in BRE
Digest 110 'Condensation', BRE Digest 180 'Condensation in roofs', and BRE Digest 218
'Cavity barriers and ventilation in flat and low-pitched roofs'.
7 Joinery and Finishes
It is common when inspecting houses more than 10-15 years old to find a number of
defects with the timber joinery. The quality of such joinery, particularly that produced
shortly after the Second World War and up until the mid 1970s, was very poor. Failures
were often blamed on one or a combination of the following factors:
(a) Inadequate protection given to joinery during the construction stage.

(b) The use of unsuitable softwoods.
(c) The use of timbers with large amounts of sapwood.
(d) The absence of effective preservatives.
(e) Inappropriate design details.
(f) Poor workmanship including the application of preservatives.
(g) The over-reliance upon mastic sealants around timber frames.
Defects during construction
Protection of joinery during the construction stage is very important, particularly if this
period is prolonged. If windows and doors frames are built in as external walls are raised,
external painting is often deferred for a year or more on large building projects, and the
priming coat applied to the timber units before they leave the joinery works does not
provide sufficient protection for such long-term exposure. Some Local Authorities now
use inverted polythene envelopes to enclose windows built in as the work proceeds, but it
is preferable for such joinery to be glazed and undercoated prior to despatch to the site.
If external joinery is fixed in polythene 'envelopes', it is important to ensure that these are
completely removed, otherwise water may find its way in later behind the remains of an
envelope. Glazing and undercoating prior to despatch are particularly important if glazing
incorporates glazing beads as these are not infrequently pinned in position before priming,
with the result that the surfaces covered by them are not protected by the primer. After say
111
a year's exposure to the weather, bottom rails are likely to become saturated, and subsequent
glazing and painting seal in the moisture, creating ideal conditions for the development of
wet rot unless the frames have been pressure-impregnated prior to manufacture.
Survey of external joinery
With decay in external joinery, it is all-important to determine whether the problem is one
of ingress of water or of condensation. A logical method of inspection must be followed
if the surveyor wishes to identify the real cause of timber decay. The surveyor would be
wise not to jump too readily to an early conclusion. If the extent of the property is large
or if there is, for example, a large number of dwellings such as 100 or more flats in several
separate blocks, then the surveyor may well modify his conclusions more than once in the
course of the survey. Such surveys may well take several days to complete. Data for each
flat should be collected to an identical logical pattern, for example:
(a) length of tenancy;
(b) number of occupants and age of children;
(c) aspect of the different rooms and location in relation to cold areas such as open
corridors and stairs;
(d) equipment in the kitchen such as gas or electric cooker, appliances (washing machine,
spin drier, tumble drier, clothes boiler, airing cabinet);
(e) form of heating, unit heaters and whether gas, electricity, or oil heaters, and if partial
or complete central heating is provided, the extent to which this is used;
(f) habits of the occupants, family out all day, or wife and children in occupation during
the day;
(g) frequency of bathing, and whether night or morning (the not infrequent habit of
bathing with the door open naturally aggravates condensation);
(h) nature of furnishings, for example, fitted carpets or rugs and impervious floor
coverings;
(i) location of members affected with decay;
G) type of joinery material;
(k) type of construction including whether cold or warm roof;
(I) form of insulation (if any), cold bridging, etc.
If these data are typed in tabular form, a distinctive pattern may well emerge, indicating
that the problem is related to the design, the equipment in the flats, the habits of the
occupants or the quality of the material or construction.
An example of the magnitude of the problem was revealed in one such survey, when
serious decay in purpose-made joinery was found. This occurred in several blocks of flats
on an exposed site on the coast, within six years of completion. The timber was untreated
European redwood. It was found that some members of 94 per cent of the windows on
the exposed south and west elevations were decayed, but only 15 per cent of those on the
north elevations. In this case the problem was mainly caused by ingress of water, although
condensation was no doubt a contributory factor to the decay on the north elevation. It was
found that air of high relative humidity produced in the kitchens and living rooms (where
temperatures are likely to be higher than in bedrooms, bathrooms and WCs), drifted to the
colder parts of the flats, which were the rooms on the north elevation, where the windows
acted as dehumidifying units.
Joinery and Finishes 113
Where the external joinery is of considerable age, some wet rot, particularly in tenons, is
likely to be encountered. The surveyor should be on the look-out for evidence of piecing-in
of members and the reinforcing of angles with iron brackets. Such repaired joinery may
still have an appreciably further serviceable life, but it is important to record the extent of
repairs that have been carried out in the past.
Windows
The type and condition of the external sills should be noted, and the material of which
they are made, for example, timber, stone, reconstituted stone, bricks or tiles covered
with rendering, or creasing tiles. In all but the last, which have no throats, it is important
to check that there is an adequate throat which has not become filled with paint over the
years. If sills are cracked, the condition of window boards and the wall plaster and skirting
under the window should be carefully examined. If the face of the wall under the window
is covered with a material different from the wall face elsewhere in the room, for example,
with hardboard or plywood, it is often a clear indication that water has been getting in
through the cracks in the sill, and the plaster wall face will almost certainly be perished. In
older houses, where grounds for window boards are frequently 75 x 50 mm (3 x 2 inches)
or more in section, fungal decay in the grounds is often caused by defective external sills,
and this decay may spread to panelling under windows.
The surveyor must be able to differentiate between softwoods and hardwoods, and
to recognise oak from other hardwoods. Ability to identify the timbers used for external
joinery is of particular importance today. Much of the trouble with older joinery stems
from the amount of sapwood that was accepted in the joinery grades of European redwood
and similar timbers. To reduce the incidence of knots to the limits laid down in past British
Standards, it was necessary to accept timber containing a high proportion of sapwood, and
the sapwood of European redwood and similar species was and still is perishable. Moreover,
unless the timber was kiln-dried prior to manufacture into joinery, it was likely to have a
moisture content of 18 to 20 per cent, or even more. This often resulted in surface cracking
and opening of joints after assembly. Avoidance of trouble called for the use of timber
adequately treated with appropriate fungicides, and preferably by a pressure process, after
which the timber should have been kiln-dried to 15 per cent moisture content. If the timber
is European redwood the joinery should be thoroughly inspected by probing, particularly
at joints. For this purpose an electrician's small screwdriver will be found most useful.
Even joinery complying with current Codes of Practice and Specifications has not always
escaped early fungal attack and, where architects have produced their own details, without
fully appreciating the reasons for certain important aspects of technical design, the results
can be devastating. A built-up transom, assembled only with screws, and without taking
the precaution of priming all the members separately with a good-quality primer prior to
assembly, is especially vulnerable to subsequent fungal attack. Such designs as large picture
windows encourage condensation, and V-jointed horizontal cladding is particularly prone
to early decay. The risk of decay appears to be particularly great in modern blocks of flats
where architects have adopted an open plan, or a design with kitchens communicating
direct with living rooms. In such circumstances, in addition to the hazard from exposure
to the weather, there is a considerable risk of persistent condensation giving rise to fungal
decay on the inside of window members, particularly if the back putty is defective at the
base of the glass, serving as a trap for condensed moisture. Sills, the bottom members of
frames, the horizontal members of sash and casement windows and built-up transoms are
most likely to be affected. Decay is almost invariably a form of wet rot, and to this extent
there is less risk that infection in the joinery will have spread to roof and floor timbers.
Openable windows are often the only method of ventilating habitable rooms and under
current Building Regulations minimum sizes of openable area are stated in relation to the
floor area. The surveyor should bring to the attention of his client the need for ventilation
where this is inadequate, particularly if fuel is burnt in the room such as in open fires or
boilers.
The amount of natural lighting is also important and current regulations require a
minimum window area, again related to the floor area.
Doors
The type and condition of doors, thresholds, sills, linings and frames should be noted in
the report. Rotten members should be probed to reveal whether fungal or beetle attack is
taking place. If fungal attack is present it is almost invariably of the 'wet rot' type. When
inspecting decaying doors the usual reasons for early failure are inadequate detailing, lack
of projecting sills, economies of construction such as minimum timber sizes, ineffective
preservatives and poor seals between glazing panels and stiles and rails. Also, it is not
uncommon for builders to use internal quality doors as external doors, relying on a few
coats of paint to protect the surface.
Ceilings, cornices and picture rails
Ceilings of houses built since the late 1930s are almost always of plasterboard, and
because the builders have usually been content only to scrim joints and apply one skim
coat, cracks along the joints between two sheets of plasterboard are a very common defect.
In earlier buildings, the ceilings should be of lath and plaster, but if they are of other
materials, for example, plasterboard or some form of insulation board, the construction
should be commented upon in the survey report and an indication given as to the probable
explanation. If the survey is carried out after a series of wet years and the property has been
very thoroughly redecorated, renewal of ceilings in different materials may be the only clue
to a past history of settlement damage. The explanation may be old war damage, but it can
be an indication of previous settlement problems, particularly settlement damage caused by
tree root action in a shrinkable clay soil.
The key of lath and plaster ceilings should be tested along the line of any cracks, for if the
plaster moves up and down on either side of the crack, it is an indication that much more
than stopping of cracks will be called for when the ceiling is re-decorated. Sagging ceilings
on the top floor of period properties should always be commented upon, particularly if, as is
often the case, the surveyor has not been able to get into the roof void. It will often be found
that large areas of ceiling can be moved up and down, and it is imperative to recommend
that such defective ceilings should be taken down because falling plaster upwards of 25
mm (1 inch) thick could cause serious injury. The client should be warned that it may
be necessary to renew the ceiling joists too, as in such old properties these are likely to be
only half-round poles containing large amounts of sapwood, which will have been eaten
away by old beetle infestation. Patches in ceilings on the top floor are often evidence of
ingress of water, either rainwater through the roof covering, defective flashings, or leaks
from pipe runs or storage tanks. These observations should be collated with any notes on
the roof voids and roof coverings.
Cornices and decorated ceilings should be closely inspected, and it is advisable to check
that other rooms of equal status on the same floor have similar features. The finding of
simple cove cornices in one room where most other rooms in the house have more or less
elaborate, moulded cornices, should put the surveyor on enquiry. There could be many
explanations, for example, war damage, settlement damage of one kind or another, or
evidence that there has been dry rot in the roof timbers above. The last explanation is a
likely one if there is a parapet gutter above the ceiling. The cost of reinstating an elaborate
moulded cornice along one wall is usually appreciably greater than the cost of taking down
the cornice all round the room and substituting a plain cove cornice. If the surveyor has any
doubts he should return to the roof void to check whether there are any indications of old
fungal attack. Elaborate cornices or margins to ceilings may be in plaster and not timber,
but if of timber and under the roof, there is always a risk that the timber members may
contain fungal decay or suffer wood-borer attack.
Picture rails can also provide evidence of the existence of furniture beetle infestation.
As already stated, a painted finish provides some protection against the egg-laying of wood
borers, so the top edge of picture rails should be inspected because it is often the only
unpainted timber in the room.
Skirtings
Skirtings should be closely inspected, for like cornices and decorated ceilings, the finding
of simple skirtings in one room where most other rooms in the house have more or less
elaborate skirtings can indicate some past defect. Explanations for such variations could be
war damage, settlement damage of one kind or another or, more often than not, evidence
that there has been dry rot or severe beetle infestation at some time. Clues like this should
demand closer inspection of the skirting and floor.
Glazing
All glazing should conform with the recommendations set out in relevant British Standard
Codes of Practice, but all too frequently in large-scale projects where cost has been a
dominating factor, or in a factory assembly of whole wall units, puttying can leave much
to be desired. A common failure with external glazing beads is the dry bedding of beads
and, in factory-assembled units in particular, the omission of setting blocks and spacers.
If external glazing beads are merely fixed with pins, a gap between the glass and/or putty
is likely to develop, and rainwater will find its way under the glazing beads, saturating the
base of the rebate, thereby creating ideal conditions for the development of fungal decay.
It is essential to ascertain that putty at the back of the glass extends down to and under
the base, and there must be sufficient putty on the face of the glass and under the external
glazing beads to ensure that water is totally excluded. If it is not practicable to remove
a glazing bead during a reconnaissance survey to check that there is sufficient putty, the
moisture content of the horizontal timber member below the glass should be checked with
a moisture meter, particularly where a vertical member, such as the stile, jamb or mullion,
is housed in the horizontal member. In the absence of putty under the glazing bead, it is
not unusual to find that the moisture content in the horizontal members is in excess of 24
per cent and, if a bead is removed, silt and algal growths on the glass or putty will often
be found. Early paint failures in horizontal members under external glazing beads usually
indicate that the puttying is inadequate. In such cases it is usually necessary to recommend
complete reglazing, using an oil mastic, and bedding the beads in the mastic. A rebate on
the underside of the glazing bead, against the glass, is to be recommended, because this
provides a 'sump' of mastic, which will guard against entry of moisture should the mastic
at the top of the bead harden and shrink. Glazing beads should, of course, be mitred at the
angles and should not project beyond the outer edges of the rebates for the glass.
Timber references
The Building Research Establishment has issued Digests and Information Papers dealing
with the recognition and cure of timber defects and the precautions to be observed to
minimise the risk of decay in modern joinery, and these include:
Digest 201 'Wood preservatives: pretreatment application methods'.

Digest 261 'Painting woodwork'.
Digest 262 'Selection of windows by performance'.
Digest 296 'Timbers: their natural durability and resistance to preservative treatment'.
Digest 304 'Preventing decay in external joinery'.
Information Paper IP 10 / 80 'Avoiding joinery decay by design'.
Information Paper IP 2 / 81 'The selection of doors and doorsets by performance'.
Information Paper IP 16 / 81 'The weatherstripping of windows and doors'.
Information Paper IP 21 / 81 'In-situ treatment for existing window joinery'.
Information Paper IP 7 / 83 'Window to wall jointing' .
Basically, the recommendations are that timber for Jomery manufacture shall be
adequately dry, suitably treated with wood preservatives, adequately protected in transit and
during storage on site, properly primed with a good grade of primer, that attention should
be given at the design stage to ensure that water will not be led into joints subsequently,
and that if the unit is cut on site, re-priming is carried out immediately.
Door and window furniture
As to door furniture, it should be recorded whether the locks are rim or mortice locks,
and whether there are keys for them. If keys are missing, apart from the material cost of
a new lock, its installation cost must also be considered. The condition of spindles should
be checked by shutting and opening the door, and turning the handles to ascertain that
the latches are in good working order and that keys fit properly. Missing escutcheons and
damaged or missing finger plates should be recorded because matching replacements may
be surprisingly costly, or unobtainable.
Window catches, casement stays, cockspur fasteners and the sash cords to double-hung
sashes must be checked. Great care should be taken when undoing catches to double-hung
sash windows in case the cords of the upper sash are broken. Every opening window,
casement or fanlight should be opened to ascertain that it is not distorted or stuck up

with paint. If there are shutters they must be opened unless they have been permanently
screwed or nailed up, when that fact should, of course, be recorded. The first traces of
fungal decay are often to be found in the linings to shutter boxes because these are of
thin timber, and closer to the external walls than the thicker linings and architraves to the
window openings themselves.
Decorations
Although it can usually be assumed that the prospective purchaser has noted the condition
of the decorations, the surveyor should comment on them. Those who are regularly carrying
out reconnaissance surveys will be only too well aware that new decorations can cover many
defects. Another aspect is that so many owners do their own decorating today, and the qual-
ity of the work may leave much to be desired. There comes a time when the calling in of a
professional becomes essential, and the removal of amateur efforts can add appreciably to
the cost of re-decorating. It is as well to stress that although the decorations are 'clean', once
the existing furniture and pictures are removed, they may well no longer be acceptable.
Paintwork
The condition of the external paintwork must always be commented upon in the survey
report, and whether the work has been done professionally. When owners do their own
maintenance the preparatory work is often inadequate, and actual defects, for example,
patches of wet rot, may have been painted over. Sooner or later, a new owner is faced
with having to strip the old paint and this adds appreciably to the cost of re-painting.
If the surveyor has to advise stripping off the paint, the danger arising from burning off
should be stressed. Old box frames present a particular hazard if there are traces of old
creepers adhering to the walls, which may also have grown behind the box frames. It is the
responsibility of the builder if the carelessness of his men results in a property being burned
down, but not all firms are adequately insured to meet substantial claims. The inclusion
of very strict clauses relating to the use of blow lamps to burn off paint and to repair lead
work is recommended and it must be made abundantly clear that responsibility rests with
the builder. Nevertheless, it is advisable to insist that the use of blow lamps shall cease at
a reasonable time before any breaks for meals and at the end of the day, before the men
leave the site. Moreover, an efficient and fully charged fire extinguisher should always be
available when a blow lamp is in use.
Fixtures and fittings
The surveyor should ascertain what fixtures are included in the sale because removal of
these may well put the new owner to considerable expense in making out cornices, picture
and dado rails and skirtings stopped at a wall fitting that will be removed. The condition
of fixtures and fittings to be left should be inspected as thoroughly as the more important
structural features described in preceding chapters. If fixtures and fittings are of timber,
being 'joinery' items, they are likely to be made up of thin timbers, which may contain
considerable quantities of sapwood and may therefore be susceptible to furniture beetle

attack or, if of hardwood, to Lyetus infestation. The surveyor should not be misled by
fine dust under drawer runners to guides, produced by friction of the drawer sides. This
often has the texture of Lyetus frass but, when examined with a pocket lens, will be seen
to be quite distinct.
8 Services
Within a structural survey report, internal plumbing, sanitary fittings, external drainage,
electrical and gas supplies and central heating should generally be classified under the
heading of 'services'. In a detailed structural survey, these services will not be dealt with in
isolation in the course of the room-by-room investigation. In smaller properties, however,
it is convenient to record what services are present, although, again, the notes should be
brought together under a separate heading within the survey report.
Water services
The provision of water is controlled by statutory regulations and the bye-laws produced by
respective Water Authorities. They are based on the prevention of waste and contamination
of water and the provision of an adequate and wholesome supply. Reference to the
requirements of the local Water Authority will be the basis of establishing the adequacy of
the storage and supply to a building.
The surveyor's attention is drawn to BRE Digest 98 'Durability of metals in natural
waters', which discusses the properties of water that affect the durability of plumbing
installations. In this Digest it is pointed out that mineral impurities such as chlorides
and sulphates, together with dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, influence the corrosive
behaviour of water. The effect of these impurities, including oxygen and carbon dioxide,
is discussed in relation to the different materials used for storing and distributing water to
sanitary appliances and central heating systems in buildings. This Digest is of such practical
importance to the surveyor that no precis would be adequate, as will be appreciated from
the summary of its scope that appears below:
"It deals with-the nature and concentration of impurities in water hardness-types

of scale formed-prediction of scale formation-resistance to corrosion of commonly
used metals-effect of scale formation on corrosion resistance-hot water systems-
119
the risks of using a mixture of metals-protective measures-loss of zinc from brass

components-heating installations-means of avoiding corrosion and 'air' locking-
protection of pipes against their external environment".
In the bathroom and WC the surveyor will note the sanitary fittings, for example, the
bath and hand basin, their size and condition. WCs should be checked for leaks and systems
flushed. The pipe runs should be carefully examined because in older properties they may
not conform to the recommendations of the Water Authority. The surveyor should note
that, in some areas, lead or galvanised steel barrel may be positively unsuitable because of
the nature of the water supply. The most common failing with pipework is to find a mixture
of galvanised steel and copper which, if in the hot supplies, can result in electrolytic action
between the two metals, thus causing corrosion. This is often the case where tappings from
galvanised cylinders are in copper, and brass unions have not been used. Old lead pipes,
particularly those buried in the wall, are a frequent source of minor leaks from small holes.
Plumbing in old properties is often such a tangle of pipes that it is very difficult to detect
leaks. In these cases it may be advisable to recommend complete renewal. It is important to
check whether domestic hot water is supplied by an indirect cylinder or direct from a boiler.
In the latter case the pipes and boiler in a hard water district are liable to fur up after a few
years, when they need to be cleaned chemically by a specialist or renewed in toto.
The hot water installation, including the central heating systems, should be examined
for condition and serviceability; insulation and pipe jointing are obvious points to note
and so too are the controls (thermostats, safety valves and time control mechanisms).
Numbers and positions of radiators, boilers and immersion heaters should be recorded.
It is difficult sometimes to establish inefficiency in a hot water installation apart from
the boiler and its ancillary equipment and the builder's work in the flue, but an
assessment should be attempted even if it means a specialist investigation at a later
date.
If the client is buying a property with central heating for the first time he should
be made acquainted with operating costs, as these can come as something of a shock
to the inexperienced, particularly if a high-cost fuel is used and the building is poorly
insulated.
Drainage
There are few, if any, moving parts in a drainage installation and even these can be kept
working efficiently by routine cleaning. Tracing and testing of the drains obviously forms
part of the external investigations, but unless the firm carrying out the survey uses a member
of the staff to investigate, who is also responsible for checking on the internal plumbing,
sanitary fittings and connection to the drains, the work will normally be deferred until the
interior survey has been completed.
Many firms prefer to leave the testing of drains to specialists, and there is much to
be said for this course, but as specialist services add to the total cost, the surveyor should
first satisfy himself that the condition of the property justifies pursuing negotiations. In a
detailed structural survey, the drains should in any event be dealt with entirely separately,
because the necessity for such a survey in many cases presupposes adaptation of the
building for some entirely different purpose, when the existing drains and other services
are likely to be inadequate.
Services 121
When a large property is being sold off in lots and the surveyor's client is interested only
in one, warning should be given where the drainage of all the lots is to one cesspool or
septic tank, that subsequent re-development of the other lots may well overload the existing
sewage disposal arrangements.
Testing of drains, whether done by the firm carrying out the reconnaissance surveyor by
specialists, means additional expense. The client however, must be left in no doubt of the
desirability of a proper test when all the surveyor has done is to trace the layout of drains,
located manholes and seen that they appear to be functional. These limited investigations
are essential because they may bring to light matters sufficient in themselves to necessitate
advising against pursuing negotiations. For example, in a farm house in Somerset equipped
with 'modern sanitation', tracing of the drains revealed that the soil drain discharged into
the Local Authority's storm water sewer. In this case the prospective purchaser was
contemplating the addition of a second bathroom and a ground-floor cloakroom/WC,
which would, of course, have required planning permission. The council would almost
certainly have insisted on the installation of a proper sewage disposal scheme, which would
have put the new owner to expenditure out of all proportion to the value of the property.
Normally, sewage disposal is by one or other of three means: to a public sewer, to a
cesspool, or to a septic tank. It is the duty of the surveyor carrying out a reconnaissance
survey to establish which of these three alternatives exists. Even where the system is mains
drainage, faults may nevertheless exist. Not infrequently in country properties, facilities
have been added to without the permission of the local Environmental Health Officer.
Connections to the main drain may have been made with Y-junctions, without manholes,
interceptor chambers or rodding eyes, so that in the event of blockage it is impossible to rod
some lengths of drain. Additional hand basins may have been added, discharging into the
storm water drains which, in turn, discharge into soakaways in breach of bye-laws and the
current Building Regulations. If the system discharges into a cesspool, there is no certainty
that this is ideally located so that it can be emptied periodically, with the result that the
effluent from the cesspool may, for example, be causing pollution of streams. Even with a
properly designed septic tank, it is still necessary to ascertain that it is of sufficient capacity,
and that the arrangements for disposal of the effluent from the tank, however pure, will
not ultimately cause flooding of a neighbour's land.
Modernising of existing systems and correcting faults in design and lay-out of both soil
and storm water drains can prove very costly, and it must be made perfectly clear in the
survey report how far investigations have been taken, stressing the advisability of having
the installation fully investigated and tested. Even where there is mains drainage there is still
room for complications. For example, with small suburban estate properties, the main soil
drain is often the joint responsibility of several separate owners. In these circumstances, it
is imperative to stress in the report that the rights and liabilities of the purchaser in respect
of the drains must be investigated by the purchaser's solicitor, in order to establish the
obligations of anyone owner.
Electrical installations
It is most important that the installation be inspected and in some cases tested, when
either newly installed or an existing system is being considered. There are several activities
involved, for example a visual inspection could show whether or not the installation and
associated equipment comply with the appropriate standards which are listed in the lEE
(Institution of Electrical Engineers) Regulations. This compliance must also extend to the
components and the wiring techniques that have been adopted. At the same time it should
be obvious if the installation has been damaged in any way, for example by subsequent
building work.
The tests which are to be carried out are usually undertaken by a specialist and the order
of testing is very important for the test itself may be a cause of danger if the installation is
faulty, especially so if any protective device fails to function. In addition, some tests rely
on other parts of the installation and this depends therefore on the sequence. The testing
sequence normally undertaken is:
(a) ring circuit continuity;

(b) protective conductor continuity,
(c) measurement of earth electrode resistance;
(d) measurement of insulation resistance;
(e) protective efficiency of barriers and enclosures;
(f) measurement of resistance of non-conducting floors and walls;
(g) certification of polarity;
(h) measurement of the earth fault loop impedance;
(i) testing earth leakage circuit breakers.
Equipment and knowledge for carrying out testing to this standard is not usual equip-
ment for surveyors. However, it is important to know what instructions are appropriate
to be given to an engineer and it is essential to understand the highly technical report that
may result from such a test. When a system is newly installed, there should be evidence
that it is efficient and safe. This is achieved by the contractor issuing a 'Completion
Certificate' to which will be attached an 'Inspection Certificate' indicating that the
work has been tested and found efficient and that the installation does comply with
the lEE Regulations. The 'Completion Certificate' should be signed by a qualified
person.
Gas
Gas supply in the UK is administered by the British Gas Corporation through twelve gas
regions. Installation of gas services can only be carried out by the gas region's engineers or
members of the Confederation of Registered Gas Installers. When inspecting a property with
a gas installation, the surveyor should advise, as a matter of routine safety, of the need to
inspect and test the service shortly after purchase.
If the house is old, there is a likelihood that the old supply pipes may still be in use and
these pipes may be leaking since modern natural gas is supplied at higher pressures than
the old town gas. In addition, where gas lighting or old gas fires have been removed, the
original pipes may have been capped off and left hidden within the building. Structural
movement caused by renovation work or traffic vibrations may fracture these live pipes,
causing a slow leakage.
Where gas fires, boilers and other appliances are installed, adequate ventilation must
be provided for their safe operation. Typically for safe running, a single air brick of
225 x 225 mm (9 x 9 inches), incorporated into the external wall, should suffice. If there is
no method of permanent ventilation, then the surveyor must advise his client of the
Services 123
possibility of toxic poisoning and suffocation when the appliance is in operation.

It is popular in some houses which do not have central heating to make use of
wall-mounted gas heaters. These usually are vented to the outside via balanced flues. The
surveyor must check that these flues are not positioned directly under openable windows.
If this happens then there is a danger of waste gases finding their way back into the
dwelling.
9 Report Writing
Surveyors who are capable of observing accurately, occasionally fall down when it comes to
compiling a report of their observations, including the interpretation of their significance.
As far as the client is concerned, it is a lucid report that matters since he has retained the
surveyor to observe and diagnose what can be found out about the property, short of taking
it apart, that he cannot discover for himself as a layman. In some cases there is little point in
giving the dimensions of rooms or in describing the condition of the decorations in detail,
for the client should be given credit for having read the estate agent's 'particulars' and for
having seen the obvious, otherwise he would not seriously be considering purchase.
When a surveyor has been instructed, the purchase will probably be subject to a
satisfactory report being received from the surveyor, the title and other legal aspects being
the responsibility of his solicitor to discover. Therefore, what the client wants to know
from the inspection is whether the property is basically sound and, if not, how much will
it cost to carry out necessary remedial work. The surveyor must always bear in mind that
ultimately, his survey report will be looked upon in monetary terms by the client, that is,
how much to put it right?
The written word
It is rarely possible for a surveyor to draft a preliminary report that he can subsequently
work up into a refined form, and consequently the initial draft should be carefully con-
sidered from the beginning. What is required is a lucid description of the condition of the
property and the significance of its defects, expressed in plain, simple English. There is,
of course, every reason for a surveyor to endeavour to improve his writing ability, which
is something that does not always come easily. Some works of reference are useful aids to
clarify expression, and the correct use of English. Among these, Fowler's A Dictionary of
Modern English Usage is particularly helpful. Many may not agree with Fowler's punctu-
ation and rigid rules, but a study of his book should make for consistency in the written
word for those without a natural gift for writing. Further, although one may not be given
124
Report Writing 125
to malapropisms, a good dictionary should be on every surveyor's bookshelves. Another

book which can be recommended is Gower's The Complete Plain Words, now revised by
Sidney Greenbaum and Janet Whitcut and published by HMSO.
When writing a report, certain rules must be observed. First and foremost ask the ques-
tion: for whom is the report intended? The detailed structural survey, although probably
commissioned by a layman, will primarily be studied by a client's architect or structural engi-
neer, whereas a condition survey report may be intended for the lay client. This type of client
may have a horror of dry rot or woodworm, probably without knowing why, and almost
certainly without appreciating that the finding of either may be no reason for abandoning
the idea of purchasing the selected property. Most technical terms and scientific names will
be meaningless to him and so they should be avoided or explained. In certain circumstances
it may be imperative to use technical terms, which should then be simply defined.
Some reports are written as letters, commencing and ending conventionally, but this
format is not to be recommended. A report is an important document and should have
a definite title, for example, 'Report on The Gables'. If the property is a large one and
the first report covers no more than initial preliminary inspection, the title should disclose
the fact: 'A preliminary (or interim) report on a reconnaissance survey of The Gables'.
Paragraphs should be numbered and each separate section should have a heading, so that
vital matters can be clearly indicated in the covering letter sent with the report, or referred
to in an appropriate section.
Limitations
It is essential for the surveyor to make it clear to the client how far his investigations have
gone and whether it is advisable to take matters further by opening up, testing of services
and the like, before a final decision to purchase is made. In surveying a fully furnished
house the surveyor may be unable to take up carpets, lift parquet flooring or tongued and
grooved boarding, move furniture, etc., without authority and possible risk of damage. If
this is the position, the surveyor must state precisely in his report what he has and has not
been able to do, for example, 'room close-carpeted and flooring not inspected' or 'room
partially carpeted and margins or flooring only inspected'. Such limitations as fitted car-
pets and linoleum obviously make it difficult for the surveyor, but it is no justification for
introducing large numbers of escape clauses into the report that make the document virtually
worthless to the client. Moreover, as is pointed out in chapter 10 on Legal Aspects, escape
clauses will not exonerate the surveyor if he has been negligent.
It is the surveyor's duty to assess the significance of what he has observed and if
necessary to underline the inevitable limitations of any deductions. For example, it is of no
assistance to the client if his surveyor merely states that he found no traces of woodworm
but can give no guarantee that none is present. If he can say that he has made a thorough
search in the cupboard under the stairs, the plywood backboards for the electricity intake
and gas meters, the margins of floors in any rooms not close-carpeted, the frame of the
access hatch and the boarded areas in the roof void, and that he saw no signs of recent or
active infestation in those places nor in the furniture, and further that there were no articles
in the house likely to encourage the borer (for example, wickerwork waste paper and linen
baskets), then this amount of information will be of considerable value to the client. Of
course it cannot be backed up with an absolute guarantee that there is no infestation, but
it does indicate the extent of the investigation.
On such negative evidence of infestation in a house more than ten to fifteen years old
(that is, a house of sufficient age for there to have been time for initial infestation and
subsequent re-infestation and provided the amount of sapwood in softwood carcassing
timbers and flooring is not excessive), one may be justified in stating in a report that in the
surveyor's opinion there is little risk of there being any serious furniture beetle infestation
in the property. He would add, however, that it would be advisable to treat valuable pieces
of furniture prophylactically, but he would give the same advice to anyone moving into a
flat in a modern block that contained little or no timber, because even a small amount of
attack in such furniture has a disproportionate effect on values.
Similar deductions are permissible in regard to dry rot; for instance, if as a result of
visual inspection, supplemented by probing timber in vulnerable positions, none of the
symptoms are found, a surveyor is justified in being reassuring, provided there are no
features calculated to induce future outbreaks. These features could be the absence of
through and cross-ventilation under suspended ground-floor floors, ground-floor rooms
with timber floors covered with thermoplastic tiles, complex or inadequate rainwater
disposal arrangements, perimeter walls so tight to boundaries that proper maintenance
of gutters is not practicable, dense vegetation growing against external walls likely to
obstruct air bricks, and so on.
Setting out
1. Instructions
Give the authority for carrying out the survey, that is, a letter or telephone call-the surveyor
must confirm all his instructions in writing together with his conditions of engagement to
the client, before carrying out the survey. Any special terms of reference should b~ set out,
for example, the client's requirements or any information the surveyor is given regarding
the property. If the information he is given is extensive it is preferable to make a separate
section: 'Relevant Information'. The outcome of the surveyor's own researches will also
be recorded in this section.
2. Scope of investigations
The date or dates when the survey was carried out and the weather conditions should be
stated. Also, whether any building operatives or specialist contractors were in attendance
with the surveyor. The scope of the enquiries should be recorded in this section, for
example, inspection of deposited plans such as the Development Plan for the area or the
Geological Survey map, etc.
3. Relevant information
The surveyor should distinguish between information supplied by the client or solicitor,
and information found out for himself, giving the sources of the information, for example,
the various departments of the Local Authority. The sort of information the surveyor may
Report Writing 127
include can cover such things as the Highway Authority's proposals for road-widening pro-
jects or construction of new roads that may adversely affect the property (or be of positive
advantage), and/or relevant information from the Geological Survey maps. Other matters
to be covered could include the following:
(a) Structural alterations or additions.

(b) Any record of flooding and, if so, whether flood cover can be obtained at normal or
heavily weighted insurance rates.
(c) Any previous history of dry rot, beetle infestation or underpinning.
(d) The type and proximity of trees from the point of view of potential hazard and whether
any trees are the subject of a Tree Preservation Order.
4. Site observations
Although there is no ideal, these can be set out in the following framework:
(a) generally;
(b) externally North elevation, West elevation, South elevation, East elevation;
(c) roof coverings;
(d) rainwater disposal arrangements;
(e) outbuildings;
(f) grounds, boundaries and fences;
(g) internally, the roof voids, rooms floor by floor;
(h) services, heating, electrical services, water, plumbing and drains.
It is possible to draft check lists carrying out inspections but, as with all aide-memoires,
there are dangers in relying exclusively on a predrafted list; however, it is useful to have
a routine procedure and this may be helpful to those beginning their surveying career. On
the check list, provision should be made for comment, although this could be recorded
elsewhere and a simple coding introduced on the list. For example, the section illustrated
could be used for the inspection and only when the coding is 'defective' would a further
note be prepared. External works could be recorded in this form, see figure 22. Similar
classifications could be applied to the elements of structure, finishings and services, and
elaborated when necessary after experience.
Certain aspects of the presentation leave room for personal preferences. Some surveyors
prefer to bring together all the observations on, for example, joinery, although the
observations will have been made room by room. Similarly, light and power points and
radiators can be listed within schedules rather than being recorded in the descriptions of
the individual rooms. This grouping of repetitive data makes for brevity but involves more
work when drafting the report as the information has to be separately abstracted from the
Site Notes. It is usually an advantage to a client to have schedules of the electrical services
and radiators as he will be more readily able to decide where he requires additions to these
services. Grouping of information relating to joinery, both windows and doors, and to
flooring, is really only satisfactory in smaller properties where these items are standardised
throughout the house. In larger and older properties, there is likely to be so much variation
in the items themselves, and their condition, that it may become necessary to list defects in
rooms where they exist. It is, however, helpful to include an introductory paragraph on the
r:x rt:RNAL I;\OPJ(S.

cot-.1Dl1!ON . PR.IORltr·
Cd4~ts·
~ft ~ if
~ .
~
rUIME.fU-I~I-lI7Ml
l1ARO lA.1--LD£LAf"t._
LANOSSAPIN9-
l~tE.5
PRIVG.
PAtH5·
90LLl E:s.
V~INt9L.
t-.t ANHDLf:6.
Figure 22 Check list
type and condition of windows, doors and flooring, at the beginning of the section dealing
with the room-by-room condition of the property. This will reduce repetitive information
in the descriptions of each room.
5. Dilapidations
These are essential works required to put the property in a good state of repair and which
are to be priced. Even in a reasonably well-maintained property, quite large amounts of
money could be required to restore the property to a good state of repair, and such sums
may well be beyond the means of a prospective purchaser who has budgeted only for the
purchase price. Itemising the cost of dilapidations in a really old property is all the more
important if it is known that the client has limited resources. This applies particularly
to dilapidated properties in areas that are changing character and becoming fashion-
able. Before accepting instructions the surveyor should ascertain the client's intentions
regarding modernisation and approximately how much he intends to spend on the
property. For an approximate budget figure, little more than walking round the property
coupled with taking a few measurements will likely be sufficient for an experienced
surveyor to suggest an amount that is appropriate for repairs, rehabilitation and any
extension.
Dilapidations with regard to landlord and tenant agreements require a different approach
to that undertaken for prospective house purchasers. The Royal Institution oJ Chartered
Surveyors' guidance note 'Dilapidations' and Professor Ivor Seeley's book Building Sur-
veys, Reports and Dilapidations are excellent sources of reference for those surveyors who
undertake such work.
Report Writing 129
6. The client's special requirements
These can be the provision of an additional bathroom or even major structural alterations. It
is important to indicate what is feasible, putting forward alternative suggestions that would
meet the requirements, but possibly at less cost. Each requirement should be spot-priced
as far as is practicable because laymen often have little idea of how much an apparently
simple requirement will cost. For example, few laymen appreciate that an external toilet
could involve extensive drainage costs.
7. Conclusions
This section of the report is of vital importance to the client, and it is here that the
surveyor must use his professional skill and judgement in explaining the significance of
the facts recorded in the body of the report. If he includes numerous escape clauses or
repeatedly suggests calling in commercial firms to advise on matters that should be within
the province of a competent surveyor, the report will be of little value to the client and the
brief may not have been fulfilled. Continual resort to such evasion may lead to a decline
in standards and an inevitable loss of public confidence in the surveying profession. One
must, however, bear in mind the attitude of litigation-hungry consumers who often look
upon the survey as a form of insurance should 'anything' go wrong. In this regard it is
important to make it clear what are 'observations' and what are 'deductions', that is, the
surveyor's interpretation of the significance of what he has observed. It may be necessary
or desirable to comment on observations in a particular section of the report but these
comments or deductions should be brought together under Conclusions. In this way there
is no possibility of the client overlooking their significance. It is advisable to draw attention
to the Conclusions in the letter accompanying the report.
Report writing synopsis
The purpose of a report is then to assist someone to come to decisions that are reasoned
and these can be of different degrees of importance to different clients. Therefore all
relevant matters should be included and their relative importance in the context of the
brief made clear. Reports will vary in length, format and style, but the structure can
be similar and include:
(a) title;
(b) for whom;
(c) by whom;
(d) introduction and arrangement;
(e) sections following the above;
(f) conclusions (summary of critical points, recommendations, etc.);
(g) appendices (drawings, etc.);
(h) references (documentary sources, etc.).
The style of writing is influenced by the purpose of the report and the client, but it should
be direct and simple with words chosen that have common usage. Sentences and paragraphs
should be short and punctuation used to improve clarity. When more than one surveyor is
involved, consistency in style and presentation may be difficult to achieve, but nevertheless
it should be an objective and may be imposed by editing. A report is usually read when
the author is not present, although occasionally a report may be presented. This fact is
sometimes not appreciated and consequently, ambiguous or emotive words and phrases
should be carefully avoided.
When the draft is completed, editing must commence and this should be done to
improve clarity and reduce the length by omitting all that is ambiguous and not absolutely
essential. Abbreviations and statements of the obvious can reduce the value of the report
to the reader. Grammatical checking together with the checking of any calculations should
also be done and then the report should be reviewed from one point of view-that is, has
the original brief been completely fulfilled, even though possibly refined and clarified by
the surveyor. A typical reconnaissance survey report is shown in appendix C.
10 Legal Aspects
Introduction
He who is his own lawyer has a fool for a client. This chapter is not written in disregard
of that prudent aphorism. Its object is merely to provide surveyors with some background
knowledge on points of law that often affect them or their clients, to alert them to points
to guard against. It is not intended to be a substitute for proper legal advice when specific
problems arise. The surveyor should then consult his solicitor or advise the client to consult
his. If advice on the law is given, then unless the surveyor is sure of his ground he should
check it with his own solicitor and confirm or correct it in writing to the client. The
surveyor should in each such case consider giving the advice with an express disclaimer
of responsibility. Coming from a lawyer, advice to use lawyers whenever possible may
be viewed with scepticism. But it is given secure in the knowledge that it will continue to
be widely disregarded and thus much business for lawyers will continue to be generated.
Neglected legal problems almost always turn into bigger and probably litigious legal
problems. Yet litigation is extremely expensive and unless the case is fairly simple and
straightforward the costs often make it unworthwhile unless the sum involved is well over
about £25 000 (at present money values), and even then the relationship of costs to the
amount at stake and the prospects of success have to be carefully watched throughout.
Because of the unjust rules of legal costs taxation, the successful litigant only recovers about
a half to three-quarters of his actual costs of litigation from the other party. The rest has to
come out of the damages. Hence the importance of insurance of all possible liabilities and
losses, including fees recovery.
Throughout this chapter the male gender is used because 'he' is shorter than 'she'
and shorter still than 'they'. In the main the law is stated as at the 31 st December
1986.
131
Legal liability of the surveyor
There are no special rules governing the liability of a surveyor. His legal position is governed
by exactly the same rules as those which apply to any other citizen. The object of the first
part of this chapter is to consider those which affect him most especially.
When he accepts instructions, of whatever nature, from a client he thereby enters into
a contract with that client. Even if there is nothing in writing it is an implied term of the
contract that he will carry out his instructions with reasonable care and skill. This simply
means that he must not be negligent. In theory he and the client could agree to increase
or limit his liability but in practice this does not occur. No reasonable client can expect
a higher standard than reasonable care, and if a surveyor were dishonest the client would
always have his remedies in tort. No reputable surveyor would want to be anything less than
careful, and he would hardly increase his practice if he insisted on excluding his liability
before accepting instructions.
What constitutes reasonable care depends on all the circumstances. Previously decided
cases are useful guides, but it is always important to consider all the relevant facts for there
may be important points of distinction between the instant case and previous decisions. A
particularly expert surveyor, who holds himself out as such, must show more than usual
expertise in his special field in order to discharge his duty of care. The client engages him on
account of his special skill, and it is implicit in the contract that he will display such skill.
On the other hand, the standard of reasonable care is a minimum one, and if a surveyor
accepts instructions it is no defence to an action for professional negligence to say that he
was very inexperienced, or the instructions were outside his province. The inexperienced
must be extra careful on account of their lack of practical knowledge, and any man who
accepts instructions should either ensure that the work is within his province or else learn
all about it before doing it.
A surveyor may be a member of a professional team of experts. He may discharge his
duty of care to his client by relying on another specialist where appropriate but the extent
to which he has done so should be made clear in writing to the client. In such circumstances
it is also important before embarking on the commission to clarify in writing who employs
whom so that problems of hierarchy of authority are reduced and the paymaster of each
expert is clearly identified.
Insurance companies often insist that reports on surveys shall include a clause to the
effect that although no timber decay or beetle infestation has been found no guarantee can
be given that there is none. Though sometimes called 'exclusion clauses' these are not really
such. They do not exclude the surveyor's liability for the work which he has done. They
simply indicate the limits of that work. It is important for the client to know how much
reliance he can place on the report, and whether a more extensive inspection is necessary to
investigate some aspect that the surveyor was unable to pursue, either because he did not
have the necessary technical knowledge, or because facilities were not available to him at the
time of his survey. For example, a modern building may incorporate new building techniques
with which the surveyor is unfamiliar and of whose safety and durability he knows nothing.
In such cases he should either say so, or acquire the necessary knowledge before reporting.
Alternatively, in an occupied house it may not be possible to inspect all floors because of
floor coverings. Again, the surveyor should say so, and if, having regard to the state of the
parts which he can see, there is any risk of timber decay or beetle attack in the concealed
parts, he should point this out. He must remember that the client is a layman and it is not
enough to tell him of the symptoms from which conclusions can be drawn. The surveyor is
Legal Aspects 133
employed to draw those conclusions and tell the client of them. Thus not only should signs
of dampness or lack of ventilation be reported; the surveyor must also warn that these may
have produced timber decay in the areas affected.
The duty of care under the contract is owed to the client. In many cases a solicitor will
also be involved. Vis-a-vis the surveyor he may be the lay client's agent, or the lay client may
be his, or they may both be principals. Generally speaking only the principal to a contract
can sue or be sued on it. The latter aspect is important when a surveyor has to consider
whom to sue for his unpaid fees, and this is one of the reasons why it is important from
his point of view always to have his instructions clearly expressed in writing, for then there
can be no argument afterwards.
It sometimes happens that the client wishes to show the surveyor's report to other people
for them to rely on it, as where purchase moneys must come out of a trust fund and the
intending buyer who gets the report needs to show it to the trustees to get them to make
the necessary money available. If the surveyor has no idea that this may be done he owes
no duty to those other people, and if they rely on his report and because of his negligence
suffer damage, they have no right of redress from him. But if he knows or ought to know
that his report will or may be used for this sort of purpose he owes a duty of care to those
people whom he should reasonably foresee will rely on his report. On the basis of the same
principle a surveyor may be liable to those to whom he gives professional advice informally.
Thus if a friend or relative seeks his professional advice in circumstances where he should
realise that this advice will or may be relied on by that person, he owes a duty to him
to take reasonable care, and if he gives negligent advice he will be liable. But not every
expression of his professional opinion carries with it this legal duty of care. If a surveyor
expresses his opinion on a matter within his professional sphere on some social occasion,
he owes no legal duty of care to his hearers. But if one of them seeks his technical advice
on some problem of his own, in circumstances where it is plain that that advice is going
to be relied upon, a legal duty of care is owed, and if he is negligent in giving that advice
he will be liable (Hedley Byrne & Co. Ltd v. Helier & Partners Ltd [1964] A.C. 465). An
important recent example of these principles is provided by Yianni v. Edwin Evans & Sons
(1982) Q.B. 438. A building society engaged a firm of surveyors and valuers to value a house
for a prospective mortgage. The prospective purchasers, the plaintiffs, had to pay for the
survey. They were advised by the building society to have their own survey done but did
not. The surveyors assessed the house as suitable for maximum lending, negligently failing
to discover defects whose repair cost exceeded the value of the house. The house was duly
bought by the plaintiffs relying on the fact of the surveyors' valuation. The surveyors had
realised that they would do so and accordingly were held liable to them.
Apart from these duties owed in contract or situations analogous to contract a surveyor
owes the ordinary duties in tort. In carrying out his survey he must not go on to the
property of others without their consent or he will be liable in trespass. Where a house
is in mUltiple occupancy, in the case of a lease, or where it is necessary to go on to
neighbouring land in order to make a proper inspection of the property under survey, the
surveyor should make sure that he has permission from each of the parties concerned to go
on their property, or else that he has a suitable indemnity from his client. In making his
report a surveyor may sometimes have to make critical statements about others. Provided
that they are true statements of fact they are not defamatory. But the truth is often
difficult to prove and unsuccessfully to plead that an alleged libel is true only aggravates
it. The expression of an opinion which is fair comment on a matter of public interest,
without malice, is not actionable. Furthermore, a report made to a client is protected by
qualified privilege, which means that a defamatory statement in it is not actionable unless
it was made with actual malice.
In order to preserve that privilege, and to avoid possible liability to third parties, it is
wise to include in a report, or a covering letter with it, a statement to the effect that the
report is only for the use of the client and no liability or responsibility can be accepted if
it is shown to or relied on by others.
Liability of tbe surveyor for tbe acts of otbers
A surveyor is generally only liable for the acts of his own direct employees. Where a
number of experts are engaged on a project, clarification of their spheres of responsibility
is needed for avoiding demarcation disputes and to show how far they can rely on each
other, as stated on page 132 above. But unless a surveyor employs someone else to perform
his own contractual obligations he will not generally be liable for the torts of independent
contractors engaged by him.
Two particular cases warrant specific mention.
(i) Calling in of specialist firms: surveyor's liability
If a surveyor recommends an incompetent firm without having taken reasonable steps

to check its competence and the client suffers damage as a result, the surveyor is liable,
not vicariously for its incompetence, but for his own negligence in failing to discover
this beforehand. But if he has recommended a firm which he reasonably believes to be
competent, and it is in fact guilty of negligence on this occasion, he is not liable. Thus
if the firm does its work badly, recommends a treatment where none is necessary, or in
performing necessary work includes unnecessary or extravagant items, the surveyor is not
liable. This is because his liability for the acts or defaults of others is confined to his direct
employees and does not extend to independent contractors.
(ii) Liability of a builder who causes a fire and of surveyors who recommend work
involving a fire hazard
The builder is liable if he has been negligent. Since the dangers of using fire in the vicinity
of combustible material are obvious and great, he is most unlikely to have been sufficiently
careful if a fire does break out in the house from his work. He is liable not only to the home
owner but to the owners of adjoining properties to which the fire spreads.
The house owner who employed the builder is liable for his negligence in this respect
even though the builder is an independent contractor (Ba/four v. Barty-King [1957] 1 QB
496).
The surveyor who advises burning off, etc., must take reasonable care to see that
it can and will be safely done. The amount of supervision required of him depends
on the competence and experience of the builder. The greater these are, the more the
surveyor is entitled to leave the job to him. It is wise for the surveyor to state in writing
the precautions to be taken. If he wishes to be sure of placing all possible liability on the
builder's shoulders, completely exculpating himself, he must obtain an indemnity from the
Legal Aspects 135
builder. Clear language is needed to avoid liability for negligence should the surveyor in
fact have been negligent.
Similar principles apply to other extra-hazardous activities.
Professional Indemnity Insurance
No human being can never be negligent or the victim of unfounded allegations of legal
liability, but his worries will be reduced if he is adequately and safely insured.
Such cover should be effected by a surveyor through substantial brokers specialising
in such insurance who will advise him properly about it and who will have influence with
insurers if they question whether a particular claim is covered by the policy. It is important
for the surveyor to liaise closely with his brokers about all insurance aspects, preferably in
writing to avoid disputes about what has been said.
Four points are especially important.
Upon proposing for new insurance and at each renewal it is the duty of the surveyor to
disclose to insurers all facts which a prudent insurer would consider material in deciding
whether to accept the insurance or at what premium. This duty is draconian. It may be
extended or modified by a proposal or renewal form but it is not necessarily thus modified.
If it is not then accurate answers to questions in the form will not alone necessarily
discharge the duty. The position in each case is a question of fact depending on its
individual circumstances. If the duty is not performed, or if there are inaccurate answers in
the proposal form, then in general insurers will be entitled to avoid liability for any claims
under the policy, even if there is no connection between a particular claim and a fact wrongly
undisclosed or mis-stated and even though the surveyor has in no way been fraudulent. It
is therefore highly desirable to have the help of a suitable broker in completing a proposal
or renewal form and to record in writing to the broker at the time the fact and extent of
such help and the surveyor's dependence upon it. There should be reliable internal office
procedures to ensure that all relevant information is obtained from partners and staff.
Insurers can refuse to deal with a claim on the policy which is not presented in accordance
with its requirements as to such matters as time ('immediate notice') or form ('in writing').
The surveyor should get the guidance of his brokers on such aspects and ensure that his
partners and staff are familiar with them.
Damages for all types of claim have increased enormously over the last ten years or so,
and will go on rising roughly in proportion with inflation. It is therefore essential to keep
levels of insurance cover adequate.
When a surveyor retires or dies it is important that insurance cover is continued
since claims may still be made in respect of his alleged negligence or other breaches
of duty whilst he was still in practice. Such claims may be made for as long as the law
of limitation of actions allows (see below). In general, time does not run until damage
occurs which may be many years after the events from which the claim arises. Accordingly
proper professional advice should be sought as to the length for which insurance cover
should be maintained. This will be at a substantially reducing premium as claim-free
years go by.
Since the 1st January 1986, members of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors have
been required to have professional indemnity insurance. Details on types of policy available
to members and other relevant information may be obtained from RICS Insurance Services
Ltd, Plantation House, 31-35 Fenchurch Street, London, EC3M 3DX.
Public Health and Environmental Requirements
(i) Public Health Requirements
Modern legislation contains a number of detailed requirements about the healthiness,

amenities and safety of buildings. Many of these are dealt with elsewhere in this book, but
the provisions are too complex and lengthy for a useful summary of them here. For that
purpose the surveyor needs to consult specialist publications on these topics, attend courses
upon them, or consult his own lawyers.
A few words may however usefully be said about some aspects of environmental
protection (apart from planning and pollution, substantial topics in their own right).
(ii) Preservation Orders on Buildings
There are three types of 'preserved' buildings:ancient monuments, buildings of special

architectural or historic interest, and buildings in conservation areas.
(a) Ancient monuments are buildings and structures listed as such under the Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. Their guardianship and maintenance
are the responsibility of the Department of the Environment, the Historic Buildings
and Monuments Commission, and Local Authorities. Listed ancient monuments may
not be demolished, damaged, added to or altered without the written consent of the
Secretary of State. Compensation and grants are payable in various cases.
(b) Buildings of special architectural or historic interest are buildings of such interest which
on that account have been made the subject of a preservation notice by a Local Author-
ity or have been included in a list of such buildings by the Department of the Environ-
ment. The provisions which apply to them are similar to those for ancient monuments.
(c) Conservation areas are so designated by local authorites and the Secretary of State.
Buildings in them are subject to similar provisions to those just described. Trees in
them are subject to similar restrictions as if covered by a tree preservation order.
(iii) Tree Preservation Orders
These are made by Local Authorities and prohibit the felling, topping or lopping of
preserved trees without the Authority's consent unless such steps are necessary to abate a
nuisance or because the tree is dying, dead or dangerous.
Sundry aspects of property ownership
(i) Liability of property owners to others
(a) To passers-by on the highway. The building occupier may be liable in nuisance or in
negligence to passers-by on the adjacent highway for damage caused to them because
Legal Aspects 137
of defects in his property. Who is the 'occupier' for these purposes is a question of
some complexity, particularly in the case of demised premises, and cannot be dealt with
fully in a work of this kind. The owner out of occupation may in some circumstances
be liable. Liability in nuisance in the circumstances referred to above is strict. Thus it
seems that it is no defence that the defendant did not know, nor should have known,
of the defect. It is certainly no defence that he has employed a competent independent
contractor to check the safety of his premises. The rule is otherwise in regard to natu-
ral objects on one's land, such as trees. In that case it is in practice necessary for the
plaintiff to prove negligence to succeed (B.R.S. v. Slater[1964] 1 WLR 498), although
the standard of care required of the defendant may be a high one, for example, the
employment of skilled advisers (Quinn v. Scott [1965] WLR 1004). Free passage along
a highway must not be obstructed.
(b) To passers-by on a public or private right of way. Such a right of way must not be
obstructed but otherwise the owner or occupier of land over which it passes generally
owes no duty of care to those using it (Greenhalgh v. British Railways Board (1969) 2
QB 286; Holden v. White (1982) QB 679 compare Thomas v. British Railways Board
(1976) QB 912). However the law on these topics is complex and the position may vary
with the particular facts. Accordingly specialist legal advice should be sought.
(c) To an employee or lawful visitor. The employer's liability to his employee is based
on negligence, but the standard of care required is high. In certain premises special
statutory rules may apply, for example, The Factories Act 1961, and regulations
made thereunder.
The liability of an occupier of premises to his lawful visitor is governed by The
Occupier's Liability Act 1957. The duty owed is the common duty of care, that is,
a duty to take reasonable care having regard to all the circumstances. The duties of
owners and landlords are also governed by the Defective Premises Act 1972.
(d) To operatives who borrow equipment found in premises where they are working.
Basically the owner must take reasonable care to see that the equipment is safe for
the purpose to which it is reasonably foreseeable that the operative will put it. The
standard of care is to be judged in the light of all the relevant circumstances, including
the experience and technical knowledge of the owner and the operative.
If an owner leaves equipment, which he knows or should know is defective, in
a place where as a reasonable man he should foresee that the operative may find
and use it, and the operative uses it and because of the defect is injured, the owner
is liable for his negligence.
(e) To neighbours. The owner or occupier of land or buildings is under a duty not to
injure his neighbour or harm his property negligently or by a nuisance. In practice
in most cases if liability exists it will do so in negligence and nuisance. Nuisance
consists essentially of unreasonable use of one's premises which interferes with one's
neighbour's reasonable enjoyment of his own. It may arise from such varied sources
as noise, smell, subsidence caused by encroachment of tree roots, or landslip (Leakey
v. National Trust [1980] QB 485). The rules for different types of nuisance differ but
generally no liability exists unless the defendant created the nuisance or knew or ought
to have known of its existence (Sedleigh-Denfield v. O'Callaghan [1940] AC 880).
What a person ought to know, or what is reasonable, are judged by the standards of
the day. Thus it will usually be held that a property owner or occupier ought to know
of the danger of subsidence caused by tree root action and ignorance of it would be no
defence (compare Solloway v. Hants C.C. (1981) 79 L.G.R. 449). Liability is stricter
in the case of withdrawal of support by building or similar operations. There is a right

of support for land in its natural state, but not for buildings on the land unless such a
right exists as an easement, generally by the passage of time, usually twenty years. If
such right exists it is infringed by withdrawal of support causing damage, and ignorance
that this would occur, or the fact that the work was done by a reputable independent
contractor, are no defence.
(0 To trespassers. A limited duty of care is owed by occupiers to trespassers. It cannot be
stated briefly and comprehensively and can only be touched on here. The duty is less
than one of reasonable care (owed to lawful visitors) but more than merely avoiding
recklessness or intentional injury. It has been called a duty of ordinary humanity:
British Railways Board v. Herrington [1972] AC 877. Its nature and extent depend on
the facts of each case and include such matters as that children are less able to protect
themselves than adults so allowance must be made for this.
(ii) Right to Light (sometimes called 'Ancient Lights') is an easement enjoyed by the owner
of a building on one piece of land (the dominant tenement) against the owner of the adjacent
land (the servient tenement). It is a right to receive light through any window of the building,
acquired by not less than twenty years' enjoyment. The corresponding duty of the owner of
the servient tenement is not to refrain from diminishing the quantity of light being enjoyed
through the window but to refrain from diminishing it to such an extent as to be a nuisance,
that is, an interference with the comfortable use and enjoyment of the building according
to the ordinary notions of mankind. A building owner who has acquired an easement of
light can require an adjoining owner to fell or lop a tree restricting light to his property, if
it constitutes a nuisance for which the adjoining owner is liable. When an owner acquires a
property where a tree or trees on adjoining land are obstructing light to the newly acquired
property, he can only require his neighbour to fell or lop his trees if an easement of light
already exists in respect of the property purchased (twenty years' enjoyment or more) and
the interference is a nuisance. If the interference has been there a long time it may be difficult
to prove twenty years' enjoyment of light in the amount now sought.
(iii) Entry on to another's land
(a) To maintain one's own property. There is no right to do so but the Law Commission
has recommended the creation by statute of such a right. Generally speaking, any entry
on to the land of another without his prior consent is a trespass.
(b) To comply with a Defective Premises or a Dangerous Structures Order. (i) Outside
London. It would seem that under the Building Act 1984 a Local Authority may
go on to property next door to defective or dangerous premises (but under separate
ownership) to remove the defect or danger without the consent of the owner of that
adjacent property (s.s. 76 & 78) but that the owner of the premises against whom an
order is made has no such power. This is because the statute authorises the Local
Authority to "execute such works" or "take such steps as may be necessary" to
remove the danger, whereas an order only requires the owner to take such steps, and
there is no provision increasing his civil rights. In this latter case, if the owner fails
to obey the order, the Local Authority may carry out the work itself and recover the
cost from the owner. The innocent neighbour to the defective or dangerous structure
Legal Aspects 139
is entitled to full compensation for any damage caused by the authority's exercise of
its powers: s.106. (ii) In London. By similar process of reasoning the position seems
to be the same under the London Building Acts (Amendment) Act 1939.
(c) To abate a nuisance to one's own property caused by action or want of action on the
part of one's neighbour. The right to take the law into one's own hands by abating a
nuisance must be exercised to the minimum extent necessary to achieve this object. Thus
if the nuisance can be abated without going on to the offending neighbour's land, for
example, by lopping protruding branches, one must not go there.
It will often be safer and more effective in the long run only to proceed under the
protection of a court order, for the court can and will then authorise all steps neces-
sary for the enforcement of its order, including if necessary committing a recalcitrant
landowner to prison for contempt and allowing the victim to go on his land to take
appropriate remedial action.
(iv) General liabilities of others to a property owner
For practical purposes these have largely been dealt with in parts (i)(e) and (ii) above in
this section. The special position of statutory authorities (for highways, electricity, gas,
telephone cables, and the like) is too complex to be dealt with here. One aspect does warrant
special mention. If a Local Authority's building inspector negligently fails to discover
defects in a building being built which involve breach of the Building Regulations, the Local
Authority is liable to the occupier (but not a bare owner) of the building when damage to it
occurs as a result, but in general no such liability exists where the breaches of the Building
Regulations are the fault of the building occupier himself or his professional advisers: Anns
v. Merton London Borough Council (1978) AC 728; Peabody Fundv. Parkinson Ltd (1985)
AC 210; Investors in Industry Ltd v. S. Bedfordshire D.e. (1986) Q.B.1034.
Limitation of action
Rights of action are barred by passage of time, three years in the case of personal injury
or death, six years in the case of property damage or loss. For breach of a contract under
seal the period is twelve years, which shows the advantage of making such contracts.
Time runs from the date when the cause of action arises. In tort this is generally when
the injury or damage occurs. But in cases of personal injury or death, excusable ignorance
of the facts giving rise to the right of action may postpone the running of time:Limitation
Act 1980 s.s. 11-14 and 33. In cases of property damage, such as defects in a negligently
built building, the law was that the right of action arose when the damage came into
existence and not when the property owner discovered or could reasonably be expected to
have discovered the defects: Pirelli v. Oscar Faber & Partners, 1983 2 AC 1. With effect
from 18th September 1986 the law has been altered by the Latent Damage Act 1986:in
negligence cases involving latent damage the limitation period expires three years from the
date when the plaintiff discovered or could reasonably have discovered the damage if this
gives a longer period than six years from the occurrence of the damage, but in no case may
an action be brought more than fifteen years after the date of the alleged negligence.
In contract, time runs from the date of the breach, which may be long before any
damage occurs, for example, an architect who negligently designs inadequate foundations.
But where a duty of care exists in contract a claim in tort may now also be made (Batty
v. Metropolitan Property Realisations Ltd (1978) QB 554; Midland Bank Trust Co. Ltd v.
Hett, Stubbs & Kemp (1979) Ch. 384) so in such cases the distinction is academic.
In cases of negligent survey the damage occurs and time runs from the date when the
Client acts on the report, for example, acquires the property: Secretary of State for the
Environment v. Essex Goodman & Suggitt (1986) 1 WLR 1432.
If a person is a minor or of unsound mind when a right of action accrues to him, time
does not run against him until he ceases to be under such disability.
The running of time may be postponed by fraud or deliberate concealment. Time
then does not run until the plaintiff discovers or reasonably could discover the fraud or
concealment. If a builder consciously covers up inadequate foundations by going on building
over them he is guilty of deliberate concealment.
Time ceases to run once an action has been started, by issuing a Writ. But even then the
action must be proceeded with by the plaintiff at a reasonable pace or the defendant may
have it dismissed for want of prosecution.
Damages and other remedies
The main remedies with which a surveyor may be concerned are damages and injunctions.
(i) Damages
This means financial compensation. The measure of damages is basically the amount
of money necessary to put the injured party in the same position as if the tort had not
been committed or the contract had been performed (not "the breach of contract had not
occurred' ').
Thus the measure of damages recoverable by the client for a negligent survey will usually
be the difference in value not the cost of repair since if the survey had been properly carried
out and the defects discovered this would usually result in the vendor reducing the price
by the difference in market value of the house with and without the defects (not reducing
it by the amount of the cost of their repair): Philips v. Ward (1956) 1 WLR 471; Perry
v. Sidney Phillips & Son (1982) 1 WLR 1291. But as a general rule, courts in awarding
damages will seek to apply the fundamental principle of proper financial compensation
referred to at the outset, and will not be side-tracked from it by rules that may appear to
have grown up around it over the years: Dodd Properties Ltd v. Canterbury City Council
(1980) 1 WLR 433.
Substantial damages may also be recovered for inconvenience and mental distress:
Bunclark v. Hertfordshire County Council (1977) 243 E.G. 455; Perry v. Sidney Phillips
& Son, supra.
Repair of damaged property may result in improvement through the inevitable replace-
ment of old by new. Damages are not to be reduced on that account but only if the
plaintiff, whilst executing reasonably necessary repairs, takes the opportunity of effecting
additional improvements-their cost is not recoverable: Harbutt's Plasticine v. Wayne Tank
& Pump Co. (1970) 1 QB 447.
Delay in effecting repairs will in inflationary times greatly increase their cost but if
the plaintiff has acted reasonably in deferring them he will recover the increased cost, for
Legal Aspects 141
example, where his resources are limited and he wants to wait and see how much if anything
he will recover from the defendant before deciding what repair work to do: Dodd Properties
Ltd v. Canterbury City Council, supra.
Generally speaking, only the person who has suffered the relevant damage can recover
damages for it. Thus if someone buys a house with settlement damage due to tree root
action, such damage should be reflected in a reduced price and only the owner at the time
when the damage occurred can sue for it. In some cases this may mean that the person
who suffers the loss cannot sue for it and the person who can sue for it suffers no loss. A
court may well then allow the former a right of action: Masters v. Brent London Borough
Council (1978) QB 841. An alternative solution will be for the person actually damaged to
take an assignment of the right of action of the undamaged person possessing it: Trendtex
Trading Corp. v. Credit Suisse (1982) AC 679.
Interest on damages will normally be awarded, generally from the date of making the
claim or serving the writ to judgment. The rate may be bank overdraft lending rates over
the relevant period, or something less than this. A judgment itself carries interest until the
date of its satisfaction.
(ii) Injunction
This may be granted to compel a defendant to remedy his wrong (for example, to
pull down a wall built on his neighbour's land) or to stop committing a wrong (for
example, a noise nuisance, or unlawful building operations). Even if no wrong has yet
been committed, if the plaintiff can show that he will sustain substantial damage from
what the defendant is about to do unless restrained by court order, then the court will
grant a quia timet injunction.
Appendix A: Wood-boring Insects
Timber does not contain the seeds of its own destruction for it will last indefinitely
unless attacked by an outside agent such as wood-rotting and sap-stain fungi (discussed
in appendix B). Most other damage to timber is caused by insects and of these, a few
species of wood-boring beetles are by far the most serious pests in temperate regions. In
the sub-tropics and tropics, termites, popularly called white ants, can be devastatingly
destructive, and in salt and brackish water several species of crustaceans can be extremely
destructive. Not all insects associated with timber cause damage, for example, the land
form of wood-louse, found under any piece of wood that has been left in contact with
the ground, in sheds, or in the open for any length of time, causes no significant
damage.
In temperate climates the timber user is concerned with a small number of beetles
which, like all insects, pass through several stages of development from egg to adult
beetle, called a life-cycle. The adult beetles mate, and the female lays eggs. These hatch
into grubs, become larvae, which go through a resting stage, followed by pupation, when
metamorphosis occurs, to eventually emerge as an adult beetle. The damage beetles do
is frequently referred to as 'worm' in timber. Except for the group known as Ambrosia
beetles, the damage is done by the feeding larvae, which tunnel in timber, feeding on
cell-wall substance or the cell content. With Ambrosia beetles it is the adult that does
the tunnelling, introducing a fungus, known as Ambrosia fungus, on which the larvae
feed.
The different types of insects, their means of identification, and methods of control, are
discussed fully in various pamphlets and bulletins. ERE Digest 307: 'Identifying damage
by wood-boring insects' and the publication Timber pests and their control' produced by
TRADA and the British Wood Preserving Association, are excellent publications on the
subject of beetle infestation.
142
Beetle identification
Basically, the size and shape of the exit holes, and the nature and colour of the bore dust
(frass) provide the means of identifying the different pests. Unfortunately for identification
purposes, it is by no means certain that adult beetles, or the remains of such beetles, will be
found even when there is continuing active attack. Some beetles attack timber in the forest
or while it is seasoning after conversion, whereas others only attack dry timber, or timber
that has first been decayed by wood-rotting fungi.
AMBROSIA BEETLES. This group does a considerable amount of damage to tropical

timbers in particular, although there are a few species in this country that are occasionally
found in oak and other hardwoods. The popular names for these beetles is 'pin-hole' or
'shot-hole' borers. The adult beetle tunnels spirally at right-angles to the grain, into living
trees and newly felled logs, laying the eggs in specially constructed egg-chambers. At the
time of egg-laying, the adult introduces the Ambrosia fungus into the galleries, upon which
the larvae feed when hatched. Provided the extent of pin-hole and shot-hole borer damage
infestation is not excessive, the timber can safely be used as there is no risk of spread of
attack and still less risk of infections of other timber in the vicinity. This is because as the
converted timber dries, the fungus also dies, and the larvae cannot complete their life-cycle
for want of food. It is important to recognise such wormy timber for what it is, since there is
no need to apply an insecticidal treatment to timber containing this form of beetle attack, see
figure 23. Among carcassing timbers, hemlock is the one species likely to contain pin-worm
damage, and since hemlock is quite extensively used in modern estate development, the
surveyor should be able to recognise the holes for what they are, so that he can assure his
client that the attack is of no practical significance, and calls for no remedial measures.
LONGHORN BEETLES. A large number of species belong to this group, the majority
of which are tropical whose larvae usually die when the timber is brought into temperate
climates. Exceptionally, an adult beetle may emerge a few years later, but it would be
unable to mate and re-infest timber in a temperate climate. There is one temperate-region
species, the house longhorn beetle (Hylotrupes bajulus L.) figure 24(i). This is a serious
pest in parts of northern Europe and in some districts infestation has to be notified, and
appropriate remedial measures are compulsory. The house longhorn beetle which is 10-20
mm (approximately 1/2_3/4 inch) long, attacks only the sapwood of softwoods. The larvae
tunnel just beneath the surface, completely destroying the sap wood behind a shell of appar-
ently sound wood. The life-cycle is a long one and, in some cases, can be upwards of ten
years. The result of such a long life-cycle is that serious damage may result before the first
flight holes bring the attack to light. The frass contains pellets that resemble the flints of
petrol lighters when examined with a pocket lens, see figure 24(ii). The flight holes made
by the adult beetles as they emerge are 6-10 mm (approximately 1/4 to 1/2 inch) long and
oval in section. The finding of frass or oval flight holes is not proof of house longhorn
infestation, and still less that there is continuing activity. Other beetles produce similar frass
and oval flight holes. Active house longhorn beetle infestation is generally found in the
Home Counties. Even in these areas no active infestation has been found in any building
more than fifty years of age, unless new timber has recently been used for repairs in such
buildings. The reason for this appears to be that the habitat requirements of the house
longhorn beetle are critical. The larvae only hatch if temperatures are sufficiently high and
because of the long life-cycle, it is probable that re-infestation often cannot occur because
Figure 23 Pin-hole damage (Crown copyright: Reproduced by permission of the BRE

Princes Risborough Laboratory)
a sufficient number of male and female beetles have not emerged at about the same time,
and during a spell when temperatures are adequate for the eggs to hatch. Although attack
is not confined to roof timbers, it is most frequently found in rafters, purlins and ceiling
joists within the roof void, the particularly vulnerable timbers being rafters on either side of
a chimney stack containing flues in regular use. Exit holes in the lead flashings to dormer
windows have been found indicating that the adult's jaws are powerful.
If the surface of carcassing timber is seen to be bulging outwards as if the wood were
covered with blisters, attack should be suspected and the timber should be probed, when a
shower of typical frass is likely to spill out. This may be the only indication that attack is
in progress if a life-cycle has not been completed and there are no characteristic oval exit
holes. When attack is found the surveyor must ascertain whether or not the infestation is still
active. If the attack is active, drastic remedial measures are called for. The attacked sapwood
should be cut back to sound wood and the whole roof void should be given an insecticidal
m M
Figure 24 (i) House longhorn beetle and (ii) frass (Crown copyright: Reproduced by
permission of the BRE Princes Risborough Laboratory)
treatment. If the proportion of sapwood is high, the damage may sometimes be so serious
as to call for complete replacement of roof timbers. This was found to be necessary in a
large number of council properties in the Camberley area. In several districts in Berkshire,
Hampshire and Surrey, the 1976 Building Regulations called for the special pretreatment of
all roof timbers in new buildings; this is not the case in the 1985 Regulations which give no
specific advice on the measures to be taken to protect the timber.
In endemic areas pressure-treated timber, or timber treated with boron by the dif-
fusion process, is much to be preferred to a dip or brush application with organic
solvent preservatives. BRE Information Paper IP 12/82 'House Longhorn Beetle Survey'
provides information of the damage caused by the beetle and gives advice on preservative
treatments.
POWDER-POST BEETLES. There are two families of these, the Bostrychidae and the
Lyctidae. The former are mainly tropical species whereas the latter are both tropical and
temperate- region species. The larvae of these two families do not live on cell-wall substance,
but on the starch content of the sapwood of certain timbers. Unlike the sap-stain fungi
however, the larvae have to destroy the cell-wall substance to get at the stored starch. The
egg-laying habitats of the two families of powder- post beetles differ, as do their demands
in regard to the degree of dryness of wood favoured for egg-laying. The Bostrychid beetles
bore into wood, constructing aY-shaped egg tunnel, which is kept free from dust and in
which the female lays her eggs. When the eggs hatch, the larvae tunnel into the wood
longitudinally, packing the gallery system with fine, flour-like dust. Bostryhid beetles will
attack timber soon after conversion, while boards, planks, and scantlings are still in stick.
In practice the only appropriate remedial measure is to remove the sapwood. The galleries
of the Bostrychid beetles are up to 5 mm (approximately 31I6 inch) in diameter. Attack
occurs in the sapwood of imported hardwoods, but dies out within a year and hence does
not call for any insecticidal treatment.
(i) (ii)
(iii)
Figure 25 (i) Lyctus beetles, (ii) damage and (iii) frass (Crown copyright: Reproduced by
(i) (ii)
Figure 26 (i) Common furniture beetle and (ii) frass (Crown copyright: Reproduced by
permission of the ERE Princes Risborough Laboratory)
Lyctus beetles, figure 25(i), are typically pests of seasoning yards, but re-infestation
may occur if timber containing active infestation is utilised for such purposes as furniture,
panelling and flooring. Except for a reported case of attack in a South African pine, only
certain hardwoods are subject to Lyctus infestation. Attack is usually confined to the sap-
wood, although the adult may emerge through heartwood adjacent to the sapwood. Typical
Lyctus damage is shown in figure 25(ii). 1'he size of the vessels or pores in the wood is a
limiting factor in the beetles' reproduction, for they must be large enough to admit the
ovipositor (egg-laying tube) of the adult female, as it is in the vessels that the eggs are
almost invariably laid. Such fine-textured timbers as beech are immune. Several timbers
with vessels large enough to permit egg-laying are immune because the sapwood does not
contain sufficient starch for the beetle to select the species for egg-laying.
The life-cycle of Lyctus from egg to adult beetle is normally about one year, but the period
may be as short as ten months and, where food supplies are deficient, the life-cycle may be
considerably extended to two, or even three to four years. Adults normally emerge from
April to September, appearing in largest numbers in June, July and August. Immediately
on emerging the adult beetles, which are red-brown in colour, and 2-6 mm (approximately
1116 to 1/4 inch) in length, proceed to mate and the female begins egg-laying. She is most
fastidious in regard to the suitability of the particular piece of wood selected for egg-laying,
for it must be rich in starch. The flight hole is circular in outline and about 2 mm (approxi-
mately 1116 inch) in diameter. The frass has the consistency of flour when rubbed between
the fingers, figure 25(iii), and it has no definite structure.
(i) (ii)
Figure 27 (i) Common furniture beetle damage and (ii) weevil damage (Crown copyright:
Reproduced by permission of the BRE Princes Risborough Laboratory)
There is another beetle very similar to Lyctus in size, shape and colour, namely the com-
mon grain beetle. These two beetles can readily be distinguished by the number of clubs at
the end of the antennae, in Lyctus there are two clubs, whereas the grain beetle has three.
Control of Lyctus infestation should be done in the seasoning yard, as it is extremely
difficult to carry out an adequate in situ chemical treatment of attacked timber. This is
because very early in the attack, the larvae tunnel in all directions reducing the wood to a
fine powder, which blocks the path of wood preservatives applied in situ. The sapwood of
carcassing timber, in period houses in particular, is likely to have been completely destroyed
in part by Lyctus attack, but subsequently by the common furniture beetle. Such attacked
timber calls for no remedial measures because the attack will have been dead for many
years, and all the surveyor has to do is to satisfy himself that there is sufficient timber left
for structural purposes. In modern developments, Lyctus infestation is most likely to be
found in the sapwood of oak flooring and joinery, and here the only satisfactory solution
is to recommend the renewal of all timber containing sapwood.
COMMON FURNITURE BEETLE, Anobium punctatum. This has received much more
attention in recent years than its importance warrants, and tens of thousands of pounds have
been spent on general insecticidal treatments quite unnecessarily. The damage is done by the
larvae which hatch from eggs laid in cracks in the wood, in joints of made-up woodwork
and, more rarely, in old flight holes. The larvae travel along the grain, but as they feed
and grow, they tunnel in all directions, filling their galleries with loosely packed granular
frass which feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers. The individual pellets making up
the frass are appreciably thinner than those in longhorn beetle frass, see figure 26(ii). The
adult beetles are between 2 and 6 mm (approximately 1116 to 1/4 inch) in length and leave
a 2 mm (1116 inch) exit hole. The head is enclosed in a characteristic hood-shaped thorax
and the wing cases are pitted, hence the species name punctatum see figure 26(i).
The life-cycle from egg to adult beetle may be as little as one year, but it is now
thought that, on average, it is about three years. Adult beetles emerge in May, June, July
and August, and mate. The females lay their eggs in suitable places but they will not lay
on smooth surfaces.
The common furniture beetle is widely known as a pest of old furniture and of hardwood
constructional timbers in period houses and, more recently, it has been recognised as a com-
mon pest in the sapwood of softwoods in buildings of all ages. It was formerly thought that
initial attack did not occur until the timber had been in service for several years, and that
it was necessary for the timber to have 'matured' in some way for it to become attractive
to the beetle. Entomologists now conclude that initial infestation may occur as soon as the
timber has become seasoned, but the presence of attack may not be discovered until several
life-cycles have been completed, and flight holes are quite numerous.
In small articles of furniture the damage is not confined to sapwood, whereas in
beams and constructional timbers, it usually is. In furniture and small wooden articles
the damage done may be quite serious, as for example, attack in the leg of a chair. In
structural timbers, attack is mainly confined to the sapwood, and structural damage is
only serious when the amount of sapwood is abnormally high. Attack in softwood timbers
may develop to the extent of causing some timbers to collapse if sufficient sapwood is
present, but the presence of a beetle population is probably of more importance because
of the risk of subsequent infestation of furniture. It is important for the surveyor to
be able to recognise this type of beetle infestation and also to determine whether
the infestation is active, before recommending a chemical treatment. Typical furniture
beetle attack is shown in figure 27(i). It is recommended to refer to it as the common
furniture beetle, or woodworm, as the scientific name may well not be known to the
client.
DEATH WATCH BEETLE, Xestobium refuvillosum, lays eggs in crevices, cracks, or

old exit holes, and the larvae create the damage by tunnelling and feeding on the wood.
Attack is usually confined to old timbers of several species of hardwoods, but it has been
known to spread to adjacent softwood timbers or even to be found in a house containing
no hardwoods. Attack is not confined to the sapwood, but is more likely to begin in
sapwood than in heartwood. Adequate moisture and the presence of fungal decay are
conditions favourable for infestation. The galleries made by the larvae are about 3 mm
(approximately I/S inch) in diameter and they are filled with coarse frass, containing
bun- shaped pellets, figure 28(ii). Removal of decayed wood and the causes of decay are
the first essential steps in eradicating this beetle. Frequently, however, major structural
damage will have already occurred, when replacement of the attacked timbers rather than
in-situ chemical treatments, is the only practicable course. BRE Information Paper IP
19/86 gives further advice on controlling death watch beetle. Typical death watch beetle
damage is illustrated in figure 28(i). The adult beetle is brown or red-brown in colour, and
varies from 6 to 8 mm (approximately 1/4 to 5116 inch) in length. The thorax is smooth,
broad and flanged, and there are patches of short yellow hairs on the wing cases which
give the beetle a mottled appearance. Moreover, if the beetle has only recently emerged
(i)
(ii)
Figure 28 (i) Deathwatch beetle/damage and (ii) frass (Crown copyright: Reproduced by
(i) (ii)
Figure 29 (i) Wood-boring weevils and (ii) frass (Crown copyright: Reproduced by
there is likely to be frass adhering to the wing cases and head. Under optimum conditions
the life-cycle may be only one year, but in less favourable conditions it is prolonged over
two to several years.
Somewhat similar in size and shape to the death watch beetle is Attagenus pellio Herbst.,
the common carpet beetle. This beetle has the same kind of broad, flanged thorax, with
usually two tufts of light-coloured hairs on the wing cases. It is flatter than the death
watch beetle, almost black rather than brown, and the thorax is particularly shiny. It
moves much more rapidly than the sluggish death watch beetle, this rapid movement
giving a clue to its identity.
WOOD-BORING WEEVILS. These belong to the genus Pentarthrum. Both beetles and
larvae bore in timber, causing damage resembling that of the common furniture beetle, but
the galleries are rather smaller in diameter and the frass is rather finer in texture than that
of the furniture beetle, see figure 29(ii). It is possible to confirm weevil infestation by finding
parts of, or whole, beetles with their characteristic snouts, see figure 29(i). Both hard woods
and softwoods are liable to infestation and attack is not necessarily confined to the sapwood.
In most cases a prerequisite of attack is the presence of decay, and hence weevil infestation
is most likely to be found in basement and poorly ventilated ground-floor floors, where
there is no oversite concrete and fungal decay has become established. The measures called
for to dispose of the decay hazard will eliminate the weevil without insecticidal treatment.
Typical weevil damage is shown in figure 27(ii).
Bats
The surveyor when advising on a treatment for the eradication of wood boring insects
and for the in-situ preservation of timbers in the loft must ensure that no protected
species are using the roof void as a roosting site. Probably the biggest threat is to bats
who are now protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 because of their
special needs for roosting. If the surveyor believes that bats are present then he can seek
advice from the Nature Conservancy Council at Northminster House, Peterborough, PEl
1VA. This organisation also produces a useful guide on the subject called 'Bats In Roofs:
A Guide for Surveyors'.
Appendix B: Decay and Fungi
Whereas trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, grasses and the like manufacture their own
food materials from simple substances such as water from the soil, carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and energy trapped from sunlight, there are a large number of plants called
fungi, that feed only on organic matter of either plant or animal origin. Examples of these
are the edible mushrooms, the many decorative but often highly poisonous toadstools to
be found in our fields and woodland, and moulds that grow on almost any damp, organic
material such as bread, fabrics, or wood. Most forms of decay and sap-stain in timber are
caused by fungi that feed either on the cell tissue, that is, 'wood substance', or the cell
content of woody plants. Some forms of decay are however, chemical or bacteriological
in origin, and certain infiltrates present in wood cause staining when such timbers come in
contact with metals, for example, iron and steel. It is important to distinguish between the
wood-rotting fungi responsible for decay of timber, and those that feed on the cell content
causing sap-stain. The former consume certain constituents of the cell walls and lead to
the disintegration of woody tissue, whereas the latter feed only on stored plant food
material occurring in certain cells of the sapwood, leaving the cellular structure intact.
Wood-rotting fungi seriously weaken timber, ultimately resulting in its failure, whereas
sap-stain fungi spoil the appearance of wood, but do not affect most strength properties.
In effect sap-stain is not a preliminary stage of decay, but it is a warning sign. Scantlings
or boards containing an appreciable amount of sap-stain also contain a high proportion
of sapwood, which, given the right conditions, may later become attacked either by wood-
rotting fungi or certain insects.
All fungi produce fruit bodies or fructifications, the vegetative part of the plant being
out of sight in the feeding medium. The fruit bodies of the different wood-rotting fungi
are either flat, fleshy or woody plates, the undersides of which bear spores or seeds. The
destructive part of the fungus is the vegetative system, or mycelium, made up of numerous
exceedingly fine thread-like tubes called hyphae. These may become matted together to
form a felt-like mass. Hyphae grow by elongating at their tips, passing from cell to cell of
the host plant, feeding on the wall or cell contents in their path. The complete life-cycle
of the fungus is therefore,
153
spore-hyphae-mycelium-fruiting body-spore-
A large number of different species of fungi attack wood. Some species attack the living
tree if the latter is unhealthy, others, timber in log form, and yet others attack timber that
has been taken into service. The fungi of interest to the user of timber are those that attack
timber in service. There are several different species of these, but the surveyor is usually only
concerned in the UK with under half a dozen species, all of which require five conditions
to be satisfied for attack to occur. These conditions are:
(a) A source of infection, which may be either spores or mycelium.

(b) A food supply, which is any piece of timber, although some timbers are more resistant
to attack than others and the sapwood of all species is much more susceptible than
the heartwood.
(c) Suitable temperatures, since all fungi cease active growth below O°C and growth is very
slow between O°C. and 4°C, accelerating as the temperature rises until the optimum
range is reached. The range varies with different species but for the majority of species
growing in a temperate climate the optimum range is between 18°C and 24°C. High
temperatures are lethal to all fungi, but some species are more susceptible than others
to temperatures only slightly over 32°C, if maintained for any length of time.
(d) Oxygen, which is available from the atmosphere.
(e) Adequate moisture, although the moisture requirements of different species vary,
and hence the common differentiation into the so-called dry rots and wet rots. The
important fungi that attack wood in service grow most vigorously when the moisture
content of wood is in the range of 24-28 per cent (moisture calculated as a percentage
of the dry weight of wood), but the dry rots can continue active growth so long as the
moisture content of the wood is at or above 20 per cent. The wet rots, however, do
not survive at these low moisture contents; further, the moisture content of wood can
rise to the point where it is too wet to permit continuing attack by the dry rots.
Wood-rotting fungi
Actual decay in timber may be detected by the abnormal colour of the wood, by the
transverse fracture of the fibres on longitudinal sawn faces and by lifting the fibres with
the point of a pen-knife, when, if the timber is decayed, the fibres will snap instead of
pulling out in long splinters.
The two main constituents of wood are cellulose and lignin. Certain fungi feed mainly
on the cellulose and are called brown rots, whereas others feed both on cellulose and lignin,
and are know as white rots. The different wood-rotting fungi can be further subdivided
according to the form the decay takes. In some, the wood shrinks and longitudinal fissures
appear, while in others, transverse cracks develop and the wood ultimately breaks into
cubical fragments, and yet in others, decay occurs in pockets.
The consumer is not normally concerned with fungi that attack the living tree or freshly
felled logs, but if such infected timber is stored close-piled after conversion and taken into
service inadequately seasoned, there is a risk that decay will continue to develop. This
problem is particularly associated with such timbers as Douglas fir which is normally
shipped very soon after conversion and requires to be properly stacked and allowed
to season before being used.
Figure 30 Dry rot fruiting body (Crown copyright: Reproduced by permission of the BRE
It is essential for surveyors to be able to recognise the few wood-rotting fungi that
commonly attack timber in buildings, because, depending on the species, the appropriate
remedial measures vary. By far the most important of these fungi is the true dry rot
Serpula' lacrymans which is a brown cubical rot. The appearance, both of the fungus
and of the infected wood depends on the stage attack has reached, and on the growth
conditions for the fungus. In damp conditions, particularly in still air, it develops as a
white, fluffy, cotton-wool-like mass, spreading over the surface of the attacked wood. In
drier conditions the mycelium forms a grey-white felt over the wood, usually with small
patches of bright yellow or lilac. Branching strands may develop from the felt, varying in
thickness from coarse threads to strands as thick as a lead pencil. These strands are made
up of hyphae that conduct plant nutrient (food materials) and water. They can penetrate
loose mortar in a brick wall and cross steelwork and concrete to reach new feeding grounds
to attack dry timber. The fruit bodies are soft, fleshy plates with white margins, figure 30.
Numerous folds or shallow pores occur on the surface of the fruit bodies which contain
the rust-red spores. These are microscopic and so light that they are easily blown about.
They are sometimes produced in such quantities that a whole room may be covered with a
layer of rust-red spores. The fruit bodies sometimes grow vertically in the form of a thick
bracket, when the pore-bearing surfaces become elongated, like small stalactites. Water may
be exuded in drops by the fruit bodies and fluffy growths of mycelium in still air, hence the
name lacrymans or 'weeping' for the commoner species of Serpula.
The fruit bodies that grow out into the air and light are frequently the first indication of
dry rot in a building, but unventilated rooms or shut-up houses that are infected usually have
a characteristic musty odour. Slight wavyness on the surface of panelling, skirtings, linings
and other joinery items are further indications of possible extensive damage. Wood beneath
Figure 31 Dry rot damage (Courtesy of Cuprinol Limited)
a coating of mycelium is wet and slimy to the touch, but in the final stages of attack it is
dry and friable, brown in colour, and breaking up into cube-shaped pieces see figure 31.
It is often said that Serpula can remain dormant for several years, renewing active
growth when adequate supplies of moisture become available, but this is incorrect. If the
source of all moisture is cut off so that the medium on which the fungus is feeding dries
out to a moisture content of about 16 per cent, Serpula will not survive for even a year. In
addition, the spores will not be capable of germination if they are exposed to dry conditions
for only two to three months. Unfortunately, once attack has become established in a
building and the mycelium has penetrated deeply into a saturated wall, the latter may well
take two or three or more years to dry out. In this period the fungus will survive more or
less in a dormant condition, provided there is a small amount of food material available,
for example, fixing plugs for pipe nails on the outside of a wall or small fixing blocks for
skirtings and the like on the inside face. When further moisture becomes available, growth
is resumed and the mycelium continues its travels in search of new feeding grounds.
Coniophora puteana, commonly called the cellar fungus is also a brown rot, but
in the final stages of attack the wood sometimes develops longitudinal splits or cracks,
see figure 32, and the decayed timber may break up into cubical pieces. This is virtually
indistinguishable from the final stages of Serpula' attack, except that the wood is not
permeated with mycelium. The decayed timber is dark in colour and extremely brittle.
It is capable of being reduced to powder if rubbed between the fingers. Although
Coniophora grows most vigorously in the moisture range of 24-28 per cent, initial
infection usually occurs in conditions of somewhat higher moisture content, too high
for the so-called dry rot. Coniophora is particularly liable to occur wherever there
is persistent leakage of water or condensation. The hyphae are always fine and they
rapidly turn brown or almost black. Spreading over the face of the wall the mycelium
resembles the maiden-hair fern, but without leaves. The fruiting bodies are thin, olive-
Figure 32 Cellar fungus damage (Crown copyright: Reproduced by permission of the BRE
green plates, but these are rarely encountered, even where attack is vigorous and of long
standing.
Paxillus panuoides is a brown rot requiring very moist conditions. The hyphae are paler
than those of Caniophora puteana, and the mycelium is rather fibrous and yellow or violet.
The fruiting bodies, which are often bell-shaped, are olive-green with deep gills on the under
surface. The fungus is most likely to be found in a roof void under a leaking gutter.
Serpula and Coniophora are by far the commonest fungi likely to be encountered in
buildings, and the first named is unquestionably the most serious of all wood-rotting fungi,
being responsible for untold damage annually. If an attack has ceased and there are no
remains of fruiting bodies, it is sometimes difficult to identify the fungus responsible for
the decay. With dry rots, the decayed timber will be found to be permeated with strands
of hyphae, usually visible to the naked eye, but certainly distinct with a pocket lens.
Mention should also be made of two fungi, unimportant in themselves, that are
nevertheless an indication that dangerously damp conditions exist. Elf cups (Peziza sp.),
which are yellow-brown cups about 25 mm (1 inch) in diameter, sometimes develop on
plaster ceilings following flooding from defective plumbing or frost damage. Unless steps
are taken to secure rapid drying out of the affected areas there is a risk of subsequent wet
or dry rot infection. Another fungus that should be similarly regarded is a species of inky
cap (Coprinus sp.). This fungus, which produces small soft toadstools that dissolve into
an inky fluid, is often found growing on damp cellar walls, but it may also appear on the
underside of ceilings saturated by persistent plumbing leaks or defective internal gutters.
Sap-stain or blue-stain in timber is caused by several species of fungi of the mould type.
These fungi are distinct from those that caused decay, hence blue-stain is not an incipient
state of decay, but its presence may be an indication of conditions favourable for the attack
of wood-rotting fungi. Moreover, badly blued timber should be suspected of containing

incipient decay or dote as a result or a separate infection by a wood-rotting fungus.AlI
staining of wood is not necessarily blue-stain. Green timber rich in tannins that comes
in contact with iron, when worked, may become stained blue-black. This is the result of
chemical action and the stained areas are usually superficial and easily planed off. Similarly,
coloured stains caused by sap-stain fungi quickly penetrate deeply into wood. Besides the
fungi responsible for 'blue-stain', there are several other mould fungi that stain wood green,
pink, purple and, more rarely, brown. The majority of these produce a powdery or downy
growth of mould that is easily brushed or planed off.
The five conditions essential for the development of wood-rotting fungi are also
essential for sap-stain fungal infection, except that higher initial moisture contents are
necessary and the food of sap-stain fungi is not wood substance itself, but stored plant
food material. The right type of food material in sufficient quantities is the limiting factor.
In most softwoods these requirements are only found in the sapwood, but in Sitka Spruce,
attack may spread to the heartwood. Retention of the bark, saturated with moisture, also
inhibits mould growths because of lack of air. Relatively high temperatures are necessary
for active growth, the optimum being 21°C to 27°C, and below the optimum, growth is very
slow. In temperate regions these temperature conditions only exist in the summer months.
Reduction in moisture content in the surface layers of wood can rapidly become a limiting
factor as the fungi require moisture contents above the fibre saturation point of the wood,
equivalent to a moisture content of about 30 per cent, to initiate the attack.
Once timber has been dried below the critical stage for the blue-stain infections, these
fungi should not constitute any problem to the consumer. If conditions in service become
such that fresh blue-stain infection could occur, conditions favouring the attack of wood-
rotting fungi would also exist, presenting a much more serious problem, and one requiring
drastic and immediate remedial measures.
Appendix C: Specimen Reconnaissance
Survey Report
INSTRUCTIONS
This report is made following a survey carried out on Monday 25 March 1986, in accord-
ance with instructions received from Mr F. D. Best, of 'Thistle 000', Milton Road, Little
Bufford, who is proposing to purchase the property. We are asked to inspect the property
in as much detail as possible and to report as to the condition of the structure and services.
Some floor coverings are laid, and it is agreed that we are not required to lift fitted floor
coverings, to pull up or take down any part of the structure for detailed investigation nor
to test any of the services. We have not inspected woodwork or other parts of the structure
which are covered, unexposed or inaccessible and we are therefore unable to report that
such parts of the property are free from fungal rot, beetle or other defects. Our report
is presented on this basis and is intended solely for the information of our client and his
professional advisers in the present transaction.
(For obvious reasons the addresses in this specimen report are fictional. It is important
to make sure that the addresses both of the property to be surveyed and of the client are
correct and accurate, including the post codes, which can quite easily be discovered in the
majority of cases. If the surveyor cannot get the address right, what chance has he of
getting anything else right?)
We understand that our client has already obtained estimates for the treatment of damp
and woodworm in the building, as required by the Building Society to whom an application
for mortgage has been made. He has also obtained estimates for the installation of a modern
central heating system based on a solid fuel boiler.
159
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
1.0 The property comprises a semi-detached private dwelling house. It has been formed
by the conversion of three cottages in a block, and we suggest that this was originally
two cottages, and that the third one (at the North East end) was an addition at a
later time. The property is semi-detached to the extent that it butts up against the
neighbouring property 'Long Thatch', although apart from this the two properties are
not connected in any way. We think that the original pair of cottages was probably
built around 1870, and that the third one was added not very long afterwards. The
conversion to a single dwelling house has taken place fairly recently. We believe that
the present vendor is a 'do-it-yourself' enthusiast, and that much of the work was
done with his own hands.
SITUATION
2.0 The property is situated on the Northern edge of the village of Little Bufford. As our
client lives close by and has done so for many years and knows the district well, we
therefore think it unnecessary to include further descriptive details as to the situation
of the property, in the course of this report.
2.1 The road to which the property has a frontage runs approximately South West to
North East, so that the house is on the North West side of the road, the front elevation
facing approximately South East. This convention will be followed in our report and
where in this report room measurements are given, the dimension first given in each
case is in the North East to South West direction. These dimensions are approximate
only and are given in metric and imperial units.
TENURE
3.0 We are advised that the tenure is FREEHOLD and we are not aware of any
rights of way, easements or other restrictions which would affect the enjoyment of
the freehold title. The solicitor should be requested to check very carefully on this
point.
ACCOMMODA TION
4.0 The accommodation comprises
4.1 Ground floor

Entrance Porch (on the North East flank)
Entrance Hall with meter cupboard
Lounge 4.06 x 3.68 metres (13 "4' x 12"1')
Dining Room 3.81 x 3.71 metres (12"6' x 12"2') with modern tiled
fireplace and small cupboard alongside
Kitchen 3.73 x 2.64 metres (12"3' x 8'8') with inset stainless steel
sink unit and fitted cabinets
4.2 First floor

Landing with heated linen cupboard
Bedroom l(front) 3.81 x 3.71 metres (12"6' x 12"2') with built-in cupboard
Bedroom 2(rear) adjoining Bedroom 1, 3.73 x 2.46 metres (12"3' x 8"1')
Bedroom 3 3.73 x 3.63 metres (12"3' xlI "11')
Bedroom 4 4.11 x 3.66 metres (13"6' x 12"0')
Bathroom WC with pressed steel panelled bath (H & C), pressed steel
wash hand basin (H & C) and low level WC
4.3 Outside
Garage built into the main structure, 3.81 x 6.10 metres
(12"6' x 20") (this is the ground floor accommodation of
one of the original cottages)
Garden Shed of timber construction, 2.40 x 1.80 metres (8" x 6") with a
pitched felted roof
DESCRIPTION
5.0 The house is of conventional brick construction, in a style commonly associated

with country artisan type buildings. Main walls are 215 mm (one brick) thick and the
bricks are laid to Flemish bond. Many alterations have been carried out to the outside
walls and a variety of bricks have been used, but the original bricks are probably red
hand-made bricks, manufactured locally. The whole of the elevations are painted with
a pale green paint, which we think is 'Sandtex' or something similar. We could not
identify a damp-proof course in the main walls, although the vendor has stated that
he has inserted a chemical injection damp-proof course and there is some evidence to
suggest that this had been done. However we could not see clearly the holes where
the injection has been made, nor does there appear to Qe any documentary evidence
relating to the work.
5.1 Internal walls are of brick on the ground floor. Most of them are plastered and
decorated with wallpaper. The chimney breast in the dining room is clad with
vertical tongued and grooved boards and decorative plywood lining is fixed to
some of the walls in the kitchen. On the first floor, the walls which run from front
to rear are of brick, and the wall between Bedrooms 3 and 4, which on the ground
floor is the wall between the Lounge and Dining Room and between the Kitchen and
Entrance Wall, is 215 mm (one brick) thick. This is one of the features which leads us
to think that this is an original external wall and that the cottage at the North East
is a later addition. The other walls on the first floor, which run parallel to the road,
are of timber studs with a lath and plaster finish. Most wall surfaces on the first
floor are decorated with wallpaper, but part of the wall between Bedrooms 1 and
2 has the plaster stripped away so that the details of the construction can be seen
quite easily.
5.2 The main roof has its ridge parallel to the road. There is a gable at the South West end
and a hip at the North East end. This roof is of timber construction. Almost certainly
it was originally slated but in the fairly recent past it has been stripped and covered
with interlocking concrete tiles. These are Marley 'Ludlow' tiles (or similar) in a dark
brown colour. Ridge and hip tiles are half round, and there are mild steel hip irons at
the lower ends of the hips.
5.3 There is a single large chimney stack passing through the ridge of the roof and
serving the fireplace in the Dining Room. It is in red bricks, similar to those which
were probably used originally on the lower walls, and the opening in the roof covering
where it passes through is protected by a fillet of cement mortar. At the South West
end of the house there is a chimney which serves 'Long Thatch', passing up on the
gable of the property now under report. This also has a mortar fillet to protect the
opening in the roof covering.
5.4 The ground floor is solid, and we think that it has probably been completely renewed.
In the Entrance Hall and Lounge it is finished with wood mosaic blocks. Carpet is
laid in the Dining Room on a fine cement and sand screed and vinyl sheeting is laid
in the Kitchen.
5.5 The first floor is of normal timber construction. It is finished with softwood boards
and some carpet is laid.
5.6 The original ceilings were of lath and plaster, and these appear to remain on
the ground floor. In the Lounge and Kitchen the ceilings are decorated with a
pebble pattern paper, and in the Dining Room and Entrance Hall, they are decorated
with expanded polystyrene tiles. Most of the ceilings on the first floor appear to
have been renewed with plasterboard and they are finished with textured finishes
of various kinds. The ceiling in the Bathroom is finished with expanded polystyrene
tiles.
5.7 The joinery has all been overhauled. At first-floor level on the rear elevation
the windows are steel-framed side hung casements. Most of the other windows are
wooden, with side hung casements. Internal doors are a mixture but most of them
are standard modern doors. The skirting in the lounge is a cement and sand skirting.
Other skirtings are of plain modern type on the ground floor and on the first floor
they are old square edged boards.
5.8 Domestic fittings are fairly modern. Only one open fireplace remains (in the Dining
Room) and this is fairly typical of the late 1940s period. Bathroom and Kitchen
fittings are more modern.
SERVICES
6.0 Main water is supplied by the Thames Water Authority and electricity by the Southern
Electricity Board. Mains gas is not available in the village. For heating, the house at
present relies on point sources of heat. There is an open fireplace and there are also
two off-peak electric storage heaters. Mains drainage is connected.
6.1 The property is situated in the Royal County of Berkshire (Newbury District). It is
assessed at £202.02, rateable value and the general rates for the current year amount
to £276.94. Water and drainage charges are additional and are collected direct by the
water supply authority.
EXTERNAL CONDITION
7.0 The main walls are in fair condition for a building of this age and style. They are
all reasonably square and plumb, and although many alterations have been made,
particularly to the window and door openings, we could see nothing which we could
identify as evidence of lack of structural stability. It is unfortunate that the elevations
have been painted in the way they have, because this makes it difficult to see much of
the fabric of the building. But we can see that the pointing of the brickwork generally is
in poor condition, and it was not properly repaired before the elevations were painted.
The faces of many of the bricks are soft and perishing. This is fairly typical of the local
bricks, and although the paint which has been applied over the surface of the walls
will do something to retard the process of decay, there is a problem of dampness in
the building. It would appear that damp is penetrating into the fabric of the walls but
it is not possible to determine precisely whether it is rising from the ground through
lack of an effective damp-proof course or penetrating at the defective pointing and
poorly detailed openings. It is important to note that the paint which was applied to
keep damp out, will also keep it in. There is very little that can be done to check this
decay of the brickwork but probably the best precaution is to render the walls. The
green paint is quite out of keeping with the local style of building and there would be
much to be said for changing the appearance. It will probably be impossible to strip off
the colouring completely, so that even if it can be removed it will still be necessary to
apply some other coating. We suggest that the best type of rendering for the purpose
would be a textured rendering such as 'Tyrolean' finish, but this particular finish,
which is spattered on to the surface, goes on so evenly that it follows every blemish in
the brickwork. It will therefore be necessary to prepare the wall by stripping off the
paint, making good the pointing and facing up the blown bricks. It will be of little use
to do this until the various sources of dampness have been identified and eradicated
and the walls allowed to dry out.
7.1 Some of the damp in the main walls is almost certainly due to poor detailing of
the window openings and the condition of the sills. The windows on the first floor at
the rear have no proper sills at all. Sills do have a particular purpose in keeping out
rainwater and therefore should project about 37 mm (1 Y2 in) from the face of
the wall. They should have on the underside a groove which will throw off rainwater
running underneath the sill, thus preventing the water from running back on to the
brickwork below. The sills on the first floor at the front of the house have only a very
small projection but this could be extended. On the ground floor some of the sills are
affected by wet rot and will need to be replaced. We shall refer again to the condition
of these sills and the possible repairs to them later in the report. Of course, if the walls
are to be prepared and rendered as we have suggested in the previous paragraph, this
must be taken into account when detailing the sills. We very often find problems of
this kind arising when windows have been correctly set in the brickwork and then at
some time later the walls have been rendered, thus reducing the projection of the sill
and sometimes even filling up the groove.
7.2 We examined the covering of the main roof externally from ground level only, with
the aid of a pair of binoculars. It is quite obvious that the roof has fairly recently been
stripped and re-tiled. The dark brown concrete tiles which have been used are quite
different from anything else in the vicinity and out of keeping with local finishes; there
is little that can be done but to accept them. There are a few irregularities in the roof
line, possible because the tiling was not done very skilfully. It may also be due to the
fact that the roof was probably originally slated and that the concrete tiles are heavier
than the slates which were previously there. Within the roof void some additional struts
had been inserted to support the new roof load and these appeared satisfactory as was
the load-bearing internal walls supporting the new struts.
7.3 The chimney head is in fair condition. The mortar fillet where it passes through
the roof line has been renewed, presumably at the time when the roof was tiled. This
fillet is not as satisfactory as a sheet metal flashing and soaker, although if we were
to condemn a mortar fillet in this way we should be condemning many thousands of
houses throughout the country where this type of finish is used. The weakness of the
junction is that if there is any differential movement between the roof and the stack
then the fillet will crack and cease to be weather-proof, whereas a sheet lead detail
would be sufficiently flexible to accommodate slight movement. However, we are of
the opinion that the roof fillet can be left alone, at least for the time being.
INTERNAL CONDITION
8.0 There is a great deal of damp in the main walls and internal walls. One would expect
to find rising damp in a building of this age, where even if there were originally a
damp-proof course, it would probably be at the end of its life. We have been told that
a damp-proof course has been injected, but no documentary evidence to this effect
has so far been produced. By using an electric moisture meter, we found very little
evidence of true rising damp in the main external walls. Much of the plaster of these
walls is very hard, suggesting that a damp-proof course has indeed been injected and
the wall plaster stripped and replaced with a sand and cement rendering. Most of the
damp in the outside walls is penetrating damp and this is in the region of the windows.
We have suggested above that this is probably due to defective brickwork and poor
detailing or the complete lack of window sills. The eaves gutters are badly placed
and we think that rainwater running from the roof may overshoot or undershoot the
gutters. It was fair weather when we inspected the property and so we were not able
to check the gutters in storm conditions. If this is so, they ought to be checked and
adjusted or possibly replaced with gutters of a larger section. But we feel reasonably
confident that most of the dampness in the outside walls is not true rising damp.
There is a further complication because, for most of the length of the outside walls,
the surrounding paving is close to and in some cases above the level of the ground
floor inside. Therefore, if there is a damp-proof course at or about floor level it may
be below the paving level. We would recommend that as far as possible the level of the
paving be dropped to 150 mm (6') below the surface of the internal floors for, not only
may the paving be above the damp-proof course, but it is also possible that rainwater
falling from the eaves is bouncing back on to the walls above the damp-proof course,
thus making it ineffective to some extent.
8.1 There is also some damp in the internal walls, particularly in the wall between the
Lounge and the Entrance Hall and also between the Dining Room and the Kitchen, and
here there are some wooden skirtings which are rotting. These walls are probably built
off the ground, possibly with strip foundations and if we have been correctly informed
that a damp-proof course has been inserted in the outside walls, it is possible that the
internal walls have been overlooked. Our client has already obtained two estimates for
the insertion of a chemical damp-proof course and both refer to re-plastering. The
importance of this is that rising damp will bring up from the ground salts which are
hygroscopic, that is, they would absorb moisture from the atmosphere so that even if
the rising damp itself has been cured, the plaster will continue to attract moisture and
will remain damp for some time. It is for this reason that re-plastering is specified.
In this case, since we question if all the dampness in the outside walls is true rising
damp and since we also think that some re-plastering may have been carried out, we
recommend that a chemical analysis be made of samples of the plaster to determine
whether or not it is necessary to re-plaster. The specialist damp-proofing contactors
are usually able to arrange for this to be done but if they cannot, we can have the
laboratory analysis made. In addition to the fungal rot in the skirtings on the ground
floor, there is some fungal rot in the old skirtings on the first floor, again signifying
penetrating rather than rising damp. These rotten skirtings must be taken out and
burnt and replaced by pretreated timbers, with a backing of polythene sheet between
the wood and the plaster. The adjoining brickwork and plasterwork should also be
chemically treated with a fungicide. There is some damp in the South West flank wall
of Bedroom 1, possibly due to a poor detail where the thatched roof of the adjoining
house meets it. This will be extremely difficult to deal with, although a silicone injection
will give some relief but it will have to be repeated from time to time.
8.2 There is an access hatch to the roof void from the landing and this gives access
to the void above the centre and South Western sections of the house. These would
originally have been two cottages and the party wall between them does not rise above
ceiling level. This was fairly normal in older properties built before about 1880 and
is of no great significance in the present case. The tiles are laid over bituminous felt,
indicating beyond doubt that the roof has been stripped and re-tiled, as was observed
from the outside. The construction of the roof is satisfactory and for its age the timber
is in very fair condition. The ridge board and some of the rafters are in contact with
the brickwork of the chimney stack in the centre of this part of the building. It is a
poor detail and one which would not be permitted today. It can be a fire hazard if
the chimney overheats, but there is very little that can be done about it at present,
without making a fairly elaborate alteration to the roof structure. It is a condition
which is commonly found in old houses. We can only recommend that if the chimney
is to be used at all, care should be taken to see that it is kept clean, and if possible,
the chimney should be lined.
8.3 There is a second small access hatch from Bedroom 3 and it is within this roof void
that we established that this part of the building is a later addition. It has a different
type of roof from the original work and the wall between the two sections of roof,
and indeed right down through the building, is in facing brickwork, 215 mm (one
brick) thick. The roof structure generally is in satisfactory condition and 25 mm (1 ')
of glass fibre lagging is spread between the joists.
8.4 Both roof voids are unventilated and if, as we recommend later in this report, the
insulation is upgraded, condensation within the roof void will occur. This condensation
will inevitably lead to timber decay and therefore it is vital that some ventilation be
created by introducing air vents at the eaves; these must remain uncovered when the
new insulation is laid. We can advise further on this matter if requested. There is a
great deal of dirt and dust in all the roof voids and we did not see any evidence of
active infestation by beetle, although there are a number of old flight holes. These are
old and dirty, but the possibility of continuing infestation cannot be ruled out. In this
case, our client has no option as the Building Society has already required specialist
treatment of all accessible timber to be carried out.
8.5 The ground floor is in fair condition. The wood mosaic forms quite a pleasant
floor finish. In the Dining Room and Kitchen the floor coverings are laid direct on a
fine cement and sand screed. We cannot tell whether or not there is any damp-proof
membrane in this floor, but since they are obviously quite modern we think it likely
that a membrane was incorporated.
8.6 The first floors are all covered. They are in fair condition for their age, but we
recommend that they be treated against infestation. Special attention should be given
to the edges of the floors to establish whether or not there is fungal rot in the boards
or in the ends of the joists, which are probably in contact with damp brickwork. We
have already drawn attention to fungal rot in some of the skirtings on the first floor.
8.7 Ceilings have been patched and repaired. They are not particularly elegant, but they
appear to have been overhauled and to be in a sound condition.
8.8 The joinery items externally are in a poor condition, particularly the window frames
and sills. We detected wet rot in most of the sills to the ground floor windows. The
first floor windows do not project adequately from the face of the wall and on the
rear elevation where steel windows are fitted, there are no adequate sills at all. We
have already referred to the necessity for seeing that sills are properly detailed and
maintained. Where modern sills are affected by wet rot, it may be possible to cut them
out and replace them, although in the end, the joiner may recommend that it would
be less expensive to replace the window frame completely. In the case of the steel
casements, it would be possible to cut out a course of brickwork below the window
frames and to fit in either a wooden or a precast concrete sill and this is recommended.
We have referred above to the areas of skirting which are affected by fungal rot and
which need to be replaced. The door and window at the rear of the garage are in poor
condition, although this is in effect only an out-house and perhaps the condition can
be accepted for the time being.
8.9 Domestic fittings are in fair condition only. The enamel of the bath is chipped in
several places. The stainless steel sink is badly stained although it may clean up. The
fireplace in the dining room is probably about forty years old and is showing its age.
SER VICES CONDITION
9.0 Water enters the house through a stop valve located in the garage. All the plumbing
we can see is in modern copper tube. The valve itself is stiff and it should be freed
to make sure that it can be turned off without difficulty. The rising main supplies a
plastic cold water cistern located in the linen cupboard on the first floor which should
be covered to keep out dirt and dust. Hot water is provided by an electric immersion
heater in the copper hot water cylinder in the same linen cupboard. This hot water
cylinder has an insulating jacket which is in poor condition. Taps run satisfactorily,
but most of them need new washers. Therefore, some minor repairs are needed to
the water installation.
9.1 Electricity is supplied through meters in the cupboard in the Entrance Hall. The
off-peak circuit has a credit meter but the ordinary circuit has a pre-payment meter
taking '50 pence' pieces. Some of the wiring is certainly new, but within the roof void
we found some old tough rubber sheathed cable and some repairs are needed. The
immersion heater is connected by tough rubber sheathed cable to a socket rather than
by heat-resisting cable to a spur outlet. We recommend that the electrical installation
be tested and checked by a competent electrician and repaired as found necessary. We
can arrange for this to be done when instructed.
9.2 For heating, the house at present relies on point sources of heat. There is 25 mm
(1 ~) of glass fibre lagging in the roof void. This is less than modern performance
standards require and should be improved for economic reasons. This lagging will
have to be taken out for the timber to be treated against beetle and it will probably
then not be reusable.
9.3 Foul drainage is taken to the main sewer. There is one inspection chamber near to
the North Eastern end of the rear elevation. We lifted this cover and the underground
works appear to be fairly modern and in satisfactory condition, but the drains should
be rodded and flushed through to make sure that they are clean. A wire balloon should
be fitted at the head of the vent pipe to keep out the birds.
9.4 Roof water is collected at the eaves in modern half round gutters of grey PVC and
brought down in discharge pipes of the same material. The downpipe at the front of
the house is finished well above the level of the paving and is at present picked up in
a section of half round gutter and taken away clear of the paving. The downpipe at
the side goes underground to a soakaway. The eaves gutters are not very satisfactory
as their alignment is suspect and we are of the opinion that they have been incorrectly
placed under the eaves. There is some staining in the upper walls suggesting that the
discharge from the roof either overshoots or undershoots the gutters. They need to be
checked in heavy rain to see exactly how they are performing. Evidence suggests that
some repairs and adjustments are needed. As to the discharge over the ground, while
it is not the best practice, it is quite common and generally acceptable in rural districts,
provided that the rainwater is not allowed to pond against the lower walls. We have
already recommended that the paving be dropped in level and when it is re-laid, if it is
concrete or slab paving, then it should be laid to a slight fall away from the house. The
downpipes could then be brought down almost to the level of the paving and channel
contructed in the paving to take the discharge away clear of the building. We think
that the condition of the gutters and downpipes is at least partly responsible for the
amount of dampness which is clearly penetrating through the walls of the building.
EXTERNAL WORKS
10.0 There is a modest garden, approximately level and nearly rectangular. The solicitor
should check the location of the boundaries and advise as to any responsibility for the
erection and maintenance of fences. The road is fully made up and is maintained by
the Berkshire County Council.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
11.0 This is a pleasant enough house in its way, formed by the conversion of three
small cottages. Someone in the past has carried out a fair amount of work to it
but it is our opinion that the building as it now stands is something of a monument
to the inadequacies of 'do-it-yourself'. The roof has been re-tiled, not with the most
suitable of materials but evidently adequately. Undoubtedly the biggest problem in
the building is the damp penetration and we think that most of this is penetrating
rather than rising damp.
11.1 In the course of our report we have drawn attention to the following items:
(a) The solicitor should check very carefully on the title and the boundaries.
(b) The pointing of the brickwork is generally in poor condition.
(c) There is a fairly large number of bricks which are perishing or partly perished.
(d) Consideration should be given to making good and rendering the elevations, but
proper steps should be taken to make sure that the walls dry out, as far as possible,
before rendering. In addition, the window sills need to be properly detailed to take
account of any new rendering.
(e) We recommend that the paving round the house be dropped to 150 mm (6')
below ground floor level.
<0 We recommend that samples of the wall plaster be taken for analysis to determine
whether or not they are affected by hygroscopic salts.
(g) We recommend that all accessible timbers of the roof and wooden floors be
treated against beetle infestation.
(h) We recommend that the insulation to both roof voids be improved and that
ventilation is introduced via eaves vents.
(i) The first floor, particularly at the edges, should be checked for traces of fungal
rot and this can be done at the same time as the treatment for woodworm is
carried out.
0) Some repairs and replacements are needed to wooden window sills and skirtings
and the window openings, which have no sills, should be provided with them.
(k) Some minor repairs are needed to the water installation.
(I) We recommend that the electrical installation be tested and repaired as found
necessary.
(m) We recommend that the drains be rodded and flushed through and a wire balloon
should be fitted at the head of the vent pipe.
(n) We recommend that the rainwater gutters be checked carefully in wet weather, to
see exactly how they are performing, since they are at least partly responsible for
damp inside the building.
11.2 We would estimate the costs of investigation and repair as follows:
(a) Repointing and replacing perished brickwork (items 11.1 b & c, refers) £350.
(b) Making good to rendering (item 11.1 d, refers) £250.
(c) Dropping paving around the property (item 11.1 e, refers) £150.
(d) Investigating the plaster for salts and assessing the extent of rising damp and
fungal infection (items 11.1 f & i, refers) £225.
(e) Insertion of damp-proof course including re-plastering internally £850.
(f) Treating all timber for woodworm (item 11.1 i, refers) £400.
(g) Improving detail around window openings (item 11.1 d & j, refers) including
repairs and replacement of sills and skirtings £450.
(h) Improving insulation to both roof voids (item 11.1 h, refers) £250.
(i) Minor repairs to water installation (item 11.1 k, refers) £100.
U) Rodding and flushing drains (item 11.1 m, refers) £150.
(k) Inspecting and realigning gutters, as necessary (item 11.1 n, refers) £75.
All these costs are approximate and do not include VAT.
11.3 As to the order of priority in which this work needs to be carried out, it is quite
clear that the most urgent matter is to eliminate the damp from the building. Since
there does not appear to be any documentation relating to a damp-proof course, it is
almost certainly necessary to insert one and to have this done with the benefit of the
appropriate guarantees. We think that much of the damp in the building is penetrat-
ing from the defective window-opening details and possibly from defective rainwater
gutters. Once the penetration of damp has been checked it will take some months for
the walls to dry out. There is no reason why this should delay the treatment of timber
against infestation and the repairs to the services. When this has been carried out,
redecoration can be put in hand, but it will be of little use to re-decorate the walls
which are damp. At present, the dampness in the house shows most clearly in the
form of stained decorations. It may become necessary to live for a year or so with the
interior of the house in need of decoration. The repair and rendering of the outside
walls ought to have a fairly high priority because of the importance of maintaining
the weather-proof condition of the walls, but the other sources of penetrating damp
should be eliminated first.
A SURVEYOR, ARICS, MCIOB, 24th APRIL 1986

SURVEYING SERVICES,
HAWTHORN COTTAGE,
WINTERBOURNE,
NEWBURY,
BERKSHIRE
Appendix D: Period Classification
In the early stages of civilisation, man learnt to use indigenous materials to construct
temporary shelters from which he could carry out short-term hunting expeditions. Later
he formed communities and learnt to build more permanent shelters and barricades against
marauding bands. He looked for his materials in their natural forms such as timber, stones
and clays but in later periods he began to process materials to make them more adaptable
to building for particular purposes. By mixing primary materials and applying heat he
found that he had a new material which could be shaped easily and which would set hard
when mixed with water. He also found that the mixture could be burnt into very hard
and durable units. In most cases these materials were on or near the surface so they were
obtainable wherever strata outcropped at the surface. Man was able to identify the limits
of these materials and as a result many communities were set up near to these supplies. In
the later years he learnt to quarry and mine the materials to save trekking long distances.
The communities became noted for their particular material source and a trade of sorts
was developed to exchange materials, although movement overland was extremely difficult.
However, movement was easier on the water and coastal trade developed where the materials
were found near to the coast.
The strength of the community buildings was centred around stone, bulk timber and a
form of mortar which gave rigidity, but it was much later that such mortar developed into
a masonry-bonding medium and allowed the building of thinner walls.
Communities also developed skills in processing and constructing with the materials and
these skills were developed and exported to other communities. Even today, we see evidence
still of these skills being centred around certain areas in the UK, for example, the more
exacting skills, such as those requiring controlled heat, can be found in areas of coal-bearing
strata. The same influence affected skills requiring large quantities of water in the proces-
sing. The developing skills in building soon polarised in certain areas where the material
was abundant or easily won, but as the demand for processed materials developed, centres
of manufacture were set up either in areas where the main ingredient was easily obtainable
or in the fringe area between two of the ingredients. This was particularly noticeable in the
170
Appendix D: Period Classification 171
quarrying of stone and in the manufacture of burnt clay products. In both these industries
it was unnecessary to have any elaborate plant, unlike that of the manufacture of iron and
steel when the plant needed required a high initial capital outlay.
Because of the local deposits of the raw materials and the intensive labour applied
to these materials, skills of the workmen developed to a high degree and their reputation
spread, but generally the skills were maintained at a useful productive level. The workman
looked to the amount of work he could do, the demand for and the value of his skill. If he
became too skilful the demand became sporadic and payment irregular, so it can be seen
that local industry was for the most part related directly to the needs of the community,
especially in building. Carpenters and masons were normally in constant demand for a basic
building structure and although some became well-known figures in their craft, the majority
worked to a design suggested by the client. Once their work had been completed they would
seldom be called upon again for some considerable time because of the durability of the
materials they used. In the case of the thatcher, plasterer and the decorator, the material
had a much shorter life-span and often these tradesmen would move around the district
doing their work again and again.
As the network of roadways and other communication links developed, the processing
and the constructing skills separated and the processing became centred within a large
distribution area. The materials were carried long distances by water, road and rail and
they were bound only by the economics of trading. More and more processing was carried
out at the base and gradually the development of components began to take precedence
over raw materials in some areas. Slate was riven, cut, holed and packaged at base. Stones
were dressed, shaped to specific details, batched and transported. Items of clayware were
manufactured and given a final finish which left only the fixing to complete the work.
Gradually, the whole process of acquiring the raw material, processing and fixing it has
changed from a local industry to a nationwide practice. It is not unusual now to see almost
complete buildings being transported from factories to sites and even this may be taken to
the extreme of demountability whereby the client can choose where he wants his building
for any particular length of time.
The history of buildings can be traced to some degree by various means and perhaps the
obvious start in this enquiry would be talking to those who are associated with it. However,
in many cases there will be documentary evidence available but even a casual inspection of
the physical appearance and planning may give important information which can help to
fix a date fairly precisely. It may not be possible, of course, to date a building with great
accuracy simply by using architectural evidence and undoubtedly there are dangers in relying
solely on one source of evidence. Consequently a knowledge of architectural styles is very
important and this should be developed by reading and more especially by observation. The
Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture by R. W. Brunskill (published by Faber &
Faber) and Your House-the outside view by John Prizeman (published by Quiller Press)
are particularly good texts on this subject.
In earlier days, materials for walls and roofs would have been obtained locally as
previously mentioned, and so one can investigate buildings of some age on that basis.
Materials that were not obtained locally can indicate either a rich owner when the building
was developed or improvement in communication and transport. For example, river
communications improved at the beginning of the eighteenth century, canal navigation
about 1775 and the explosion of improved transport by road from about 1840. Roads
had been improving over a considerable period, but the weight and size of materials and
the lack of roads to areas where materials were found naturally made the contribution
of the road to the dispersal and more widespread use of materials not so significant.
Windows and doors, if original, can also be evidence of the period, and these elements
should be carefully observed.
If a documentary investigation is to be undertaken, the Ordnance Survey maps may be
the first approach. The first maps dated from the early part of the nineteenth century and
by 1840 the whole of the south of England was mapped at a scale of one inch to a mile.
Many towns in Britain were mapped from 1850 and these can be most useful in urban areas.
Tithe maps may be useful, as are deeds and related documents if precise dating is necessary,
but it is seldom that great accuracy is required.
Those buildings of comparatively recent date do not present difficulty and documentary
evidence is usually available. Clues may be found in the names of roads and districts and a
knowledge of these and development of land, the changing appearance of the countryside
and 'local' experience will help to deduce the information required. Buildings that are 'listed'
will often provide useful information on building styles and materials locally.
Listed buildings
The definition of a listed building is wide and it can include structures other than buildings.
If the 'listing' procedure has been applied, the criteria laid down will have been satisfied
and a category allocated. Details are given in the legislation and various publications but
generally the criteria are:
(a) Buildings erected before 1700 and remaining in a condition approaching original.
(b) Buildings between 1700 and 1840 are likely to be selected and listed.
(c) Selected buildings (quality, character, work of principal designers, forming part of a
special group or of special technological interest) between 1840 and 1914.
(d) Buildings constructed between 1914 and 1939 are presently being selected and listed.
The classification is in ranking of importance and is defined as
Grade I buildings of exceptional interest.

Grade 11 buildings of special interest which attract effort to preserve them and
some of the more important will be grouped in Grade 11*.
A copy of the listings is available from the appropriate authority and no work of
demolition, alteration or extension which affects the original character can be carried
out without listed building consent, and contravention may be punished by a fine,
imprisonment or both. Rights of entry are provided under several sources for officers and
officials to carry out duties connected with a listed building, for example, in connection
with the serving of a repairs notice. It is important therefore to carry out a thorough
investigation in the office if the inspection is to be of a building known to be listed or
which one suspects may be listed.
Bibliography
Building Research Station, Garston, Watford WD2 7JR.

BRE Digests 45 and 46: 'Design and Appearance' .
BRE Digest 54: 'Damp-proofing solid floors'.
BRE Digests 63, 64, and 67: 'Soils and foundations Parts 1,2 and 3'.
BRE Digest 73: 'Prevention of decay in window joinery'.
BRE Digest 77: 'Damp-proof courses'.
BRE Digest 89: 'Sulphate attack on brickwork'.
BRE Digest 98: 'Durability of metals in natural waters'.
BRE Digest 110: 'Condensation'.
BRE Digest 160: 'Mortars for brickwork'.
BRE Digest 176: 'Failure patterns and implications'.
BRE Digest 180: 'Condensation in roofs'.
BRE Digest 196: 'External rendered finishes'.
BRE Digest 201: 'Wood preservatives: pretreatment application methods'.
BRE Digest 218: 'Cavity barriers and ventilation in flat and low-pitched roofs'.
BRE Digest 236: 'Cavity insulation' .
BRE Digests 240, 241 and 242: 'Low-rise buildings on shrinkable clay soils, Parts 1, 2
and 3'.
BRE Digest 245: 'Rising damp in walls: diagnosis and treatment'.
BRE Digest 251: 'Assessment of damage in low-rise buildings'.
BRE Digest 257: 'Installation of wall ties in existing construction'.
BRE Digest 261: 'Painting woodwork'.
BRE Digest 262: 'Selection of windows by performance'.
BRE Digest 263: 'Part 1 Mechanism of protection and corrosion'.
BRE Digest 264: 'Part 2 Diagnosis and assessment of corrosion-cracked concrete' .
BRE Digest 265: 'Part 3 The repair of reinforced concrete'.
BRE Digest 266: 'Sound insulation of party floors' .
BRE Digest 268: 'Common defects in low-rise traditional housing'.
173
BRE Digest 270: 'Condensation in insulated domestic roofs'.

BRE Digest 280: 'Cleaning external surfaces of buildings' .
BRE Digest 293: 'Improving the sound insulation of separating-walls and floors'.
BRE Digest 296: 'Timbers : their natural durability and resistance to preservative
treatment' .
BRE Digest 297: 'Surface condensation and mould growth in traditionally-built
dwellings' .
BRE Digest 298: 'The influence of trees on house foundations in clay soils'.
BRE Digest 304: 'Preventing decay in external joinery' .
BRE Digest 307: 'Identifying damage by wood-boring insects'.
BRE Report (1987): 'Recognising wood rot and insect damage in buildings'.
Information Paper IP 28179: 'Corrosion of steel wall ties : recognition, assessment

and appropriate action'.
Information Paper IP 10180: 'Avoiding joinery decay by design'.
Information Paper IP 2181: 'The selection of doors and doorsets by performance'.
Information Paper IP 4181: 'The performance of cavity wall ties'.
Information Paper IP 16/81: 'The weather stripping of windows and doors'.
Information Paper IP 21181: 'In-situ treatment for existing window joinery'.
Information Paper IP 12182: 'House Longhorn Beetle Survey'.
Information Paper IP 7183: 'Window to wall jointing' .
Information Paper IP 4184: 'Performance specifications for wall ties'.
Information Paper IP 10184: 'The structural condition of some prefabricated reinforced
concrete houses designed before 1960'.
Technical Note 44: 'Decay in buildings: recognition, prevention and cure'.
Current Paper CP 6176: 'Results of field tests on the natural durability of timber
(1932-1975), .
Information Sheet 15 20177: 'Painted weathered timber'.
Timber Research and Development Association (TRADA)

Information sheet No 3: 'Introduction to timber framed housing'.
Information sheet No 5: 'Timber framed housing - specification notes'.
Information sheet No 10: 'Structural surveys of timber frame houses'.
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RI CS)

Practice note 'Structural Surveys of Residential Property', 2nd edn, 1985.
House Buyers Report and Valuation, 3rd edn, 1987.
Flat Buyers Report and Valuation, 1983.
Building Surveyors Guidance Note 'Dilapidations', 1983
British Standards Institution

BS 402: 1979 'Clay plain roof tiles and fittings. Part 2 : 1970'.
BS 473 and BS 550: 1971 'Concrete roofing tiles and fittings'.
BS 1202, parts 1, 2 and 3: 1962.
BS 5617: 1985 'Specification for urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam systems suitable
for thermal insulation of cavity walls with masonry or concrete inner and
outer leaves'.
Bibliography 175
BS 5618: 1985 'Code of practice for thermal insulation of cavity walls (with masonry
or concrete inner and outer leaves) by filling with urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam
systems'.
BS 8208: 'Guide to assessment of suitability of external cavity walls for filling with
thermal insulants'.
BS Code of Practice 144: 'Roof coverings Part 4: 1970 Mastic asphalt'.
BS Code of Practice 144: 'Roof coverings Part 3: 1970 Built-up bitumen felt'.
BS Code of Practice, c.P. 2001: 1957, 'Site investigations'.
Maintenance Management - a guide to good practice, 2nd edn, 1982, published by the
Chartered Institute of Building.
Lyall Addleson, Building Failures - A Guide to Diagnosis, Remedy and Prevention, 1982,
published by the Architectural Press.
Handbook and Directory of Members, published by the Stone Federation, 82 New
Cavendish Street, London, WIM 8AD.
Department of the Environment, Housing Defects Act 1984, The Housing Defects
(Prefabricated Reinforced Concrete Dwellings) (England and Wales) Designations 1984,
Supplementary Information.
H.W. Fowler, A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, 2nd edn, 1982, published by
Oxford University Press.
E. Gower, The Complete Plain Words, 3rd edn, revised by Sidney Greenbaum and Janet
Whitcut, 1986, published by HMSO.
The Building Regulations 1985, published by HMSO.
Structural Survey, published quarterly by Henry Stewart Publications, 88 Baker Street,
London WIM IDL.
Bats In Roofs: A Guide for Surveyors, published by The Nature Conservancy Council.
R. W. Brunskill, The Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture, 1986, published
by Faber and Faber.
John Prizeman, Your House - the outside view, 1982, published by Quiller Press.
Ivor H. Seeley, Building Surveys, Reports and Dilapidations, published by Macmillan
Education.
Index
Air bricks 63, 67, 122 Chlorides 67, 79, 119 Electrolytic action 91, 120
Air vents 35, 63-65 Clay soils 23, 26, 27, 28 Elf cups 105, 157
Airey houses 78, 79 heave 27,28 Elm 26, 27. 42, 55
Aluminium Cob walling 52, 53 Exclusion clauses 132, 133
nails 88 Collars 97
roof covering 106, 107 Common carpet beetle 151
Ambrosia beetle 142-144 Common faults 16, l7 Fees 5, 6
Anns v. Merton L.B.C. Common furniture beetle 103, Fibre optics 3, 4
(1978) 139 147-149 Fill 36
Anobium punctatum 103, Concrete bricks 53 Fink truss 100
147-149 Condensation 66, 10 I, 106-113 Fixtures and fittings 117, 118
Asbestos 21 Coniophora puteana 104, 105, Flashings 91, 92, 143
Ashlar 50, 51 156, 157 Flat buyer's report and
Ashlaring 43, 44 Copings 90, 91 valuation 6
Asphalt Copper roofing 108 Flat roofs 105-110
roofs 18, 106, 107, 108 Coprinus sp. 105 common faults 109, 110
tanking 45 Cornices 115 condensation 109, 110
Attagenus Pe/lio Herbst 151 Corrosion coverings 106-108
Attic floors 43, 44 steel 77, 79 decking 107, 108
wall ties 76 faults 18
Balconies 94, 95 Corycorinetes coeru/eus ventilation 109, 110
Balfour v. Barty-King Deg 103 Flint walls 52
(1957) 134 Cracks 30, 31, 53, 68, 70 Flitch beams 37, 39
Basements 45-48 dimensions 70-73 Floors 32-48
Bats 152 pattern 68, 74, 75 attic 43, 44
Batty v. M.P.R. Ltd (1978) 140 recording 69, 70 damp 35, 42, 46-48, 63, 65
Blackash mortar 76 remedial work 73, 76 finishes 34, 35, 46, 47, 95
Blue stain 157, 158 framed 37, 38,41
Bond timbers 61 Damages, measure of 30, 31, load-bearing capacity 32, 36,
Bostrychid beetle 145 140, 141 37,41
Boundary walls 67 Dampness repairs 42
Bressumers 94, 95, 108 rising 46, 47, 60, 61, 62 solid 33-35, 46-48
Brickwork 18, 53, 54, 55 penetrating 64, 65 sound proofing 48
pointing 54 Damp-proof courses strength 32
spalling 54 in floors 47 suspended 28, 32-34, 35
sulphate attack 91, 92 in walls 61, 62 upper 36, 37
B.R.B. v. Herrington (1972) 138 in parapet walls 90, 91 ventilation 32-35, 63
Brown rot 157 Death watch beetle 58, 103, Flue gases 66, 67, 92
B.R.S. v. Slater (1964) 137 149-151 Flues-disused 67
Bunclark v. Hertfordshire e.C. Decay and fungi 153-158 Form surveys 6
(1977) 140 Decorations 117 Foundation depth 23, 28, 29
Building plans 22, 23 Dictation on-site 7 Framed trusses lOO, 101
Dilapidations 128 Framed walls 58
Calcium silicate bricks 53 Dodd. Prop v. Canterbury C.e. Furniture, doors and
Cause and effect 20, 21 (1980) 140, 141 windows 116, 117
Cavity walls 54, 55 Doors 114
Ceilings 114, 115 Dormer windows 85 Gas 122, 123
Cellar fungus 104, 105, 156, Downpipes 66, 93, 95 Geological survey maps 23, 24
157 Drainage 47, 120 Glazing 115, 116
Cellars 45, 47, 48 Dry rot 35, 104, 105, 155-157 Granite 49
Cement fillets 91 Duty of care 132-134 Greenhalgh v. B.R.B. (1969)
Cesspools 121 137
Check lists 127, 128 Electrical Ground levels 63, 65
Chimney stacks 92 installation 101,121,122 Gutters 83-85, 92-95, 108
Chiselhurst failure 31 testing 122
176
Index 177
Harbutts v. Wayne Tank Paxillus panuoides Fr 104, 105, Sound proofing 44, 48
(1970) 140 157 Specimen reconnaissance
Hedley Byrne & Co v. Heller Peabody. v. Parkinson Ltd survey 159-169
(1964) 133 (1985) 139 Spreaders 40, 41
High alumina cement 21 Period classification 170-172 Stone
Hips 89, 90 Perry v. Sidney Philips cleaning 52
Holden v. White (1982) 137 (1982) 140 repointing 52
Hot water cylinder 120 Peziza sp lOS, 157 Storage tanks 43, 84, 101
House buyer's report and Phellinuss 104, 105 Stramit board 107
valuation 6 Philips v. Ward (1956) 140 Structural survey 1-3
House longhorn beetle 102, 103, Picture rails 115 Stucco 49
143·145 Pin-hole borer 142-144 Substructure 22-31
Hylotrupes bajulus L 102, 103, Pirelli v. Oscar Faber Sulphates 31, 91
143-145 (1983) 139 Survey of external joinery 112,
Hygroscopic salts 61 Plasterboard 114 113
Poria spp 104, 105 Survey procedure 2, 3
Powder-post beetle 103, 145-148 Surveyor's equipment 3, 4
Injection damp treatment 62 Practice notes 6 Swallow holes 72
Injunction 141 PRC houses 79
Inkey cap 105 Preservation orders on Tanking 45
Instructions 5, 132 buildings 136 Tapes 7
Insulation-cavity walls 65, 77 Professional indemnity Thatch 86
Interstitial condensation 66, 106 insurance 135 Thermography 4
Investors. v. S. Bed D.C. (1986) Pugging 44, 48 Thomas v. B.R. Board
139 Purlins 100 (1976) 137
Tile hanging 57, 58
Joinery 111-118 Quarries-stone 50 Tiles 88, 89
failures 111 Queen post truss 96, 97 Timber frame
protection 111, 112 Quinn v. Scott (1965) 137 construction 58, 59
John Pryke 70, 73, 76 survey 59
Rainwater goods 66, 92-95, 108 Timber housings 40, 41, 43
King post truss 96, 97 Reconnaissance survey 2, 5 Timber treatment 41
Rendering 49, 54, 65 Torching 97, 98
Lath and plaster 114 Report writing 124-130 Tree
Lead plumbing 65, 120 R.I.C.S. practice note 6 heights 25, 26
Leakey v. National Trust Ridges 89, 90 preservation order 28, 136
(1980) 137 Rights of light 138 roots 26-31
Legal aspects 131-141 Roof 80-110 Trendtex v. Trading Corp
Legal liability construction 97, 98 (1982) 141
property owners 136-139 coverings 85-89 Trussed rafters 96
surveyors 132-135 forms 81-85
Life expectancy 18 repairs 98-100 Underfloor ventilation 32, 34,
Limestones 50 spread 43 35
Limitation trusses 96, 97 Underground room
of action 139, 140 voids 101-105 regulations 47, 48
of survey 125, 126 Rough cast 49
Listed buildings 172 Rubble walling 50, 51 Vapour barrier 56, 109, 110
Lombard poplar 29 Ventilation 32-35, 63, 109, 110,
Lyctus beetle 103, 145-148 Sandstones 50 122, 123
Sec. of State v. Essex Goodman
Marble 50 (1986) 140 Wall tie failure 76, 77
Masters v. Brent L.B.C. Sedleigh v. O'Callaghan Walls 49-79
(1978) 141 (1940) 137 brick 53
Measuring buildings 10-13 Serpula lacrymans 35, 104, 105, flint 52
Midland Bank v. Hett, Stubbs 155-157 pi se de Terre 52, 53
(1979) 140 Services 119-123 stone 49-53
Mining subsidence 31 Settlement 26, 27, 29, 36 Water authority inspectors 30
Moisture meters 4 Shingles 57, 86 Weatherboarding 55-57
Mortar 54, 89 Short bore piles 28 Weathering 14-16
Shrinkable clays 26-28 Wood-boring
Nails 88-90 Site sketches 19 insects 142-152
National house-building Site surveys 7-9, 11 weevil 104, 148, 151
scheme 27 Skirtings 44, 115 Wood wool slabs 107
Negligence 2, 140 Slate 86-88, 90
Non-traditional walls 79 Sloping sites 31 Xestobium re/ovillosum 58,
Notes 7 Soil 103, 149-151
erosion 31
Paint work 117 investigation 23, 24 Yianni v. Edwin Evans
Parapet walls 90, 93, 94 recovery and swelling 27, 28 (1982) 133
Partitions 59, 61 Solloway v. Hants C.C.
Party walls 67, 68, 101, 102 (1981) 137

Structural Surveying

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structural Surveying

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structural Surveying

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structural Surveying

MACMILLAN BUILDING AND SURVEYING SERIES

Advanced Building Measurement Ivor H. Seeley

Title of related interest

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 978-0-333-31824-9 ISBN 978-1-349-19570-1 (eBook)

Defective rainwater goods 66

Appendix A: Wood-boring Insects 142

22 Check list 128

Temp/e, London. Stephen Desch

University of Reading Stephen L.J. Mika

Instructions from the client

It is essential to obtain proper instructions, particularly for reconnaissance surveys where

Background to the survey

(a) The initial architectural design-complicated geometry is often an indication of

(a) Taking Instructions.

Measuring building plots

Figure 1 S'Ite survey

Figure 2 Measuring buildings

Figure 3 Typical notebook sketches

The change of appearance, as well as the behaviour and performance, of materials,

(a) moisture condensation, dampness, mould growth, water penetration;

Performance and reliability

Defect or Substandard Performance

Symptoms for example, a damp patch on the ceiling under a

Figure 4 Site sketch of construction

Cause and effect

Requirement Possible effect

New plumbing installations As above, and also increased loads from

(a) The use of concrete which is not so sympathetic to movement.

It is rarely necessary to inspect the foundations in the course of reconnaissance survey,

It is important to investigate the depth of foundations of pre-war or earlier houses

Geological Survey Maps

(Hi) 1RE,~ tyrE-5.

Figure 5 Tree heights and foundations

Soil recovery and trees

permit traditional 'shallow' foundations in circumstances where short-bore piles should

Recognition of tree root damage

Both professionals and householders are sometimes in ignorance of the influence of

Claims for damages

Erosion and movement of subsoil

Floor construction is of paramount importance in regard to both the load-carrying capac-

Figure 6 Solid and suspended floors

In a reconnaissance survey an important consideration is the soundness of the floor

In a detailed survey, opening up against external walls is essential to establish the

,./" ./ /' /'

Figure 7 Framed floors

Figure 8 Flitch beams

Figure 9 Timber housings and supports

Bath and WC floors

Attic floors and conversions

Cellars and basements

Cellars and basement floors

Underground room regulations

Dampness may be stopped by laying solid floors, incorporating an impervious membrane,

Sound-proofing of floors and partitions

Figure 10 Stone walling

Pise de terre and cob walls

Features for further investigation

Weatherboarding and cladding