Modern Construction Handbook, 3rd Edition

MCH
MODERN
CONSTRUCTION
HANDBOOK
ANDREW WATTS
THIRD EDITION
1 2 3
INTRODUCTION 4 materialS 18 walls 82 roofs 200
Introduction to third edition 4 Tectonics in metal 20 Trends in facade design 84 Trends in roof design 202
Structure and envelope 8 Steel 22
Parametric design 14 Aluminium 26 Generic wall types 90 Metal roofs
Copper, zinc and lead 28 1 Metal standing seam 206
Metal 2 Profiled metal sheet 210
Tectonics in glass 30 1 Sheet metal 92 3 Composite panels 214
Glass 32 2 Profiled cladding 96 4 Rainscreens 218
3 Composite panels 100 5 Metal louvres 222
Tectonics in concrete 36 4 Rainscreens 104
Concrete 38 5 Mesh screens 108 Glass roofs
6 Louvre screens 112 1 Greenhouse glazing
Tectonics in masonry 44 and capped systems 226
Masonry 46 Glass systems 116 2 Silicone-sealed glazing
Concrete block 48 1 Stick systems 120 and rooflights 230
Stone 50 2 Unitised glazing 124 3 Bolt fixed glazing 234
Brick 52 3 Clamped glazing 128 4 Bonded glass rooflights 238
4 Bolt fixed glazing 132
Tectonics in plastics 54 5 Glass blocks Concrete roofs
Plastics and composites 56 and channels 136 1 Concealed membranes 242
6 Steel windows 140 2 Exposed membranes 246
Tectonics in timber 60 7 Aluminium windows 144 3 Planted roof 250
Timber 62 8 Timber windows 148
Timber roofs
Fabrics and membranes 64 Concrete 1 Flat roof: mastic asphalt
1 Cast in-situ 152 coverings 254
Materials for interior finishes 2 Storey height precast 156 2 Flat roof: bitumen-based
1 Internal partitions 68 3 Small precast panels 160 sheet membranes 258
2 Plaster and wallboard 70 3 Pitched roof: tiles 262
3 Internal floors 72 Masonry loadbearing walls 164
4 Internal ceilings 74 Plastic roofs
Masonry cavity walls 1 GRP rooflights 266
Performance testing of 1 Brick 168 2 GRP panels and shells 270
facade material systems 76 2 Stone and block 172
Fabric systems
Performance testing of Masonry cladding 176 1 ETFE cushions 274
roof material systems 80 2 Single membrane:
Masonry rainscreens 180 cone-shaped roof 278
3 Single membrane:
Plastic barrel-shaped roof 282
1 Plastic-based cladding 184
2 Plastic rainscreens 188
Timber
1 Timber frame 192
2 Cladding panels 196
CONTENTS
4 5 6
Structure 286 ENVIRONMEN T 354 APPLICATIONS 412 REFERENCES 494
Material systems Environmental studies for 1 Working with industry 414 Glossary of terms 496
for structures 288 envelopes 356 2 Triangular panels for Authorship 500
twisted facades 416 Photo credits 501
Elements of structures 290 Analysis for design 3 Twisted panels with flat Index 502
1 Solar radiation 360 glass for curved facades 418
1 Braced frames 2 Daylight 364 4 Solar shading louvres 424
Reinforced concrete 292 3 Thermal performance 366 5 Double-skin facades 428
Steel 296 4 Wind 368 6 Precast concrete panels
Timber 300 5 Solar shading 370 for facades of complex
6 Double skin facades 378 geometry 430
2 Portal frames 304 7 Natural ventilation 384 7 Exoskeleton facades of
8 Thermal mass 386 complex geometry 434
3 Loadbearing boxes 8 Diagrid structures 436
Reinforced concrete 308 Low energy material systems 9 Hybrid systems forming facades
Brick 312 1 Embodied energy 388 of complex geometry 438
Glass 316 2 Straw bales and hemp 392 10 Opaque cladding interface
3 Rammed earth, cob with full-height glazing 442
4 Trusses 320 and adobe bricks 394 11 Complex curved
4 Green wood glazed roofs 444
5 Arches and shells 324 and bamboo 396 12 Large-scale glazed
5 Green walls 398 facades 448
6 Space grids 328 13 Panelisation of complex building
Active design surface geometry 450
Floor structures 1 Solar power and 14 Opaque rainscreen
1 Cast in-situ / solar heating 400 cladding 454
cast-in-place concrete 332 2 Electrical lighting 402 15 Full-height glazing with GRP-clad
2 Precast concrete 334 structural frame 456
3 Steel and steel mesh 336 Support services 16 GRC cladding interfaces 458
4 Timber 338 1 Maintenance and 17 Full-height entrance
5 Glass 342 cleaning 404 glazing 460
2 Lifts 410 18 GRP louvres on stick
Stairs glazing system 462
1 Concrete 346 19 GRC cladding 468
2 Steel 348 20 Windows in GRC cladding 470
3 Timber 350 21 Windows and unitised
4 Glass 352 glazing with GRC cladding 474
22 Unitised glazing with GRC
cladding 476
23 Complex glazed roofs with
supporting steel structure 478
24 Glazed roofs with complex
geometry 482
25 Louvres and stick glazing 484
26 Tiled cladding 488
27 Rainscreens 490
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction to third edition
Structure and envelope
Parametric design
MCH_ 5
Introduction to third edition

This book aims to set out the construction systems use in the the use of categories of ‘loadbearing’ and ‘non-loadbearing’ was
design of contemporary buildings, grouping the systems as not appropriate due to the imbalance of the categories. What
distinct chapters covering walls, roofs, structure and environ- emerged was that construction systems for the majority of
ment. The book begins with a chapter on building materials, and building construction are independent, with few systems relating
ends with applications of the systems described in the chapters to one another. Much of the skill of contemporary detailing
which follow. This format varies slightly from the second edi- is in knowing how to bring those systems together which are
tion, where the last chapter was called ‘Future’, which has been fabricated or manufactured in isolation of one another.
renamed ‘Applications’ in this edition to reflect the fact that sys-
tems presented as concepts in the previous edition have now The linking of building systems so that they might be able
been used in completed buildings. to interface more easily has long been an aspiration of
manufacturers, but the current situation is one where few
Where 20th Century architecture admired simple geometric systems co-ordinate easily with one another. This suggested
forms and their rectilinear-based combination, material sys- that the taxonomy of building systems in the first edition
tems of the early 21st Century can be used to interact with the should be based on a robust set of genuinely different
existing built environment rather than completely replace that generic types that would have to be identified independently
previous environment. This approach is one enjoyed before the of current systems of classification, such as those described
mass industrialisation of building production in the early 20th in designers’ specifications. The structure of architecture-
century. This book aims to demonstrate that pre-industrial build- based specifications identifies components and assemblies in
ings, that form a part of our current urban environments, can inter-related sections, where each sub-item in the assembly is
find continuity with the digital fabrication and mass customisa- identified independently, such as ‘curtain walling’, which itself
tion techniques of the 21st century. comprises several generic external wall types set out in this
book. Specifications then link items such as ‘curtain walling’ to
The organisation of the material in the Modern Construction their constituent materials of glass, seals, paint finishes and so
Handbook, which has been refined for this third edition, has on under quite different headings. While the system is useful in
undergone several stages of development, based on the idea describing a building for use by a contractor, particularly with
of grouping construction systems by the material used rather regard to national standards, including those for performance
than by their ‘function’, which is one of the most widely used testing, specifications do not relate the parts in a way that
construction-based classification systems. The materials-based can be easily used at the design stage to understand generic
approach specific to this book allows the text to draw parallels facade assemblies. The approach taken in the classification
between building ‘systems’ that are based on the same primary system in the Modern Construction Handbook was to group
material, since the development and use of those systems is items in a way known to building design teams: structure, walls,
informed mainly by the physical properties specific to each roofs, and services.
material and the way the material is worked, manufactured
or formed for use as a building material. Known classification The construction of buildings has, historically, been based on
systems create a mix between manufacturer-led names for a varying relationship between loadbearing structure, walls
systems, such as ‘structural glazing’, where the glass is often and roofs, and this forms the basis of classification in this
not structural at all, and ‘rainscreen cladding’, which covers book. In some buildings, walls, roofs and structure are a single
almost any decorative outer layer that has open joints. Rather entity as in medieval cathedrals, with the exception of their
than basing classification on that of existing categories, the additional timber roofs, used to protect the structural ceiling.
approach was to start from scratch and test material-based In framed construction the walls and roofs can be continuous
categories against one another. In the first edition, this evolved over a single supporting structure, while in many cases of
into categories of walls, roofs, structure, environment and 20th century construction, walls, roofs and structure are
fittings. Another category of materials preceded this, since an quite separate, and are then subdivided within each category
understanding of the physical nature of materials is essential in to provide a ‘collage’ form of construction where systems are
construction-led architecture. overlaid in the manner of a visual collage.
An essential aspect of contemporary construction is the wide Most of the primary building materials can be used to make
range of construction systems which are non-loadbearing. loadbearing structures, where they serve as both structure
Almost all contemporary construction is based on the structural and enclosure. Other uses of materials for walls and roofs are
frame; typically either steel or concrete, with the modest, but non-loadbearing cladding. However, sometimes where different
growing, use of timber frames as a lower embodied energy material systems are formed in the same material in a building,
alternative. As examples of loadbearing construction are rare, there is still some structural interdependency. Where quite
MCH_ 6
different material systems are mixed, such as in a concrete Modern Construction Roofs, show how specific details can be
frame and enclosure, a different inter-dependency emerges, created, which forms the basis of an understanding of what
that of allowing each material to be expressed separately. is needed to be accommodated in different geometries. The
chapter on ‘future’ systems adds a parametric component to
The inclusion of fittings in the taxonomy of the first edition proved some of the examples, thus highlighting the range of possibilities
difficult, with smaller scale items of stairs, lifts, internal finishes that might exist for some of the examples shown.
and doors placed within the group. The term ‘internal fittings’
was too restricting, as some of these components could be used The materials chapter in this third edition presents essays on
externally. This was the least satisfying part of the first edition. how the tectonics of material systems was used historically
In this third edition this issue has been resolved by including and how digital tools are bringing flexibility back into building
stairs in the structure chapter, doors in the walls chapter, and construction, something which was considered to be too
internal finishes in the first section on materials. Lifts are now expensive until the arrival of CAD/CAM (computer aided design/
described in the environment chapter, since they are usually computer aided manufacturing), mentioned as a development
considered to be part of the mechanical systems, the layout bringing change in the first edition. This return to an almost pre-
of which is designed by a specialist consultant. As a result of industrial approach to design allows new buildings to develop
this last decision it could be seen that the environment section a much closer empathy with existing buildings, even if the
could include both systems that reduce energy consumption by technologies used are very different. The non-rectilinear nature
the use of low energy passive strategies, as well as high energy of some of the material systems allows them to engage more
active strategies, such as mechanical ventilation, and lifts can robustly and elegantly with existing fabric, both pre-industrial
be seen as part of this strategy to make tall buildings usable. and that of 20th century Modernism in architecture.
In environmental terms, the use of several layers of envelope Qualifying comments

and structure in a single building can create a much richer The building techniques discussed and the built examples
set of internal spaces than those provided by the single skin shown are designed to last for an extended period with a rela-
envelope. The outer wall can be made of a double skin, or tively high performance. Consequently, buildings for exhibitions
even as a deep zone within the building which is an inhabitable and for temporary use are excluded. In addressing an inter-
equivalent of the ‘twin wall’ or ‘double skin’ facade. This has national readership, references to national legislation, building
helped to inform both material systems, not all of which need regulations, codes of practice and national standards have spe-
to be sealed, as well as the environment chapter where passive cifically not been included. This book explains the principles of
cooling, heating and ventilation can be used to reduce overall accepted building techniques currently in use. Building codes
energy consumption, as well as create a stronger link between throughout the world are undergoing increased harmonisa-
the built environment of the city and the building itself. The tion because of increased economic and intellectual globalisa-
materials for roads and public spaces do not form part of the tion. Building components and assemblies from many different
scope of this book, of course. countries are often used in a single building. Since building
codes are written to protect users of buildings by providing for
Each generic system is described first in terms of the properties their health and safety, good construction practice will always
of the material, then how they are used as a material system, uphold these codes as well as assist their advancement.
and last how that material system ‘behaves’, or can be made to The components, assemblies and details shown in this book
‘behave’, to form a building by examining its detailing. Possible describe many of the building techniques used by the building
developments of some of these material systems are set industry today, but this book does not necessarily endorse or
out in the future chapter to show how the principles can be justify their use since techniques in building are in a continual
extrapolated for use on new projects. state of change and development.
Generic systems are discussed in terms of how they are

assembled, and how they work from a structural and/or
enclosure point of view. These paragraphs on ‘system design’
show how the generic example works. The way the system is
applied to different geometries is explained in ‘system details’.
The geometries show how the system can be set out on different
mathematically-based surfaces, and how the system can meet
at corners and junctions. Two other books in the Modern
Construction Series, titled Modern Construction Facades and
MCH_ 7
Structure and envelope 1

Wells Cathedral, Wells, U.K. Natural History Museum, Oxford, U.K. Natural History Museum, Oxford, U.K.
Architect: Deane and Woodward Architect: Deane and Woodward
In terms of construction, Modernist architecture can be openings that gave a ‘massive’ quality to buildings. In contrast,
considered to be an approach that was not an inevitable the use of the separate structural frame was able to create a
development of 19th century architecture but rather a response visual lightness and transparency that gave greater freedom to
to an industrialisation governed by mass production of building designers. However, the integration of skin and structure into
components such as steel sections for frames, bricks, blocks, loadbearing facades can also allow much greater freedom in
metal coil, timber boards and sections. The use of repeated, the design of the external envelope to suit the requirements of
rectilinear structural bays, both in plan and elevation, can be the spaces immediately behind. In the context of the existing
seen as a response to the way the raw products used in building built environment, a new building can almost ‘grow’ out of the
are manufactured, including the straight lines of cut timber and adjacent existing building using the same materials but with a
plywood used for concrete formwork. different material system.
20th century Modernist architecture can be considered in The use of a structural frame clad with non-loadbearing walls
terms of its response to mass production techniques through has led to an aesthetic typically concerned with either forming
the use of the structural frame. Building components and a ‘collage’ of different components, or as a repeated module of
assemblies were used as repeated identical elements in the same component. However, loadbearing construction can
building compositions. The use of steel or concrete frames embrace a design approach of structural and environmental
led to building envelopes being enclosed in non-loadbearing integration: the use of envelope and structure combined to
cladding. The use of repeated, rectilinear bays can be seen as create space in the facade and continuity in groundscape or
a response to manufacture, including the straight lines of cut urban context. Both loadbearing and deep rainscreens are
timber and plywood used for concrete formwork. Consequently, possible solutions for this approach. The recent introduction
as a result of the widespread use of the structural frame in of computer controlled tools has taken away the imperative
much of 20th century Modernist architecture, the separation of mass production, offering instead possibilities of ‘mass
of structure and external wall has dominated, where the facade customisation’ where many components of different size can be
is reduced to non-loadbearing walls. This approach has been a produced quickly to a high quality. Consequently, architectural
result of the development of structural forms, originally destined production is no longer determined by the need for repeated
for large scale buildings, which have found use in much smaller rectilinear units used in Modernist designs. In terms of the
scale constructions, even being used in individual houses in relationship between structure and external envelope, the
continental Europe. The use of loadbearing structures for introduction of mass customisation suggests that systems for
larger scale buildings resulted in facades with ‘punched’ window both facades and structures could become more complex and
MCH_ 8
Colonia Güell, Barcelona, Spain. Sagrada-Familia, Barcelona, Spain. Sagrada-Familia, Barcelona, Spain.
Architect: Antonio Gaudi Architect: Antonio Gaudi Architect: Antonio Gaudi
interdependent, while remaining economic by the standards of In the early 20th century the architect Antonio Gaudi saw that an
contemporary building construction. advantage of loadbearing construction was that individual blocks
of stone, bricks or concrete blocks could be corbelled inwards or
A tradition of the integration of structure and envelope outwards from the vertical plane of the external wall to create a
The integration of structure and envelope can be seen in the complex vertical section as well as a complex plan. Gaudi’s use
Gothic tradition: facades forming external spaces created by of brickwork was based on his own structural investigations,
the framing effect of flying buttresses of medieval cathedrals. as implemented at the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona. In the
Such structures also communicate a sense of the communal years that followed, the buildings of Oscar Niemeyer integrated
effort required to construct the building: The walls, which seem structure and skin in projects of varying brief, from housing to
to integrate frame and infill wall into a single constructional churches to public buildings, exploring the possibilities inherent
entity, sweep inwards at roof level to create stone vaults that in reinforced concrete rather than following the imperatives of
form a continuity with the walls. Only a timber roof is required the rectilinear structural frame. In the 1950s, Eero Saarinen
to protect the stone ceiling from the effects of the weather. used loadbearing concrete in the TWA Terminal at John F
The timber roof is not a ‘conceptual’ part of the masonry Kennedy Airport in New York, a building which integrates the
structure, but rather a necessary addition that ensures the language of structure and enclosure with that of partitions,
construction provides a weathertight enclosure. Gothic Revival counters, desks and furniture. The furniture is curved to make
buildings of the 19th century, such as the Oxford Museum it comfortable for the curved human physique, linking the form
in England, combine medieval methods of loadbearing of what inhabits the building to inform the construction of the
construction with industrially manufactured iron ribs that building itself. This building can be regarded as an integration of
form a vaulted roof structure infilled with glazing. What can building, interior spaces and furniture that marked the buildings
be seen as a civic expression of the manual work of many of medieval Oxford. A building designed by Eero Saarinen, the
craftsmen and labourers of the medieval world, was replaced Milwaukee Art Museum, was recently extended to a design by
by an architectural expression of the use of mass-produced Santiago Calatrava in a structure that creates a loadbearing,
building components that were used as the raw material for or skeletal, structure, reminiscent of earlier buildings by Oscar
the specialist fabrication of entire parts in small workshops, Niemeyer. Calatrava’s interest in animal skeletons goes one
rather than that of work being all performed on site. Gothic step beyond the interest in the structure of Saarinen.
Revival buildings such as the Oxford Museum are built with a
mixture of loadbearing and framed construction.
MCH_ 9

Aerial view, Oxford, U.K.
Parametric modelling by Eric Mendelsohn integrated the needs of a research

This need for variation in more complex arrangements of linked centre comprising spaces for study and discussion, with the
spaces is tackled more comprehensively in projects by Zaha complimentary requirement for an astronomical telescope to
Hadid, whose work is informed by an interest in parametric be accommodated in the building. Rather than express the
design, where spaces can be linked by rhythm, and links ‘primary’ aspect of the telescope and fitting the ‘secondary’
achieved through the assistance of computer software, so research spaces into it, the design allows both aspects of the
that many more iterations can be investigated and explored design to combine as a more balanced composition. This was
than are possible by hand, by conventional 2D CAD, or even by achieved by designing the spaces from the outside in, creating
conventional physical modelling. Parametric modelling provides an envelope to suit the general enclosure of spaces, effectively
an interrelationship between parts of the building as well as wrapped around the telescope. The structure supporting the
the urban space surrounding it, making the cityscape one telescope is set inside the building, requiring a quite different
of interdependence as, once again, can be found in medieval support for the observation floor. The space between the
Oxford. The office of Frank Gehry has taken the use of parametric outer envelope and the inner telescope structure is inhabited
modelling as a tool for generating building forms that would not by the circulation space serving both telescope and study
be possible in a practical sense without computer software and spaces. The telescope can be considered to be designed from
its link to computer aided manufacturing. Gehry is concerned the inside out, while the study spaces are designed from the
that architects produce buildings that are generated by the outside in. The interstitial zone between the inner and outer
need to be resolved in 2D as drawings, and that buildings can structure is inhabited by the staircase which rises through
be seen as mere ‘built drawings’ rather than being conceived the building. In another project, the staircase itself could have
as ‘buildings’ in the first place. Gehry is less interested in been part of the overall building structure, but here the stair
loadbearing construction than in the built forms that can be is supported primarily by both inner and outer structures on
generated from a few material systems which are liberated its sides. The building’s external envelope is built from brick,
from the constraints of mass production towards an eventual covered in render. While the building could have been formed
approach of mass customisation. in concrete, the construction method of corbelling brickwork
in and out of vertical plane is ideally suited as a method to
Modernism and construction construct a form of this geometry.
Modernism developed from aspects of architecture of the
early 20th century, influenced by mass production techniques In our own time, the rise of digital tools permits this more
from about 1920 onwards. In contrast, the approach taken complex approach to tectonics that was dominated in the 20th
by architects such as Eric Mendelsohn in Germany during century by the use of the structural frame.
the 1920s considered ways of integrating different aspects
of programmes informed strongly by the way the building As set out in the previous essay, a characteristic of the
was constructed. The Einsteinturm in Potsdam, Germany, construction of Modernist architecture has been the separation
MCH_ 10
Einstein Tower, Potsdam, Germany. Architect: Erich Einstein Tower, Potsdam, Germany. Architect: Erich Mendelsohn
Mendelsohn
of structure and external envelope, where the facade is creates an opportunity for a buffer zone between them, which
reduced to non-loadbearing ‘cladding’ as a result of the could be used as an inhabited space or for circulation around
development of structural frames, originally destined for large the building, as was mentioned in the previous text on the
scale buildings. In contrast, the use of digital tools and mass Einsteinturm by Eric Mendelsohn. The recently completed
customisation methods can be used to create a partial or full Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stuttgart by UN Studio has
integration of skin and structure as loadbearing facades. This interstitial zones used for circulation, while interstitial zones
revived loadbearing approach can allow a much greater control which are inhabited can be seen in the Phaeno Science Center
of the design of the envelope to suit the requirements of the in Wolfsburg, Germany, by Zaha Hadid.
spaces immediately behind, rather than using the repeated
bays of structural frames built using established methods of The integration of skin and structure into a loadbearing facade
mass production. In this loadbearing-based approach, the has obvious difficulties. The conventional ‘layered’ approach of
choice of material used may be taken from the immediate cladding applied to structural forms in Modernist construction
physical context of the built environment, and may also depart has the advantage of superimposing waterproofing, thermal
geometrically from its context, as in the case of Zaha Hadid’s insulation and vapour barriers to form a sequential wall build-
design for an extension to the Louvre Museum in Paris. The up. In loadbearing facades it is more difficult to integrate these
design provides continuity of material and context without different functions into a single structural wall. However, allowing
compromising the performance of the building in terms of lines of structure to deviate from the rectilinear rather than
use, organisation and spaces created within the building while being used to suit primarily rectilinear facade cladding, allows
responding to environmental imperatives of reducing energy structure to interact with non-rectilinear spaces within buildings.
consumption within the building. The new structure can almost Current Modernist architecture responds to the needs of mass
be seen as ‘growing’ out of the adjacent existing building production, a set of design imperatives of repeatability and a
and the adjacent groundscape, using the same material but rectilinear approach based on mass production rather than the
employing a different material system. The material system can possibilities provided by digital tools of design and production
be chosen or developed to suit the design needs of the spaces available with mass customisation.
immediately behind the external envelope.
The renewed interest in the structural design of the external
Within building designs, spaces can be created in an outward loadbearing wall creates at once a new design vocabulary
direction from the internal spaces of the building. Where spaces for architecture and a return to an expression of the joy of
are required to have a high level of technical performance, making buildings, as demonstrated in individual craftsmanship,
or specific light conditions that are to be created, this can an approach that can be seen to have been shared widely in
be achieved without immediate reference to the external construction before early prefabrication techniques were
envelope but rather to the building structure. An interstitial introduced in the 1920s. This approach to design is informed by
zone between internal spaces and external facade structures a balance of the specific use of the material system used to form
MCH_ 11
Example of parametric modelling
the building, with the sequence of movement around the building a departure from the repeated rectilinear component so that
and the spaces created within. The expression of construction components can be more geometrically complex, either as
and circulation as ‘designed’ elements harnessed to the individual components or as complete building assemblies.
‘objective’ design requirements of spatial organisation related Recent developments in building forms have been seen in both
to programme and site context, can be a powerful partnership twisted and folded geometries.
of principles. This approach could allow construction to move on
from 20th century industrial imperatives of the mass production Twisted building forms achieve geometric complexity by using
of identical components towards a new period of craftsmanship curves, typically across a surface of constant curvature in
as a result of mass customisation. order to make it easier to build in a construction market that
is used to mass production techniques of building construction.
A design approach of designing inwards from the facade of the Geometric complexity can also be achieved with folds, where
building, and outwards from the internal spaces of the building, conventional flat surfaces, which are straightforward to build,
could allow structure to create interstitial space between inside can be formed into unconventional facade forms. The recent
and outside. This approach can also create environmental examples are those by Santiago Calatrava, Frank Gehry and
‘buffer’ spaces, which are not maintained at the internal UN Studio in twisted forms, and OMA, Zaha Hadid and LAB
temperature of the building but serve as a buffer between Architecture in folded forms. The approach of folded and twisted
inside and outside temperature conditions. These spaces building forms is a way of introducing complex geometry while
would not require the same amount of tempered air, but would maintaining contemporary principles of ‘repeatability’ in order to
provide an opportunity for natural ventilation, all key to reducing make them economic to build using a conventional approach to
carbon dioxide emissions in buildings. From the point of view construction. In this sense the approach of twisted and folded
of construction, this approach is more complex than 20th forms is an intermediary one between the rectilinear repetition
century construction, but could be achieved with digital tools of Modernist construction and the emerging construction
for design and fabrication, the tools of mass customisation. methods described here. The current approach to folded
The possibility of mass customisation of components allows and twisted facades requires geometric discipline in order to
MCH_ 12
Examples of parametric
models
maintain the repeatability of components, mainly facade panels, with traditional loadbearing construction, but moving it forward
used in conventional construction techniques. With the greater with changing methods of industrial production. Digital tools
introduction of digital fabrication tools, the need to maintain allow the performance of a design to be explored and optimised,
a geometric discipline will slowly disappear, perhaps making and be developed in order for an individual or a team to tackle
design choices more dependent on the principles of design the fabrication of the component which has not been made in a
performance imperative in buildings such as the Einsteinturm particular way before. Alternatively, a design may use historical
discussed in the last essay. Greater freedom of design from models, either to endorse the construction methods of existing
digital tools will provide greater control and greater responsibility buildings, to mix old and new to create something new, or even
from the designer to use the technology wisely. to advance what is already constructed by physically adjusting
it by using the same material but a different material system.
Design methodology
Current architectural design has a preference for rectilinear The Modern Construction Handbook sets out these construction
spaces linked in a spatial organisation which is also primarily techniques, both traditionally-based and contemporary, all of
rectilinear, though dependent upon site conditions, based around which evolved during the industrialisation of the 19th century.
the use of rectilinear structural frames. The design generated Essential to this use of material systems is an understanding of
is then given an outward facade expression of materials formed the physical characteristics of materials as manufactured and
with openings or wraps as an interface between the internal used in a system in addition to their essential physical properties.
arrangement of the building at its immediate site context. This book also sets out the construction systems essential to
contemporary architectural production, categorised in terms
An alternative design methodology is to add the use of material of envelope, structure and environment. The book begins with
systems to that mix: construction as an additional driving factor. a setting out of materials and how they are used as material
This may be digital, as with the possibilities for invention that systems and ends with proposals for new material systems as
the tools bring, or may be used for the continued cladding of an extrapolation of what is possible in the present and how it
structural frames. This leads the design into a direct connection could be used in the future.
MCH_ 13
Parametric design 1

Parametrically modelled glazed structural facade
The use of parametric design in architecture has been centred around the building. Drawings specifically for the facade systems
around the use of software that was originally developed for are needed since the facade construction method is devised
other industries. Its primary use in architecture has been to individually for such projects. Details of facade conditions at
generate digital models for building structures and external edges, corners, interfaces and junctions with other parts of the
envelope which have a complex geometry. The word ‘complex’ building construction are prepared in the traditional way.
is used to denote geometries which are not rectilinear, and
therefore cannot be described by plans and sections which can Drawings describing the design of complex geometry of the
be extruded in a straight line through the form of the building. external envelope are of different types: ‘kit of parts’ drawings,
Building designs which do not conform to the rectilinear ‘system’ drawings, details and setting-out drawings. This
forms characteristic of Modernism are difficult to describe method differs significantly from the traditional approach of
as 2D plans, sections and elevations in a way which can be plans, sections, elevations, typical details and so on, as nothing
communicated to those who will construct the building. Even is typical or dimensionally constant in the external walls. The
2D plans, while still a useful tool, still cannot be used to establish relationship of inner and outer skin varies, so a set of ‘rules’ is
the edge of the external envelope if the external wall is not set out in the system drawings, then applied to the ‘kit of parts’
vertical, as the position of that wall applies only at the horizontal drawings and the setting out drawings.
plane at which the plan is set, typically at floor level for a form
of complex geometry. Typically, glazing is set above the floor At Federation Square for example, the inner and outer layers
level, where plans are typically drawn, but any dimensions on are set out in a loose-fit relationship between inner and outer
the plan at this point are set at a level difficult to establish on skin. In projects where forms are either facetted or curved to
site in buildings of complex geometry. create an architecture of complex geometry, the means of
controlling the geometry of the building become more crucial.
A well-known example of complex geometry using flat In single skin buildings where the building has a complex form,
facades that do not conform to the rectilinear forms of most the exact fit of the different components during construction
contemporary architecture is Federation Square in Melbourne, is critical. In developing such building forms and implementing
Australia. The external walls were designed in the form of them, the forms need to establish criteria which are fixed,
‘wraps’ of open jointed rainscreens and solar shading screens such as floor area of the different spaces comprising the
set forward of a waterproofed backing wall. Rainscreen facade building, site constraints and criteria which are not fixed. Some
panels comprise a pattern of repeated triangular panels in a building designs for complex forms evolve as a result of more
pinwheel grid, where a set of five triangular panels forms a information being known about the building, allowing more of
shape identical in proportion to the smallest triangle from which the design to be fixed. Consequently, the different criteria of the
it is formed. In projects such as these, facades are described design can be set as ‘parameters’ which can be related as a
in a way that can communicate to contractors the nature of a matrix in the form of a spreadsheet. The spreadsheet can be
complex three dimensional form on paper. Elevations of such linked to the process of modelling the building forms digitally in
buildings are set out as unfolded or ‘developed’ facades from a a parametric design software. Working parametrically allows
3D digital model. This describes the scope of the facades and the design to establish what is ‘fixed’ and what will be ‘variable’
the total material needed as ‘kit of parts’ drawings resembling in the design development. This approach allows a digital
that of an Airfix model kit. In addition, 2D details describe the design method to evolve. In facade design, the behaviour of the
‘system’ as a wall method that could be used to describe how model as a set of surfaces can be understood by number, size,
the facades go together, regardless of its actual application geometry and so on. The relationship of the parameters in the
MCH_ 14
Detailed images of construction system from the same parametric model
design allows the digital model to evolve through an engineering- so on have already used this working method for some years,
based method of iteration, rather than start the digital design the use of BIMs in building design is just becoming the norm
model again each time a new option is explored. This approach in higher profile projects. Building information models are now
requires some discipline and clarity in the design approach at becoming parametric, with the possibility of introducing complex
the outset, which often makes the parametric design method geometry into the process.
more suited to design development than initial design research.
However, parametric plug-ins are becoming available for early While this approach is aimed primarily at bringing greater
stage design software, ensuring that the parametric approach control and knowledge to the design of individual buildings,
is gaining influence throughout the design process. the possibilities are being seen more widely in both fields
of architectural design and urban design. Where buildings
In facade design, where the parametric approach is becoming have been designed as a ‘collage’ of components which are
a primary tool in architecture, the aims vary during the different juxtaposed or stacked together in a loose-fit manner, more
stages of design development. Outcomes of parametric contemporary architectural design is basing itself on a greater
design can range from establishing a rationalised or optimised integration of structure, envelope, environment, space and light
geometry, reducing the number of panel types, restricting the as ingredients in a richer mix.
facade assembly so that it conforms only to the design limits
imposed by the material systems or facade systems being used, This greater level of interdependency of design allows buildings
ensuring that the floor plates provide a fixed total amount of to become better constructed at the scale of the window, the
floor area, or ensuring that the relationship with the primary bay, the wall, the building and the street to form a continuity.
supporting structure is maintained without exceeding maximum Where the provision of buildings, roads, natural landscape
spans. All these different requirements can be put into the and services infrastructure are considered quite separately in
model at the beginning, with changes in the digital model our industrialised society, the re-integration of these essential
showing the corresponding effect between them all. Facade components of our cities could eventually become part of
design of complex forms is often driven by a desire to optimise linked parametric models. The interdependency of building,
the construction; often by simplifying it by providing as simple street, and the natural landscape that was a critical generator
a solution as possible without losing the strength of vision or of the built forms of the pre-industrial world, where the use of
strength of architectural expression in the design. Even in higher energy for both transportation within towns and cities and the
budget projects, the need to omit unnecessary complexity of response to the built environment played much bigger roles in
construction and diversity in panel size is important to both the generation of urban form.
reduce costs and attract the most highly qualified companies to
work on the project. An essential aspect of parametric design with digital models is
to establish what is important in the design and what is much
The possibilities of parametrically-based design go beyond the less important; understanding what design ‘problem’ is being
need for evolving a single digital model for the main components set, and what might be the ways of exploring that design. This
of building structure and external envelope. With more and approach allows buildings to become a much more closely
more parts of the design forming a single model, the use dependent set of spaces, and building construction becoming
of a building information model or ‘BIM’ that sets out all the a closer expression of the ideas of space, light and form
components required to make a building, is becoming a reality. constructed within the constraints of a particular material
Whereas large scale manufacturing of aircraft, cars, boats and system. A parametric approach will also allow much greater
MCH_ 15
Parametric design 2

Parametrically modelled lapped glazed panel-covered facade
interdependency of buildings working together as part of a principle material is used to form a system for wall, roof or
single ‘organism’ – the urban environment of buildings, streets structure, and how these might be applied to specific strategies
and public spaces. It is perhaps in the design of public space, of environmental design.
and the elimination of residual or ill-defined space that could be
the next major use of parametric design in digital models. Embodied energy and digital design
Two trends in building construction which are driving change in
Parametric working method architectural design are concerns about the environment, and
An essential aspect of working with parametric design is the introduction of computer controlled manufacturing. The
the ability to develop different parts of the building design in effect of building construction on the environment has been
parallel rather than working sequentially from outline design, of concern since at least the 1960s. The effect in building
scheme design, detailed design and so on. Rather than viewing construction is a growing awareness of the energy required
design as a series of stages to complete and move on from to construct buildings, or ‘embodied energy’, and secondly
without significantly changing or informing what has already the energy required to operate the building when in use. The
been accomplished in the design, the design of a building is embodied energy part of the equation is concerned with both
tackled not as something developing as a result of a series the amount of energy needed to manufacture the materials,
of decisions which influence the next decision in turn (from transport them to site, then install them on site. This interest
primary concerns to secondary concerns and so on) but rather has favoured the use of timber, which absorbs CO2 during
of material systems which interact and influence one another. its growth and can be re-planted when cut down for use as a
A material system for structure, walls, roofs and environmental building material.
design can be developed in parallel, for these choices are
as important as the internal organisation of the building, the However, much timber is used as a ‘cladding’ material to an
spatial arrangement and relationship to the site. This brings the envelope constructed of quite different materials. The idea of
choice of materials and the way they are used, or ‘tectonics’ ‘cladding’ buildings involves increasing the number of layers, and
back to the centre of architectural design, rather than material has led to a desire to reduce all the different requirements of
and construction-related issues being chosen as standard construction by making the external walls loadbearing rather
construction methods afterwards. The result of involving issues than being cladding panels to a structural frame. This interest
of materials and construction at a later stage is that the forms is linked to a preference for reduced amounts of glazing in many
of construction used can become no more than an outer building types, where structural frames were enclosed in highly
'clothing’ that is deemed appropriate to the site context and the transparent envelopes. While high levels of glazing encourage
brief, that it should somehow behave well in an architectural increased levels of natural daylight in buildings, they also admit
sense. The limitation of this approach is that the outer skin solar gain and provide poor thermal insulation in all climates.
has little to do with the structure and envelope materials The preference for loadbearing construction is in some ways
behind it, often forming the outer rainscreen or covering of a a return to pre-industrial forms of construction. This interest
construction system that is based on procurement expediency in a ‘leaner’ higher performing construction is possible with
rather than design. Consequently, there is a need for material computer controlled manufacturing tools that are linked
systems to be involved at early stages of the design process. to drawings and 3D models produced by the design team.
Construction methods used for these essential parts of building Although in practice it is manufacturers who provide the final
design are set out as material systems in the chapters of this drawings for CNC machines, this is largely a requirement based
book; each described from a common platform of how the on how buildings are procured rather than an imperative of the
MCH_ 16
Detailed images of a glazing system based on a voronoi pattern
design process. Consequently, designers can produce a full set material systems shown in this book are set out in more detail
of drawings for manufacturers to make a much wider range of in the accompanying books Modern Construction Facades and
components than has been the case with mass production. This Modern Construction Roofs. From a design perspective, rather
link of design directly to construction, rather than re-interpreting than production of information for tender or for construction,
a design as a set of drawings that in turn ‘get built’ is forging a 3D model and the controlled manipulation of that model in
a much closer link between design and construction. In relation to the constraints of the material systems such as
common with the re-introduction of loadbearing construction, glass sizes or bending constraints on panels, is as valid as a
the use of computer controlled mass customisation tools is 2D section through a building of constant section. Drawings
bringing the design of buildings much closer to the process of can show the ‘kit of parts’ required to describe the scope of
constructing them, a privilege enjoyed in the pre-industrial world the building, which is essential to understanding and setting out
of construction prior to around 1920. The second essential how much material is required to construct the building. From
aspect of environmental concern is of the energy consumed these drawings, the embodied energy required to construct the
by the building in use. Natural ventilation, thermal mass and building can be calculated.
associated issues of night-time cooling have become primary
tools to reduce energy consumption for heating and cooling The systems of modern construction set out in this book
buildings. This has resulted in the re-introduction of opening suggest a gradual move forward to methods of production
windows and of cross ventilation in buildings. based on mass customisation techniques that are evolving in
manufacturing, as well as showing how current mass produced
Material systems material systems can be modified and ‘diverted’ to the end of
This third edition is aimed as a guide to using material systems producing an architecture rooted in the construction techniques
in contemporary buildings, with material systems shown as that make it possible.
views of 3D models in order to understand how they fit together
spatially rather than treat them as 2D sections. This is because
traditional vertical and horizontal drawn sections assume most
systems are continuous through their length, that they are
extruded in a linear direction either side of the section taken.
This method of representation also assumes that a drawn
section, both vertical and horizontal, is a typical condition. While
plan, section and elevation explain the overall scope of the
design, junctions of the separate planes represented in these
drawings are rarely resolved in these drawings, leaving some
coordination issues to be resolved at a later stage. Expressing
information as images from a 3D model allows the system’s
behaviour to be understood from a geometrical point of view of
how the components, assemblies or panels are set out.
Traditional detail drawings can show how to describe

assemblies in a way which is useful when progressing from
design ideas to a design ready for construction, and the
MCH_ 17
MCH_ 18
1
MATERIALS
Tectonics in metal
Steel
Aluminium
Copper, zinc and lead
Tectonics in glass
Glass
Tectonics in concrete
Concrete
Tectonics in masonry
Masonry
Concrete block
Stone
Brick
Tectonics in plastics
Plastics and composites
Tectonics in timber
Timber
Fabrics and membranes
Materials for interior finishes
1 Internal partitions
2 Plaster and wallboard
3 Internal floors
4 Internal ceilings
Performance testing of facade material systems
Performance testing of roof material systems
MCH_ 19
Materials 01
Tectonics in metal
Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A. Architect: Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A.

Santiago Calatrava Architect: Santiago Calatrava
800 Medium Carbon Steel Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A.

Architect: Santiago Calatrava
Mild Steel
700
σ - Nominal stress (MPa)
600
500
400
Aluminium
300 Copper
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
ε - Nominal strain (%)
Metals stress strain diagram

Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A.
Architectural interest in metals in the early industrial world can In the 20th century, the Tokyo Olympic Stadium of 1964,
be seen in the writings of Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, an admirer designed by Kenzo Tange, comprises steel tension cables in a
of industrial Britain in the early 19th century. His book Traité catenary form, supported by concrete masts at each end. The
théorique et pratique de l'art de bâtir discussed architecture complete tent-like structure is used to support a metal skin,
from the point of view as comprising a mixture of the visual which would typically be used on a rigid substrate. The metal
and the technical rather than the prevailing values of the time roof skin is actually a series of metal plates welded together
of Renaissance architecture, which were primarily of art and to form a sealed surface. Welded metal roofs have been used
symbolism. He also taught stereotomy, that is, the art of cutting in more recent projects for large-scale roofs, but few combine
stones to form complex shapes such as arches and vaults, the possibilities of a continuous, welded metal surface with that
which is enjoying a revival with an interest in complex geometry of a skeletal or tent-like structure that can form a metal cable
in contemporary architecture. As a construction textbook, structure. Even the cable structure is made from short lengths
the Traité théorique set out many of the components needed bolted together to form a structure that can support the
for a complete metal construction, such as prefabricated metal roof plates without an intermediary material. The metal
market buildings, showing an approach towards an integrated structure and skin is not a ‘minimal’ structure, but is certainly
assembly that follows on from his passion for stereotomy. The one where these two components are interdependent. The all-
metal castings securing the bases of the supporting arches metal roof structure and skin is held in place by a reinforced
illustrate both the need for the continuity of material needed to concrete structure beneath, whose form echoes that of the
fix the arches to their bases as well as the elegance associated metal structure rather than contrasting visually with it.
with their use. The drawings in Rondelet’s books are both a
‘kit of parts’ showing what components are needed as well More recently, moving structures such as the sail-like canopy at
as a 3D representation of the assembly of key components. Milwaukee Museum of Art, designed by Santiago Calatrava, take
This interest in the physical modelling of junctions rather than forward the visually dynamic qualities of metal construction. This
in reducing them only to 2D views helps to explain the more canopy is used to provide solar shading, and moves in order to
complex nature of the construction, whose design approach provide different experiences of light. Here a folding structure
is embraced rather than simplified. The combination of rolled with a building performing different functions and forming
members, castings and connecting brackets creates a visually different spaces through moving, is possible because of the
striking form of construction that was characteristic of later relative lightness and flexibility of metal, allowing the possibility
19th century construction. of moving parts to be used to form part of the structural frames
MCH_ 20
Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, Japan. Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, Japan.
Architect: Kenzo Tange Architect: Kenzo Tange
Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, Japan. Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, Japan.

Architect: Kenzo Tange Architect: Kenzo Tange
of buildings. In the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao by Frank or bracket sizes. The use of a limited ‘kit of parts’ can provide
Gehry, the architectural form of the building is generated as a a visually rich structure and enclosure that can respond to
form of complex geometry, enabled by the possibilities of metal particular design requirements such as positioning of openings
construction, and working with techniques associated with or links with adjacent structures without needing to be aligned
modelling in metal rather than conceiving this innovative form to a rectilinear grid.
of construction from 2D drawings. In this sense, the buildings
described here follow on in the tradition of the Traité théorique More recently, designs for metal frames to support cladding
of Rondelet, combining the convention of describing elements in systems have begun to use identical polygons which might
2D while designing in a 3D modelling environment. be twisted or pulled out of plane in their geometry and which
produce complex shaped surfaces when joined together. In
The examples described demonstrate the ability of metals to addition, the ‘cold bending’ of metal panels to cladding systems
form building enclosures of complex form in a single material can create more complex forms for enclosures from flat sheet
where structure and skin are a visible part of the architectural or profiled sheet without the need for any special manufacturing.
design. In more rectilinear building designs, steel frames can This can combine the benefits of more complex steel frames
be used which do not necessarily produce a rectangular grid that are straightforward to construct with metal wall systems
of cladding panels across their surface. Federation Square in usually more associated with rectilinear forms, without changing
Melbourne, Australia, designed by Lab Architecture uses a the way such enclosures are constructed. However, for all these
triangular space frame as a point of departure from which to examples of tectonics in metal, the designer is obliged to set
create a structure which gently departs from this principle, out the construction of the structure and enclosure in a more
creating junctions which form moment connections rather than detailed way than that expected for more generic forms of
the pin joints associated with triangulated frames. This approach construction, just as Jean-Baptiste Rondelet set out examples
allowed a range of glass panels to be added which are still based from his Traité théorique, completed in 1817.
on a triangular grid. This method of starting with regular forms
of construction and working with their geometry is well suited
to metal frames, where standard rolled sections are joined with
plates or nodes. The technical success of the system lies partly
in creating a limited number of node types which can provide
a visually rich construction with a small number of node types
MCH_ 21
Materials 01
Steel
Federation Square, Melbourne, Australia. Architect: LAB Architecture Studio
The Barcelona Fish, Barcelona, Spain. IAC Headquarters, New York, U.S.A.
Architect: Frank Gehry Architect: Frank Gehry
Steel is an iron-based metal alloyed with small amounts of other the 19th century, both materials had been superseded by steel.
elements, the most important being carbon. The three main Steel was first produced around 1740, but was not available in
forms of steel used in the building industry are sections, sheets large quantities until Bessemer invented his converter in 1856.
and castings. Steel sections are currently formed using a This device introduced a method of blasting air into the furnace
rolling process. It can be extruded to form complex sections, (hence blast furnace) to burn away the impurities that inhibited
but this currently has only limited applications due to the high the extraction of a purer iron. By 1840, standard shapes in
pressure needed to extrude steel. Aluminium is a much softer wrought iron, mainly rolled flat sections, tees and angles were
material, making it easier to extrude. Even when aluminium is available which could be fabricated into structural components
alloyed with other materials such as bronze, the extrudable which are then assembled by riveting them together. By 1880,
size of sections drops dramatically. Extrusions in steel cannot the rolling of steel I-sections had become widespread, leading
exceed shapes that fit into a circle approximately 150mm (6") the way to this material eventually replacing wrought iron as a
in diameter. This is too small for structural sections, but their material of choice.
smooth appearance makes them suitable for components such
as stiffeners in curtain walling (to provide a fin that is visually Production process of raw material
more refined than an I-section or a tee). Currently, it is still far There are several steps in the manufacture of steel. First, iron is
easier to roll steel sections than to extrude them. refined from ores containing iron oxide. The iron oxide is heated
in a blast furnace until it is molten, using carbon as a reducing
Historically, cast iron and wrought iron were the forerunners agent. The molten material is poured into moulds to produce pig
of steel. Cast iron, a brittle material with high compressive iron. It is then re-heated to remove impurities, including carbon,
strength, came into general use as a building material at the end to make cast iron that has a carbon content of 2.4 per cent to
of the 18th century, while wrought iron was developed some 50 4 per cent. Steel is produced by reducing the carbon content to
years later. Wrought iron is a more ductile material and has approximately 0.2 per cent, with materials such as manganese
greater tensile strength, making it less susceptible to shock and silicon added to halt the oxidation process and stabilize the
damage. (The Eiffel Tower, in Paris, was one of the last large carbon content. It can be poured when molten to make castings
structures to be constructed in wrought iron). By the end of or formed into ingots to be rolled into sheets or sections.
MCH_ 22
Federation Square, Melbourne, Australia. Architect: LAB Architecture Studio Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain.
Architect: Frank Gehry
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain.
Mild steel stress strain diagram
Properties and data • High electrical conductor.

The main properties of structural carbon steels are as follows: • Thermal expansion approximately half that of aluminium.
• Susceptible to continuous rusting, excluding weathering
Density: Mild steel = 7840 kg/m3 (490 lb/ft3) steels.
Design strength: • Low fire resistance.
Approximate range 275 N/mm2 to 900 N/mm2
(5.7 x 106 to 18.8 x 106 lbf/ft2) Material selection
Young’s modulus = 210 kN/mm2 (4.4 x 109 lbf/ft2) Hot rolled structural mild steels are made in three types called
Coefficient of thermal expansion ‘grades’ increasing in design strength from 275N/mm2 to
= 11 x 10-6 K-1 (6.1 x 10-6 OF-1) 400N/mm2 (5.7 x 106 lbf/ft2 to 8.3 x 106 lbf/ft2 ), varying
Thermal conductivity = 45 W/mºC slightly in different regions of the world. High strength steels
(26 BTU/hr.ft.OF) can reach design strengths of 800N/mm2 (17.6 x 106 lbf/
Specific heat capacity= 480 J/kgºC (0.11 BTU/lbOF) ft2). Since the Young's Modulus is constant for all these types,
the strength of material increases but the stiffness remains
For comparison with other materials, steels have the following constant. Steel also increases in cost with higher levels of
general properties: strength, both in the cost of the raw material and in the
• High strength in both tension and compression. working of the material. In addition, as strength increases in
• High stiffness. High rigidity in both tension and compression. the material, welding becomes more difficult and consequently
• Its appearance is smooth in sheet form; rougher of texture more specialized. In some high strength steels, which undergo
in rolled sections and castings, even with paint applied. heating and quenching during their manufacture, the effects
• Lighter than an equivalent structural member in reinforced of welding could potentially undo the work of manufacture
concrete. if sufficient care is not taken. Standard rolled sections are
• High ductility, deforming long before it fails. manufactured in the low to medium strength grades but higher
• High impact resistance. strength steels are made mostly in the form of plate, due to
• High heat conductor. lower demand for their use. Consequently, compound shapes
MCH_ 23
Materials 01
Steel
Fisher Center for the Performing Arts, Bard Federation Square, Melbourne, Australia. Architect: LAB Architecture Studio
College, Hudson Valley, New York, U.S.A.
for structural components, such as beams and columns, must When used as primary structure in a building, steelwork
be specially fabricated. requires fire protection. This can be done by either encasing the
material in concrete, by enclosing it in a fire resistant board, or
Cold worked mild steels are used for much smaller scale by coating it in intumescent paint. A spray-applied coating that
structural components such as lightweight structural framing yields a very rough, fibrous surface appearance is often used
in metal framed housing and low-rise commercial buildings, where the steel frame is concealed behind finish materials.
used mainly in the U.S.A., and drywall partitioning. Cold-formed
steel sections are made from structural carbon steel to form Coatings
sheets or strips approximately 1.5mm (1/16in) thick. Complex Many factory applied proprietary systems are available for
sections are formed by folding and pressing, rather than rolling coating steel; the most common types are thick organic coatings
which is the case with hot formed sections. and powder coating. PVDF (polyvinylidene di-fluoride, also called
PVF2 in Europe), is sometimes used, and is discussed further in
Working with the material the section on aluminium. Organic coatings provide high levels
Sections and sheets can be curved to small radii. Bolting and of protection against corrosion but have a distinctive orange
welding are the most common methods of joining sections, peel texture. They are applied to steel coil, from which sheet
sheets and castings. Steel can also be sawn and drilled. An is cut, during manufacture. These finishes have methods of
essential characteristic of steelwork is that it will continue to rust touching up surfaces that become exposed or are damaged
if a surface protection is not provided. When drilling or cutting during installation, but colour matching remains an important
the material, the newly exposed surface requires protection, consideration in successful re-touching.
which is particularly important if the material has been factory
coated prior to drilling and cutting. The economic protection is Recycling
galvanising, a zinc coating that is corrosion resistant, applied Steel can be recycled at reasonable cost, and requires much
to the steel in a hot dip bath or as a flame spray. Galvanising less energy than the original production process.
occurs after fabrication of steel components to cover all the
welding and drilling. This process can cause distortion of smaller Stainless steel
steel components, so may not suit all types of fabrication. The Stainless steel is an alloy of steel which contains between
appearance of galvanising when new is a mottled shiny grey, approximately 11 to 25 per cent chromium, together with
turning to a dull grey with weathering as the zinc oxidizes. Its nickel in some types, giving it properties that are distinct from
visual appearance is often not suitable for exposed structural carbon steels, the main one being a high resistance to corrosion
steelwork or cladding in buildings, where paint coatings are without the need for an additional coating. Since the material is
more common. Flame sprayed aluminium can be used as an considerably more expensive than carbon steels, stainless steel
alternative to galvanising. Paint can be applied by hand on site is most commonly used in small building components and in
or in a factory as part of a proprietary finish. Care must be taken cladding panels where durability is a prime concern.
to ensure that touching up on site of visible components is done
in controlled conditions that ensure the finish both matches and
blends into the surrounding coating.
MCH_ 24
Federation Square, Melbourne, Australia. Architect: LAB Architecture Studio Dancing House Prague, Czech Republic .
Separation at junction is usually required, such as a nylon or

800 neoprene spacer.
700
Material selection
600
Although the material develops a thin oxide layer that protects
500
it from further corrosion, different grades of stainless steel are
400 available to suit the severity of exposure from polluted urban
300 to maritime to rural environments. A limited range of standard
200
sections is available and usually in small sizes only. The need for
a high degree of fabrication of members can make construction
100
time slower than that for carbon steel applications. For example,
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 plate is folded to form angles and tubes, and hollow sections are
ε - Nominal strain (%) formed by bending and seam welding. As with carbon steels, the
Medium carbon steel stress strain diagram high strengths types, which have been heat-treated, are more
difficult to weld, as the process can undo the heat strengthening.
Properties and data Different finishes are available which are achieved by using
Density = 7600 to 8100 kg/m3 (475 to 505 lb/ft3) a variety of rolling techniques from smooth to textured, in an
Design strength: appearance from matt to polished. In addition, the sheet can be
Approximate range 170 N/mm2 to 1000 N/mm2 coloured as part of the manufacturing process.
(3.5 x 106 to 20.9 x 106 lbf/ft2)
Young's Modulus : Working with the material
189-210 kN/mm2 The fabrication of stainless steel follows the traditional pattern
(3.9 x 109 to 4.4 x 109 lbf/ft2) of fabrication for carbon steel members except that more
Coefficient of thermal expansion use is made of pressing and bending to form suitable shapes.
=13 x 10-6 to 17 x 10-6 K-1 Fabrication of stainless steel should be kept entirely separate
(7.2 x 10-6 to 9.4 x 10-6 OF-1) from that of carbon steel to ensure that the processes of
Thermal conductivity = 16 W/mºC cutting and grinding do not cause impregnation of carbon steel
(9.3 BTU/hr.ft.OF) particles onto the stainless surface, which can lead to rusting.
Specific heat capacity= 502 J/kgºC (0.12 BTU/lbOF) Fabricated elements should seek to eliminate standing seams
or edges where water can collect, in order to avoid crevassing
Stainless steel has the following general properties: corrosion. Stainless steel has high ductility which gives the
• Highly resistant to corrosion and usually requires no further material excellent resistance to impact loading.
coatings.
• Higher fire resistance than carbon steels.
• A risk of bimetallic corrosion at the junction of stainless
steel and carbon steel when they are used together.
MCH_ 25
Materials 01
Aluminium
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Aluminium stress strain diagram St Paul’s Place car park, Sheffield, U.K. Architect: Allies & Morrison
Aluminium was first produced in 1825, and by the late 19th coating in very polluted or severe atmospheric conditions.
century a method had been found to mass produce the material • Coatings are not applied solely for appearance.
by the electrolysis of alumina and cryolite. • High heat conduction.
• High electrical conduction.
Production process of raw material • Poor stiffness.
Aluminium is made from bauxite, which is essentially an hydrated • Low resistance to soft impact, but absorbs impact energy
alumina, or aluminium oxide. Mined bauxite is treated chemically which localises damage. (Whereas a soft, or low level
to remove impurities and obtain alumina, which is aluminium impact, such as a kick, would not damage a steel panel, it
oxide. This is then reduced to aluminium by electrolysis. Because will dent one in aluminium.
aluminium has a very high melting point (2450ºC) it cannot be • A high impact, such as a car reversing into a panel, would
electrolysed on its own, and so it is dissolved in molten cryolite. cause a large steel panel to buckle across its entire height
A high electric current is passed through the alumina-cryolite and length, but one made of aluminium will again dent only
mixture at around 1000ºC, and the molten aluminium is tapped around the impact area).
off. Aluminium alloys are either formed directly, followed by • Thermal expansion approximately twice that of steel.
continuous casting, or are cast into solid ingots. The metal • Poor fire resistance.
is then cast into ingots which form the basis for producing
aluminium alloys. Pure aluminium is too soft for structural use Material selection
and is therefore combined with other metals to form alloys to Pure aluminium and its alloys are in two broad groups: the
increase its strength and hardness, though reducing its ductility. non heat-treated alloys, also called fully softened alloys, whose
Magnesium, silicon and manganese are the most common strength is produced from being cold worked, and the heat-
additives. Aluminium alloys make strong, lightweight structural treated alloys whose strength is produced by heat treatment.
components. In common with steel, aluminium is a material that The non heat-treated types are generally not as strong, but have
can be extruded, rolled and cast into complex shapes: plates, better corrosive resistance.
sheets, extrusions and castings.
Structural use of aluminium alloys is limited by two significant
Properties and data disadvantages: they are more expensive to manufacture than
The main properties of aluminium alloys are as follows: steel and they deform more easily under load. Aluminium
alloys are more elastic than steel, restricting their use to
Density =2700 kg/m3 components and assemblies where this is not a constraint.
(169 lb/ft3) Since the Young's Modulus of aluminium is one third that
Design strength of steel, buckling is an important issue in its structural use.
Heat treated = 255 N/mm2 The potential of this material as a full structural material in
(5.3 x 106 lbf/ft2) for extrusions buildings is beginning to be recognised. The Media Centre at
and 185 N/mm2 (3.9 x 106 lbf/ft2) for plate Lord's Cricket Ground, London, England, is a recent notable
Fully softened= 105 N/mm2 example because of the full structural use of aluminium in a
(2.2 x 106 lbf/ft2) for plate large-scale building frame.
Young's Modulus = 70 kN/mm2 (1.5 x 109 lbf/ft2)
Coefficient of thermal expansion Working with the material
= 23 x 10-6 K-1 (12.8 x 10-6 OF-1) On exposure to the atmosphere, aluminium forms a protective
Thermal conductivity = 200 W/mºC (116 BTU/hr.ft.OF) coating of aluminium oxide. Under adverse conditions, the
Specific heat capacity = 880 J/kgºC (0.21 BTU/lb OF) oxide film can break down locally, but it usually reforms to
a greater thickness preventing further attack. Aluminium
For comparison with other materials, aluminium alloys have the can be exposed to the weather, in non-polluted environments
following general properties: and away from maritime conditions, without the need for
• Lightness, weighing about a third that of steel. additional treatment provided the surface is maintained.
• High tensile strength, similar to that of steel. Over time, it loses its initial bright appearance and assumes
• High impact resistance. (compared to steel) a dull grey sheen. Aluminium should be cleaned regularly
• High corrosion resistance, but aluminium requires protective to avoid pits forming in the material surface. However, one
MCH_ 26
left: Selfridges,
Birmingham, U.K.
Architect: Future Systems
right: Imperial War

Museum North,
Manchester, U.K.
Architect: Studio Daniel
Libeskind
way to avoid this is to anodise or paint the material with a Broken-down anodising could result in weld impurities that
proprietary coating. would impair its structural effectiveness.
Aluminium is susceptible to electrolytic corrosion in contact Aluminium's natural finish, often referred to as mill finish, can
with certain materials such as copper. Therefore direct contact be worked to produce a polished, ground or brush-grained
with copper and copper-rich alloys, such as brass and bronze finish. Etching gives a matt and non-directional finish with no
is avoided and the material should be used in a way that water direct reflections. Anodising generally follows these processes,
does not flow onto it from copper. However, water flowing which increases durability and enhances long-term appearance.
from aluminium to copper or lead is not harmful. There is no Brightening is not suitable for architectural alloys which are
corrosive action between aluminium and zinc or zinc coatings only 99.5% aluminium because the brightening is not uniform.
and galvanised surfaces. Some timber preservatives contain Chemical brightening on other alloys dissolves and flattens
compounds harmful to aluminium. Untreated timber affects the surface irregularities found in extruded or sheet aluminium
material to a much lesser extent. surfaces, and produces a mirror finish with a very high
reflectivity. It can be anodised without dulling the surface.
Aluminium can be cut and drilled, riveted, bolted, screwed and
glued. The material can also be welded. However, welding is Coatings
usually done using the fully softened alloys, since this process Aluminium can be coated in a wide range of colours through the
can undo the work of the heat treatment in the other alloy use of proprietary processes. Plastic coatings provide a durable
types. Since the design strength of the fully softened alloys paint surface; polyester powder coating is one of the most
is half that of the heat-treated types, the section sizes used common finishes. Plastic coatings are dip-coated, sprayed or
in welded aluminium structures can often be similar to that electrophoretically deposited underwater. The electrostatically
of comparable steel structures, but with considerably less applied finish ensures that an even coat is built-up on the metal.
weight. The design strength of the heat-treated alloys, which These paints fade and lose their shine with time, though the
is similar to the bottom end of the design strength of steel, change is slow and even.
can be exploited in extrusions, which require no welding in
their manufacture. Extrusions can be used to form complex PVDF (polyvinylidene di-fluoride), also called PVF2 in Europe, and
profiles, such as those needed in window sections or walkway powder coatings are most commonly used. PVDF is a spray-
decking, and be much lighter than an equivalent member in applied finish, which is highly resistant to fading in sunlight,
steel. The material can also be cast to form complex shapes making it very suitable for external use where colour stability
that are more economic in large quantities than an equivalent is an important consideration such as in wall cladding. Powder
fabricated component. coating is applied in an electrolytic process that provides
a softer, and less expensive coating than PVDF. It is not as
Anodising resistant to fading in sunlight, but is a harder finish and less
Anodising produces a fine translucent film over the surface of expensive, making it suitable for both an economic external finish
aluminium. The anodising process results in the replacement, and excellent for internal use. All these finishes have methods
by electrochemical means, of the metal's naturally formed of touching up surfaces that become exposed or are damaged
oxide film by a dense chemically resistant artificial film many during installation or use, but colour matching remains an
times the thickness of its natural equivalent. This film is important consideration.
extremely hard, gives added protection against abrasion, and
reduces the adhesion of dirt particles. Anodising is carried Recycling
out by immersing the aluminium in an electrolyte and applying Aluminium is one of the easiest and cheapest materials to
an electrical current, creating an oxide layer integral with the recycle. The conversion of scrap back to high-grade metal
underlying metal. The anodic film is porous and must be sealed. requires only about 5% of the energy needed to make the same
This is done by immersing the anodised aluminium in boiling amount of metal from bauxite.
water or steam. The anodised coating can be dyed; the sealing
then assists its colour-fastness. Anodising should be carried
out after welding. The process of welding would otherwise
break down the anodising process at heat-affected locations.
MCH_ 27
Materials 01
Copper, zinc and lead
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Copper stress strain diagram
Properties and data
Density :
Copper = 8900 kg/m3 (556 lb/ft3)
Zinc = 7000 kg/m3 (437 lb/ft3)
Lead = 11,400 kg/m3 (712 lb/ft3)
Tensile strength:
Copper = 216–355 N/mm2 Copper cladding in use
(4.5 x 106 to 7.4 x 106 lbf/ft2)
Zinc = 139–216 N/mm2
(2.9 x 106 to 4.5 x 106 lbf/ft2)
Lead = 15–18 N/mm2 Material selection
(3.1 x 105 to 3.8 x 105 lbf/ft2) Apart from steel and aluminium, copper, zinc and lead are the
most widely used metals in the building industry. These metals
Young's Modulus : are produced as sheets of up to approximately one metre (3ft
Copper = 112–148 kN/mm2 3in) wide sections and castings. All three metals have excellent
(2.4 x 109 to 3.1 x 109 lbf/ft2) weather-resisting properties, however, they are susceptible to
Zinc = 68 - 95 kN/mm2 (pure) attack by pollutants such as acids. Their use is restricted to non-
(1.4 x 109 to 2.0 x 109 lbf/ft2) structural metals and alloys, because none has the strength or
Lead = 13–15 kN/mm2 rigidity of steel, or the combination of strength and lightness of
(2.7 x 108 to 3.1 x 108 lbf/ft2) aluminium. They are generally used as cladding materials for
walls and roofs. Copper is also used extensively for water supply
Coefficient of thermal expansion : pipework and in electrical wiring.
Copper =17 x 10-6 K-1
(9.4 x 10-6 0F-1) Working with these materials
Zinc =23 to 40 x 10-6 K-1 Copper is strong in tension, tough and ductile, but is not as
(12.8 x 10-6 to 22.2 x 10-6 0F-1) malleable as lead. The material has a shiny red/yellow colour
Lead 29.5 x 10-6 K-1 when new, slowly developing a protective sulphate layer on its
(16.4 x 10-6 0F-1) surface when exposed to the atmosphere. This patina has a
characteristic green colour which has a fairly consistent colour
Thermal conductivity : and texture. Copper is available with a pre-weathered, or pre-
Copper: = 368 W/mK patinated finish which is chemically induced. This finish varies
(213 BTU/hr.ft.OF) slightly from naturally weathered cladding. Well maintained
Zinc: = 115 W/mK copper cladding which has oxidised atmospherically will last
(67 BTU/hr.ft.OF) from 30 to 50 years.
Lead: = 35 W/mK
(20 BTU/hr.ft.OF) There is a variety of copper types available, each of which is
suitable for a particular task. For instance, deoxidised copper
Specific heat : is suitable for welding, while fire-refined tough-pitch copper,
Copper: = 390 J/kgºC with its tougher resistance to corrosion, is used for cladding.
(0.093 BTU/lb OF) Otherwise, both have similar properties. Copper forms a high
Zinc: = 380 J/kgºC proportion of metal in alloys such as bronze, which is primarily a
(0.090 BTU/lb OF) mixture of copper and tin. Brass is primarily a mixture of copper
Lead: = 130 J/kgºC and zinc, and aluminium bronze is primarily a mixture of copper
(0.031 BTU/lb OF) and aluminium. Copper can be cut, drilled, nailed, welded and
MCH_ 28
Copper cladding in use Zinc cladding in use
On exposure to the atmosphere, a protective coating of lead

soldered with hand power tools, making it versatile for site-
carbonate is slowly formed on its surface. This gives weathered
intensive work. When used as cladding, joints between sheets
lead a dull grey appearance. Lead is a poisonous material, leading
are made by folding the edges together. This method takes
to increased awareness of the dangers of water run off from
advantage of the fact that copper can be bent along an edge
lead cladding reaching the water supply. Lead can be cut, drilled,
fairly easily, but is rigid enough to remain folded.
nailed, welded in a process called leadburning, and soldered with
hand power tools. Due to its lack of rigidity, lead sheet is most
Zinc sheet for cladding is made from either commercial zinc
commonly jointed by dressing it over rounded timber battens or
or from an alloy of zinc with small amounts of copper and
rolls. Where standing seams are used, they often incorporate a
titanium added. The properties of the two types are similar, but
steel angle to keep the line of the joint straight and vertical. Lead
zinc alloy has better tensile strength and resistance to creep,
is alloyed with tin to form solders for jointing and sealing.
which is long-term plastic deformation under load. Zinc is a
durable material, although it is more brittle than copper. It is
manufactured as a white coloured metal, but when exposed to
Electrolytic action
When different metals are near each other, rainwater running
the atmosphere a carbonate is slowly formed which produces
from one to the other can cause corrosion by electrolysis.
a protective coating that is grey-white in colour. The material
Run off from copper and zinc will attack cast iron, mild steel,
has a linear thermal expansion that is similar to lead and higher
galvanised steel and aluminium. In addition, copper will attack
than copper.
zinc. Lead is much more resilient and does not attack other
metals with the exception of aluminium when used in marine
Zinc can be cut, drilled, nailed, welded and soldered with hand
environments. When roofs or walls are made from either
power tools, making it reasonably versatile for use on site.
copper or zinc, typically other metals are not usually used in
Its rigidity makes it well suited to standing seam joints. Well
adjacent components, such as gutters and flashings, where
maintained zinc cladding can last for between 30 and 50 years.
water run off is likely to occur.
Zinc is liable to attack from copper alloys, so that rainwater
running off copper should be avoided. Apart from its use in alloys,
zinc is used as a protective coating to steel, applied through a
process of galvanising and sherardising
Lead is an extremely durable, ductile and malleable material,

making it extremely useful for roof coverings and flashings in
traditional roof construction. However, while its relative softness
allows lead to be formed into complex shapes, its lack of rigidity
means that a supporting material must be provided beneath it.
Timber boards are most commonly used for this. Lead has low
resistance to creep.
MCH_ 29
Materials 01
Tectonics in glass
Paris Metro station canopy, Paris, France. Architect: Hector Guimard Paris Metro station canopy, Paris, France.
Architect: Hector Guimard
Paris Metro station canopy, Paris, France. Bilbao Metro entrance, Bilbao, Spain.
Architect: Hector Guimard Architect: Foster & Partners
An essential use of glass in buildings is in double glazed units. more opportunities for designers to use large glazed panels
With the increasing importance of thermal insulation and in facades. However, since most glazing is made in double
a reduction in the energy consumed to temper the internal glazed units, glass panels do not often achieve these sizes,
environment of buildings, the use of single glazing with thin primarily due to issues of deflection under wind load and the
supporting frames without thermal breaks, is no longer used dead weight of the glass. A 3000mm wide double glazed unit,
in most new buildings except where, for example, the spaces storey height, weighs around 650kg, making it difficult to lift into
enclosed by the glass are considered to be external and serve place using conventional lifting systems for glazed units and
only as canopies, or in the outer screens to double facades. In even more difficult to consider moving it around by hand. Double
these semi external applications, the visual lightness afforded by glazed units of half their size can be difficult to manhandle on
lightweight steel supporting structures can still echo the glazed site. In addition to the weight of glass, its size is an important
structures of the early 20th century, such as the canopies to consideration when designing with the material. The six metre
Metro stations in Paris by Hector Guimard. These canopies by three metre sheets, called ‘jumbo’ sheets, are required to be
have glass panels which have no support on the outer edges, cut economically to avoid waste. This makes glass economic for
allowing the supporting metal structure to take precedence. the 1500mm wide panels preferred in office buildings, but does
This preference for the expression of the supporting structure not restrict their cutting to rectilinear panels. Triangular panels
at the visual expense of the glass has been a theme in glass can also be economic if cut without significant waste, as can
tectonics through the 20th century. In the Guimard canopies, other shapes which fit the jumbo sheet format.
covers for lights to illuminate the entrance have a form of their
own, with the supporting structure being almost a container In wall construction, where glass is used in most quantity in
for the exquisitely formed lamp covers. The use of glass and most buildings, the material is fixed either along its edges or
metal is finely balanced both technically and visually, though the at points. The use of edge restraint results in a frame behind
richness of the forms were only gradually accepted as being of all glass edges, but point fixed glazing allows the material to
architectural merit. become visually dominant, allowing it to be seen almost as a
continuous plane of glass rather than as an infilling material.
Glass is manufactured in sheets of float glass approximately The glazed screen in the Dancing House by Frank Gehry in
6000mm x 3000mm, which is typically much larger than can Prague, completed in 1996. This contrasts with the use of
be used as single sheets in buildings. Some glass manufacturers glass at Federation Square by Lab Architecture, completed in
are able to temper and laminate glass at this size, providing 2003, where the supporting frames dominate as the language
MCH_ 30
187 - 195 Oxford Street, London, U.K. Architect: Future Systems Swiss Re Tower, London, U.K. Architect: Foster & Partners
Dancing House Prague, Czech Republic. Dancing House Prague, Czech Republic.
Architect: Frank Gehry Architect: Frank Gehry
of the tectonic, with the glass as an infill material. An advantage units increasingly energy efficient, and the introduction of argon
of the framed approach is economy, as the double glazed gas into the void between the glass panels further increases
units can be fitted directly to the supporting frame. Bolt fixed their thermal performance. When used in curtain walling,
glazing requires the glass to be drilled before any tempering is the framing is typically much poorer in thermal performance,
done, making it expensive to use, though recent examples use bringing the U-value from a typical 1.1 W/m2K up to a typical
bolt fixings that are bonded to one face of the glass, or drilled 2.0W/m2K, depending on the framing type. The thermal break
through only one sheet of the double glazed unit. An alternative in curtain wall systems is a structural component at present, so
approach is to clamp the glass by passing plates through the finding a much higher performing thermal break is not without
joints between the units. Consequently, the design and position its difficulties. In very cold climates, triple glazed units are being
of the clamps becomes a primary issue in the design of the introduced, though there is still a limited condensation risk at
system as the visual impact of a surface covered with small the edges of the unit where the perimeter spacer conducts
clamps creates a kind of ‘point cloud’ of fixings across the greater amounts of heat energy. A development over the past
surface of the glass wall or roof. 10 years has been in the introduction of so-called ‘super neutral’
glasses in double glazed units which have high solar control
The curving of glass has undergone some development, at performance combined with higher levels of transparency than
least in the quality of production, in recent years. Specialist was formerly the case with so-called ‘body tinted’ glasses. Super
companies around Europe now offer single curved glass panels neutral glasses have a colour which is visually not as strong as
in both tempered and laminated glass. Some companies around the older generation of body tinted types, though these are still
the world will now provide double curved panels, as used at the available. Super neutrals allow more daylight transmission than
Nordpark Cable Railway in Innsbruck, Austria, which form a their forerunners, but in locations where there is considerable
durable and reflective surface finish for canopy enclosures. The exposure to the effects of the sun an additional outer screen of
ability of glass to be curved, coated and tempered is making it solar shading panels might be used.
more of a sculptural material again, following in the tradition of
the Guimard Metro entrances. A recent development in glass design has been the introduction
of all-glass structures, where glass components are connected
The use of glass in double glazed units allows the encapsulated together by silicone bonds. The silicone serves as both adhesive
inner faces of the glass to have coatings applied to them to reduce and sealant, providing weathertight enclosures. The scale of
their U-value and to reduce solar gain. This makes double glazed use to date has been modest, with single storey conservatories,
MCH_ 31
Materials 01
Glass
Federation Square, Melbourne, Australia. Nordpark Cable Railway, Innsbruck, Austria. Architect: Zaha Hadid
Architect: LAB Architecture Studio Architects
walkways, canopies and glass floors as the primary examples of Production process of raw material
their use. Most applications have additional mechanical fixings The manufacture of float glass is the first stage of production.
to overcome concerns about the long term durability of all-glass Float glass is made by pouring molten glass onto a bath of molten
structures, but this varies from project to project. An alternative tin. The glass floats on top and is drawn off as it solidifies. It is
to the all-glass structure is the cladding of conventional available in thicknesses ranging from 2mm to 25mm (1/8in
structures or walls in opaque rainscreens. This method uses to 1in).
screen printed glass which is typically silicone bonded to a
backing frame, then hooked on, or fixed back to, a carrier frame Most float glass has a green tint caused by small amounts of
behind. This use of glass as an external rainscreen allows the iron oxide in the glass. Adding different oxides to the mix during
void between the glass and the external face of the backing the manufacturing stage can alter the tint of the glass.
wall to have lighting, creating a glow to an otherwise opaque or
utilitarian facade, with the benefit of creating some lighting for
safety of users around the building.
40
One of the main changes in the use of glass in facades and

roofs is a gradual move away from entirely rectilinear glass
panels to those that deviate slightly from it. These can range
from parallelogram shapes to triangular to diamond patterns in 30
glazed facades, but all are based on the need for repeatability
of glass unit size in order to make the glass economic to
manufacture. In addition, glazed walls are required to move in

relation to their supporting structure, and must be able to move
20
from one panel to the next. This further encourages the panels
to be of the same size in order to ensure that the movements
have a consistent ‘behaviour’ of movement across the extent
of the walls. Some projects, particularly for glazed roofs, have
used a large number of glass panel sizes in order to suit the 10
structural geometry of the roof form, but these are typically

quantified in detail by the design team in order to control cost.
A recent alternative to the curving of glass as part of the

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
manufacturing process has been to ‘cold bend’ glass sheets
on site, typically as part of a stick (site assembly based) glazing ε - Nominal strain (%)
system. The amounts to which the glass can be pushed at the
Glass stress strain diagram
corners to take up a curved form across its surface is limited,
but curves in glazed walls and roofs are often modest, making
the idea of cold bending more attractive to contractors.
MCH_ 32
Oriente Station Lisbon, Portugal. The City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia, Spain. City of Arts and Sciences, Valencia, Spain.
Architect: Santiago Calatrava Architect: Santiago Calatrava Architect: Santiago Calatrava
Properties and data Glass block sizes for internal partitions:

Density: Float glass = 2500 kg/m3 (156 lb/ft3) 120 x 120 x 40mm (nominal 6 x 6 x 1 3/4in)
Tensile strength: Float glass = 45 N/mm2 (9.4 x 105 lbf/ft2) and 200 x 200 x 50mm (nominal 8 x 8 x 2in).
Compressive strength:
Float glass = 130–250 N/mm2 (2.7 x 106 to 5.2 x 106 lbf/ The characteristics common to different glass types are:
ft2) • Variable tensile strength.
Young's Modulus: • It is prone to fracture resulting from tiny cracks or
Float glass = 70 kN/mm2 (1.4 x 109 lbf/ft2) imperfections.
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 9 x 10–6 K–1 (5 x 10-6 F-1) • Variable impact resistance.
Thermal conductivity = 1.1 W/mºC (0.64 BTU/hr.ft.OF) • Non-corrosive.
Specific heat capacity = 840 J/kgºC (0.20 BTU/lb OF) • Non-combustible.
• High heat conduction.
Approximate and easily available maximum glass sheet sizes • Low thermal expansion.
1) Float glass
Maximum size 3180 x 6000mm (125in x 235in) for thicknesses Material selection
from 2mm to over 25mm Heat soaked glass is made by re-heating float glass then cooling it
2) Clear toughened glass quickly, which puts the surface of the glass into compression and
Maximum size 4200 x 2000mm (165in x 80in) for thicknesses removes impurities such as nickel sulphide. When broken, fully
from 6mm to12mm toughened glass disintegrates into tiny, comparatively harmless,
3) Laminated glass pieces. Its strength, measured in terms of impact resistance, is
Maximum size 3180 x 4200mm (125in x 165in) for thicknesses up to five times that of float glass. The toughening process can
from 4.4mm to 9.8mm (3/16in x 3/8in) produce minor distortions in the glass, usually caused by roller
4) Rough cast wired glass marks. Heat soaked glass is a partially toughened glass for use
Maximum size 3700 x 1840mm (145in x 72in) for thickness where full toughening is not required or as part of a laminated
7mm (1/4in) glass construction.
5) Polished wired glass
Maximum size 3300 x 1830mm (130in x 72in), thickness Laminated glass is made by bonding two or more sheets of glass
6mm (1/4in) together with a film of plastic in between, called the interlayer. The
6) Body tinted float glass interlayer can be clear or translucent, and is available in a wide
Maximum size 2540 x 4600mm (100in x 180in) for thicknesses range of colours to create effects of colour in the glass that are
from 6mm to12mm translucent in a way which is different from the screen printing
Glass block sizes for external walls: of glass. When broken, laminated glass stays together in a
146 x 146mm (nominal 6in x 6in) single piece due to this bonding between the layers. This makes
197 x 197mm (nominal 8in x 8in) it very useful for glazed roofs and for glazed screens which are
197 x 95mm (nominal 8in x 4in) set forward of glazed facades. However, after the initial impact,
Typical thickness 98mm (nominal 4in) laminated glass will eventually fall away as dangerous fragments
of glass, so it is required to be replaced as soon as possible, with
MCH_ 33
Materials 01
Glass
Oscar Niemeyer Museum, Curitiba, Brazil. Architect: Oscar Niemeyer
Metropolitan Cathedral, Brasilia, Brazil.

Architect: Oscar Niemeyer
Nordpark Cable Railway, Innsbruck, Austria.

Architect: Zaha Hadid Architects
the floor area beneath the broken panels typically being secured when an electric signal is introduced. Applications include
to avoid the risk of injury to those below. Combining several glazed partitions in office buildings.
laminates together in one sheet can make anti-vandal and even
bullet resistant glass. Glass blocks can be solid or hollow. Solid blocks are used as
paving for floors. The hollow type is used for walls and consists
Wired glass is made by sandwiching a steel wire mesh between of two half-bricks fused together to give a smooth appearance
two layers of glass, which are then rolled flat. The wire holds the on both faces.
glass together for a period of time during a fire and so prevents
the passage of smoke from one side to the other. The roughcast Glass can be mounted in double- and triple-glazed units to provide
product can be polished to provide a more transparent finish. greater thermal insulation and sound insulation than is achieved
Wired glasses cannot be toughened and are not regarded as by an equivalent single sheet of glass. An insulated unit can be
safety products. a mix of float, laminated or other glasses. To improve thermal
performance, the air gap between the layers can be evacuated
Fire resistant glass is formed by glass sandwich panels to create a vacuum or be replaced with a low conductivity gas
containing an intumescent layer. In a fire the layer of gel, or such as argon. The maximum size of double glazed units is
salts, reacts to the rise in temperature to provide a degree of determined by the maximum sizes of glass types used. However,
insulation against radiant heat. the size of unit is usually determined by windloading rather than
maximum glass sizes.
Variable or switchable transmission glass is a new form of
treated glass. Though expensive, it aims to reduce internal Working with the material
heat loss from inside as well as to reduce solar gain. It Float, toughened and laminated glass can be curved. Flat glass
is able to change its own thermal and light transmission is heated and moulded to shape in either one or two directions.
performance by means of an electrical signal. In many Float glass can be cut, drilled, screwed and glued. It can also be
applications, it turns from transparent to an opaque white bolted using proprietary systems. Toughened glass cannot be
MCH_ 34
Oscar Niemeyer Museum, Curitiba, Brazil. Architect: Oscar Niemeyer Oscar Niemeyer Museum, Curitiba, Brazil.
Lyon-Satolas TGV Station, Lyon, France. Architect: Santiago Calatrava BCE Place, Allen Lambert Galleria and
Heritage Square, Toronto, Canada
cut, drilled or surface worked after manufacture but laminated Sand blasting and acid etching are surface treatments which
glass can be drilled with specialist equipment. produce a uniform, matt translucent finish. The microscopically
pitted surface has a tendency to retain dirt and grease, making
Surface and body treatments it difficult to clean.
Float, toughened and laminated glass can be further treated to
allow varying levels of light transmission and thermal insulation. A low-emissivity coating (low-E) is applied to glass to improve its
Sometimes this is done during the manufacturing process. thermal insulation. The coating is a microscopically thin layer of
These treatments are body tinting, screen-printing, sand metal which allows maximum daylight and short-wave heat to
blasting and acid etching, coatings, including low-E and fritting, enter the building but reduces heat loss by reflecting long wave
and curving. radiation trying to escape at night. The coating is hardly visible.
Body tinted glass is produced by small additions of metal oxides Recycling

to the glass, reducing solar gain. A limited range of tints is Glass is one of the easiest materials to recycle and is economically
available, including shades of green, grey, bronze and blue. viable. Enormous energy savings in glass manufacture can be
made by recycling the material.
Fritted glass is made by printing ceramic designs onto float
glass, which is then toughened. This process involves fusing
coloured frit (powdered glass), through a stencil onto the
surface of the glass, providing a permanent durable finish.
This treatment can be used to help reduce solar gain. Surface
printing with a high level of detail can be achieved by screen-
printed dots, lines or meshes.
MCH_ 35
Materials 01
Tectonics in concrete
Claude Nicolas Ledoux: the Ville de Chaux, France François Hennebique
Unité d'Habitation, Marseille, France. Architect: De la Warr Pavilion, Bexhill, U.K. Architect: Erich
Le Corbusier Mendelsohn and Serge Chermayeff
Concrete had been used for over 2000 years before advances of the time than to the language of public buildings. The window
were made during the 19th century with the development of openings are small and seem only to emphasise the visually
reinforced concrete, a technique that involved incorporating massive quality of the walls. While the material used for the
metal rods to compensate for the inherent weakness of the buildings is not clear from the drawings, stone-faced loadbearing
material in tension. François Hennebique constructed in masonry would probably have been used as the material system
1892 what is thought to be the first building with a reinforced of the time. However, the monolithic forms are very much in
concrete frame. Ernest Ransome patented a similar system in tune with concrete; large flat areas with no registration of joints
the US in 1895. By the beginning of the 20th century, in Europe or traces of the way the building would be constructed. It looks
and in North America, iron rods and wires were being used as as if no evidence of the construction method should be visible
reinforcement in patented floor systems and structural frames. in order not to detract from the architectural messages in the
Modern reinforced concrete is essentially a development of form of the building concerned with expressing the intended
these systems. use of the building. Another drawing shows a design for a
cemetery with a shell structure in the centre of an unspecified
An essential quality of concrete is that it is a moulded material, construction. This could have been achieved 150 years later in
capable of creating large-scale monolithic forms without joints concrete, as seen in the work of Eero Saarinen and Santiago
in the material. This essential quality was hinted at much earlier, Calatrava. Ledoux built on examples of his vision at the Ville
the work of Claude Nicolas Ledoux in the late 18th century de Chaux using primary geometric forms with columns and
demonstrates an intent in architectural expression through rusticated stonework. The idea of the architect as giving visible
abstracted forms that represent ‘functions’ of the building form to the function of society in monolithic architectural form
or the functions of the principal uses of the building. His book was later taken up by Le Corbusier, as seen in his design for the
Architecture considérée sous le rapport de l’art, des moeurs chapel at Ronchamp.
et de la législation sets out a vision of the architect as providing
a visible structure of a society where status is accorded to The evolution of concrete as a building material was the
‘functions’ in society rather than power or wealth. The Water result of a ‘rediscovery’ of the material primarily as a mortar
Inspector’s House expresses the function of its occupier, with in engineering projects, but to its eventual use as a structural
river water passing through the building. The form shown in material used with first arches and then for floors, columns and
the drawings is monolithic, with little expression of the material then as a full structural frame. Joseph Monier’s system of using
used. There is no visible detailing; the monolithic expression of steel reinforcement in a systematic manner, first seen in 1867,
the building forms seem to relate more to military installations was a development of earlier mixes of metal and concrete that
MCH_ 36
The Centennial Hall, Wroclaw, Poland. Architect: Max Berg
The Centennial Hall, Wroclaw, Poland.

Architect: Max Berg
The Pantheon, Rome, Italy. The Niterói Contemporary Art Museum, Brazil.
themselves probably evolved from the metal rods and brackets which are set vertical members, which in turn support horizontal
used as tension members in timber and masonry structures decks that provide both horizontal ribs to stiffen the inclined
that go back to at least the reinforced metal hammer beam members as well as serving as ring beams for lateral stability.
roof of the Palace of Westminster Hall in London, built in the This structure seems to support vertical windows to withstand
late 14th century. Francois Hennebique’s reinforced concrete the rain and snow of the harsh winters. This structure begins to
system developed this concept into full reinforced concrete with exploit the possibilities of structure of enclosing spaces without
a system patented in 1892. The nature of reinforced concrete the rectilinear imperatives of masonry and timber construction
is such that its method of construction is not visible, except for where walls, structure and enclosure are made from concrete
the marks left by the formwork which can be either expressed as a single material. A steel frame would require infill of the
or concealed; but the formwork is removed, with the boards or lower arched structure and of the roof decks circling the dome
sheets being used only once or twice before being discarded in a different material, which results in a loss of clarity of the
after use. Hennebique’s system, now so familiar to us, uses a architectural idea of sculpting structural forms; ideas which
web of steel reinforcement which is never visible but which has a would later be developed by Santiago Calatrava.
high degree of elaboration and visual character prior to it being
concealed within concrete. The benefit of concrete as having a In about the same year as the Centennial Hall in Wroclaw
high level of fire protection has added to the popularity of this was the Dom-ino concept of structure by Le Corbusier. The
material. However, concrete was still used as a substitute for idea is essentially a reinforced concrete structure of flat slab
masonry and timber construction, with its rectilinear forms. supported by columns, a method that was not in general use
until the 1990s when reinforcing methods made economic
An example of the use of concrete as a material in its own right, the junction of slab and column. Unlike Le Corbusier’s later
rather than imitating the language of an earlier technology is celebrated concrete structure of the chapel at Ronchamp, the
the Centennial Hall in Wroclaw, designed by Max Berg and external walls are formed from another material, which would
completed in 1913. The building has a roof that begins to typically be a combination of concrete and glass. The diagram
exploit the sculptural possibilities of concrete: the architect was of the Dom-ino structure is clear, but the bands of glazing,
influenced by, among others, the unbuilt projects of Ledoux. The running either vertically or horizontally, with an infill of rendered
base structure that forms part of the ring beam for the dome blockwork are independent of the system. Le Corbusier’s idea of
above is curved in three dimensions, and shows the possibilities a structural grid with constructed objects set within it and which
of construction which were followed up in later concrete shell contrast with the grid, seems to connect very strongly with the
structures. The dome is formed with inclined sculptural ribs on Dom-ino concept. The gesture and grid contrast of forms is still
MCH_ 37
Materials 01
Concrete
Notre Dame du Haut Ronchamp Chapel The Guggenheim Museum, New York, U.S.A.
France. Architect: Le Corbusier Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright
The Guggenheim Museum, New York, USA.

Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright
visible at Ronchamp in three of the external walls with an overall approach of mixing materials where the concrete frame and
form described by the floor plane. the glass enclosure are part of a single idea of using animal
skeletons as a metaphor for the design. Calatrava’s interest in
The Guggenheim Museum in New York, completed in 1959 anthropology led him to consider the relationship of bone and
and designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, exploits the cast nature muscle to use two materials in an interdependent way rather
of concrete to create a single spatial form of external walls and than the more straightforward ‘layered’ approach of traditional
floors and follows in the tradition of Ledoux of highly modelled construction. This approach can also be seen in Calatrava’s
form that creates a clear visual impression of the idea without bridge structures, where steel is used as a material separate
the visual language of a visible building assembly. An example of from the reinforcement linking concrete elements rather than
a roof based structure where the sculptural abilities of concrete being only within the concrete as reinforcement. In the bridges,
are used is the Xochimilco Restaurant in Mexico City by Felix the tension qualities of steel reinforcement are brought out of
Candela. This form, based on hyperbolic paraboloids, was formed the concrete as steel components in their own right. Of course,
using straight lengths of timber board for the formwork, allowing the concrete is still reinforced, but steel is also used as a
a complex form to be created with very simple formwork that component with other functions rather than being only buried
required no specialist carpentry skills, since the formwork was in the concrete. Calatrava’s interest in animal skeletons and the
not required to be curved. The concept of the concrete shell was lessons that can be drawn from them for use in building design
developed in the TWA Terminal by Eero Saarinen. In this building can be seen in his proposal for the Cathedral in New York where
the sculptural possibilities of concrete are extended to internal the sculptural possibilities of concrete, together with their ability
floors, staircases and partition walls, with internal fittings of to be made into large scale components, is clearly visible in the
information desks and counters being designed as miniature design. These ideas have found their way into Calatrava’s single
building forms in their own right. The building could have been designs for glazed roofs such as the Milwaukee Art Museum.
formed using inflatable formwork; its intersecting vaults would The Milwaukee additions form an extension of an earlier project
have lent themselves to inflatable structures. In many ways the by Eero Saarinen. Where Saarinen’s project is essentially
constructed building is itself almost a virtual form of an inflatable rectilinear, with identical sculptural elements used in bays to
building, the concrete describing the forms which could be create what is essentially an extruded structure, Calatrava uses
achieved by plastics and fabrics, and can be seen as a ‘frozen’ a similar discipline of geometry to create more complex forms,
idea of invention in building construction yet to come. but with his characteristic interest in bringing daylight from roof
lights and creating varying effects of daylight.
The work of Santiago Calatrava takes a different turn to that
of Eero Saarinen. Where the TWA Terminal uses a series of Properties and data
intersecting vaults that are formed as concrete shells, projects
such as the Science Park at Valencia are formed as framed The main properties of concrete are as follows:
and arched structures from a series of sculpted ribs. Rather Density:
than the vaulted aesthetic of a single material system of TWA, Concrete with dense aggregate:
the Valencia building uses glass as an enclosing material 2200 to 2600 kg/m3 (137 to 162 lb/ft3)
which avoids the need to add layers to an equivalent concrete Concrete with lightweight aggregate:
shell. The use of bolt fixed glazing with steel supporting ribs 320 to 2000 kg/m3 (20 to 125 lb/ft3)
linked back to the concrete ribbed structure creates an
MCH_ 38
TWA Terminal, JFK Airport, New York. U.S.A. Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A. Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A.
Architect: Eero Saarinen Architect: Santiago Calatrava Architect: Santiago Calatrava
Design strength = 35 N/mm2 (7.3 x 105 lbf/ft2) Concrete has the following properties:
Young's Modulus = 15 to 30 kN/mm2 (3.1 x 108 to 6.2 x 108 • Easily moulded.
lbf/ft2) • High strength in compression.
Coefficient of thermal expansion =12.0 x 10-6 K-1 to 7.0 x 10-6 • High acoustic insulation for both airborne and structure-
K-1(6.7 x 10-6 to 3.9 x 10-6 F-1) reducing with age. borne sound.
Thermal conductivity: • High fire resistance, but appropriate cover to steel
Concrete with dense aggregate = 1.0 - 1.8 W/mºC reinforcement is needed.
(0.58 to 1.04 BTU/hr.ft.OF) • Most shrinkage of the material occurs, as creep, during the
Concrete with lightweight aggregate = 0.4 - 0.7 W/mºC first year after casting.
(0.23 to 0.4 BTU/hr.ft.OF) • Moisture movement occurs but is less significant than
Specific heat = 840 J/kgºC (0.20 BTU/lb OF) timber.
• Slightly permeable to water.
• It will not set properly if the air temperature approaches
freezing point. If the air temperature is too high, it will set
30
too quickly, causing cracking.
20 40
30
15
20
10
10
5 -0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

-10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-20
GRC stress strain diagram Concrete stress strain diagram
MCH_ 39
Materials 01
Concrete
Copan Building,, São Paulo, Brazil. Copan Building,, São Paulo, Brazil. Xochimilco Restaurant, Mexico City.
Architect: Oscar Niemeyer Architect: Oscar Niemeyer Architect: Felix Candela
Material selection Concrete shrinks as it dries, and can take more than a year to
Concrete is a dense material, composed of cement and reach its final size, though it continues to shrink indefinitely by
aggregate mixed with water. It sets to form a hard, brittle tiny amounts. The rate of shrinkage is considerable in the period
material, strong in compression but weak in tension. Portland immediately following the pouring, but slows down by the end of
cement is the most widely used binding agent for concrete and the first year. After approximately 28 days, concrete approaches
consists of lime and clay mixed together at high temperature, its design strength. It is important that the mixture should not
which is then crushed to form a fine powder. dry out too quickly to enable the chemical reactions between
the constituents to take place. Controlling the drying process
The type and relative proportions of cement and aggregate will is known as 'curing'. Having dried out, concrete subsequently
vary according to use and desired appearance. The mix should absorbs water, but any expansion is always much less than the
make economic use of the cement. Varying the composition of original shrinkage during the curing process. Plasticisers can be
the constituents produces different strengths of concrete. The used to vary the rate of drying, which reduces construction time.
most important factors are the water to cement ratio and the Plasticisers also increase the workability of the wet concrete.
proportion of cement to aggregate. A typical mix is the 1:2:4
(cement: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate). The amount of In reinforced concrete, steel and concrete are combined to take
water used in the mix affects both workability and strength. Less advantage of the compressive strength of concrete and the
water increases strength but reduces the workability, making it tensile strength of the steel used. Two types are used; mild steel
more difficult for the concrete to flow around the reinforcement reinforcement is used to form complex elements and has a yield-
when it is being poured in place. The reduced workability is strength of around 250N/mm2, and high yield reinforcement
improved by using additives, such as plasticisers, to the mix. is used elsewhere with a yield-strength of around 460N/mm2.
The coarse aggregates, consisting of small stones, form most As the concrete sets it shrinks, gripping the steel bars thus
of the mass, while spaces between these stones are filled by producing a monolithic structural material for use as frames,
fine aggregate and cement which bind the mixture together. It is walls and floors. These can be cast-in-place at the site, or off-site
important when pouring concrete, that the mixture is properly as precast elements. With either method, the cost of formwork
vibrated to ensure that the coarse aggregate is fully surrounded or mould can represent up to half of the cost, and therefore the
by the finer material. efficient use and re-use of formwork is essential.
MCH_ 40
Opera House, Valencia, Spain. Architect: Santiago Calatrava. Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A.
Concert Hall of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain. Stadelhofen Station, Zurich, Switzerland.
Architect: Santiago Calatrava. Architect: Santiago Calatrava
Cast-in-place reinforced concrete is usually delivered to site Precast concrete is usually more expensive than cast-in-
ready mixed and is poured either by pumping or by crane place due to additional transport costs. To be economic, and
bucket. Cast-in-place reinforced concrete is made by setting comparable in cost with cast-in-place construction, the number
steel reinforcing rods, often in the form of a cage, between of different components should be kept to a minimum because
formwork, made from plywood, steel or timber boards. Wet fewer moulds, prototypes and trial panels would be used. On
concrete is poured and compacted. The reinforcement must larger projects, it may be cost-effective to manufacture precast
have an appropriate cover of concrete to protect it in the event components on site in a temporary facility. This avoids the
of fire. The cover also protects the steel from corrosion. need to transport components, though such conditions may
not be ideal for high quality work. Precast concrete systems
A series of bolts holds the sides of the formwork apart and are manufactured as proprietary systems for both structural
shoring on the outside of the formwork supports the weight of frames and wall cladding panels. There is a significant move
the wet concrete. The formwork is removed, or struck, after 3 towards re-using the formwork from one application to the next.
to 4 days and the holes left behind are filled with grout, which
is a mixture of cement and water. Since the holes remain very Components are cast in moulds which are made from
apparent, they are arranged at regular centres in order to glass reinforced polyester, steel or concrete. Accurate
enhance their appearance. manufacture is difficult with plywood and timber due to the
thermal movement of these materials, making the mould
The technique of manufacturing precast concrete, developed in sizes unreliable. Panels are cast either face-up or face-down.
the 1950s, has the advantage of a reduced construction time In face-down casting the inside surface of the mould forms the
as no curing, and much reduced formwork, is needed on site. component finish. In face-up casting the surface of the mould
Concrete is cast in moulds in a factory, and then delivered to forms the back of the component so that structural ribs can
site. Precast techniques have two main advantages over cast- be formed, leaving the panel face flat. An alternative method,
in-place construction. The first is that quality can be easier to which avoids complex formwork, is tilt up construction. This
control in a workshop, and the second is that precast elements is a partially precast method where a wall is cast flat on the
can be assembled rapidly on site. Cast-in-place concrete needs ground at the site, directly adjacent to the floor slab. Once
time to gain strength before it can support another element and it has cured sufficiently, it is then lifted up into the vertical
this slows down construction dramatically. position and bolted directly in place.
MCH_ 41
Materials 01
Concrete
Phaeno Centre, Wolfsburg, Germany. Phaeno Centre, Wolfsburg, Germany. Architect: Zaha Hadid Architects.
Architect: Zaha Hadid Architects.
Prestressed concrete is a precasting technique that is typically beam, making it possible to achieve a more slender section
used in floor structures. It allows increased clear spans to than using cast-in-place techniques.
be used with thinner slabs resulting in lighter structures. The
reduced cracking and reduced deflections in this technique are a Where these components are too large to be prestressed,
distinct advantage over normal reinforced concrete. In common or where the construction method dictates that they are to
with other precasting techniques, this rapid construction be built on site, the technique of post-tensioning can provide
method allows construction times to be reduced. a similar method of reducing the depth of beams, decks or
related assemblies such as masonry arches. Although this
In prestressing, high strength steel wires, rods or cables technique is used mainly in bridge-building, post tensioning
are passed through a small diameter tube set into a precast allows individual large-scale components, such as frames
component, typically a beam or a tee-section used as a and floors, to use prestressing techniques with a site-based
structural deck. The wires, set in the bottom half of the construction method. Post tensioning is more suited to large
beam, are tensioned at the ends, resulting in the beam or assemblies such as arches and long-span floor decks than to
tee arching up in a slight camber. The tubes are then filled smaller-scale assemblies where the time needed on site to effect
with grout. When the prestressed component is set in place, the tensioning would slow down the speed of construction.
the imposed loads flatten the pre-camber and reduce the
deflection experienced by the component. Lightweight concrete is used primarily for toppings in profiled
steel/concrete composite construction. It is also used for
When an ordinary reinforced concrete beam is loaded, non-loadbearing components such as precast wall panels. It
compression is created in the top half of the beam and tension is not used for high strength applications, but is suitable for
in the bottom part. The compressive stresses in the concrete most structural applications where weight is an important
created by the tension wires must be overcome before consideration. The material is typically made from crushed
the beam bends. However, when a prestressed beam or pumice or clinker, giving it better properties of heat and sound
similar component is loaded, the concrete is in compression insulation than cladding panels made from other materials.
throughout its depth, allowing it to be shallower in depth than a
reinforced concrete equivalent. Prestressed concrete is more Ferro-cement is a concrete-based material which is typically
suitable for large spans than ordinary reinforced concrete used to make yacht hulls. This material is beginning to be used
because components can be shallower and as a consequence as a structural material in buildings, and is suited to complex
be lighter, reducing the dead load. Prestressing increases shapes with a high quality smooth finish. A recent example
resistance to shear forces compared to a reinforced concrete is the curved roof trusses of the Menil Museum in Houston,
MCH_ 42
Precast concrete components being made with steel
moulds in a factory setting.
Texas, U.S.A Ferro-cement consists of a cement mortar- slab is smoothed with a machine to provide a finish that avoids
based mix with a high degree of steel reinforcement. It has the need for an additional layer of smooth screed.
good tensile strength in thin sections. Complex shapes can
be formed by applying the wet mix onto a steel mesh by hand The fine aggregate and cement determine the colour of the
without the need for formwork. concrete. Changing the attributes of the fine aggregate has a
dramatic effect on the appearance of the concrete, whereas
Working with the material large aggregate has little effect unless retardants are used
Concrete is compacted by vibration when poured in order to and the large aggregate is exposed. Colour additives can
remove air voids in the mix and to achieve an even distribution also be added to the mix. Unfortunately, slight variations in
of the material in the formwork. Too little compaction of the wet the proportions of additives have a dramatic impact on the
material can result in air pockets being left in the mix, weakening appearance of the concrete, making it hard to achieve consistent
the concrete. Too much compaction brings the fine aggregate coloration between batches.
to the surface, making the surface crumbly, and causing surface
staining. A vibrating instrument, inserted into the wet concrete, Paint provides a thin decorative layer, but is prone to flaking
is used to ensure an even consistency. The reinforcement is and requires re-coating at regular intervals. Colour stains are
given an adequate cover of concrete to protect it in the event of an alternative as they are absorbed by the top surface of the
fire. The cover also reduces the possibility of water reaching the concrete forming a permanent coloured finish. Sand blasting
steel which can cause it to rust. In the manufacture of precast and acid etching, processes more commonly associated with
components the mould is typically compacted, either by placing glass, can also be used. Bush hammering the material exposes
it on a vibrating table or by applying a surface mounted vibrator. the large aggregate and provides a rough texture to the
surface. Conversely, polishing provides a smooth shiny surface.
Finishes However, both of these surface treatments are very labour
Concrete adopts the texture of the formwork. Steel formwork intensive. Unpolished concrete has a dusty surface and it may be
leaves a smooth appearance while softwood boards leave an appropriate to seal the surface.
imprint ranging from fairly smooth plywood to rougher finishes
of planks. Boarded formwork produces a pattern of joints across Recycling
the concrete face. Other finishes include tamping, where a board Concrete can be recycled by crushing the material and using
is moved in a tapping action across the surface of the concrete it as an aggregate in new concrete. Although the use of
to form a directional texture; trowelling, where concrete is recycled concrete is new, it has been successfully used in new
smoothed with a hand tool; and power floating, where a poured reinforced concrete structures.
MCH_ 43
Materials 01
Tectonics in masonry
Corpus Christi, Cambridge, U.K. Bristol Cathedral, Bristol, U.K.
Oriel College, Oxford, U.K. St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, Windsor, U.K.
The pre-industrial use of masonry was as a loadbearing material The use of masonry in Gothic cathedrals as loadbearing
that integrated structure and facade into a single construction structure and enclosure continued on, almost uninterrupted,
that was capable of taking up complex geometric forms, such in built examples across England. The college buildings of
as those used in castles and later in medieval houses across the universities of Oxford and Cambridge contained Gothic
Europe. In addition to their ability to form complex shapes in elements of construction through the Renaissance, with
plan, masonry has the ability to corbel outwards or inwards a gradual re-introduction of Gothic language emerging in
from the vertical plane of the wall through their height to follies to English country houses built during the 17th and
create a more complex section than that of vertically set walls. 18th centuries. The Gothic revival of the 19th century, which
A 20th century example of this principle was used in Antonio associated the architecture and its associated forms of
Gaudi’s work on the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona. This use construction with renewed spiritual values, introduced the use
was in parallel to the emerging use of cavity walls at the time of iron into forms previously constructed entirely in masonry.
for houses built in England. Buildings such as the Oxford Museum in England combined
medieval methods of loadbearing masonry construction and
In cavity wall construction, the loadbearing wall is divided their re-interpretation as glazed vaults of iron ribs into a single
into two separate halves, and linked structurally to form a building. The ability to mix different loadbearing structures
diaphragm wall; a construction that uses less material to gives a structural continuity between building elements and
achieve the same purpose. A disadvantage is the need to also between building forms, as seen in the city centre of
extend floor plates through in order to make the wall perform Oxford, where there is a continuity of constructional language
structurally as a diaphragm wall, which results in a thermal from door to wall to building to city block to street.
bridge that can cause high levels of heat loss (or heat gain in
hot climates) and associated condensation risk. Consequently, The move from masonry used in loadbearing structures to its
the outer leaf of the cavity wall became isolated from the use almost entirely as non-loadbearing cladding came in the
construction behind, except at fixing or restraining points as early 20th Century with the introduction of steel and concrete
is the case with stone cladding. The resultant use of cavity frames, initially intended for taller buildings but soon becoming
walls as an outer protective screen has robbed it of any real the standard method of construction for all but small residential
significance in the construction. buildings, with the outer walls becoming non-loadbearing and
MCH_ 44
St John's College, Cambridge, U.K.
Wells Cathedral, Wells, U.K. Bristol Cathedral, Bristol, U.K.
Westminster Abbey, London, U.K.
roofs using the full extent of the structural frame for support. In other applications of loadbearing masonry, the positioning
A trend in the past 30 years has been the introduction of of the thermal insulation in the centre of the wall allows the
thermal insulation into masonry construction as well as a layer benefits of thermal mass to be used within the building as well
of weatherproofing when a cavity is introduced. This has resulted as a weathering surface on the outside, along with the possibility
in much masonry construction becoming an outer rainscreen, of the masonry being exposed within the building.
either as cladding panels of stone, or as the outer skin of a
cavity wall. In some cases, loadbearing walls have had the The use of loadbearing masonry has found limited applications
insulation set in the centre of the wall, with the two halves of the due to the perceived disadvantages of setting thermal insulation
construction linked by stainless steel ties to provide structural on the inside face of the wall, reducing its thermal mass.
continuity through the full thickness of the loadbearing wall. The Consequently, masonry is used mainly as cladding to a backing
Glyndebourne Opera House in England, designed by Michael wall which is typically insulated on its outside face in order to
Hopkins and completed in 1994, has no thermal insulation benefit from the thermal mass of the wall within the building,
but is fully loadbearing. Loadbearing brickwork is used to form with the additional advantage of being able to fix interior items
the external wall and gallery for the opera house auditorium. such as shelving to the inside face of the wall. A disadvantage
Lime-based mortar was used to avoid the cement-based of the use of masonry is its lack of relationship with the real
mortar associated with high strength, but the need for vertical building immediately behind the outer skin. As an outer veneer,
movement joints at typically 7.5 metre centres. These joints its relationship to the structure and enclosure of the building is
have the effect of dividing an external wall into separate bays, largely a matter of individual aesthetic choice. Since cladding
making a single monolithic wall almost impossible to achieve. panels can be large in size, up to around 700mm x 1400mm
Because of the loadbearing strength of lime mortar being for granites and stronger sandstones, the relationship with
approximately half that of cement-based mortar that would have historical context is severely limited.
been required for this project, the walls were thicker but, at one
and a half bricks thick, are no wider than an equivalent cavity The contemporary use of loadbearing construction provides an
wall, but with piers which are two bricks thick. The avoidance opportunity to provide thermal mass in facades as well as in
of movement joints assured the monolithic appearance and that provided by adjacent floor construction. When informed by
structural efficiency of this structure. structural requirements linked to either a historical typological
MCH_ 45
Materials 01
Masonry
Trinity College, Cambridge, U.K. Magdalen College, Oxford, U.K.
Market Cross, Chichester, U.K. George Hotel and Pilgrim's Inn, Glastonbury, U.K.
model, or spatial sequence, the material system suggests ways the Guildhall at Cirencester and college buildings at Oxford and
of enclosing space that creates an architectural expression Cambridge, stone is used for window mullions, with glass being
specific to the requirements of the building. In the case of set into a narrow lead frame that avoids the use of timber
masonry, which forms the historic fabric of English towns and altogether. The invention in masonry at this time can be seen
cities. This use of masonry would provide a continuity with the in buildings such as the Market Cross at Chichester and the
past but would be able to have a more dynamic and progressive Poultry Cross at Salisbury, where techniques of buttressing
relationship with historic fabric as is achieved in the buildings of from cathedrals have been used at a more modest scale for
Antonio Gaudi in Barcelona. Loadbearing brickwork was used secular use.
in larger scale buildings by Louis Kahn in the Indian Institute
of Management of1962, and where the brickwork is used Loadbearing masonry has the ability to make complex shapes
as ‘cladding’ Kahn expressed its sense of separation without for structures and enclosures, but the position of thermal
reducing its quality of visual massiveness. Kahn in part achieved insulation within the construction is difficult to achieve. An
this by putting ‘buildings within buildings’ which might be a way equivalent framed structure in reinforced concrete or steel, with
forward for loadbearing masonry construction by creating masonry cladding fixed to it, is typically much easier to form but
buffer zones in buildings which do not require thermal insulation, the masonry skin is reduced to an essentially decorative role.
such as winter gardens, circulation areas or outer spaces that A future direction for masonry may be as a mixture of precast
provide a thermal buffer. concrete masonry-like forms that can be both structural and
integrate thermal insulation within the depth of the material.
Material systems based on masonry construction often work If precast concrete techniques for making vertically stacked
well with those in timber, as in English medieval guildhalls and units are made at a smaller size than is usually the case,
inns. Lightweight timber structures are often set on top of then they could be used to make loadbearing structures from
masonry structures, while more ambitious structures such as these small units. This would bring the historic advantages of
the George Inn at Glastonbury seem to imitate the framing of masonry construction back into mainstream construction.
timber in stone – the refinement of timber finding its way into Concrete can be formed into small masonry units that can be
loadbearing masonry wall design. In some buildings such as lifted with modest equipment. The ability of masonry to corbel in
MCH_ 46
Trinity College, Cambridge, U.K. New College Chapel, Oxford, U.K.
Divinity School, Oxford, U.K. Christ College, Oxford, U.K.
Bristol Cathedral, Bristol, U.K.
and out of the vertical plane without the need for formwork is a mortar lighter in colour than a cement-based mix. Mortar mixes
characteristic that has had limited use in the design of external are a balance between the needs of loads, structural movement,
walls, but is experiencing a modest revival with brick walls of water permeability and preferred colour.
complex geometry or curved surface.
In terms of appearance, it must be noted that the mortar
Material selection accounts for between 10 and 20 per cent of the masonry, and
The principles of using materials are common to stone, brick consequently makes an important contribution to the colour
and block. The relationship between the masonry unit and the of the surface. The colour of the mortar can be controlled by
mortar is of particular importance. using pigment additives. In addition, the way that the joint is
made has an important effect on the flatness or amount of
Mortars for loadbearing masonry and cladding panels use the shadow perceived.
same materials and follow the same principles in stone, brick and
concrete blockwork. The compatibility of masonry and mortar is In stonework, crushed stone is often added to the mortar mix
an essential factor. It is usual to use the weakest mortar that will as fines instead of sand so that the joints match the stone as
adequately sustain the load, because increasing strength can closely as possible. The mix depends on the type of stone and
result in too much rigidity which would cause cracking. its intended use. As a result the mortar is the best compromise
between load, structural movement, water permeability and
The strength is varied by altering the proportions of the binders preferred colour. Mortar joints can also be reinforced with
cement and lime. Stronger mixes have more cement, while lime steel mesh.
provides flexibility which allows the brickwork to move without
cracking. Different mixes of mortar are used depending on Recycling
whether the masonry is used as cladding or as loadbearing Natural stone can be recycled if the mortar is soft enough to
masonry. Mortar mixes have to achieve a balance between be removed, particularly if a lime putty mortar has been used.
strength and flexibility. The comparatively low permeability of lime Otherwise, stone and brick are used for structural fill.
gives greater resistance to rain penetration. Lime also makes a
MCH_ 47
Materials 01
Concrete block
Built examples of
concrete block
Masonry block blocks are made as a facing material, it is more usual to conceal
Masonry blocks are made from concrete in a range of sizes blocks, or face them with another material such as render.
and strengths. Some types are designed to withstand large
compressive forces and are therefore made with a high-density Working with the material
concrete. They can withstand forces of up to around 20N/ Block can be easily cut and drilled. Metal fixings in the form of
mm2 (4.2 x 105 lbf/ft2). Other types are designed to provide brackets and dowels are used for walls where the blockwork
limited amounts of thermal insulation and are made with does not provide sufficient stability. These fixings are used
aerated concrete or with insulation bonded to one side. Most extensively in blockwork cladding which is supported by a
types of block are manufactured to course with brick but the structural frame.
size of the block will depend on its weight, since the block must
be lifted by hand. Various thicknesses of block are available for Sizes
different applications. Common metric block size:
Length 390mm x Height 190mm (15.5/8in x 7.5/8in)
Material Types Overall dimensions
Types used are dense aggregate blocks, light aggregate blocks (Length 400mm x Height 200mm with 10mm joint) (16in x 8in
and aerated blocks. Blocks with dense aggregates are more with 3/8in joint)
commonly used for loadbearing walls. Those with lightweight A range of thicknesses is made.
aggregates and aerated mixes are used for non-loadbearing Common U.K. block size to course with U.K. brickwork:
walls and partitions. All these types are made in solid, cellular Length 440mm x Height 215mm (Length 450mm x Height
and hollow form. Cellular types allow the voids to be filled with 225mm with 10mm joint)
concrete and reinforcement to improve structural performance.
The main advantage of block is its low cost and the speed with
which walls can be built. Although some blocks, called fairfaced
MCH_ 48
Blockwork has the following general properties: (209 x 103 to 418 x 103 lbf/ft2)
• Heavy. Aerated concrete blockwork = 3.5 N/mm2 to 7.0 N/mm2
• High compressive strength. (73 x 103 to 146 x 103 lbf/ft2)
• Very low tensile strength.
• High resistance to weathering Young's Modulus :
• High impact resistance. Dense concrete blockwork = 5.0 N/mm2 to 25.0 N/mm2
• High fire resistance. (104 x 103 to 522 x 103 lbf/ft2)
• Susceptible to thermal and moisture movement. Aerated concrete blockwork = 2.0 N/mm2 to 8.0 N/mm2
• Not waterproof. (42 x 103 to 167 x 103 lbf/ft2)
• Low seismic resistance.
• Easy to cut to size. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:
Dense concrete blockwork = 6 x10-6 to 12 x10-6 K-1
Properties and data (3.4 x 10-6 to 6.8 x 10-6 0F-1) at 5% moisture content
The main properties of masonry blockwork are as follows: Aerated concrete blockwork = 8 x 10-6 K-1 (4.5 x 10-6 0F-1)
at 5% moisture content
Density:
Dense aggregates = over 1500 kg/m3 (94 lb/ft3) Thermal conductivity:
Lightweight aggregates =1000 to 1500 kg/m3 (62 to 94 lb/ Dense concrete blockwork = 1.2 W/mºC (0.69 BTU/hr.ft.OF)
ft3) Aerated concrete blockwork= 0.3 W/mºC (0.17 BTU/hr.ft.OF)
Aerated = 500 to 1500 kg/m3 (31 to 94 lb/ft3)
Specific heat capacity= 840 J/kgºC (0.2 BTU/lb OF)
Compressive strength for dense concrete blockwork
Dense concrete blockwork = 10 N/mm2 to 20 N/mm2
MCH_ 49
Materials 01
Stone
Parc Guell, Barcelona, Spain. Architect: Antonio Gaudi Colonia Güell, Barcelona, Spain. Architect: Antonio Gaudi
Production process of raw material that it is rarely used in a traditional loadbearing capacity.
Stone is cut or hewn from large blocks which have been Most stone has the strength and durability of block and
cut, blasted or split from the bedrock. Being a natural brickwork. The most widely used types are granite, limestone,
material, the appearance and durability of stone, even from sandstone, marble and slate. Igneous rocks, such as granite,
the same block, can vary enormously. To control quality, it are formed directly from molten magma. Sedimentary rocks,
is sometimes best to select cut stone at the quarry. Since such as limestone and sandstone, are made up from the
no two cuts produce the same appearance, when defining eroded elements of earlier rocks laid down in beds near the
the required quality it is advisable to define a limited band earth's surface, and are often composed of loose material
between the most veined and least veined stone acceptable. bound together by cement-like materials. Metamorphic
As stone is a naturally occurring material, the properties rocks, such as slate and marble, are igneous or sedimentary
are not as controlled as man-made materials such as steel. rocks which have undergone a chemical transformation due
Stone from a particular quarry is usually tested before sale in to high temperature and pressure.
order that its physical and mechanical properties are known.
When stone is used in structural applications, the material Granite, within the building industry, refers to coarse-
undergoes rigorous testing to determine its performance in grained igneous rocks. It has a wide range of colours, and is
the intended application. extremely hardwearing. Most granites are grey or pink, with
mixtures of white/grey and pink/grey depending upon their
Natural stone has the following properties common to most geographical source.
types:
• Durable Limestone is made up from rock material bound together by
• A heavy material, weighing as much as reinforced calcium carbonate, in the form of the mineral calcite. Many
concrete. limestones contain a proportion of the mineral dolomite. The
• High compressive strength. colour is generally light, ranging from near white through to
• Low tensile strength. brown and grey. Chemical impurities can cause a darkening of
• Finish can be adversely affected by weathering due to the colour. Limestones vary in texture and can range from a
exfoliation as a result of a freeze/thaw cycle, pollution, sand-textured and coarse material to one that is so fine-grained
salts, etc. as to lack visible particles. Limestones such as Portland Stone
• Low moisture movement. (Indiana Limestone in the US) are strong and durable.
• Brittle, but high impact resistance improving with
thickness. Most sandstones consist mainly of quartz grains cemented
• High fire resistance. together by mineral solutions. Calcareous, dolomitic,
• Low seismic resistance ferruginous and siliceous cements are common. Small
amounts of other minerals, often iron compounds, give the
Material selection stone its colour. Sandstones vary in colour from dull crimson
Natural stone is a brittle material that is strong in to pink or green/brown mixtures to blue/grey. Sandstones
compression but is weak in tension. It is used mostly for vary enormously in durability from soft, easy to work types
wall facings and pavings, although the high unit cost means with low strength and high porosity, to relatively durable
MCH_ 50
Casa Batllo, Barcelona, Spain.
Architect: Antonio Gaudi
Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain. Casa Batllo, Barcelona, Spain. Architect: Antonio Gaudi
Architect: Antonio Gaudi
types with strengths approaching those of granites, with of stone and is typically applied where stone is used as a
lower porosity. flooring material. Additional finishes include etching and
needle gunning, but stone used externally usually has no
Marble is a metamorphic rock formed by the recrystallisation additional treatment after being cut to size.
of limestone or dolomite through a combination of heat and
pressure. The crystalline structure is seen in a fractured Reconstituted stone
surface, which gives it a sparkling appearance. During Reconstituted stone, also referred to as cast or
metamorphism, impurities in the original limestone, such 'reconstructed' stone, is made from cement and crushed
as different minerals, are incorporated into the rock and stone that is cast in a mould. It is used either as a structural
appear as bands or as discrete inclusions scattered through material or as a facing to a concrete component. Steel
the calcite mix. No true marble shows fossils. Veined reinforcement is used if the casting has a structural function.
marbles are the result of minerals deposited from solutions
penetrating cracks and fissures. Some marbles contain Reconstituted stone has the following properties:
fragments of earlier crushed rocks. A wide range of colours • Very durable.
and textures may be found. The presence of iron gives rise • A heavy material, weighing as much as reinforced concrete.
to shades of yellow, brown and red as a result of oxidation. • High tensile and compressive strength.
• High impact resistance.
Slate is a crystalline rock produced by dynamic metamorphism • High fire resistance.
of clays and shales, causing it to be orientated along a single • Susceptible to shrinkage like concrete.
grain or 'slaty cleavage' which allows the rock to be split
into sheets. It is used mainly for roof slates and for durable Properties and data
surface finishes such as floors. The colour of slate varies The main properties of stone are as follows:
from grey to green to black to red.
Density:
Working with the material Natural stone: 2200 to 3000 kg/m3 (137 to 187 lb/ft3) wet
Stone is shaped either by cutting or sculpting, which is a slow Cast stone: 2100 kg/m3 (131 lb/ft3)
and difficult process. Metal fixings in the form of brackets Characteristic compressive strength:
and dowels are used where the mortar joints do not provide Granite = 30 - 75 N/mm2 (6.3 x 105 to 1.5 x 106 lbf/ft2)
sufficient stability for lintels and copings. These fixings are Sandstone = 10 - 30 N/mm2 (2.1 x 105 to 6.3 x 105 lbf/ft2)
used extensively in stone cladding panels where the material Young's Modulus = 6.9 N/mm2 to 21N/mm2
is supported by a structural frame. (144 x 106 to 439 x 106 lbf/ft2)
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 7.9 x 10-6 K-1 (4.4 x 10-6
Stone has a very different appearance when polished, though 0F-1)
not all types benefit from the process. Depending upon type Thermal conductivity: = 1.7- 4.0 W/mºC (0.98 - 2.3 BTU/hr.ft.
and application, stone can be finished to different levels of OF)
sheen from a reflective polished finish to a matt honed finish. Specific heat capacity= 840 J/kgºC (0.19 BTU/lb OF)
Polishing does not change the structure or weathering
MCH_ 51
Materials 01
Brick
Above and below. Richards Medical Centre, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Architect; Louis Kahn
Production process of raw material to be avoided. Bricks are economically and easily transported in
Bricks are made by cutting or moulding clay. They are then baked large or small quantities.
in a kiln to form a hard, brittle unit. A very wide range of colours
and textures is available, from the precisely dimensioned, evenly Brickwork has the following general properties:
coloured types which are wire cut from a clay extrusion to the • A heavy and durable material.
less regular handmade bricks which are individually formed • High compressive strength.
in moulds. Extruded wirecut bricks are sometimes made with • Very low tensile strength.
holes running through them to reduce their weight or to allow • High resistance to weathering.
reinforcing rods to link them together. Hand-made bricks often • High thermal mass.
have an uneven appearance which provides a rich visual texture • High acoustic mass.
as a completed wall. • High impact resistance.
• High fire resistance.
Most bricks in the U.K. are made in a single standard size: • Susceptible to thermal and moisture movement.
215mm long x 102.5mm wide x 65mm high, (7 5/8" l. x 3 • Low seismic resistance
5/8" w. x 2 3/8" h.) though metric size bricks are also available.
When constructing brickwork a 10mm joint is used throughout, Material selection
resulting in vertical courses 75mm high and 225mm long. Two The most widely used types are common, facing, engineering
bricks laid side by side with a 10mm joint are equal to a brick and calcium silicate bricks. Common bricks are the weakest
length. The modular nature and size of bricks makes brickwork type, while engineering bricks are the strongest. Facing bricks
a very flexible medium. The weight and size of one brick allow are usually used on the external face, while cheaper bricks can
it to be lifted with one hand. The modular nature of brickwork be used within the wall. Engineering bricks are used for their high
imposes a strict discipline on the detailing of openings and strength and are almost impervious to water, and so are often
corners if expensive specially shaped bricks, called 'specials' are being used below ground in addition to structural applications
MCH_ 52
Above and below. Indian Institue of Management, Above and below. Phillips Exeter Academy Library, New Hampshire, U.S.A
Ahmedabad, India. Architect: Louis Kahn Architect; Louis Kahn
where brick is used as a primary loadbearing element. Calcium Properties and data
silicate bricks are made from a mixture of sand and lime which The main properties of brick are as follows:
are compressed under steam pressure in a mould. They are low
to medium strength, and their water absorption is comparable Density:
to that of clay bricks. They are mainly used in internal walls where Average brickwork = 1900 - 2100 kg/m3
their light appearance can be exploited. Brickwork is strong in (118 to 131 lb/ft3)
compression, but is not used to resist tensile forces. Design strength = 5.0 N/mm2 to 25.0 N/mm2
(1.0 x 105 to 5.2 x 105 lbf/ft2)
Working with the material Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Brick can be easily cut and drilled. Metal fixings, in the form of = 5.0 x 10-6 K-1 to 8.0 x 10-6 K-1
brackets and dowels, are used for walls where the brickwork (2.8 x 10-6 to 4.5 x 10-6 0F-1)
would not be sufficiently stable by itself. These fixings are used Thermal conductivity: = 1.3 W/mºC at
extensively in brick cladding which is supported by a structural 5% moisture content (0.75 BTU/hr.ft.OF)
frame. Bricks are made in a vast range of colours from reds to Specific heat capacity= 800 J/kgºC (0.19 BTU/lb OF)
blues. Colour is defined by the type of clay, combined with the
way it is fired and any pigments which may be added. Calcium
silicate bricks are white.
As new brickwork and mortar dries out after rain, traces of salt
deposits are sometimes left on the surface. These appear in the
form of white stains known as efflorescence. It can be easily removed
with a brush and water. Where moisture continues to penetrate the
brickwork this efflorescence will continue to manifest itself.
MCH_ 53
Materials 01
Tectonics in plastics
Kunsthaus, Graz, Austria. Architect: Spacelab Cook-Fournier Mound Stand, Lords Cricket Gound, London, U.K.
Architect: Hopkins and Partners
Monsanto House of the Future, Disneyland,

Californa, U.S.A.
Verner Panton Chair
The use of plastics is very much a part of recent history Later during the l960s, the Archigram Group in the U.K. explored
from 1945. Plastics were given an impetus for development this temporary or mobile nature of construction, with its ability
during the Second World War and found wider industrially- to create, at least potentially, the Instant City or Walking City.
based uses in building construction from the 1950s An additional appeal of this architecture is its ability to form
onwards. The Monsanto House of 1957 was developed by an an addition to an existing built context along with its ability to
American housing company with the Massachusetts Institute create a complete built environment. In parallel with the work of
of Technology (MIT). The aim of the project was to create Archigram, the ecology movement was emerging at this time as
an all-plastic house that also used much more plastic in its a result of concern for the natural environment, and our impact
interior fittings, which were already being used extensively on it, gradually rising in the public consciousness. An interest
in more traditional construction, from vapour barriers to in a return to ‘low’ energy technology began to emerge at this
plastic plumbing and electrics. The design of the Monsanto time, with events such as the image of the earth being seen
House extended the idea of the consumer product to the from the moon for the first time in 1969, allowing us to see
building itself by making the house from a series of plastic our world from outside its boundaries. The revived interest in
‘pods’ formed from wall and roof panels of repeated module. the flying machines of Leonardo de Vinci at the time can also
The visual effect of the repetition of the facade panel was be seen as a kind of hope for the future: low energy machines
reduced by setting them around a single core, giving them that might have a real technical performance. The possibilities
a visual complexity where each room is seen as a separate of low energy flight, and their parallel in architecture was the
volume. Each room was naturally cross ventilated, though flying machine of Clement Adler in France, who developed the
the use of air conditioning was suggested as a benefit in the idea of flying machines, following examples from nature such
time before the environmental effects of energy consumption as the bat, rather than the flat, fabricated components used
became a primary design consideration. Windows were much more successfully by the Wright Brothers. Many of these
glazed however, and were not curved, unless the opaque principles would eventually find an echo in the ‘tent’ structures of
plastic panels, giving the visual effect of glazed ‘slices’ through Frei Otto, but were used to great effect in the airships proposed
a complex single volume. A primary benefit of the house was by Archigram. The work of the Archigram Group themselves
possibly its ability to move location as the family moved from appeared to come to life for the first time at the big scale in
place to place, which perhaps was as appealing as its form the designs of non-Archigram architects Richard Rogers and
with its suggestion of lightness, almost appearing to ‘hover’ Renzo Piano. Plastics were used to form the escalators in the
in its suburban garden context. Centre Pompidou in Paris of 1977, which would have been
MCH_ 54
Schlumberger Cambridge Research Centre, Cambridge, U.K. Media Centre, Lords Cricket Gound, London, U.K.
Architect: Hopkins and Partners Architect: Future Systems
Olympiapark, Munich, Germany. Above. Olympiapark, Munich, Germany.

Architect: Frei Otto Architect: Frei Otto
Eole flying machine, Clement Ader
both heavy and difficult to fabricate in glass. Plastics were not Recent examples are limited to modest scale architectural
used elsewhere in the building, where glass and metal panels compositions, but those imagined in the design work of artist
are used for their greater life span. The use of sheet material Roger Dean in the 1970s were far more ambitious, which were
in the designs of Archigram in airships and tent structures either conceived as sprayed concrete onto a plastic formwork,
was reflected by the use of plastics in the Munich Stadium or could have been made entirely in concrete. The complex
canopy of 1972 and the tent structures of Michel Hopkins in geometry of Zaha Hadid’s project for Chanel was suggested at
the Cambridge Schlumberger building and the Mound Stand at a much larger scale in the Jade Sea painting by Dean of 1976.
Lords Cricket Ground in London, both built during the late 1980s. In Dean’s work the architecture is continuous with the forms
Peter Cook of Archigram built his first large scale building that of nature, which would suit a range of materials, but plastics
reflected some of the values of Archigram in the Kunsthaus in suit the transition from complex mould to complex weathertight
Graz, Austria, completed in 2003. Acrylic rainscreen panels form which is difficult to achieve with other materials.
were curved to create a non rectilinear form that creates a
translucent outer skin. A possible development for plastics is that of the use of
common components for walls and fixtures and fittings, so that
The ability to cut plastic based fabrics into different forms has the interchange of cladding for elements of curved wall could
been exploited in the Natural Ellipse building by Masaki Endoh and be used in associated fitted furniture in a complete system
Masahiro Ikeda in Tokyo. There the transparent nature of the capable of replacement through the life of the building. The life
building is exploited to create a complex geometric building skin span of building components in contemporary buildings varies
from a flat material. Solid plastic panels in the tectonic tradition from 10 years for fittings, to 25 years for windows and doors to
of the Monsanto House can be found in the travelling pavilion 50-100 years for the structure. The overall life span of building
for Chanel by Zaha Hadid. Here, the geometry is complex, with elements might vary more by allowing more replacement and
different sized panels formed from a set of relatively economic interchangability of components within a building rather than
moulds, the shapes of which could be generated from models its complete replacement by a new assembly, or new facade,
generated in 3D modelling computer software rather than by for example. This would ensure that components are used for
hand. This digital approach is gradually making its presence felt longer than is the case in current building construction.
in construction with the ability to transfer 3D digital model files
directly to manufacturing machines.
MCH_ 55
Materials 01
Allianz Arena, Munich, Germany. Architect; Herzog + de Meuron
Above and right. Natural Ellipse Building, Tokyo,

Japan. Architect: Masaki Endoh and Ikeda
Masahiro
Chanel Contemporary Art Container, Mobile.

Issues of the interchangability of components are tied to the others. Although reinforced concrete, plywood and other more
issue of scale, and design appropriate to a given scale. Where traditional materials are sometimes referred to as composites,
small structural components such as ties or struts are designed the term is generally used in the building industry to refer to
quite differently to building beams, due to much higher forces polymer-based composites. These materials have a polymer
experienced by large scale building components, the difference resin reinforced with thin fibres, usually glass fibres or carbon
in approach to their design is shrinking with the need to provide fibres. Glass-fibre-reinforced polyester (GRP) was first used
greater visual expression in large scale constructions. At the during the Second World War for radar covers and was later
scale of transportation, the design of MIT’s vehicles based on a applied in a GRP boat for the US Navy in 1947. Carbon-fibre was
more architectural approach suggests a range of components developed by the Royal Aircraft Establishment in Farnborough,
that could be developed in plastic, from the semi-structural England, during the 1960s and was applied in composites for
seats to the enclosure of the vehicles. use in compressor blades in jet engines later in that decade.
Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer is much stronger and stiffer
Production process of raw material than GRP but remains extremely expensive in relation to most
'Plastics' are resinous polymer-based materials divided into metals or other plastics and has yet to find a significant use in
two groups. These are thermoplastics, which melt at high building construction.
temperature, and thermosetting plastics, which set hard and do
not melt on further reheating. They are used mainly in cladding Polycarbonate is used in building construction largely as a
systems but composites are beginning to be used as fully substitute for glass, especially where moulded shapes are
structural materials in relatively modest applications such as required which would be too difficult or too expensive to make
footbridges. The most commonly used types, under the generic in glass. The material was first made in the 1950s as part of
names used in the building industry rather than their polymer- the research into polyesters and was marketed as Lexan sheet
based names, are as follows: in the early 1960s. Polycarbonate is made by polymerisation,
• Polycarbonate where a polymer is melted and extruded into strands which
• Acrylic sheet are chopped to produce polycarbonate granules. The granules
• PVC-U can then be extruded or moulded to form single sheet, twin-wall
sheet or complex shapes.
Composites comprise two or more materials combined together
where the properties of each constituent can complement the
MCH_ 56
Allianz Arena, Munich, Germany. Architect; Herzog + de Meuron Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France. Architect: Renzo Piano
and Richard Rogers
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Architect: Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers
Polycarbonate stress strain diagram
Properties and data Material selection

Density : 1140 -1210 kg/m3 Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic used for its high strength,
(71 to 76 lb/ft3) ductility, lightness and transparency. It is fire retardant, and can
Tensile strength = 59 N/mm2 to 70 N/mm2 (1.2 x 106 to be easily moulded to complex shapes. The use of polycarbonate
1.5 x 106 lbf/ft2) is limited by its combustibility. Polycarbonate is an extruded
Compressive strength = 100 N/mm2 to 120 N/mm2 materal used as sheets and sections. Polycarbonate sheet
(2.1 x 106 to 2.5 x 106 lbf/ft2) is available in thicknesses from 2mm to 25mm (1/16in to
Young's Modulus = 2.0 - 2.4 kN/mm2 (4.1 x 107 to 5.0 x 107 1in). Its impact resistance is higher than that of toughened or
lbf/ft2) laminated glass. The two main disadvantages of polycarbonate
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion : over glass are that it is less durable, scratching easily which
60 - 75 x10-6 K-1 makes the surface dull with time, and its greater combustibility.
(33.5 x 10-6 to 41.7 x 10-6 0F-1) Polycarbonate also has greater thermal expansion than glass.
Thermal conductivity :
0.18 - 0.22 W/mºC (0.10 to 0.13 BTU/hr.ft.OF) Twin-walled sheet is an extrusion of two layers separated by
Specific heat capacity = 1200 - 1300 J/kgºC (0.29 – 0.31 parallel fins, giving the material greater rigidity for use as a
BTU/lb OF) board. The air gap between the two layers provides a degree of
thermal insulation. The maximum sheet size is approximately 2
Polycarbonate has the following general properties: x 6 metres. It can be sawn, cut and drilled. It expands 20% more
• A strong material with low stiffness. than glass. For example, a 1.5 metre (5ft) wide sheet will expand
• High transparency can be obtained. up to 3mm (1/8in). The material has a density of 1200 kg/m3,
• A tough but ductile material. which is half that of glass, although in practice the real weight
• High impact resistance. saving is about one third.
• Flame resistant, tending to melt rather than ignite, but is
still combustible. Polycarbonate can be coated with acrylic to prevent yellowing,
• Poor scratch resistance without silicone coatings. and other coatings are used to enhance abrasion resistance.
• Recyclable. It provides an average of 85% light transmission for a sheet
5 to 6mm thick.
MCH_ 57
Materials 01
90 90
80 80
70 70

60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
ε - Nominal strain (%) ε - Nominal strain (%)
PMMA stress strain diagram PVC-U stress strain diagram
90
800
80
700
70

600
60
500
50
400
40
300
30
200
20
100
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
GRP stress strain diagram Polymers stress strain diagram
Acrylic Sheet PVC-U

Acrylic sheet, developed as Perspex in the 1930s, is a plastic The term PVC-U, or UPVC, denotes the unplasticised form of
based on polymers of acrylic acid. The most common is polyvinyl chloride, or PVC. This rigid form of PVC is used for a
polymethyl methacrylate, or PMMA, made by polymerising an wide range of building components from guttering and ground
MMA monomer with a catalyst to form a powder which can drainage pipes to window frames. The material can be easily
then be extruded, moulded or cast. extruded or moulded to complex shapes and is available in a
range of colours. The low thermal conductivity and flexibility of
Properties and data the material, combined with its ability to be extruded, makes it
Density :1150 - 1220 kg/m3 very suitable for window frames where the material is, in effect,
(72 to 76 lb/ft3) its own thermal break, minimising the risk of condensation on
Tensile strength = 38 N/mm2 to 80 N/mm2 the face of the frame inside the building.
(7.9 x 105 to 1.7 x 106 lbf/ft2)
Compressive strength = 45 N/mm2 to 80 N/mm2 Properties and data
(9.4 x 105 to 1.7 x 106 lbf/ft2) Density : 1400 kg/m3 (87 lb/ft3)
Young's Modulus = 2.2 - 3.8 kN/mm2 Tensile strength = 35 N/mm2 to 52 N/mm2
(46 x 106 to 79 x 106 lbf/ft2) (7.3 x 105 to 1.1 x 106 lbf/ft2)
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Young's Modulus = 2.1 to 4.1 kN/mm2
81 x 10-6 K-1 (45 x 10-6 0F-1) (43 x 106 to 85x 106 lbf/ft2)
Thermal conductivity : 0.2 W/mºC Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
(0.12 BTU/hr.ft.OF) = 50 x 10-6 K-1 (28 x 10-6 0F-1)
Specific heat capacity Thermal conductivity = 0.19W/mºC (0.11 BTU/hr.ft.OF)
= 1280 - 1500 J/kgºC (0.30 – 0.36 BTU/lb OF) Specific heat capacity = 1300 J/kgºC (0.31 BTU/lb OF)
Acrylic sheet has the following general properties: PVC-U has the following general properties:
• High transparency and optical clarity. • Available in a range of colours.
• Weathers well with high resistance to yellowing. • Weathers well but is susceptible to fading, particularly with
• Hard but brittle. brighter colours.
• Poor scratch resistance. • Tough but flexible.
• Easily recycled. • Recyclable.
• Combustible. • Combustible.
MCH_ 58
Olympiastadion, Munich, Germany.
Chanel Contemporary Art Container, Mobile.
Architect: Frei Otto
Chanel Contemporary Art Container, Mobile. Beijing National Aquatics Centre, Beijing, China. Architect: PTW Architects
Glass Reinforced Polyester (GRP) Working with the material

This material was first commercially available in the 1930s from GRP is made by embedding glass fibres, usually as a woven
the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Co. in the U.S.A., but has only slowly cloth, into a polyester resin which is then hardened by a catalyst.
been introduced into building. Its main use is in specially fabricated Glass fibre is a flexible sheet material formed from fibres drawn
wall cladding panels. Glass reinforced polyester, or GRP, is made from molten glass, and has a tensile strength ten times that of
from a combination of glass fibre mat and polyester resin. It is steel. Polyester resin, the other component of GRP, becomes a
a thermosetting composite which has high tensile, shear and solid material when a chemical catalyst is added. The material
compressive strength combined with lightness and resistance is made either by craft-based open moulding methods to make
to corrosion. However, like aluminium, it deflects considerably panels or by pultrusion to make continuous sections in the
under high loads and requires stiffening. manner of extrusions in other materials. Injection moulding is
sometimes used but this is usually limited to small components.
Properties and data The craft-based methods use either the hand lay-up technique,
Density : 1600 -1950 kg/m3 (100 to 121 lb/ft3) where glass-fibre or glass-fibre cloth is laid in an open mould and
Tensile strength = 300 N/mm2 to 1100 N/mm2 coated with resin and catalyst, or the spray technique where
(6.3 x 106 to 23 x 106 lbf/ft2) a mixture of fibres and resins is sprayed onto the mould. Air
Compressive strength =360N/mm2 to 880N/mm2 bubbles are removed by hand-rolling or by a suction method. The
(7.5 x 106 to 18 x 106 lbf/ft2) face of the mould is coated with a releasing agent to facilitate
Young's Modulus : = 35 - 45 kN/mm2 removal when set.
(7.3 x 108 to 9.4 x 108 lbf/ft2)
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion : The manufacture of GRP panels is a craft-based workshop
21.5x10-6 K-1 (11.9 x 10-6 0F-1) activity rather than a machine-based industrial technique. It is
Thermal conductivity: 0.4 - 1.2W/mºC formed in moulds but without high temperatures or expensive
(0.23 to 0.7 BTU/hr.ft.OF) equipment. This is in contrast to the emerging technique
Specific heat capacity = 1000 - 1400 J/kgºC of pultrusion where machinery is used to draw a mixture of
(0.23 – 0.34 BTU/lb OF) resin and chopped fibres through a die to produce a material
with constant cross-section. A wide range of sections is now
GRP has the following general properties: available from I-sections to channels, tubes and planks for use in
• Strong but light. footbridges. Sections can be bolted together using techniques
• High stiffness compared with plastics. broadly similar to those used in steel construction.
• High impact resistance.
MCH_ 59
Materials 01
Tectonics in timber
Teatro del Mondo, Mobile.

Architect: Aldo Rossi
Vanna Venturi House, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Architect: Robert Venturi
An increased interest in the use of timber is in gridshells, Eisenman, for example, who introduced a second overlaid grid
which are shown in the structures chapter. In contrast into his designs for timber buildings to create spatial complexity
to large scale structures currently being developed in while following regular construction methods for this material.
new projects is the enduring use of timber to make small- The use of a second grid at a different angle, used by Eisenman,
scale rectilinear enclosures based on cut timber sections follows on to some extent from the work of Louis Kahn, with his
up to around 3.5 metres long, conditioned by the size of ‘buildings within buildings’ ideas in the Exeter Library and the
cut natural timber, which conditions the size of rooms in Indian Institute of Management in Ahmadabad.
domestic construction. The 19th century British railway
was designed with this constraint, to make an economic A contemporary of both architects is Aldo Rossi, whose interest
single room building that can be glazed along its walls as in simple geometric forms can be seen in his design for the
required to give clear views up and down the railway track. A mobile theatre, the Teatro del Mondo, with its independence
20th century echo of this building type is the Vanna Venturi from context, allowing an abstracted typology of theatre to
House, designed by Robert Venturi and completed in 1964. become the primary forms of architectural expression in the
The design can be viewed as a reaction to the ‘free’ plan design. Here the timber construction is used in the form of long
of Modernist architecture. In mainstream Modernism, timber boards to create large flat surfaces, with timber framed
the design is generated from the plan, providing buildings windows set into them. The design follows traditional principles
which are largely extruded from the plan. Instead, Venturi’s of timber construction at this scale.
timber buildings of the 1950s draw on vernacular ‘types’,
so that buildings might look like their imagined typologies as Another strand of timber construction is that of traditional
well as being specific to their site, rather than being largely timber shipbuilding, where large scale structures, the
independent of the historical built context. Consequently, a equivalent of three or four storey buildings, were formed
school should look like a ‘school’; a house should look like a in shapes of complex geometry required to propel them
traditional home, with communal spaces on the ground floor through water efficiently. An essential feature of traditional
and private rooms on the upper floor. shipbuilding, particularly for fighting ships, is the solid nature of
their construction, more like the solid cross laminated timber
In contrast to this approach are the early homes of Richard panels of contemporary construction than the frame with
Meier, using timber construction for Modernist designs, lightweight timber cladding attached. Sailing ships of the 18th
often contrasting open glazed facades with opaque enclosed and 19th centuries had thick timber hulls clad in additional
walls. Timber is used as a material that can provide a smooth timber, rather than having a skeletal frame with timber boards
continuous surface to contrast with the glazing rather than spanning between them. This form of construction can be seen
allow the specific form of construction to be expressed. This as a parallel to the solid hardwood timber frames of medieval
approach follows a Modernist interest in linking inside and construction, which are seeing a revival in England. The timber
outside spaces across screens of glass, through the use of the frames use timber sections of around 300mm square,
‘open plan’ of linked internal spaces. In Meier’s houses, spaces typically set at around 2000mm centres, rather than the small
are differentiated by the introduction of double height volumes softwood timbers of 100mmx50mm set at 300mm centres
that link spaces together to differentiate spatial experience in or less. However, the constructional sophistication of sailing
a building. This is a different approach to the spatial complexity ships is only just beginning to find its way into contemporary
of house projects designed by Meier’s contemporary Peter solid timber frame construction.
MCH_ 60
Napier University, Edinburgh, U.K. Instant Cabin at Massachusetts Large scale timber frame.
Architect: Building Design Partnership Institute of Technology (MIT), U.S.A.
Unlike sailing sips, which were entirely clad in timber on the of digital tools for both design and construction. The plywood
outside, sometimes with an additional thin metal skin on the sheets were cut with a CNC router in a way that produced little
lower part of the hull, medieval timber construction of buildings waste material by laying out cutting patterns in a digital file used
sets the cladding material as an infill between the structural by the cutting machine. This approach of CNC routing can be
members. While historically this resulted in cracks between approximated at the smaller scale through the use of laser
structural frame and infill, causing possible leaks, contemporary cutters to make small scale models of the real components.
materials can achieve considerably higher performing walls This method of rapid prototyping is ideally suited to timber
using the same principle. This approach may be one to follow construction, where issues of fabrication in the real building
in the coming years. can be studied and resolved during the design development of
the building. This contrasts with other machines used for rapid
A mixture of large scale timber construction and its smaller prototyping, which provide ways of making sometimes complex
scale platform frame equivalent can be seen in traditional forms in an unspecified building material. An essential aspect
Japanese construction, where timber frames vary in scale to of digital fabrication techniques in timber is their ability to bring
suit both their structural purpose and their use within a building. the full range of design development back to the design studio,
The use of pegs and interlocking joints to create joints that allowing constraints of material systems in timber to inform the
work in tension as well as compression have produced a rich design at all stages of development.
tradition of hand built, large scale structures seen in the design
of sailing ships immediately prior to the Industrial Revolution. Timber has the following general properties:
• Fibrous and elastic, making it strong in tension and
A contemporary parallel of this approach of mixed timber compression. Like metals, it performs better in tension
techniques can be seen in the early work of Morphosis than in buckling.
Architects in the US. Their early unrealised designs have small • Undergoes varying degrees of moisture movement.
scale structures are linked in a building composition that would • Straight grain is stronger than an irregular grain and is
have ideally suited this approach of mixed timber construction. easier to work.
The designs, while visually striking, do not exceed the limits of
the construction material which would have required additional An irregular grain gives a rich, textured appearance, usually
structural support in a different material system. The use of resulting from knots which weaken the timber. Knots are
small scale structures to create larger buildings from these actually where the branches were located and leave a distinct
components avoids the need to change material or use pattern in the cut timber.
laminated timber. • Timber is prone to rot, particularly where it cannot be
adequately ventilated or is subject to continuous cycles of
Tension joints in timber are difficult to form without metal wetting and drying.
connectors or glues, but the ability to form joints without their • Theoretically, wood will last forever if it stays either
use has been explored in the design of the Instant Cabin at completely dry or completely wet.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The form of
construction used is one of interlocking components and pegs Wooden piles rot only in the area of fluctuation in the water
all formed from plywood sheet. While experimental, this design table or tide. The causes of decay are a mixture of trapped air
demonstrated the possibilities of construction based on the use and water, where fresh air cannot ventilate and dry the wet
MCH_ 61
Materials 01
Timber
Hammerbeam Roof, Eltham Palace Hall, Eltham, Westminster Hall Ceiling, the Houses of Parliament, London, U.K.
Stirling Palace, Scotland, U.K. London, U.K.
material. This results in the growth of fungi, causing dry rot movement. Plywood is graded according to its resistance to
or insect attack. This is prevented by impregnating the outer moisture penetration which is determined mainly by the glue
zones of timber with preservative chemicals, but these can used. The most common types are interior grade, exterior grade
harm the natural environment if the chemicals are allowed to and marine grade. The face veneers vary from a rough finish,
leach into the ground. such as Douglas fir, to a smooth one like birch. The different
veneers have little influence on either moisture penetration or
Material selection strength. Because plywood performs well in shear, it is used as
Commercial timber is classified as either softwood, from sheathing to timber wall panels. Plywood also has high impact
conifers, or hardwood, from broad-leaf trees. Softwood is resistance. It can be bent to small radii, sometimes using a
used for most structural timber, as it is easily worked due to steam treatment.
its softness and straightness of grain, though oak is common
for exposed structural timber frames. Typical types are cedar, Recent developments in plywood have produced blockboard
Douglas fir, western hemlock, pine, redwood (scots pine), spruce, and laminboard which are made by applying veneers to a core
whitewood and yew. Most softwood comes from the coniferous made from solid timber core blocks also known as a stave-
forests of the northern hemisphere. Hardwoods have high core The core consists of strips of solid wood ranging from
strength and durability, a rich grain and varied colour. They are 7 to 30mm (1/4in to 1 3/16in) thick. Laminboard, a heavier
more expensive than softwoods which make them too expensive material than blockboard, has a core of solid strips up to
for most current structural use, but suitable for joinery and 7mm (1/4in) thick, laminated together. The grain of the face
finishes. Typical varieties of hardwood are ash, beech, birch, veneers is set at right angles to that of the core strips. These
cedar, iroko, mahogany, maple, oak, teak and walnut. Hardwood boards are not suitable for forming curves. The advantage of
occurs in most parts of the world but is obtained mainly from these panels is that they are lighter and cheaper than plywood.
both northern temperate forests and tropical rainforests. Since Laminboard is useful where weight is important, but is unstable
hardwoods constitute a large proportion of the rainforests, and in wet areas because the endgrain to the blocks is exposed
take much longer to grow than softwoods, the world's supply which can deteriorate rapidly.
is depleting at an alarming rate. As a result, the use of certain
tropical hardwoods has come under considerable scrutiny in Chipboard, medium density fibreboard (MDF), and hardboard
recent years. are the most common particleboards. All are made from mixing
wood particles, normally wood waste, with an additive to form a
Laminated timber is constructed from planks glued together sheet material that is cured between heated plates. Chipboard
to form sections which are larger than could be achieved with was developed primarily for the furniture industry in the
natural timber. Laminated timber works well in both tension and 1960s. However, it is also used as a flooring material in wood
compression. As the natural growth defects of timber reduce construction as a cheaper alternative to plywood or timber
strength, individual boards are positioned so as to reduce the boards. Chipboard is not as strong, or as rigid, as an equivalent
cumulative effect on the strength of the overall member. The plywood sheet, since the wood fibres are shorter. Like plywoods,
strength of laminated timber therefore approaches that of it resists shear forces but is less capable of withstanding impact
defect-free solid timber. damage and is harder to fix with screws and nails. Also, it cannot
be curved except in a pre-formed process. Chipboard is also
Plywood sheet was invented in the U.S.A. in the 1930s, and more prone to creep under prolonged loading than plywood and
is made by bonding together veneers peeled from logs. Both timber. MDF has smooth faces and a uniform cross section.
softwoods and hardwoods are used. They are layered so that This gives it a great advantage over other boards of having
the grain of each veneer is set at right angles to the one either smooth exposed edges that require no lipping or trim when cut.
side, providing strength in both directions as well as minimising For this reason it is often used for built-in furniture and interior
thermal movement. Good quality plywood has very little thermal panel systems.
MCH_ 62
30

20
10
-0.2 -0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-10
Examples showing a parallel timber technology: the construction of tim-

ber sailing ships.
-20
Timber stress strain diagram
Working with the material Properties and data

Before the 20th century most timber joints were made to
work in compression, so the high tensile strength of the Density:
material was not used at junctions. However, the development Softwood (C22) = 340 kg/m3 (21.2 lb/ft3)
of modern glues and metal connectors has resulted in a wide Hardwood (D40) = 590 kg/ m3 (36.8 lb/ft3)
range of contemporary tension and compression joints. The
most common joints in timber that perform well in tension Design strength:
and compression are the bolted metal connector, split ring Softwood (C22) = 6.8 N/mm² (1.4 x 105 lbf/ft2) bending
connector and the nail-plate connector. Hardwood (D40) = 12.5 N/mm² (2.6x105 lbf/ft2) bending

The bolted connector is a thin plate of galvanised steel with Young's Modulus (E0,mean)
projecting teeth. The connector is set between the timber Softwood (C22)= 9.7 kN/mm² (2.0 x 108 lbf/ft2)
sections being joined, and is embedded into both sections as the Hardwood (D40) = 10.9 kN/mm² (2.3 x 108 lbf/ft2)
bolt fixing is tightened. The split ring connector works in a similar
way. Both fixings transmit shear forces at the joint across the Coefficient of thermal expansion:
bolted connection. Softwood (C22) = 34 x 10-6 K-1 (18.8 x 10-6 F-1) across grain
3.5 x 10-6 K-1 (1.9 x 10-6 F-1) along grain
The nail-plate, also called a gangnail plate, is a galvanised Hardwood (D40) = 40 x 10-6 K-1 (22.2 x 10-6 F-1) across grain
thin metal plate which is pressed to form a series of nail-like 4.0 x 10-6 K-1 (2.2 x 10-6 F-1) along grain
projections on one side. The plate is pressed into the timber
sections being joined to form a patch connection on either side. Thermal conductivity:
This is done under factory-controlled conditions, and is most Softwood (C22) = 0.14 W/mºC (8.1 x 10-2 BTU/hr.ft.OF)
commonly used in prefabricated floor and roof trusses. across grain
Hardwood (D40) = 0.21 W/mºC (12.1 x 10-2 BTU/hr.ft.OF)
Glued connections in timber are glue-welded joints that along grain
are as strong as the wood itself. Widely used types are
urea-formaldehyde, phenol-formaldehyde and resorcinol. Specific heat capacity = 3.0 J/kgºC (7.2 x 10-4 BTU/lbOF)
Glued connections provide structural continuity at the
joint. They do not break down when exposed to the weather Standard sheet sizes:
or changes in temperature. Plywood 1220 x 2440mm (4'x8')
1525 x 3660mm (5'x12')
In joinery, particularly for built-in items, simple jointing techniques Thicknesses 4mm to 25mm (1/4" to 1")
that allow parts to be made quickly and efficiently tend to be Chipboard 1200 x 2400 mm
used. Most joints are designed to be manufactured easily using 1200 x 4800mm
machinery, which has led to the demise of traditional techniques Thicknesses 4mm to 25mm (1/4" to 1")
such as dovetailing. However, the availability of adhesives has MDF 1220 x 1525mm
enabled simple mitred and butt joints to be used. 2440 x 3050mm
Thicknesses 4mm to 25mm (1/4" to 1")
MCH_ 63
Materials 01
90 60
80
70

60 40
50
40
30 20
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 300 450
PVC-U stress strain diagram EFTE stress strain diagram
PVC membranes ETFE

PVC (polyvinyl chloride) roof membranes have been in use ETFE (ethylene-tetra-flouro-ethylene) is a polymer similar to
since the 1960s as a very lightweight and relatively economic PTFE (marketed as Teflon) which is made by extrusion as a
roofing material, and have become widely used in recent years. sheet material. Thicknesses vary but 0.2mm is a common
Membranes in this material were first developed in Europe thickness of material for ETFE cushions, allowing them to be
in the late 1960s and were used in the US from the 1970s very light in weight at around 350g/m² for this thickness
onwards. PVC sheet material is usually reinforced with glass of sheet. Heavier gauge sheet at 0.5mm thickness weighs
fibre to give it increased rigidity that is easier to bond to the around 1000g/m². Inner layers of ETFE sheet that provide
substrate.The PVC used in membranes is plasticised (PVC-P), separate chambers within the cushion are often made from
unlike the unplasticised PVC (PVC-U, or uPVC) used to make 0.1mm thick sheet. The material is also used for its high
window frames and rainwater drainage components. PVC-P level of transparency, with 95% light transmission, and its
is rigid at normal external temperatures, but softens when durability when compared to other fabric materials, with a life
heated, making it flexible and allowing strips or sheets to be expectancy of 25-35 years based on visual criteria. In order to
welded together to form a continuous membrane without provide translucent areas of roof (or facade) using the same
the need for standing seams or visible joints. Plasticisers and material, a white coloured translucent sheet is manufactured
filler material in PVC-P is added to give the material greater which allows around 40% light transmission. ETFE does not
flexibility. The material has very low levels of shrinkage, is provide a barrier to the passage of UV light, making it ideal for
dimensionally stable and does not creep visibly with age. The use in buildings where extensive planting is displayed, though
material experiences only very small amounts of movement the translucent white sheet has greatly reduced UV light
under full wind load. transmission. Solar shading can be provided by a pattern of dots
printed onto the surface of the ETFE cushion, with a reflective
Membranes are reinforced with glass fibre sheet or polyester silver colour being a popular choice, though other colours and
fabric. These layers are bonded into the material. The glass patterns can be developed for individual projects. The printed
fibre provides dimensional stability, making it more stable for dots on a clear ETFE sheet reduce the light transmission to
bonding to the substrate. The woven polyester fabric, used around 50-60%, but this can be increased further by printing
in tent membrane structures, has high tensile strength and dots on two faces of the air-filled cushion in areas of the roof
to resist wind loads the mechanically fixed method is used. where more shading is required. The amount of solar shading
A typical build-up for a single layer membrane is a concrete provided can be varied by allowing the middle layer to move as
deck with a vapour barrier set on top, with thermal insulation a result of changing the air pressure within the cushion. The
above that, sealed on top with a single layer membrane. PVC-P middle layer moves either outwards or inwards to increase the
membranes are typically 1.5mm - 3.0mm thick, while EPDM overlap of the printed screen of dots which has the effect of
membranes are typically 1.0mm - 1.5mm thick. varying the amount of solar shading provided.
FPO (TPO) membranes The sound absorption of ETFE cushions is low, so that
A recent development in thermoplastic membrane types are sound travels easily through the material. While this can
polypropylene- and polyethylene-based materials. They have be an advantage in noisy internal environments, it can be
greater flexibility than PVC-P membranes, but still require an inappropriate material if external noise is able to travel
reinforcement in glass fibre sheet for increased dimensional through the roof to internal spaces where a quiet environment
stability and polyester fabric to give greater tensile strength. is required. Cushions can also produce a drumming effect
Fire retardant is added to provide fire resistance, unlike PVC-P during rain resulting from the use of a thin, stretched
which is self-extinguishing when flame is applied. membrane material.
MCH_ 64
Busan stadium, Busan, South Korea. Architect: Space Group
The toughness of ETFE sheet is combined with a high resistance UV stabilisers, pigments and fire retardants. An additional outer
to tear. Damage by sharp objects puncturing an outer coat of lacquer slows down the effect in the PVC coating of
membrane does not spread easily into a larger tear. Birds can becoming increasingly brittle with age, which results from the
puncture the outer membrane, but they have great difficulty in softeners within the material gradually moving to the surface of
coming to rest on the roof itself, except on the clamping plates, the PVC coating. The lacquer coating also slows down the fading
where wire is sometimes fitted to avoid providing any spaces for effects of the colour pigments. A PVDF lacquer (a fluorinated
birds to stand. The material has fairly high resistance to surface polymer) is typically used, which also ensures that the surface
fading from UV light where there is a gradual loss of surface has low surface friction so that it will attract little dust and dirt,
reflectivity. ETFE sheet is also highly resistant to attack from and allows the membrane to be cleaned easily. Acrylic lacquers
chemicals and from airborne pollution in urban areas. Its low are also used. The typical weight of a roof using this material
level of surface friction ensures that cushions do not hold dirt is 500 - 800g/m². A PVC/polyester membrane roof will last
and dust easily, making cushion roofs relatively easy to maintain. around 15 - 25 years.
ETFE roofs are usually cleaned as a result of rain in temperate
climates, though access for maintenance is required, usually PTFE/glass fibre membranes are made from a glass fibre mat
provided by walking along the external clamping plates with which is coated with a PTFE layer such as Teflon. As with PVC/
cable assistance or from external structure. Roofs are designed polyester membranes, the coating protects the fabric from the
so as to ensure rainwater drains easily from the roof. Gutters effects of both the weather and UV light as well as forming a
are introduced on long span roofs between sets of clamping low friction surface to reduce the collection of dirt and dust.
plates, as shown in (F). Cushions are repaired by the use of ETFE Most dirt is washed away by rain, but some cleaning is needed
tape, which is visible, or by complete replacement of the panel, using the same methods as for PVC/polyester roofs. Typically it
depending largely on the visual requirements of the roof design. weighs 800 - 1500g/m². The life expectancy of a PTFE/glass
A major concern in the use of polymer materials for single layer fibre membrane roof is longer than PVC/polyester membranes
and multiple layer fabric roofs is their performance in fire. ETFE at around 30 - 40 years.
sheet is not easily inflammable and will self-extinguish quickly
under direct flame. Few burning fragments will fall below during a Comparison of types
fire, since the material melts rather than burns, with most of the Both PVC/polyester and PTFE/glass fibre have high tensile
burnt material being carried away in the rising hot air of a fire. strength and high flexibility, making them very suitable for
ETFE sheet melts at around 275°C, forming holes in the fabric curved and double curved roof membranes. They both have
which allows the heat and smoke of a fire to escape. However, a light transmission of 5 - 20% depending on the thickness
some roofs still require smoke vents, since this may not always of membrane used, reflecting 75 - 80% of light. Neither will
occur during a fire if the smoke and heat is being generated catch fire easily, and both resist the deteriorating effects of
in an area away from the roof, where the ETFE cushions are UV light, though PVC/polyester becomes increasingly brittle
not affected by the fire. The small amounts of material used in with age. Both have almost no acoustic performance and have
ETFE cushions, with an average wall thickness of 0.2mm, result poor thermal insulation performance when used as a single
in little material being deposited during a fire. membrane roof. PVC/polyester has a greater range of colours
readily available, while PTFE/glass fibre is usually white, the
PVC/polyester fabrics colour to which it bleaches naturally from its manufactured beige
PVC/polyester fabrics are made from polyester cloth which is colour after a few months of being exposed to sunlight. Weld
coated on both sides with a layer of PVC. The coating protects marks that occur during fabrication also disappear as a result
the fabric against the effects of rain and of UV light. The PVC of bleaching in sunlight. PTFE/glass fibre has lower surface
coating is a mixture of PVC powder, softeners and plasticisers, friction than PVC/polyester, allowing the former to remain
MCH_ 65
Materials 01
Hampshire Rose Bowl, Hampshire County Cricket Club, Southampton,

U.K. Architect: Hopkins and Partners
Plashet Unity Bridge, Lewisham, London, U.K.

Architect: Birds Portchmouth Russum
Chene Park Amphitheatre, Detroit, U.S.A. Architect: Kent Hubbell and

Engineer Bob Darvas
Brentwood Mall, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. Architect: Musson

Cattell Mackey Partnership
cleaner, while PVC/polyester requires cleaning more frequently. Acoustics

PTFE/glass fibre requires greater care in transportation to site Like ETFE cushions discussed in the previous section, single
and erection than PVC/polyester, the latter capable of being layer membranes provide no significant reduction of noise
folded without damage to the membrane. through the roof. A double layer roof with an acoustic lining will
provide some acoustic performance but will have the effect of
Thermal insulation losing most of the light transmission through the membranes.
A single layer membrane fabric roof in either PVC/polyester In addition, low frequency sound is difficult to absorb due to the
or PTFE/glass fibre typically has a U-value of around 6.0W/ low mass of the cladding material. In common with ETFE cushion
m2K. Where two layered membranes are used, with a roofs, the roofs are almost transparent to sound emitted from
minimum air gap of 200mm between the membranes, the within the building.
U-value can be reduced to around 3.0 W/m2K. Double layer
membranes are less commonly used as they have a severely Performance in fire
reduced light transmission; the translucency of the material The performance of a membrane during a fire depends on
being one of its main advantages. Thermal insulation can be both the fabric used and the stitching at the seams, where
added to a double layer membrane by using a translucent this joining method is used. Membranes lose their tension
fibre-based insulation, as used in fibre glass cladding panels under high temperatures, with PVC/polyester stretching
discussed in the previous chapter. The insulation can be fixed above 70-80°C, and PVC/polyester seams starting to peel
to the inner face of either membrane, depending on how the at around 100°C. At 250°C the PVC melts, leaving holes in
roof void is ventilated. With the increasing importance of the the membrane. PVC has fire retardants in the coating so
role of thermal insulation in the reduction of energy use in that it self-extinguishes when the flame source is removed
buildings, the use of double layer fabric membranes is set to which results in few, if any, burning fragments to drop
develop considerably over the next 10 years. down from the roof. PTFE/glass fibre fabrics fail at around
1000°C, but seams will fail at a much lower temperature
of around 270°C. With both materials, the failure of the
MCH_ 66
Food Court, Chatham Maritime Shopping Centre, Chatham, U.K. ‘Observatory: Air-Port City 2008’, Hayward Gallery, London, U.K.
Architect: Kemp Muir Wealleans Designer: Thomas Saraceno
Buckingham Palace Ticket Office, London, U.K. Architect: Hopkins and Ford Direct, Stevenage, U.K. Architect: DWW
Partners
membrane forms holes in the roof which allow heat and across the joint when formed. PVC/polyester can be both hot
smoke to escape. air welded and hot element welded; the advantage of hot air
welding being that repair work and some complex jointing can
Membrane roof fabrication be undertaken during erection on site. Fabric roofs with high
In stitched panel joints, wider seams have more rows of stitching structural loads within the membranes can be both welded and
visible, with the material folded over itself to strengthen the joint. sewn to provide a stronger joint. If the joint is first sewn then
Joint widths vary from around 25mm to 100mm depending on welded, this avoids the need for an additional strip to be added
the size of the membrane and its associated loads. Additional to the upper surface, which can enhance the visual appearance
strips of fabric are usually bonded onto the outer (upper) face of the membrane on its outer surface. Bonding with solvents
of the stitched seam to avoid rainwater penetration through is used on PVC/polyester fabrics only, but can be done in
the sewn thread. PVC/polyester panels can be stitched in conjunction with most lacquers used on that material.
conjunction with most lacquer types.
Welded seams are made by forming a lap between panels,

then heating the lapped areas and pressing them together.
Joint widths are similar to those required for stitched seams.
Seams in PTFE/glass fibre panels are formed by hot element
welding rather than by stitching or bonding, with an additional
fabric strip added either on top or within the joint itself between
the membranes to provide the required strength. For welded
joints on PVC membranes, the edge of the panel being jointed
has the PVDF lacquer removed before welding, which is applied
again when the welding is complete to ensure that the PVC is
fully welded and that the PVDF lacquer forms a continuous seal
MCH_ 67
Materials 01
Materials for interior finishes 1: internal partitions
6
Details
1. Block, typically concrete or hollow brick
2. Timber stud frame 7
3. Plasterboard/drywall finish
4. Skirting or recessed trim as shown
5. Internal door 9
6. Floor joist
7. Door header
8. Stud
10 10
9. Bracing
8
10. Flank wall
11. Glass block 9
12. Bedding reinforcement
13. Silicone seal
14. Bedding compound
15. Stud partition 6
16. Steel frame to enclose glass block panel
Vertical section
Blockwork edges only. Sheets are often made sufficiently thick to avoid
Partitions are non-loadbearing walls. The ease with which the need for vertical framing members or mullions to provide
they can be removed or changed depends upon the type of rigidity. For example, a 10mm thick toughened glass sheet will
construction. Blockwork partitions are constructed like external span vertically to approximately 2.5 metres (8ft), depending
walls and provide high levels of sound insulation as a result of upon intended use. Glass sheets are set with a vertical gap
their mass. A blockwork partition is typically set onto a concrete of approximately 10mm (3/8in) between them which is filled
floor or steel beam. The blockwork can be left as a self-finish, if with a translucent or transparent silicone seal. The glass is
fairfaced, or given a plaster finish. A gap is usually left between secured top and bottom in small steel channels or steel angles
the top of the partition and the soffit (underside) of the floor set back to back. The channel or angle fixings are recessed
above to allow both for thermal movement in the partition and into the floor and ceiling in order to provide an uninterrupted
deflections in the floor above. The gap is usually filled with a surface of glass. An alternative method is to bolt fix the glass,
flexible strip such as mineral fibreboard. employing methods used in external walls which are described
in the walls chapter. To avoid the problem of people walking
Timber into it, a line of manifestation marks is added to the glass
Timber stud partitions are constructed like the external wall where the partitions are used in public areas. They usually
to the platform frame, using an internal quality lining such as comprise a row of dots set at eye level and are either screen
plasterboard instead of plywood sheet. Sound insulation can printed, etched or fritted onto the material.
be provided by an infill of board or quilt between the studs. An
alternative method is to build the wall as two skins that are free Demountable Partitions
to vibrate acoustically independent of one another. Complicated Demountable partitions are used in office buildings where
shapes and curved partitions are easy to construct. Stud requirements for the subdivision of space change frequently
partitions can also be made in metal. These are used in in response to changing workloads and work patterns.
conjunction with an internal lining board, such as plasterboard, Demountable partitions have been used for centuries
and as an alternative to timber. Metal studs are made from in traditional Japanese construction. Sliding screens of
cold-formed galvanised steel sections. translucent shoji panels and opaque fusuma panels are used
for external walls and internal partitions. When they are used
Glass blocks externally, an additional outer screen often protects them.
Glass block partitions are built in panels of gridded blocks. The These panels are all demountable and can create a variety of
joints between blocks are reinforced with steel rods to overcome open and concealed spaces. Demountable partitions used in
their inherent lack of structural stability. The rods are bedded office buildings are available as a wide range of proprietary
either in a cement-based mortar or in silicone. Edges of blocks systems. Partitions can be moved easily with a minimum of
are sanded or coated to provide a key for the jointing material. disruption to the building in use. Manufactured demountable
Glass blocks can be made into panels approximately two metres panels are often easily integrated with other systems for
(6ft 6in) square and can be built either in prefabricated form or suspended ceilings and raised floors, to which they are usually
as site-built panels. Panels are supported by a perimeter frame fixed. Where a partition forms part of a fire break or smoke
made from any structural material such as concrete, steel or barrier, the voids above and below the partition, within the floor
timber. Expansion joints are provided around each panel. and ceiling zone, are sealed to form a continuous barrier. Solid
panels often consist of a fabric finish stretched over plywood,
Glazing or a laminate bonded to a board fixed in a frame. Glazed panels
Glazed partitions comprise sheets of toughened or laminated can be single or double-glazed. Venetian blinds are sometimes
glass fixed either in a framing system in the manner of a large fixed between the two sheets of glass forming a double glazed
window, or are fixed without frames on their top and bottom panel to provide a variable degree of visual privacy.
MCH_ 68
2
5 2
7
Horizontal elevation
3 3
4
4
Section AA Section BB Section CC Section DD
12
11
11
B C D
A A
B C D
Part elevation
MCH_ 69
Materials 01
Materials for interior finishes 2: plaster and wallboard
4 17
Plaster systems 3
Plastered walls provide a smooth, continuous finish that is usually 14
painted. Plastering is a traditional method that has been adapted 5
for use on different wall backgrounds. An advantage of plaster is
that complex shapes and edges can be formed. Dry pre-mixed 5 5
plaster in powder form is used, in order to ensure a consistency 10
of mix, and is mixed with water on site. Plasters are relatively soft 2
and can have slots cut into the material easily for the passage of
electrical wiring. This ease of use makes it a very practical wall 6
finish which can be cut and patched to accommodate changes 5
throughout the life of a building. Plastering is a labour-intensive
operation that is carried out entirely on site and the quality of 7
17
finish is very much dependant upon the skill of the individual
plasterer. For this reason it is important to ask for sample areas
Vertical section Vertical section
of plastering to be provided on site to ensure that the required
quality can be achieved. Like pouring concrete, plastering is a
wet trade, which involves mixing the material with water and
5
allowing it to dry out. This drying process can slow down other
20
building operations, particularly where construction time is an
14 16
important factor. 10
A wide range of plasters is used in different countries as a 21

15
result of the availability of minerals varying between regions.
Horizontal section
Manufacturers should be consulted to advise on appropriate 10
5 5
mixes for different applications. All plasters use either a sand-
cement mix, a gypsum plaster (gypsum is a naturally occurring
mineral) or a lightweight plaster made from minerals such as
perlite or vermiculite. Plasters are usually applied in two coats, Horizontal section
as an undercoat and finish. The finish coat has a finer texture
in order to achieve a smooth surface by using a mix that would
not be strong enough to be used as an undercoat. Plasters
have different levels of surface hardness. For example, soft 14
plasters might be used for exhibition spaces where paintings
are frequently moved; acoustic plasters are used to increase
sound insulation. 19
Details
1. Movement joint
When detailing edges, junctions and openings in plastered walls, 2. Quilt insulation
joints are needed where there is either a change in background 15
3. Top rail in timber or metal
material or a change in structure, such as where a wall meets (pressed steel shown)
Horizontal section 4. Ceiling level
a column. This is to accommodate thermal and structural
movement at the junction between two materials. These 5. Plasterboard
6. Softwood skirting
junctions are treated either by a hairline joint, which is mostly 7. Pressed steel bottom rail
concealed, or by a recessed joint that forms a shadow gap. The 8. Plasterboard
hairline joints use a layer of expanded metal lath that is nailed or 14 9. Floor level
screwed to the background and which spans the joint to form 10. Stud in timber or metal
a continuous background. A breather membrane is set behind (pressed steel shown)
11. Two layers plasterboard/
the metal lath to isolate the plaster if structural movement is drywall
expected. The plaster is then continued across the joint and is 15 12. Plasterboard/drywall laps
13
keyed into the lath where a different plaster mix, called isolating adjacent run of partition
plaster, is sometimes used. Shadow gaps are often formed with 13. Plasterboard/drywall butt
Horizontal section jointed at edge
galvanized steel trims to create a crisp line between the different
14. Wall in different material
backgrounds. The joint is revealed as a continuous groove down (concrete block shown)
the joint. Both plaster and trim may be painted to create a 15. Plasterboard/drywall on
15 11
homogeneous appearance. Plaster is also manufactured as battens or dabs
lining boards that are fixed on site. The method used generally 16. Internal timber door frame
depends on the nature of the background surface where boards 14 17. Insulated board
18. Mineral quilt providing
are preferred for use over uneven surfaces. Renders perform a 10
acoustic insulation
similar function to plaster on the external surfaces of walls and 19. Plasterboard/drywall butt
soffits. Their characteristics are similar to plaster. They can also jointed at internal angle
be used in a board form, fixed to a layer of rigid insulation. 20. Door leaf
Horizontal section 21. Architrave
22. Packer
MCH_ 70
Wallboard systems
4 22 Wallboard systems use gypsum plasterboard sheet to give a
plastered wall finish to a variety of backgrounds. A thin skim coat
10
15 finish over the plasterboard provides a continuous, dry fixed
14 partition system that is fast to build. It is particularly useful on
timber or metal-framed partitions where its use avoids the need
for the more expensive traditional technique of plaster and lath.
An alternative use of dry lining is to fix plasterboard sheets back
11 to a masonry wall using either steel or timber battens which are
10
screwed back to the background wall, or alternatively on plaster
dabs which are literally dabs of plaster. A variety of gypsum
5 plasterboard types is used; glass-fibre reinforced boards can be
curved to form radiused corners. High-impact resistant boards
are used where a hardwearing plaster finish is required, and
Vertical section fire-resistant boards are used in fire protection, particularly to
structural steel frames.
Horizontal section
Wallboard systems are finished with either a 2 to 3mm (1/16

to 3/32 in) thick skim coat or a full 15mm (9/16in) plaster
coat. In practice, the full plaster coat is not often used except, for
example, on curved dry lining partitions in order to provide a very
smooth finish. An alternative to a full skim is to use tapered edge
plasterboard sheets to allow joints to be covered with paper
10 2
10 10 tape and filled in order to avoid cracking. The wall is then coated
to provide a surface ready for applied finishes such as painting.
This almost 'dry' process allows following trades to start work
19
5 1 11 sooner than with plaster, which requires much longer to dry.
10
Horizontal section
Wallboard covered stud partitions are assembled on site and
can be easily modified either during or after construction. It is
difficult to re-use plasterboard sheets although the studs can
be recycled. Wallboard covered partitions often perform better
Horizontal section acoustically than an equivalent blockwork partition. Partitions
can be formed using three or more layers of plasterboard sheet
4 22 without the use of studs to a maximum height of approximately
three metres (10ft).
10
Timber stud partitions are limited to around 3.5 metres (11ft

5
8in) in height, since cut timber sections of greater length are
more difficult to obtain and are expensive. Metal studs provide
10
most flexibility in terms of partition thickness and height,
11
spanning up to around eight metres (26ft 8in) without need for
intermediary support. With longer spans, partition thickness
12 can be reduced to around 150mm (6in) by setting studs at
10 5 closer centres, typically 300mm (1ft) and by changing the stud
type. Short vertical spans, up to around 3 metres (10ft) use
cold formed pressed steel channel sections, while longer spans
10
Horizontal section up to approximately 5 metres (16ft8in) use the same channels
6 set face to face to form a box section, while spans up to 8
metres (26ft) use cold formed back-to-back channels that form
an I-section. These studs are also available in varying depths to
provide different overall partition thicknesses to accommodate
Vertical section
the layering of sheets for varying amounts of stiffness, fire
resistance and acoustic performance.
16
20
21
16 5 In common with plastered walls, expansion joints are required
21
where there is a change in construction in order to accommodate
thermal or structural movement at the junction of two different
10 10 backgrounds. This typically occurs at the junction of a partition
20
and a structural column. Junctions can be continuous if
5 constructed using a latex-based plaster. Alternatively, a shadow
20 gap is formed which uses galvanized steel trims to create the
Horizontal section shape of the joint in a way that imitates a plaster recessed joint.
MCH_ 71
Materials 01
Materials for interior finishes 3: internal floors
2
Details 1
1. Timber flooring block
2. Timber boards
3. Timber battens
4. Ceramic tile
5. Stone
6. Compressible seal
7. Compressible backing
8. Stainless steel angle
3
9. Bedding compound
10. Concrete floor 10
10
Fixed floor finishes are those which are not intended to be it is curing (but hard enough to walk on). It is laid in bays formed
accessible or demountable and form a permanent part of the by movement joints (expansion and contraction joints) in the
building. Floor finishes are usually harder and more resilient than concrete substrate. The bays are separated by stainless steel,
the floor structure, or substrate, beneath. Since the properties brass or bronze angles in a very similar way to ceramic tiles.
of finishes and substrates are usually different, the finish used Terrazzo is finished by grinding and polishing.
must be laid in a way that allows both it and the substrate to
move together or be separated in order to avoid cracking in Stone
the floor finish. Where there are movement joints in the floor Stone is used as a fixed floor finish in the form of paving slabs
structure, the floor finish is usually broken to allow expansion that are bedded in a sand-cement screed and can be used both
and contraction. As a result, the finish can influence the design internally and externally. The thickness used depends on the
of the substrate. For example, a cast-in-place concrete slab may strength and thickness of the stone and the size to which the
require contraction joints at centres which do not correspond stone can practically be cut from blocks. The most common
to the module of a proposed tiling layout but which should be thickness is 20 - 30mm (1in to 11/2in) with slab sizes adjusted
adjusted to suit the design of the floor finish. to allow it to be carried by hand and laid in place. A common size
is a module of 500 x 500mm (20 x 20in) or 600 x 600mm
Concrete (2ft x 2ft) slabs, which allows 10mm for the joint between them.
Concrete can be used as a self-finish to a floor slab, with its For small applications, stone can be ordered from choosing a
surface sometimes polished to provide a smooth, dust-free sample, but for large areas, the material is cut to order and
finish, either as a screed or as a power-floated finish to a floor the architect should visit the quarry to choose the material.
deck. Grains of carborundum can be added to improve the wear In common with other natural materials, it is difficult to define
of the floor. Concrete floors can be coated with floor paints precise visual qualities since its natural formation produces an
which have improved enormously in recent years to provide enormous variety of appearance. The usual method is to define
fairly hardwearing surfaces that will last up to 5 years, but are 'extremes' of quality between the most and least marked, and
not suitable for very heavy use which can cause the paint to wear the lightest and darkest in a set of sample slabs. Because stone
away quickly. An epoxy coating is used where a harder surface has little strength in tension, the substrate must be firm, with
finish is needed for heavy foot traffic, particularly for industrial very little structural movement or deflection.
applications. This polymer coating has excellent resistance to
abrasion but is a very hard surface to walk on. A softer surface Stone floors are ground before being laid to provide different
is provided by rubber-based compounds which are used in surface finishes. They can be polished, using fine sanding wheels,
indoor sports facilities, but they have less abrasion resistance. or honed, using rougher grinding wheels. Floor sealers are often
Both epoxy and latex coatings, together with variations such as not recommended for some stones since some slabs will be
polyester resins, are referred to as poured floor finishes due more absorbent than others, resulting in exaggerated colour
to their ability to be poured in place to provide a self-levelling differences across a floor surface.
joint-free floor finish. They are poured over large floor areas to
produce thicknesses of up to 6mm (1/4 in). Made by mixing Timber
a resin with a curing agent, they provide a hard, smooth finish Timber flooring can be used as a floor finish on concrete, timber
which can be coloured and is resistant to chemical attack. or cold-formed steel framed floors. In all three instances, the
substrate is sealed with a vapour barrier to avoid the timber
Terrazzo is a hardwearing floor finish that is applied to a concrete rotting. The timber is either loose-laid as solid strip flooring, fixed
substrate. It consists of crushed marble aggregate mixed with on bearers resting on the substrate, or bedded in mastic or
cement. The material is applied as wet mix to a thickness of bitumen as block flooring. Strip flooring has traditionally been
between 15 and 25mm (5/8in to 1in) depending on whether used with timber strips less than 100mm (4") wide, while boards
it is bonded directly to the screed or concrete slab beneath. indicate anything wider up to a limit of around 150mm (6").
Terrazzo is bonded by laying it on the concrete substrate while Nowadays strip flooring refers to all sizes of hardwood tongued
MCH_ 72
4
6
9
8
7 10
5 6
8 9
7 10
Vertical section
and grooved board. Thicknesses range from 9 to 38mm ( 3/8in buildings as a means of providing a zone for mechanical and
to 1 1/2in). Almost all types are proprietary systems that are electrical services including ventilation, as either a complement
either fixed to supporting battens as a sprung floor, typically or replacement for those used in suspended ceilings. Raised
used in sports halls, or are held together by pressed steel clips floors are used as a method of bringing electrical cables under
as a continuous material that rests on the substrate. Beech and the floor to a large number of points while allowing tiles to be
maple are the most common hardwoods used, which have a moved to accommodate changing servicing requirements.
light-coloured appearance. A gap between the floor and the wall Completely open voids can also be used as an air plenum to
is left to accommodate movement in the wood due to changes in supply or extract air in a mechanical ventilation system.
temperature and humidity. This gap is typically 10mm (3/8in)
for a four metre (13ft) wide bay of strip flooring. Raised floors are manufactured as proprietary systems
with different loading capabilities, designed to be either fully
Wood block flooring consists of small hardwood blocks that accessible or semi-accessible, depending on the ease of use
are bonded with bitumen to a concrete floor. Block sizes vary and frequency of access required to the floor void beneath.
from 25 to 100mm (1 to 4 in) wide and 150 to 300mm (6 to Fully accessible types have a much greater range of void depth,
12 in) long. Depths vary from 19 to 38mm (3/4 to 1 1/2in). ranging from 100mm (4in) to around 2000mm (6ft). Semi-
Blocks are bonded directly to the concrete with a bitumen- accessible types are restricted to low floor voids of around
latex adhesive. Simple rectangular patterns or herringbone 150mm (6in). The fully accessible types are generally steel
patterns are the most common ways of laying blocks. Both composite panels with a concrete-based infill, supported on
strip flooring and block flooring require a surface seal, such as variable height pedestals. Semi-accessible types are generally
polyurethane sealer, to avoid dirt being trodden into the grain. made from timber composite panels supported on concrete
This is re-applied every few years depending on the amount of pads or timber battens. The two types have varying degrees
wear experienced by the floor. of rigidity in their framework to suit the degree of accessibility
required. In some systems, structural stability of the frame is
Floor tiles lost if too many modules are removed for maintenance access.
There are two types of tiles for flooring; these are ceramic and
quarry tiles. Ceramic tiles are manufactured from refined clays, Fully accessible floors are made with a variety of construction
while quarry tiles are made by extruding or pressing natural methods. Some are made as a support framework with legs
clays. Whereas the former are available in a wide range of beneath. The panels fit into the frame to be supported on all
colours, the latter are produced only in their natural colours of four sides. Others have self-supporting panels supported on an
reds, browns and blues. adjustable leg in each corner. Semi-accessible systems vary
even further in their design. Some comprise a single precast
Floor tiles are made in many sizes and thicknesses. They are concrete tray with integral legs. These are laid side by side
laid either on a bed of sand-cement mix or adhesive. Each bay of directly onto the floor slab. Others are very similar to the timber
tiles is edged with a 6mm (1/4in) wide movement joint, which sprung floors used in sports halls, consisting of a rectilinear
can be filled with a flexible seal, such as polysulphide. Maximum grid of softwood battens resting on acoustic pads to prevent
bay size is usually six metres x six metres (20 x 20 ft). The bay sound transmission. Timber composite boards are screwed
size depends on whether the area is reached by sunlight and/or down to the frame.
moisture. Metal edging strips, or a rigid sealant such as epoxy-
polysulphide, is used to protect bay edges in large areas of tiling. Ventilation grilles and electrical socket boxes can be incorporated
into all types. Floors typically have carpet tiles loose laid on top,
Raised Floors to provide both a comfortable walking surface and for acoustic
Raised floors were first used as computer floors to provide a zone purposes. Carpet can be separately bonded to each tile or be
for electrical cables and air handling ducts to large computers loose laid off the grid to conceal joints in the floor beneath.
housed in a separate room. They are now used throughout office
MCH_ 73
Materials 01
Materials for internal walls 4: internal ceilings
1
3
1
2 3
2
Vertical section
Suspended ceilings are used primarily to provide a service ceiling tile in place. The tile either sits directly on the section,
void between a ceiling plane and the underside (soffit) of the creating an exposed grid, or is set hanging partially below the
structural slab above. This zone is used to house recessed frame in a semi-concealed grid. The spring clip system allows
light fittings, ducts for mechanical ventilation and associated the tile to be slotted into the support grid from beneath in a
equipment. There are two generic types of suspended ceiling. concealed system. The support grid can also be concealed by
The fixed version is used where a continuous plastered surface fixing the tile onto a T-section grid from beneath. This is done
is required and where there is no need to access the ceiling void where aluminium or steel sheet is countersunk screwed to
from below. Accessible types are used primarily in office buildings the support frame. Noise control within a room, or between
where they integrate with a modular layout of partitions. They adjacent spaces, is achieved by setting a sound-absorbent
are designed to suit both cellular office layouts and open office board or quilt onto the upper face of the ceiling tiles. The tiles
areas requiring individual lighting and mechanical ventilation. are usually perforated to allow sound to pass through to the
insulation behind.
Fixed suspended ceilings consist of either layers of plasterboard
sheets or wet-applied plaster on metal laths which are supported The most common support grids are the one-way grid and the
on a frame suspended from the soffit of a structural slab or floor two-way grid. The one-way system has identical sections set
on either wires or galvanized steel strips. They can be designed parallel, at centres corresponding to the width of the tiles. Tiles
as a simple timber or metal supporting frame or be specified as are supported on two sides and span between the sections
proprietary manufacturers’ systems. of the grid. Partitions beneath can be supported continuously
in one direction but are supported only at points in the other
Fixed ceilings create a smooth, continuous soffit for recessed direction. The reduced flexibility makes the system economical.
lighting and a ceiling plenum for ducts that do not require A two-way system uses either metal cross tees that span
access. They can also provide a fire-resistive layer where this is between the main runners or by using the same sections set
not provided by the supporting floor structure. Access hatches perpendicular to one another to create a full grid. The latter
can be used but are difficult to conceal. Fixed suspended type is made by half-jointing the main runners where they cross.
ceilings can be used to form single direction curves by bending The increased flexibility of the two-way system makes it more
plasterboard around a modelled frame. expensive. The frame is fixed back to the soffit with members
of varying rigidity: wires, rods and angles. Suspension wires are
Complex shapes can be formed with metal laths. Fibrous plaster not usually appropriate if partitions are fixed in such a way as to
is often used, which provides a smooth surface that is easy to exert pressure from below.
work but lacks the strength of other plasters. As a result, it is
applied onto a reinforcing mesh in a very similar way to ferro- Like their supporting grids, ceiling tiles are designed to be
cement. Fibrous plaster is used where curves in two directions lightweight. The most economical generic tile is mineral
are required as well as in repetitive decoration, where items can fibreboard, which provides high acoustic insulation but is limited
be made in a workshop and later fixed to the ceiling. to smaller spans due to its lack of rigidity. Greater thicknesses
of board add considerably to the weight of the ceiling. The typical
Accessible ceilings use a supporting grid in steel or aluminium. grid size in this material is 600 x 600mm (2ft x 2ft). Larger
The two most commonly used types are the T-section and the tiles are made from perforated steel trays. Since steel is a
spring clip. Both are designed to be as light as possible with poor absorber of sound, it is perforated to enhance its acoustic
varying degrees of strength and rigidity, which are defined by performance, and in addition can be lined on the upper face of
the loads imposed on the ceiling by services from above and panels with either thin mineral quilt or an acoustic pad. Ceiling
by partitions fixed to it from beneath. In some manufacturers' grids up to around 2000 x 3000mm (6ft 6in x 9ft 10in) are
systems, dimensional stability of the frame is lost if too many possible. Aluminium sheet can also be used but it requires a
tiles are removed during maintenance access. The T-section greater depth of vertical edging to attain the spanning capability
uses an inverted T-shaped aluminium extrusion which holds the of steel. This increases the overall depth of the ceiling.
MCH_ 74
Details
1. Plasterboard/drywall
2. Fixing rails
3. Suspension rod, wire or pressed metal strip
4. Clip to secure panel
5. Ceiling panel (perforated metal panel with
acoustic lining shown)
Details
1. Plasterboard/drywall
2. Fixing rails
3. Suspension rod, wire or pressed metal strip
4. Clip to secure panel
5. Ceiling panel (perforated metal panel with
acoustic lining shown)
2 2
4
5 5
Vertical section
MCH_ 75
Materials 01
Movement transducers are

fixed to structural supports
that are not affected signifi-
cantly by the wind pressures
created by an aero engine.
Transducers are calibrated
and checked to ensure their
reliability during testing.
The digital types shown provide

a continuous set of readings
during a dynamic air pressure
water penetration test. The
wall sample is checked visually
throughout the duration of the
test to check for any signs of An array of water spray nozzles A test rig with additional architec-
water penetration. around a glass rooflight is used to tural elements added to combine
check the water tightness of sili- a performance test mock-up and
cone sealed joints. visual quality mock-up as a single
item.
The performance testing of facade systems is undertaken for made usually from a steel frame clad in steel sheet and plywood,
a number of reasons, the most important usually being the accessed through a door in the chamber that can be sealed.
weather tightness of the system. Where twin wall facades and The test panel is fixed with its external face outwards and is sup-
external solar shading devices form a part of the system, overall ported by a rigid steelwork frame, usually of I-sections designed
stability under wind load forms an important part of the testing. to simulate the actual fixing conditions of the facade to the pri-
A range of tests simulate the worst conditions, and combina- mary structure. The facade panel is erected at the test facility
tions of conditions, that can be expected to occur during the and is enclosed and sealed into the chamber.
life of the facade. Performance testing is a check of the design
approach, both visually and technically. It also assists the fab- A measurement of static pressure is taken inside the chamber,
ricators to understand the complexities of making the com- with readings taken in a position that is not affected by the veloc-
ponents and assemblies as well as assisting the installers by ity of air supply into, or out of, the chamber. A fan, usually con-
familiarising themselves with the system and allowing them to nected to ductwork, is fixed to the test rig to create positive or
make adjustments during the construction of the mock-up at negative pressure in the chamber, that is, higher or lower than
the laboratory. The test mock-up also serves as a way of agree- atmospheric pressure. The fan provides a constant airflow at
ing how to achieve the required quality of construction, which fixed pressure for the duration of the tests.
may range from flatness of glass to smoothness of welding and
surface textures. The test mock-up for a facade is both a vehicle A wind generator, usually a propeller-type aircraft engine, is
for learning during its assembly and a checking of the required used to create positive pressure differentials during dynamic air
performance during its lifetime. Along with test results, which it pressure water tightness testing. It is mounted in front of the
is hoped will show the design to have been successful, there is external face of the facade panel. A positive pressure differential
much information that can be accumulated about ease of con- is where the pressure against the external face of the facade
struction, avoiding surface damage and the visual checking of panel being tested is greater than that against the interior of
components that can inform the complete facade installation the chamber.
on the actual building.
The effect of rain is simulated by a water spray system with noz-
The test rig zles spaced at regular centres, both vertically and horizontally,
Test rigs are assembled at test laboratories that are specially usually around 700mm (2ft 3in) apart and set 400mm (1ft 4in)
equipped to deal with building facades, and so are in part a sim- from the face of the test panel. The nozzles have a wide angle
ulated building site, and in part a scientific laboratory. Facade spray to cover the facade panel with water as evenly as possible.
panels are set into a test rig, comprising a well-sealed chamber, A hydraulic jack is used to displace the test rig support beam
MCH_ 76
A pull-out test on a
balustrade checks
that the unusual
design will not gen-
erate a significant
deflection when
installed.
Bolt torques of
facade assemblies
An impact resistance test on a are checked on
A site-based hose test to check the
glazed panel. site to ensure that
performance of the tested system
components can
when installed in a building.
accommodate
expected structural
movement.
to simulate structural movements in the supporting structural Dynamic air pressure water penetration
frame or backing wall. Deflection measurements are taken on several cladding
members at a positive static air pressure differential of
Deflection transducers are used to measure the deflection of 600Pa. A wind generator is mounted adjacent to the exteri-
principal framing members to within an accuracy of around or face of the facade panel. The generator output is adjusted
0.25mm. Transducers are telescopic-like devices where a rod so that the average deflections of the member matches the
is held in a sleeve and is pushed in or out as it is held against a deflections measured at the previous 600Pa pressure dif-
facade panel. Gauges are installed on a separate support frame ferential. Water is sprayed onto the facade panel at a rate of
in order not to be influenced by the application of pressure or up to 3.4 litres/m2/minute for 15 minutes, depending on
loading to the facade panel. the standards used. The interior face of the facade member
is checked for water penetration.
Air infiltration and exfiltration
Measurements of airflow are taken at a positive pressure differ- In both static and dynamic tests the aim is to check that no
ential of 600 Pa (Pascals). The first test has the chamber sealed water has penetrated through to the inside face of the panel
to determine the chamber leakage. Joints in the facade are that could stain or damage any part of the building. Any water
taped up in order to provide a reliable seal. The test is repeated entering the system should be contained and be drained to the
with the tape removed, but with any opening lights sealed. The exterior. If the test is unsuccessful then remedial work is done
difference between the two readings is the airflow through the to the design and to the test mock-up.
facade. The average flow rate for fixed glazing at 600 Pa should
not exceed 1.1m3 per hour per m2. For opening lights the fig- Impact resistance
ure is 1.4m3 per hour per metre length of internally visible joint. Impact resistance is measured with a soft body impactor,
which consists of a canvas bag, in a hanging spherical or coni-
Static air pressure water penetration cal shape filled with glass balls. The weight of the bag is usually
Water is sprayed continuously at a rate of 3.4 litres/m2/ 50kg and is suspended from a cord around 3 metres (10 ft)
minute, if internationally recognised ASTM standards are long. The impactor is positioned so that it hangs at rest in a
applied, onto the facade panel, with a pressure differential of position that just touches the facade panel. For horizontal or
600Pa applied across the panel and maintained for 15 minutes. inclined facade panels, the impactor may be dropped vertically
Throughout the test the interior face of the panel is checked for onto the facade panel. The bag is swung from the top of the
water penetration. rope. In either case the impact energies are the same and are
usually set at 120Nm, for a drop height of 0.25m for serve-
MCH_ 77
Materials 01
3 test rigs used to assess the performance of a range of wall types.
An aero engine generating strong air An opaque glass rainscreen wall has project- A bolt fixed glazing system has high expected deflec-
movement is set in front of a rack of water ing glass fins which are being tested for their tions when compared to a framed system.
spray nozzles that simulate wind and rain rigidity.
at different pressures.
ability, and 350Nm for a drop of 0.71 metres (2ft 4in) used for of clear span
safety. In the serveability test, for a test to be successful there Framing members for support of natural stone: 1/500 of clear
must be no damage to the panel, and air and water penetration span
performance must not be reduced. In the safety test, no compo-
nents can become detached from the system, and the impactor At 1.5 times design wind pressure, for both positive and nega-
must not pass through the wall. The impact resistance test is tive pressures, there must be no permanent damage to framing
performed on joints and panels in materials other than glass. members, panels or fixings. Glazing beads and copings will have
remained in place and gaskets not displaced. Permanent defor-
Wind resistance serviceability test mation to wall framing members will not have exceeded 0.2% of
In this test, instruments are positioned to measure deflections span up to one hour after loading has been removed.
of representative framing members. One positive or negative
pressure differential of 50% of the positive or negative design Seismic building movement test
wind pressure, held for 10 seconds, is applied to the panel. A mid-height support beam is displaced horizontally and then
After a recovery time of one or two minutes, the displacement back to its original position. At each stage, visual observations
transducers are set to zero. A positive pressure differential is are made, with the test being conducted three times. Displace-
then applied to the panel and held for 10 seconds, in order to ments, in terms of mm, are determined as 'probable' or 'cred-
take the readings, at 50%, 75% and 100% of the positive or ible' displacements. In the 'credible' test, there must be no per-
negative design wind pressure. After a recovery time of 1-5 min- manent damage to the framing members, panels or fixings.
utes, readings are taken for any remaining deflections. In a suc- Glazing beads and cappings must be held securely and gaskets
cessful test, no permanent damage will have occurred at both not be displaced. In the probable test, no racking or distortion of
positive and negative applications of peak test pressure, set at members occurs. The panel must then pass the subsequent air
the design wind pressure. In addition, the maximum deflections and water penetration tests.
will not exceed the following figures, which are given for general
guidance only: Inter-storey movement
The mid-span point of the mid-height support beam is displaced
General framing members: 1/175 of clear span, to a maximum by a fixed distance vertically downwards then back to the centre,
of 19mm tested three times, during which no racking or distortion of the
Glazing framing members: 1/240 of span members is allowed to occur. The panel must pass the subse-
Framing members when finished material is attached: 1/360 quent air and water penetration tests.
MCH_ 78
Mock-ups are designed and fabricated from parametric models with three purposes in mind for each assembly: visual approval by the design team; using the
actual fabrication method proposed for the project to see how this can be made more cost effective; performance testing for essential weather resistance
under dynamic conditions as proof-of-concept.
Wind resistance safety test (30-35 psi) at the nozzle with a flow rate of around 22 litres
Instruments are positioned to measure deflection of represent- per minute. Typically, water from a hose is directed at the area
ative framing members. One positive or negative pressure dif- of completed facade on site, perpendicular to the face of the
ferential pulse of 75% of the positive or negative design wind wall. The direction of water from the hose is set 300mm (1ft)
pressure, held for 10 seconds, is applied to prepare the panel. away from the wall and is directed in a linear direction across
After a recovery time of 1-5 minutes, the displacement trans- 1500mm (5ft) of the wall for 5 minutes. The test starts from
ducers are set to zero. the bottom of the wall upwards to determine when leaks start to
occur within the system. The inside face is continuously checked
One positive or negative pressure differential pulse of 150% of for leaking. If no leaks are found, the hose moves on to the next
the positive or negative design wind pressure is applied and held adjacent area of facade under test. If leaks occur, the system
for 10 seconds. After a recovery period of 1-5 minutes, read- is allowed to dry out then is completely taped up at the joints.
ings are taken for any remaining deflections. At both positive Starting again at the bottom, the tape is gradually removed
and negative application of peak pressure, there must be no while applying water from the hose again until the location of
permanent damage to framing members, panels or fixings. For the leak is found.
a glazed wall test panel, for example, pressure plates and deco-
rative cappings must remain securely held and gaskets must Post test conclusions
not be displaced. Permanent deformation of wall framing mem- In addition to verifying the performance of the facade system,
bers must not exceed 1/500 of the span, which is measured any adjustments required during the mock-up must be carried
between the fixing points, usually measured one hour after the out on site. The quality of construction for the mock-up can
loading has been removed. At the end of tests the facade panel also be used as a 'benchmark' or quality control sample for the
is dismantled in controlled conditions to check that it complies completed facade. This can avoid many difficulties later on site,
with the design drawing. In the event of test failure, any water where the earlier expectations at the drawing stage can mature
that has penetrated into the system is recorded. at the mock-up stage before installation commences, allowing
all parties on the building project to agree to visual appearance
Site hose test and quality of assembly before proceeding to production.
In addition to laboratory tests, a facade system can be checked
on site with a controlled hose pipe test. This test is conducted
using a nozzle that produces a solid cone of water droplets with
a spread of approximately 30°. The pressure is around 220 kPa
MCH_ 79
Materials 01
Performance testing of roof material systems
The testing of a roof system is undertaken typi-

cally with a small test panel that contains the
full range of joints that comprise the system as
well as the maximum span that the system can
accommodate. This is to ensure that adequate
weatherproofing can be provided while the sys-
tem experiences maximum deflections from both
positive and negative wind pressures.
Testing of water tightness of mock-ups has until recently been wind load cannot be determined unless a full panel is tested.
restricted mainly to facades. Roof structures are usually test- The test mock-up panel is set at the same angle at which it is to
ed in a specialist laboratory when they differ technically from be used in the completed installation. Where a range of angles
standard systems, or have an unusual combination of standard are encountered, the most vulnerable, or extreme, angles are
systems. Testing is usually restricted to systems in metal, glass taken to form the mock-up. The roof mock-up is set 1500mm
and plastics. Concrete, timber and fabric do not usually require to 2000mm above the ground level to allow the underside to be
test mock-ups, since their performance is well established both inspected easily, and set typically on a concrete slab. The roof
in the systems used, and as industry-wide specifications. Test sample is usually supported on a steel frame at its edges in a
rigs determine the ability of the mock-up to remain watertight way that simulates the structure used in the building. The space
and airtight when the various design loads are applied to the beneath the roof is then enclosed, usually with plywood sheets
mock-up. In addition, the effect of a falling object onto the roof is which are sealed at the interfaces with the mock-up and with the
tested when it is considered essential to withstand the load to floor slab or deck beneath to provide as air tight an enclosure as
protect building users beneath when they are at possible risk, possible. A door is provided into the chamber which is able to be
from higher buildings adjacent to the roof, for example. A test clamped shut during the testing.
that is particular to roofs, and is not undertaken in facades, is
the flood test. An area of roof is filled with water up to a level The test chamber is pressurised with an air supply in order
anticipated in the event of rainwater outlets being blocked and to establish the amount of air infiltration through the system.
left standing for up to several days. This is usually undertaken The air supply is provided usually by a flexible hose that passes
on flat roofs where there would be standing water in the event through an opening in the plywood chamber enclosure. The
of blocked outlets, and applies to pitched roofs only at gutters hose is connected to a centrifugal fan which can either supply
or drainage points. This test is usually undertaken on site, typi- air to, or extract air from, the test chamber.
cally for single membrane roofs on a flat roof deck in either
concrete, steel or timber. The largest external component in the testing is an aero
engine with propellers which acts as a generator for the wind
Mock-ups for performance testing have the added benefit of pressures applied to the test mock-up. A grid of water spray
revealing the installation problems inherent in the system, par- nozzles is set above the mock-up in order to simulate rainfall
ticularly if some innovation is involved, and allowing the design onto the roof.
team to see how the roof will appear before proceeding with
the work in the workshop or on site. The mock-up can also be A canvas bag filled with small diameter glass spheres is pro-
used to establish an accepted level of quality of construction, vided for the soft body impact test, which is typically dropped
particularly with regard to visual crispness of assembly, flatness from a mobile platform or temporary scaffolding tower set next
of materials, visible joint widths, finishes and colour. to the test sample.
The workshop usually has at least one panel or set of joints Air infiltration test
that covers an area sufficiently large to provide full structural In order to establish the rate at which air filtrates through the
deflections of framing members, as well as internal ventilation assembly, the mock-up is first subjected to a single positive pres-
and drainage in the case of glazed roofs. There is little point sure 'pulse' which is held for 10 seconds, which corresponds
in testing a panel 300mm x 300mm in size that includes only to half of the design pressure for the roof system. This is done
one joint, since the overall effects of movement under full design in order to pressurise the test chamber and ensure that the
MCH_ 80
The test chamber, which is capable of being
fully sealed, is fitted with an air supply to provide
both positive and negative air pressures on the
internal face of the roof sample panel.
chamber has been properly sealed. This is done before testing are set to zero to establish a 'zero' level for the test. A positive
commences. The pressure inside the chamber is now increased pressure is then applied to the roof mock-up and held for 10
to a difference of 600 Pascals between inside and outside. The seconds at different pressure deflections. Readings are taken
roof sample is first sealed with tape to determine chamber leak- at 50%, 75% and 100% of the positive design wind pressure.
age, and measurements of airflow are taken, which, for fixed After a period of up to 5 minutes, any remaining (or perma-
rooflights should not, typically, exceed 1.1 m3 per hour per m2. nent deflections) in the sample are recorded. This process is
The airflow test is repeated with the tape removed. The differ- repeated for negative wind pressure, where air is drawn out
ence between the two readings indicates the air infiltration rate of the test chamber. The test starts again from the beginning,
through the roof sample. with a 50% pulse held for 10 seconds in order to establish a
'zero' level for the transducers.
Water penetration tests
These tests are conducted both under static air pressure, that These two sets of tests for positive and negative wind pressures
is, with no significant wind blowing across the sample, and at establish whether the mock-up deflects within the limits set out
dynamic air pressure, where an aero engine blows air onto the in the design, at the design wind pressure (typically 1400 Pas-
sample. In the first test, the static air pressure water penetra- cals). These two tests are repeated at 1.5 times the design wind
tion test, water is sprayed from the nozzles onto the roof mock- pressure in a safety test. The pressure is then increased to a
up at a rate of at least 3.4 litres/ m2 /minute. The water spray maximum of 2.0 times design wind pressure to examine what
nozzles are set out on a grid so that nozzles are no more than would happen in the event of failure if this limit is not reached.
700mm apart, and are fixed at around 400mm from the face Typically, failure occurs in a seal in the roof assembly, or a glass
of the sample. This ensures that all parts of the roof sample are panel may break in a rooflight, but this occurs usually when the
sprayed with water. A pressure differential corresponding to 2.0 times design wind pressure is exceeded.
600 Pascals is applied across the sample for 15 minutes. The
interior face of the mock-up is checked for any water penetra- Impact resistance test
tion. The test is repeated at the same pressure with a propel- The ability of a lightweight roof, typically a glazed or plastic-
ler-type aero engine to provide the same 600 Pascal pressure based rooflight, to withstand an object falling on it is simulated
difference across the sample. The underside of the mock-up, with a canvas bag 400mm in diameter, filled with the glass
inside the chamber, is checked to ensure that no water drops balls already described, to a mass of around 50kg. The bag is
are visible as a result of penetrating the roof assembly. dropped from a height of around 750mm to simulate an impact
energy of around 350 Nm in a safety test. The test is performed
Wind resistance tests on joints and panels to establish that the complete roof assem-
In these tests, pressure transducers are fixed to the inside bly would not fail under these impact energies.
face of the roof sample, in positions where the deflectors are
most critical, such as at the centre of framing members, or Dismantling of sample
the centre of panels. Transducers are telescopic gauges that When the tests are complete, the roof mock-up is dismantled to
measure deflections, usually to an accuracy of 0.25mm. Read- ensure that the mock-up was built exactly in the way it would be
ings are taken digitally at a distance from the test chamber. applied on the roof of the finished building. In the event of a test
The transducers are set by applying a positive pressure 'pulse' failure, this dismantle assists the design team to understand
of 50% of the positive wind pressure for 10 seconds. After a how to resolve the matter, and prepare the mock-up for a sec-
recovery period of up to 5 minutes, the pressure transducers ond round of testing if required.
MCH_ 81
MCH_ 82
2
WALLS
Trends in facade design
Generic wall types
Metal
1 Sheet metal
2 Profiled cladding
3 Composite panels
4 Rainscreens
5 Mesh screens
6 Louvre screens
Glass systems
1 Stick systems
2 Unitised glazing
3 Clamped glazing
4 Bolt fixed glazing
5 Glass blocks and channels
6 Steel windows
7 Aluminium windows
8 Timber windows
Concrete
1 Cast in-situ
2 Storey height precast
3 Small precast panels
Masonry loadbearing walls
Masonry cavity walls
1 Brick
2 Stone and block
Masonry cladding
Masonry rainscreens
Plastic
1 Plastic-based cladding
2 Plastic rainscreens
Timber
1 Timber frame
2 Cladding panels
MCH_ 83
Walls 02
metal sheet: Jewish Museum, metal sheet: Falmouth School’s metal rainscreen: Lock-keeper's metal composite panel: Usera
Berlin, Germany. Architect: Daniel Design and Technology Block, Graduate Centre, Queen Mary, Public Library, Madrid, Spain.
Libeskind Falmouth, U.K. University of London, U.K. Architect: Ábalos & Herreros
Architect: Urban Salon Architect: Surface Architects
Significant changes in the design of external walls in recent risk, vapour barriers are added to halt the passage of damp
years have increased thermal performance and solar control, air into wall assemblies where interstitial condensation can
greater water tightness and a reduction in air infiltration occur, typically on the warm (in winter) side of the insulation.
rates through wall assemblies, and a limited return to natural Alternatively, the internal construction can be ventilated in order
ventilation where possible as a partial alternative to mechanical to draw away damp air.
ventilation in larger scale buildings. These changes have
led to a shift in design priorities. During the late 1980s, the Condensation can also occur on the inner face of a wall in
increased use of thermal insulation brought with it an increased temperate climates, typically where there is continuity in
risk of condensation occurring in cladding assemblies. This a material from the outside to the inside of a building that
condensation can occur both inside the panel and on the inner allows a direct passage of heat or cold through the external
face of wall assemblies. The avoidance of condensation has envelope. When this 'thermal bridging' occurs, condensation
been the result of technical development since. The increased can form on the inner face of the wall where it can drip down,
use of natural ventilation, both as air supply and as a means resulting in inconvenience to building users and damage to
of cooling buildings at night has had an effect on cladding the construction. Thermal bridges are avoided by providing a
design, particularly in the integration of opening lights and separating component in a low conductivity material, called
louvered slots in panels. The arrival of the deep plan building, a 'thermal break', that prevents heat or cold from being
with distances of up to 18 metres between external walls has transmitted between inside and outside. An example of its
led to a need for greater levels of daylight entering a building. use is in glazed walling, where the construction of a frame of
This, in turn, has increased the need for both solar shading and mullions and transoms requires some continuity of metal from
glare control. In addition, the cost of photovoltaic cells, which outside to inside. Plastic spacers of low thermal conductivity are
can generate electricity when exposed to sunlight, has reduced positioned to provide a thermal break that also enhances the
considerably over the past 15 years. As a result, they are structural integrity of the construction.
increasingly used in large-scale applications for buildings. These
energy-led changes in wall design have generated a range of Two generic types of thermal insulation have emerged for use
technical developments, which have changed the emphasis in wall systems: rigid foam and flexible quilt types. The rigid
of facade design. The architectural interest in the expression foam type is made typically from either a polymer-based board
of structure in buildings has been replaced by an interest in such as polyurethane foam. Since both are non-hygroscopic or
energy conservation. This is largely because the effect of ‘closed cell’, they can be used in situations where the thermal
additional layers of external insulation, blinds, shading and so on insulation can become wet without any significant reduction
often renders the structure almost invisible. in its performance. Closed cell insulation is also used to form
the structural core of metal-faced composite panels as well
Thermal insulation as in facing the inner leaf of cavity walls. In contrast, flexible
The use of thermal insulation has increased dramatically during quilt is made typically from a mineral fibre quilt, cut to fit voids
the past 15 years with wall assemblies achieving a U-value of in panel frames more easily than board, but its lack of rigidity
0.25 W/m2K as a minimum standard. This compares with makes it unsuitable for use externally. While heavier insulation
a typical level of 0.6 W/m2K in the early 1980s. There is an helps to provide a more rigid, water resistant material, the
accompanying risk of interstitial condensation occurring within lighter, less rigid types provide better thermal insulation. As a
a wall assembly from damp air that penetrates a wall assembly result, the choice of core is a balance between the needs of
where it may condense and cause damage. In addition to dew rigidity and thermal performance.
point calculations undertaken at the design stage to assess
MCH_ 84
top left: metal profiled cladding:
Vacheron Constantin Headquarters,
Geneva, Switzerland.
Architect: Bernard Tschumi
top right: metal screen: St Andrews
metal screen: Sun Tower Office metal louvre screen: Nordic Embassy, Beach, Victoria, Australia.
Building, Seoul, South Korea. Berlin, Germany. Architect: Berger & Architect: Sean Godsell
Architect: Morphosis Architecture Parkkinen bottom: metal screen: Maison Folie,
France. Architect: NOX
Rainscreens vapour penetrates a material in a wall or roof it is stopped

Rainscreen cladding is a development of the rainscreen for from travelling further by the vapour barrier or waterproof
pressure-equalised walls researched during the 1960s. It was membrane. At this point, it can be difficult for the water to
found that water commonly penetrates joints in walling because dry out. A void is sometimes formed at the vapour barrier to
of the outside air pressure being greater than that inside the allow the water to evaporate and prevent the adjacent material
joint. Water arriving by a variety of means, mainly gravity, wind from being damaged. This is particularly important in the case
and capillary action, was able to penetrate the outer seals of of timber, where eventual rot can occur. The development
joints. The introduction of rainscreen framing systems and of drained systems accepts that externally applied seals will
panel systems overcame this problem by creating an outer leak small amounts of water and that it is better to design for
‘screen’ layer or seal that stops most of the water entering that eventuality. Even systems with a single outer seal can be
the joint, but ensuring that the air pressure in the void behind designed to drain away water within their construction.
the panel or joint is the same as that outside it. Rainscreen
systems have three essential functions: Use of materials in facade systems
- To protect joints in the cladding assembly from the worst The different material systems for facades are very much
effects of windblown rain. influenced by the particular material chosen. The essential
- To provide a decorative screen for a waterproofing system issues in working with each material in facade assemblies are
whose appearance is not suitable for an external wall. The described in the following paragraphs.
same principle applies to roof cladding.
- To provide an outer protective layer to thermal insulation Metals
fixed on the external face of a high thermal mass construction Metals used in facade systems are based mainly on sheets,
such as concrete. extrusions and castings. Thin sheet metal is made in narrow
strips up to 1000mm wide, making it necessary to form simple,
Drained and ventilated systems reliable joints at close centres when joining the material together
There has been a move away from 'hermetically’ sealed to form a weather tight surface. This is done by folding the metal
systems, which rely entirely on a single weatherproof outer together at the edges to form a continuous seam that projects
skin, towards 'drained' systems. This is common to virtually from the wall surface, making it difficult for water to penetrate
all sealed facade types. Drained systems accept that the air from outside. Standing seams are economic to make, but need
pressure differences between the outside of the wall and the to be done with care to avoid uneven joint lines. Because it is
inside will allow small amounts of rainwater to penetrate the difficult to achieve crisp lines with this method, which relies
outer seal. This effect can be countered through two means; on site-based workmanship rather than the use of workshop-
the water can be drained away within the metal framing that based machines, the uneven ‘oil canning’ appearance can be
supports the cladding panels, and the pressure differences accepted as an uneven texture forming part of the design.
can be equalised by ventilating the system by providing slots Because sheet metal used in facades is thin in order to fold it
at drainage points, usually set at the base of the wall. This and work it, it requires support from underneath. The support
ensures that water is not trapped within the panel framing, nor surface conveniently forms a base for a backing waterproof
is the water discharged at vulnerable points in the construction layer which is needed behind sheet metal since it is unable to
where staining and damage can occur on the face of the panel. exclude rainwater. Sheet metal can be welded together to form
The use of ventilation within an assembly, on the external a continuous waterproof sheet material, but thermal expansion
side of a thermal insulation layer, allows cladding systems to needs to be allowed for with standing seam joints that prevent
dry out once water has penetrated. Where water or water the material from deforming as the metal expands.
MCH_ 85
Walls 02
Top left: clamped glazing system: Rheinisches

Landesmuseum, Bonn, Germany.
Architect: Archtektengruppe, Stuttgart
Top middle: clamped glazing system: Mediatheque,
Sendai, Japan, Architect: Toyo Ito & Associates
Top right: unitised glazing system: IAC Headquarters,
Stick glazing system: ING Headquarters,
New York, U.S.A.
Budapest, Hungary.
Architect: Frank Gehry & Studios Architecture
Architect: Erick van Egeraat
Bottom left: glass blocks: Maison Hermes, Tokyo, Japan.
Architect: Renzo Piano Building Workshop
Bottom right: bolt fixed glazing system: Tower Bridge
House, London, U.K.
Architect: Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners
The number of joints on a facade can be reduced by increasing Glass

the size of the metal sheet being used. Profiled metal sheet Glass in facades is supported either by edge frames or by fixing
can be formed in very long lengths, and in widths up to around it at points. Glass facades are beginning to be glued together
1500mm. Joints between sheets are formed by lapping without any metal fixings but the design of such structures
sheets both horizontally and vertically with sealant set between is in its early stages. Frames supporting the glass must both
adjacent sheets to provide a waterproof joint. This allows the hold the glass in place and prevent rainwater from penetrating
sheet material to span between the supports of a framed the seals. Difficulties in providing reliable rubber-based seals
supporting structure behind, rather than needing continuous have led to the ‘pressure equalised’ or ‘drained and ventilated’
support. Fixing profiled sheet to the supporting structure frames discussed earlier in this section. Water penetration in
requires fixings that penetrate through the outside of the frames has traditionally been caused by capillary action where
sheet to the inside, which presents a potentially weak point for the air pressure inside the frame becomes higher than the
waterproofing. This penetration through the material by fixings outside atmospheric pressure, drawing water into the frame
is avoided in standing seam sheet metal. Fixings for profiled and potentially causing leaks. The problem of capillary action
sheet are made to be fixed easily, using a self-tapping screw, has been overcome, not by increasing the pressure on the
which has a waterproof washer on the outside and a drill bit on seal between frame and glass, but by ventilating the void inside
the front of the screw to make a hole. The self-tapping sealed the frame so that any water that penetrates the outer seal is
screw is essential to the success of profiled metal sheeting, and drained away safely down the cavity to the outside. The drained
corner trims and folded copings in the same material ensure and ventilated cavity provides a second line of defence against
the watertightness of junctions. rainwater penetration through the outer seal. The principle
of pressure equalisation, with an inner chamber behind an
Sheet metal has been developed in recent years to be bonded outer seal is essential to current framed glazing systems. An
to closed cell insulation, since both materials are used very alternative method of glazing is to avoid a frame entirely in
economically in combination, so that the stiffness of insulation order to increase the effect of transparency given by the glass.
is combined with the watertightness and durability of metal. The In point fixed glazing, the glass is held at only at a few points by
successful bonding of rigid insulation to thin metal has been small brackets or bolts. Glass is clamped together with plates,
essential to the success of composite metal panels. These and bolted together through the joints between the glass.
panels are joined with tongue-and-groove joints, usually on two Alternatively, holes are drilled in the glass and the sheets are
sides. While this is a reliable joint, the joint on the opposite two held by bolts secured directly through the holes in the glass
sides is usually less accomplished, normally being a butt joint without plates, using discs or a countersunk profile to the bolt
sealed with silicone, with an additional top hat metal profile to connector. Joints are sealed with silicone in a single line of
enhance the seal. Four sided tongue-and-groove jointed panels defence. While the material does not suffer problems of water
are more difficult to fix and more difficult to remove if damaged. being drawn through it as with clamped rubber seals, good
The tongue-and-groove joint incorporates a void in the centre workmanship is essential to the success of these single seals.
that allows water to drain down. The basic principle with sealing
joints between composite panels is to ensure that any water Walls built in glass blocks are constructed by bonding the
entering the joint will drain down an internal cavity that drains blocks together with either a cement-based mortar or silicone.
water away to the outside at the bottom of the panels. Because blocks are set with continuous vertical and horizontal
joints giving them their characteristic appearance, panels are
structurally inherently weak, and this is dealt with by introducing
MCH_ 86
Metal windows: Matsunoyama Museum of Timber windows: Old Nichol Street, London, U.K.
Natural Science, Matsunoyama, Japan. Architect: Architect: Maccreanor Lavington Architects
Tezuka Architects
steel or aluminium reinforcing strips or rods into both vertical leave strong lines that are at odds with the overall concept
and horizontal joints as reinforcement. However, this limits of the facade. The facade designer must always be aware of
glass block panel sizes to modest dimensions when compared where joints occur and how wide they will be in order to avoid
to other glass wall systems. The principle of stack bonding limits disappointment during construction.
panel sizes but is usually overcome by making the supporting
structure lightweight yet rigid in order to minimise its visual Precast concrete panels are jointed with pressure equalised
effect. More heavyweight supporting structures make the drainage chambers behind vertical joints, which drain out of
blocks appear more like individual panels set into a visual grid. horizontal joints. Like in-situ cast concrete, the general areas of
concrete are waterproof, but the joints require careful attention
Concrete to avoid their becoming too wide as a result of wanting to
An essential aspect of concrete is that it is a material formed achieve a consistent joint width both verticality and horizontally
in a mould, leaving a surface finish which is the mirror image across the facade. Horizontal joints have to accommodate
of that mould, or formwork. Consequently, an important aspect deflections and movement from the supporting structure if the
of concrete detailing is to understand how formwork and panels are supported from floor slabs, as is usually the case
moulds are fitted together. Formwork can be made to almost due to their self-weight. Vertical joints are usually required to
any shape, from plywood or GRP (glass reinforced polyester), be thinner in order to exclude rainwater. The visual balance of
though specially-made formwork can be expensive to make. joint widths, although a seemingly small issue, is critical to the
Joints between formwork panels are visible in the finished visual success of precast panels. Notching and grooves are
concrete, and if this is not to be overclad with another material, introduced around openings to ensure that windows and doors
then joints need to be arranged to suit the architectural concept can be inserted in a way that provides weather protection
for the facades. Complex shapes for facade panels can be made as well as concealing part of the frame to avoid visible seals
more easily in precast concrete where, in a workshop, concrete around the edge of the openings. Highly visible seals can also
is poured into a mould which is laid flat, making it much easier lead to very disappointing visual results.
to take up complex shapes and textures which would be much
harder to form vertically. Ferro-cement is capable of a high Masonry
degree of surface modelling, being made as a cement mortar- Loadbearing walls in brick, stone and concrete block have the
based mix with a high proportion of steel reinforcement. This advantage of being able to avoid the visible movement joints
material ensures very smooth finishes, but is more commonly associated with non-loadbearing cladding, which can enhance
used for yacht hulls. the massive visual quality of traditionally built walls. An essential
issue in loadbearing construction is to ensure that the wall
In-situ cast concrete is a monolithic material that provides an is sufficiently thick to avoid rainwater penetration as well as
almost continuous waterproof surface. Rainwater penetrates being able to provide thermal insulation, either in the wall
only a few centimetres into the depth of the material, but in construction or on the inner face. The sealing of windows and
temperate climates this leads to visible surface staining. This doors into openings follows principles of reinforced concrete
can be overcome by colouring the concrete, adding textures, discussed in the previous paragraph.
or ensuring that rainwater does not wash off surfaces where
dirt can collect, which would cause staining on an area of In masonry cavity walls, two masonry skins are tied together to
wall beneath. Movement joints with in-situ concrete require form a single wall, and here the detailing of openings in walls
careful attention so that they are waterproof but do not is undergoing continual refinement in order to reduce thermal
MCH_ 87
Walls 02
Concrete panels: Masonry loadbearing walls: Masonry loadbearing walls: Masonry cavity walls:
Housing Villaverde, Madrid, Spain. 30 Finsbury Square, London, U.K. Bluecoat Art Gallery, Liverpool, U.K. Private residence, Dublin, Ireland.
Architect: Chipperfield Architects Architect: Eric Parry Architects Architect: BIQ Architects Architect: Boyd Cody Architects
bridges. The top of an opening is supported with a lintel that Plastics

both closes the opening and ties the two skins together while Plastic-based cladding achieved a certain popularity in the
forming as small a thermal bridge as possible. Proprietary 1960s and 1970s, presenting a fresh approach in building
cavity closers and insulated lintels are used but these tend to construction based on lightness in weight and a craft-
match the shorter lifecycle of the windows rather than that of based working method in economic materials that appealed
the supporting structure, which is usually longer. Providing a to designers. Since then its use has been more modest,
continuity between the thermal insulation in the cavity, fixed to with concerns about durability and colour fading, which
the inner skin in the case of blockwork or masonry units, can lead have largely been overcome in the plastic-based materials
to wide joints around windows, which needs careful attention available today. Sealed plastic-based cladding uses mainly
to avoid visual clumsiness. This issue is easier to resolve if the polycarbonate and GRP sheet that is either fixed into
thermal insulation forms part of the inner skin as is the case frames generally used for glazed curtain walling, or is fixed
with inner skins in timber framing or light gauge steel frames. together as self-supporting panels in a way similar to metal
composite panels. Most types are available as proprietary
In stone cladding, panels are mortared together and supported systems, with manufacturers having their own details for
on fixings at each floor level, where each stone is individually window openings, parapets, cills and corners.
restrained back to an inner wall that provides lateral restraint
from wind loads. Windows and doors typically are fixed to, When polycarbonate sheet is used, the material often has
and supported by, the inner wall. The gap between the outer up to five layers within the material that provides a high level
thin stone and the windows fixed to the inner walls is usually of thermal insulation. Some manufacturers use thermally
achieved by either putting a trim around the reveal in the same broken sections, but the more visually appealing sections
material as the window (usually metal) or by adding stone panels have no thermal breaks. Since these sections are made from
around the opening. When stone panels are used around the aluminium extrusions, the opportunity exists continually to
opening there is always a choice of either revealing the edge of improve the system in conjunction with manufacturers. An
the stone of the reveal trim (or the edge of the adjacent stone essential aspect of working with proprietary systems is that
in the facade), or alternatively mitring the junction between the some have standard window and door sections which have
two stones. Since the thickness of stone cladding is seen only at an appearance that may not suit other design approaches.
external corners, the choice of revealing or concealing its actual The challenge here is to be able to modify the windows,
thickness, rather than the massive stone quality the facade may doors and trims to suit the overall design for the facade.
aim to convey. Thin stone cladding is often used for its surface Other polycarbonate sheet systems have little provision for
texture rather than conveying an idea of massiveness. The windows and doors and usually have no standard method
choice of easily commercially available stones has increased of interacting with the supporting structure. These have
dramatically in recent years, widening the choice to thinner to be developed with the manufacturer to suit a particular
sandstones and limestones which have physical properties design. Because polycarbonate is used for its qualities of
closer to those of weak granites. Masonry rainscreens are a transparency and translucency, the supporting framework
recent development and comprise extruded terracotta panels is very visible, even with translucent wall panels, so trims to
that are fixed in a variety of ways depending on their size. Since support framing should be designed as carefully as those
they are completely independent of backing walls they present for glazed curtain walling. In common with glazed walls,
enormous freedom in design. polycarbonate panels can be either fixed into frames or
be fixed at points with bolts and brackets. Silicone-based
MCH_ 88
Masonry stone and block cavity walls:
Thermae Spa, Bath, U.K. Architect: Grimshaw Architects
Masonry stone and block cavity walls: Masonry cladding:

NoLi Housing, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Archaeology museum Almeria, Spain.
Architect: Erdy McHenry Architecture Architect: Paredes/Pedrosa
Small precast concrete panels: St Albans Pavillion, St

Albans, U.K. Architect: MUF Architects
sealants are commonly used to seal between panels in the panels use a mixture of metal trims and rubber-based seals in
manner of bolt fixed glazing. the manner of unitised glazed walls, with a drained and ventilated
chamber behind the outer timber cladding.
GRP panels are also fixed into glazing systems, but can be fixed
together as sealed cladding units with pre-formed standing An important consideration in the detailing of timber is that the
seams like some proprietary systems for profiled metal sheet. thermal conductivity of both softwoods and hardwoods is very
They can also be formed into flat rainscreen panels with visible low, from 0.14 – 0.21 W/m2 K, compared to 45 W/m2 K
or concealed fixings. An important aspect of detailing in this for steel and 2000 W/m2 K for aluminium. Thermal breaks
material is its relatively high thermal expansion which leads to are not a significant issue in timber construction, which eases
larger gaps between components than is the case with other considerably any issues of thermal bridging around openings.
materials. The economic nature of plastic-based cladding is This allows enormous flexibility in timber detailing with a reduced
beginning to be recognised in new buildings, particularly with the risk of condensation occurring either within the construction or
ability of plastics to be coated in different colours economically, on the inside face of the wall in temperate climates. Openings
unlike the dominant use of pre-coated coil in metal panels, but in timber walls are increasingly using metal trims to enhance
the prejudice against the material for its discoloration in older the visual refinement of details. Metal trims can also support
examples has yet to be overcome in architectural applications. fly screens, awnings and related metal attachments to window
and door openings. Timber wall construction is relatively thin, at
Timber around 150mm overall, compared to 300mm for concrete and
Timber is susceptible to more movement than the other masonry-based facades, resulting in smaller window reveals
materials described, mostly as a result of changes in moisture which are easy to detail with modest trims and cills. Window
level within the material. Consequently, timber used in facade frames are sometimes set on the outside face of the wall to
cladding is allowed to accommodate movement as well as reduce any risk of rainwater penetration as well as providing
being ventilated to ensure that bowing, twisting and warping internal window cills.
of timber components is minimised. In detailing timber it is
difficult to form joints that perform well in tension without the Timber rainscreens vary enormously from big timber sections
need to introduce another material, usually metal. Metal pin fixed back individually to a backing wall, in the manner of an open
connections, nail plates, cleats and angles are an integral part jointed timber deck set vertically, to timber panels with louvres
of the language of timber joints. and sliding slatted panels. The positioning of metal fixings is
critical to the visual success of all these timber cladding methods.
Although timber can be used as both cladding panels and as Corner brackets and fixings have a tendency to be large in
rainscreen panels over a different background wall, the timber order to give a secure fixing, so attention to detail of brackets
boards in both cases are set clear of the backing wall to ensure and fixings is essential to achieving an elegant appearance.
that both sides are well ventilated. When timber boards are Traditional techniques used lapping of timber boards, with
used to clad a platform frame, the same general principles apply concealed nails and screws to protect fixings from corrosion,
as for the construction of individual timber cladding panels, but contemporary detailing has much less emphasis on lapping
except for the vertical joints. Vertical joints between boards in in order to give greater visual precision to the construction.
the platform frame can have timber trims and fillets added that
protect the end grain of the timber from rainwater, where the
timber is particularly vulnerable. Joints between timber cladding
MCH_ 89
Walls 02
Generic wall types
Plastic-based cladding:
Dance Studio, Tooting & Mitcham Football
Club, U.K. Architect: Clash Associates
Masonry rainscreen: Plastic rainscreen:

Walsall Art Gallery, U.K. Reiss store, London, U.K. Architect: Squire & Partners
Architect: Caruso St John Architects
This section discusses changes over the past ten years in not affected the move towards the emergence of a new set of
the 17 generic non-loadbearing cladding types set out in this generic types, which are common to all the 17 cladding types.
chapter and further identifies a smaller set of six generic types From these generic types it is clear that the different types
from this list. The application of this set of cladding types in are supported by either a monolithic structure, or a backing
'thin' and ‘layered' facades is discussed as well as how these wall to a frame, or alternatively to an open structural frame.
facades are slowly developing from the use of technology from Each generic type is rarely supported by both structural types.
other industries. Since framed construction is more recent, the more recently
developed techniques of glazing are used in conjunction with
The generic types are as follows: frames. Traditional loadbearing structures continue to be used
in conjunction with traditionally-based techniques. Structurally,
1. Fully supported sheet metal the traditionally based cladding is characterised by techniques
2. Profiled cladding that use materials in short spans.
3. Composite metal panels
4. Metal rainscreens From the list, these short span generic types for monolithic
5. Metal mesh screens structures (and backing walls to frames) are as follows:
6. Glass stick systems
7. Glass unitised systems Fully supported sheet metal
8. Point fixed glazing (clamped and bolt fixed) - Metal rainscreens
9. Glass blocks - Masonry facings to cavity walls (brick, block, stone)
10. Steel framed glazing - Stone cladding
11. Precast concrete panels - Terracotta rainscreens
12. Masonry facings to cavity walls (brick, block, stone) - Timber cladding to platform frame
13. Stone cladding - Timber rainscreens
14. Terracotta rainscreen
15. Polycarbonate insulated systems Also from the list, generic types for open framed structures are
16. Timber cladding to platform frame as follows:
17. Timber rainscreens - Metal profiled cladding
- Metal composite panels
All these systems still in use have undergone technical - Metal mesh screens
development to improve performance, largely concerned with - Glass stick systems
energy conservation. Reports over the past ten years have - Glass unitised systems
suggested that no clear pattern of use has emerged in the use - Point fixed glazing (clamped and bolt fixed)
of cladding systems. The choice of cladding system is very much - Glass blocks
affected by building type and the number of a particular type built - Steel framed glazing
in a given year. The full range of cladding systems in this book is - Precast concrete panels
in full use. The preference for one system over another is very - Polycarbonate insulated systems
much driven by the building type and particular performance
criteria and budgets of individual projects. A clear pattern that
is emerging is that the choice of cladding systems available has
MCH_ 90
Timber frame:
Harmood Children’s Centre, London, U.K.
Architect: Greenhill Jenner Architects
Timber cladding panels: Timber frame:

Carmarthen Place, London, U.K. Private residence, London, U.K.
Architect: Architects in Residence Architect: Lynch Architects
Generic forms very narrow 'wall' thickness. The use of glass with a structural
Six generic cladding types are identified below which are capability, coupled with controlled light and heat transmission, is
common to both non-glazed and glazed cladding systems. The a strong influence in the design of facades. It reduces thickness
first three types are used for small span applications with a of external walls, allowing floor areas to be maximised. It allows
backing wall. The second three types are used for large span a single, competitively priced product, such as body tinted
applications without a backing wall. tempered glass, to fulfil a range of functions. In these 'thin’ or
‘compressed' facades, functions of weatherproofing, thermal
Three types for small span applications with a backing wall: insulation, air handling and glare control are compressed into
a very thin wall.
1. Fully supported sheet with sealed joints
2. Facings with sealed joints: facings to masonry cavity walls, Over the past 15 years, this principle has been developed to
glass blocks, masonry cladding, timber boarding incorporate other components within a narrow depth. Louvred
3. Rainscreens with open joints: masonry, timber boarding, blinds and mechanical ventilation can now be incorporated.
metal, mesh screens Heat from solar radiation can be partially absorbed by blinds set
within the depth of a 100mm to 300mm deep double glazed unit.
Three types for large span applications without a backing wall: Air passes through the unit, drawing away heat from the blinds,
4. Self-supporting profiled sheet providing a thin external wall whose performance is a balance
5. Stick systems: metal, glass, point fixed glazing, insulated between different, and sometimes conflicting, criteria. In these
polycarbonate thin facades, the integrated blind will absorb heat during periods
6. Panel systems: Precast concrete, timber, metal composite, of high solar gain when blinds must be orientated to act as a
glass unitised radiator of heat. This can conflict with occupants’ requirements
for daylight. Each facade will respond differently to the changing
The application of these generic types in 'thin' and 'layered' weather conditions, by either manual or electrical means.
facades
Modern single-sealed glass framing systems used in building An alternative approach for external walls is the separation
construction, which rely on silicone bonding and rubber-based and layering of the functions of weatherproofing, ventilation,
pressure seals, together with tempered, body-tinted glasses, are thermal insulation, and daylight/glare control. With this
based on techniques developed by glass manufacturers for the 'layered' approach, specific layers in the envelope system are
car industry. Car manufacturers are relatively few in number, but created to deal with specific tasks of excluding rainwater and
they place very large orders for a restricted range of specially controlling heat loss and heat gain, glare and ventilation. To
designed glass products such as windscreens. The building achieve this, a layered system superimposes generic types. A
industry, in contrast, generates relatively small orders from current disadvantage of this system is that a layered facade
a huge number of customers all of whom have quite different requires considerably more depth of 'wall', from around one
requirements. The current custom built nature of building metre where external solar shading is provided, to about
construction does not encourage, in itself, glass manufacturers three metres, where the zone between the inner and outer
to invest significantly in new systems. As a result, most recent wall becomes a usable space in a building in the manner of a
developments in glazing for buildings have followed in the wake conservatory or winter garden.
of those developed for use in cars. Performance specifications
for car glazing systems apply a complex set of criteria to a single
MCH_ 91
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 1: sheet metal
(Right) 3D detail views showing sheet metal

wall system with window openings at widow
opening and parapet conditions 5
5
3
7
7 4
1
2 4
5 12
1
3
12
7
2
3 11
1
8 1
3 7
2
1 4
3D view of sheet metal wall system with
window openings 12
System design as an outer covering to a complex form. Both methods set

Sheet metal is typically supported directly on a substrate, the thermal insulation behind the substrate, typically creating
providing a system formed from thin sheet which can closely a ventilated void between substrate and insulation, but this is
follow a complex geometry with relative ease, making it very dependent on the construction of the backing wall rather than
suitable as a covering to a highly modelled facade. This material on the sheet metal layer.
system has developed from its traditional use in roofing, where
the standing seam technique is well established, to a facade Standing seam roofs have traditionally had a slightly uneven
material that can cover projecting windows, externally set appearance due to the softer, more ductile metals used, mainly
structure and areas of flat facade with equal ease. In recent lead, zinc and copper, whose ductility allows them to be formed
years sheet metal has been used to enclose forms of complex more easily when used in traditional, site based installations. The
geometry, on either folded or curved facades. Consequently, 'oil canning' effects of sheet metals, which are visible immediately
this system also provides an economic outer covering in after installation when used in facades, tend to diminish visually
projects where wall and roof are combined in a single form, as the surface weathers to the characteristic patina of the
or where the external envelope is highly modelled in a single metal used. The texture remains with weathering, giving a
form where one material is required for the complete envelope. hand crafted appearance which suits visually vibrant facades.
The principles of rainwater exclusion used on roofs can be Some recent buildings have even slightly exaggerated this effect
applied for use on facades, with continuous joint lines, to form a before installation to create a highly textured surface finish to
complete envelope from a (nominally) flat roof to a vertical wall, the metal. Standing seam metal facades have the essential
to inverted soffit conditions. visual characteristic of highly visible joints at relatively close
centres of between 450 - 600mm. This construction method,
The two generic methods for supporting sheet metal facades used traditionally as a roofing system, is used increasingly in
that suit different conditions are continuous standing seams and facades as an economic system that is easy to combine with
tiled shingles. Standing seams are suited where long, straight other facade elements such as glazing without the need for
or continuous joint lines are required or where the facade has reveals and visible flashings.
gentle curves which can be picked out by the joint lines. Tiled
shingles are suited to complex geometries and smaller scale
applications where a high degree of surface modelling is required.
Metal sheet can also be laid onto a timber-based substrate
MCH_ 92
11
3 1 7
2
3 2 4
12
2 4
8
7
10
Details
1. Metal sheet
2. Standing seam joint
3. Timber substrate
4. Thermal insulation 2
5. Fixing battens
6. Waterproof membrane
7. Backing wall
8. Timber/aluminium window
9. Clips at centres
10. Folded metal profile
11. Metal flashing
3D view of wall system with window opening and parapet detail
12. Concrete floor slab
MCH_ 93
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 1: sheet metal
1
2
3
7
5 4
2 1
3 5
8
1
8
3D detail view showing profiled metal sheet wall construction 3D view showing profiled metal 2
sheet wall construction overview 1
Details
7
8 1. Metal sheet
3. Timber substrate
4 4. Thermal insulation
5. Fixing battens
3
5 10 6. Waterproof membrane
7. Backing wall
8. Timber/aluminium window
1
9. Clips at centres
2
10. Folded metal profile
11. Metal flashing
Horizontal section 1:10. Profiled metal sheet fixed to concrete backing wall 12. Concrete floor slab
System details material of metal strip is used, metal tiles are usually in widths of
Continuously supported sheet metal provides a rhythm of around 450-600mm depending on the metal used. The jointing
standing seams that do not need to be visually coordinated with system also performs well when the tiles are set diagonally, with
openings and junctions in the facade. Flashings can be formed 45° being most commonly used in practice.
at window and door openings without modular co-ordination
and do not require to be specifically aligned with an adjacent Both methods use a continuous supporting material, typically
standing seam or shingle edge for a reliable joint to be formed. plywood sheet for its ability to form complex surfaces with
When joints are at visually close centres, at around 400mm, ease. Timber boards are also used, but mainly in open jointed
the joint pattern provides an overall texture for a facade rather configuration to support zinc sheet, which requires ventilation
than defining rows of joints. When used in long lengths from on its internal face to avoid corrosion. Timber substrates are
rolls, the material allows horizontal joints to be avoided in usually ventilated on their internal face in order to reduce the
smaller scale applications, up to around 12 metres in length, possibility of damage associated with trapped moisture.
but curved or highly modelled facade/roof combinations require
shorter distances between horizontal joints to accommodate For both standing seam joints and shingled tiles, openings and
the curvature. In such situations, tapered joints are often used, edge flashings, including parapets, are formed with folded metal
sometimes with staggers set into them as used at the centre of flashings in the same material. Flashings can be set below the
traditional circular metal roofs. material at junctions which reduces their visibility, enhancing the
texture of the facade material where required. Flashings are
Where crisp, straight lines are required in the design, the typically of two visual types: those that formed a visible strip that
standing seam method is used on vertical joints in a variety of laps over the face of the adjacent area of metal sheet, and those
configurations to suit visual requirements. The choice of seam is that form a shadow gap between the flashing and the surface of
primarily visual, ranging from the wide rolled seam of traditional the adjacent metal. Since sheet metal surfaces are formed by
lead roofing to the thin folded projecting seam of traditional folding over edges of narrow sheets to form a continuous metal
zinc and copper roofing. Horizontal joints are folded to form a surface, they do not have a natural link into windows and doors
flattened seam that allows rainwater to run off it without finding set into a typical facade. Windows are often sealed against the
its way into a joint. backing wall in which they are held rather than sealing them
against the sheet metal wall.
Tiled or 'shingled' standing seam metal facades use flattened
folded seams on all sides of the panel. Since the same source
MCH_ 94
6
2 7
1
3 7 5
4
5
1 4
8
11
8
4
7
1
5
3D detail view showing window head detail within profiled metal sheet system
1 1
10 3 3
4
8 4
8 Plan 1:5. Standing seam profiles
10
11
8
3
4
11
7
10
2 5 7
4
1 3
Vertical section 1:10. Typical wall system
3D detail view showing window cill detail within profiled metal sheet system
MCH_ 95
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 2: profiled cladding
1
2
2
5 12
12
1
17
2
17
5
3D detail views showing close-up of gutter
11
5
17
13
Details
1. Cover strip profile
5 2. Horizontally fixed profiled sheet (can also
be vertically fixed)
3. Air gap
3
4. Breather membrane/vapour barrier
5. Thermal insulation
6. Backing wall, typically timber/metal
frame with plywood facing and waterproof
membrane, or concrete block
7. Floor finish
8. Drywall/dry lining
17 9. Z-section steel fixing rails
10. Ground slab
11. Curved eaves profile
12. Concealed gutter
2 3
13. Exposed gutter
14. Adjacent structural wall
15. Cladding fixing frame
5 16. Metal flashing
7 17. Steel structure
17
3
3D view showing wall and roof assembly 5
MCH_ 96
3D cutaway views showing wall and roof
assembly and connection to wall and floor slab
16 16
14
14
2
5
13
17
6
2 5
13
14
15
15
2 5
10 15
2 6
5
5
15 10
System design The profiled metal sheet was set with the ribs running from top
The main difference between profiled metal cladding and the to bottom of the roof and continued down the facades in the
continuously supported type is that profiled sheet can span 3-5 same alignment. As its use in facades developed, profiled metal
metres between supports, depending on the (sectional) profile cladding was used horizontally rather than vertically, in order
used. The profile depth provides rigidity of the material in one to curve the wall profile when seen in section, and at different
direction, allowing it to be fixed directly to a structural frame angles, in order to introduce an expression of complex geometry.
rather than requiring the continuous support of an additional
substrate. Its profile allows the sheet to be gently curved in As a material system, the profiled nature of the material
one direction during installation on site, with the material requires continuity of the profile from sheet to sheet, making it
still lapped on all edges regardless of its orientation. Profiled difficult to create visual offsets in the setting out of the material.
sheet can be curved along its rigid length by crimping in the Where a change of orientation or direction is needed by the
factory, usually to form curved corner pieces for horizontally- design, a projecting cover strip or recessed shadow gap joint is
set cladding, or curved eaves pieces for vertically-set cladding. needed, which creates a break in the system. Since the shape of
Proprietary systems offer a range of curved components as the profile cannot be varied in regular manufacture, the lines of
well as 90° corners where short lengths of sheet are welded to the sheet and visible joints at geometric changes in the system,
form a crisp corner panel. The wide range of profiles available, dominate its appearance. In common with standing seam metal,
from small wave profiles to deep profiled sections, gives a wide profiled metal sheet does not have windows and doors that form
range of visual effects. part of the material system, though these items can be made
in the same material and finish. Because windows and doors
Profiled metal cladding has developed from its initial application are made by different manufacturers, it is important to ensure
in industrial buildings in the 1970s to wider architectural either colour matching at the fabrication stage, or contrasting
applications. This material system uses a single metal, either colours/finishes that work together visually. Where the inner
steel or aluminium, for the complete cladding of, typically, lining of the wall is also formed in profiled metal sheet (typically
manufacturing or storage buildings which have large shallow flatter, and sometimes perforated for acoustic performance) a
pitched roofs and a relatively small facade area in relation to that similar approach is taken.
of the roof. The all-metal envelope evolved, in an architectural
sense, with the introduction of curved eaves and concealed
gutter with walls and roof appearing to be a continuous form.
MCH_ 97
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 2: profiled cladding
3
3
5 2
5
4 13
1 13
9 17
2
17
17
3
2
17
5 3
4
17
5 10
3D view showing wall and roof

assembly
(Below) 3D view showing gutter

detail in profiled cladding wall
construction
3 2
10
13
2
5
17
17 5 17
9 9
3
10 3 2
13
Vertical section 1:10. Profiled cladding wall construction 3 17

17
2
(Right) Vertical section 1:10. Gutter
MCH_ 98
1
Details
5 1. Cover strip profile
5 2. Metal sheet
2 3. Metal standing seam
6 2 5
3 4. Breather membrane/vapour
barrier
3
17 6. Blockwork backing wall
4 2 2
10 7. Floor finish
2
3 8. Drywall/dry lining
9. Z-section steel fixing rails
2 10. Floor slab
11. Curved eaves profile
6 12. Concealed gutter
7
13. Exposed gutter
3D views showing
14. Adjacent structural wall
standing seam
15. Cladding fixing frame
wall assembly at
10 16. Metal flashing
parapet and ground
17. Steel structure
floor interface 3D view showing standing seam wall assembly
18. Standing seam clips
conditions and interface with ground floor slab
3 6
6 2
6
5
5 15 6
2 15
17
7 6 5
4 2
7
3
2 3
10 6
2
15
3D exploded view showing

standing seam wall assembly
System details The void behind the sheet is filled with thermal insulation which
Vertically-set sheeting requires folded metal flashings at the requires a vapour barrier on its internal (warm in winter) face.
top and bottom of the wall to form parapets and cills, as well The internal lining of the wall can be in any material, though dry
as corners, usually made from flat sheet. Some manufacturers lining or an additional layer of profiled metal sheet is typical.
provide crimped flashings for corners in order to provide visual Some manufacturers have proprietary lining sheets in metal
continuity between adjacent facades. Where flat sheet is used which are flatter than the external profiled sheet to suit the
at corners, plastic or foam-based filler pieces form part of the typical requirements of internal finishes.
system to close the gaps between the profiled sheet and the
flat metal flashings that are usually set onto the face of the Openings for windows and doors are sealed with metal
profiled sheet. The visual impact of these filler pieces needs to flashings that can be determined as much by visual
be assessed within the design. Horizontally-set sheeting can be requirements as by the needs of weather proofing. Window
formed as continuous cladding with barely visible joints resulting openings often have wide cover strips around the edges of
from lapping the sheets. Alternatively, the profiled sheet can be the opening to provide a full weather tight seal which forms a
divided into bays, formed with vertical joints closed with cover highly visible part of the design.
strips or with recessed pressed (top hat) sections.
Corners can be made from either externally set cover strips or
At roof level, parapets are formed with a pressed metal coping by recessed corner flashings to suit the design. The recessed
with another flashing beneath. A metal flashing is used to close version requires careful installation of the cladding sheets on
the gap between the roof deck and the parapet upstand where site in order to achieve the relatively narrow corner joint widths.
the roof is also clad in profiled metal sheet. Where only a low Cover strips usually have their edge folded back to provide a
upstand is required, as at the gable, a folded flashing is fixed to crisp line around the profile. Folded flashings are usually in two
the roof surface to form a sealed edge. A metal coping flashing parts, with an inner seal between cladding and window, and an
is then fixed to the upstand and is folded down the face of the additional outer flashing which is sealed with silicone back to
external wall. Although the thermal insulation forming part of the profiled metal.
the wall construction is made continuous with that of the roof,
the void in the parapet is usually filled with thermal insulation to Although proprietary systems are available, it is easy to adapt
avoid high temperature variations between outside and inside these systems, where the facade fabricator makes flashings
the construction. to suit individual requirements. Principles of details are well
understood by fabricators and complete proprietary systems
are not always required.
MCH_ 99
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 3: composite panels
3D view showing assembly with panels spanning

vertically and horizontally
1
15
1
15
15
8 2
Details
1. Composite panel 9. Window frame
2. Panel fixing to primary or 10. Roof parapet
secondary structural steelwork 11. Gutter 2
3. Polysulphide or silicone-based 12. Special panel highlighting floor
seal level
4. Outer metal facing 13. Floor slab
5. Inner metal facing 14. Roof
6. Inner insulation core 15. Steel column
7. Metal capping 16. Curved corner panel
8. Interlocking fixing 17. Special corner panel
System design also used with interlocking joints on all four sides, and these
This material system provides a complete wall assembly in a are usually made in sizes that can easily integrate doors and
single panel form, sometimes with integral windows and doors windows which also form part of proprietary systems.
that interlock with the regular panels. Panels consist of an
inner core of rigid thermal insulation onto which a thin metal Vertically-set panels that interlock on two sides are usually
sheet is bonded to each side, with a specially formed profile storey height. Where panels are stacked over more than one
around the edges of the panel that forms a weathertight storey, the horizontal joints between panels are usually sealed
connection with adjacent panels. This material system is made with metal flashings. Panels are supported on horizontal rails,
as complete proprietary systems, each with varying levels of typically at floor level to allow a floor to ceiling panel arrangement
interchangeability and surface finish in relation to their cost. without intermediary structure that would be visible from inside
Their main visual advantage is the smoothness of the panel the building. Horizontally-set panels that interlock on two sides
faces that form a complete system with integral panels for are stacked one above the other, with tongue and groove
corners, parapets and window openings. Their main technical horizontal joints, which usually contrast visually with the vertical
advantage is in providing a complete wall construction in a joints which have wider sight lines in order to accommodate a
thin panel which is also highly thermally insulated. Panels are metal cover strip, a rubber-based gasket, or their combination.
typically made in widths of 1100mm to 1400mm to suit the Since vertically set panels are typically separated by the
manufactured width of metal coil, but are long, up to around 15 flashings, vertical joints can be discontinuous, allowing windows
metres, where transportation of the panels becomes a primary to be set in specific locations on a floor-by-floor basis, with each
consideration of their size. floor having its own arrangement of composite panels that is
not aligned with those on the floor below. This has given rise
Panels typically have interlocking joints on two sides, forming an to the use of mixed panels, set both vertically and horizontally,
integral part of their fabrication, with panels being set either in a tiled arrangement rather than the exclusive use of the
vertically or horizontally. Joints are typically formed to avoid a rectilinear grid seen until recently.
thermal bridge from inside to outside, by creating a small break
between inside and outside layers of metal, and are shaped to In four-sided interlocking panels, joints usually incorporate an
ensure that rainwater runs back out of the panel. Joints between inner chamber set between an inner and outer seal in order
panels at their short ends, where there is no interlocking joint, that the system be internally drained and pressure equalised.
are butt jointed and sealed with cover strips. Panel systems are Window and door frames interlock into the surrounding panels
MCH_ 100
3D view showing composite panel with vertical capping
and interlocking horizontal joints
1
15
1
1
7
4
8
6
1
3D detail view showing connection profile for vertical two-

way interlocking profiled panels
15
1
15 1
7
6 3D detail view showing metal bracket

and capping fixed to structural frame
2
4 5
2
15
1
8
8 15
3D view showing interlocking composite

panel profile system overview
vertical section. Interlocking 3D detail view showing metal bracket

composite panel profile and capping supporting panels
MCH_ 101
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 3: composite panels
10
10 7
7
2 2
11
14
11
1
Details
1. Composite panel
2 2. Panel fixing to primary
9 or secondary structural 2
steelwork 1
3. Polysulphide or silicone-
18 based seal
4. Outer metal facing 7
14
5. Inner metal facing
6. Inner insulation core 2
7. Metal capping
8. Interlocking fixing 10
9. Window frame 1 11
10. Roof parapet
18 11. Gutter
12. Special panel
9
1 highlighting floor level
15
13. Floor slab 15
14. Roof 9
15. Steel column
1
16. Curved corner panel
17. Special corner panel 18
18. Double glazing
18
15
1
13
12
1 2
8
12
13
15
1
13
1
7 13
3D view showing vertical

section through typical Vertical section 1:10. Wall build-up showing typical
wall system details
MCH_ 102
7
16 16
11 10
2
7
8
1
Horizontal section 1:10. Corner details and special
15 application panels
2 8
16
17
8
3D view showing special corner panels
15
17
16
17
15 8
15 2 9
9
Vertical section 1:10. Corner details and 18

special application panels 17
and are of a depth equal to that of the composite panels. are also used at internal and external corners of the facade,
Interlocking joints are usually made sufficiently rigid to allow and others have a range of preformed panels for cills, corners
two or three panels to be used in a storey height without and parapet copings as part of their systems. This avoids the
visible supporting structure. For both vertical and horizontal need for visible metal flashings which lap down over the face of
orientation of panels, this material system requires a supporting adjacent composite panels to provide a lapped joint, and have
metal frame, typically in mild steel, but sometimes in aluminium. a flatter, smoother appearance when compared to pressed
This frame is arranged in a way that will support the edges of metal flashing panels. A wider range of interface components
the composite panels, and is fixed back to the primary structure are usually available on four-edge interlocking panels to add to
of the building. The visual characteristics of the supporting the seamless clipped-together appearance of these systems.
frame are usually secondary as they are often concealed behind Parapets are typically formed with a pressed metal flashing that
the interior finishes of the building. Where visible, they form an folds down the face of the facade but can also be created with
essential part of the material system, and are often formed a parapet panel which can be flat or curved to suit the design.
from rectangular hollow sections. Where a pressed metal flashing is used, a layer of thermal
insulation is set beneath, with a vapour barrier on the internal
System details (warm in winter) face of the insulation in order to provide
Both two-sided and four-sided interlocking panels have windows continuity of insulation between wall and roof. Colour matching
and doors as separate components which are coordinated between metal flashing and composite panel is essential to the
with the material system to varying degrees, with four-sided success of this method, unless a completely different colour is
interlocking systems being the more closely integrated. used for folded metal items. Four-edge interlocking systems
Windows and doors are fitted in a way that they are either allow the possibility of a thin parapet coping of around 100mm
flush with the external face of the composite panels in order that forms a visual continuity with the panels beneath. Any
that the same panel to panel flashings can be used to seal the water that penetrates the outer seal is drained away to the
door/window, or alternatively windows/doors are recessed. In base of the wall within the drained and ventilated framing to
recessed window and door openings, flat metal panels are used the panels. Windows are often given the same colour and finish
to close the gap between the face of the composite panels and in order to provide a visual continuity between window frame
the window or door frame. Some manufacturers of composite and composite panel, giving the facade the visual crispness
panels offer special corner panels for window reveals which previously associated with fully glazed walls.
MCH_ 103
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 4: rainscreens
11
8
11
11 8
12
7
12
1
1 12
12
7 13
12
7
12
3D views showing metal rainscreen wall

construction and junction with window
This material system uses the rainscreen principle of allowing grooves in the manner of composite metal panels that avoid the
rainwater to pass through open joints, or partially open joints, need for any visible fixings. With hook-on supports, panels have
where the water is drained away back to the outside of the brackets that are fixed to the sides of the panels that form the
building. Panels are set typically forward of a waterproofed and tray. Panels are fixed onto vertical rails which are usually aligned
thermally insulated backing wall. Wind driven rain that passes with the joints where they serve as a screen to the void behind.
through the outer open joints is drained away down the cavity Continuous rails are preferred to individual fixings, except in
between the back of the rainscreen panel and the outer face of small-scale applications, since rails are much faster to fix than
the backing wall. The backing wall is typically of economic type as individual brackets.
it is not visible if interior finishes are applied within the building.
Metal rainscreen panels are given typically either a completely Sizes of rainscreen panels are determined by available metal
open joint with framing behind positioned to close views into sheet sizes. Metal coil is supplied typically in 1200mm and
the void behind, or have folded edges on the panel to close the 1500mm widths, with metal plate in greater widths and in
joint visually, but not to seal it. Small amounts of rainwater that varying lengths. Metal-faced composite materials are also
pass through the outer joint are drained away in the ventilated used, comprising either a thin metal sheet, such as aluminium,
void behind. Visually, this material system provides visually crisp bonded to both sides of a rigid plastic core or, alternatively,
joints with strong shadow lines to the metal panels. The use of a single sheet of metal bonded to one side of a honeycomb
narrow joints between panels can give the metal panels a more panel. Composite materials that use a thin (3-5mm thick) inner
monolithic appearance as the joints are less visible. Rainscreen plastic-based core can be folded to form trays, but honeycomb
panels can provide a flatness or consistency of texture across panels require either an edge strip to conceal the joints, or
a facade that is independent of the backing wall behind. Most are set close enough together for the inner core not to be
panels are fixed so as to avoid visible fixings. Face fixings on visible. An alternative method of fixing panels is to form a folded
the metal sheet are usually not preferred since, at around tongue and groove joint on the long edges of the panel where
3mm thick, point fixings on a thin sheet can produce visible panels slot together. An advantage of this method is that the
distortions across the panel surface. Panels are usually formed support framing behind can be simplified with vertically-set or
as trays or ‘cassettes’ with folded edges that provide rigidity horizontally-set rails to suit the pressed metal panels where
to the panel as well as a depth to the joint that both reduces concealed fixings can be used.
rainwater penetration and obscures views into the void behind.
Most panels are fixed with either a hook-on fixing or with slotted
MCH_ 104
11
4
11
5 8
8
12
7 1
4
12
8 12 7
8
7 10
12
7
12
13
4
3D detail views showing window and parapet detail in rainscreen wall
system
12
8
7
12
13
4
Vertical section 1:10. Parapet showing typical details

9
Details
1. Metal support frame 11
2. Stainless steel mesh
3. Stainless steel spring
4. Metal fixing bracket
5. Fixing bolt
6. Framed perforated metal 4 12
sheet
7. Backing wall 7
8. Insulation 1
9. Window frame
10. Floor slab 8
1
11. Pressed metal parapet
8
coping 7
12. Metal rainscreen
cladding panel
13. Double glazing 3D detail view showing typical parapet
details
MCH_ 105
Walls 02Title
Chapter
Metal 4: rainscreens
3D view showing metal rainscreen panel
system at interface with ground floor slab
and with inset door 7
7
1
8
8
7
1
1
12
12
14
12
12
13
(Below) 3D views showing metal rainscreen

panel system at internal and external fold
in facade 15
9
7
7 8
12
8
12 1
12
7 8
1
1 3D view showing
metal rainscreen
panel system with
window opening
System details manufactured systems. Since the coping is sealed between

An essential aspect in the design of metal rainscreen systems is panels on its horizontal face to avoid rainwater falling directly
the layout and fixing of the framing that supports the rainscreen through the joint between panels, the joint is often recessed
cladding. Although panels can be set out independently of the to match with the open joint on its external vertical face. The
backing wall behind, which is one of their primary advantages, coping usually has a little gap between the coping panel and
the need to fix panels economically makes it essential to engage the inner face of the parapet upstand in order to ventilate the
with the idea of their fixing during the detailed design stage. cavity, where the joints between the facade panels do not admit
This is of particular importance where rainscreen panels are sufficient air for ventilation.
set out to coordinate visually with window openings. The open
jointed nature of the rainscreen panels allows the junction with Because windows in openings are sealed directly against the
windows to be straightforward and visually driven, as windows waterproof layer of the backing wall, the visual treatment of the
and doors are sealed to the backing wall, with which they form a junction of panel and window requires attention during design
continuity. At facade corners, panels are formed typically either to avoid an uncoordinated alignment. The rainscreen panels
from folded sheet or thin composite sheet, or alternatively are terminated adjacent to the window in order to conceal
with mitred panels that meet at the corner, particularly where the seal between window and backing wall. In order to avoid
honeycomb panels are used. Internal corners are formed in the staining from dust and dirt, cills are usually formed in a way that
same way, but their geometry allows panels to meet without any directs rainwater to the sides of the opening and down joints
special panels with two panels butting up to one another. The between panels rather than directly down the face of the panels
corner condition is an important junction, from a visual point below. Drips at ground level are formed as pressed metal
of view, as the thin nature of rainscreen panels can be either flashings, with the gap between the panels and the backing
exposed or concealed at this point. Butting panels together wall being closed with metal mesh that allows the passage
with an open joint on the corner can make it difficult to create a of air for ventilation but avoids the ingress of insects into the
visually sharp edge to the facade, with any imperfections in the ventilated void. Although manufacturers offer metal rainscreen
setting out of panels being apparent. panel systems, they can be modified designed to suit individual
projects and fabricated economically.
Parapets are formed in a similar way to corners, with panels
fabricated to suit particular project conditions as a part of
MCH_ 106
12 12
5 5 5 5
8
4 4
1 8 1
8 12
4
13 9
7
7
8 1
1
4
9
7
8
13 12
7 12
Horizontal section 1:10.
13
Typical details through wall
and junction with window
12
Details
1. Metal support frame
13 2. Stainless steel mesh
12
2 3. Stainless steel spring
7
5. Fixing bolt
8 6. Framed perforated
metal sheet
7. Backing wall
8. Insulation
4
9. Window frame
12
10. Floor slab
7
12
11. Pressed metal parapet
3D view showing basic coping
rainscreen panel system 12. Metal rainscreen
Vertical section 1:10. Typical window details cladding panel
13. Double glazing
14. Door opening
15. Internal finish
8
7
11 12
12 1
8
7
4
12 4
12
1
13
12
3D view showing wall

construction illustrating panel
fixing arrangement
3D view showing basic rainscreen panel system at window opening
MCH_ 107
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 5: mesh screens
2 2 2
5
1
2 Elevation and vertical section 1:25. Typical screen arrangement
Details
5. Fixing bolt
6. Framed perforated metal sheet
7. Backing wall
8. Insulation
5 9. Window frame
10. Floor slab
11. Pressed metal parapet coping
5
7
2
3D views showing Vertical section 1:2. Woven mesh

various mesh screens fixed to wall
Examples of mesh weave patterns
MCH_ 108
1
4
5
Horizontal section 1:2
3 3 33
1
2
3 3 3
Elevation 1:2 Vertical section 1:2
System design the materials into a continuous edge frame or by point fixing,
Metal mesh in facades has developed as a material system since the material cannot be tensioned. The diameter of the rod
from the early 1990s with the introduction of woven stainless is typically around 2mm set into a grid of 6mm x 2mm. They
steel and woven copper to provide lightweight screens, typically are joined to form a continuous wall of mesh panels where the
as screens. From its origins in industrial applications, such as grid of the frame can dominate visually. Because no cable is
woven metal conveyor belts, stainless steel mesh is used in used, the material can be colour coated or etched to create
facades for a variety of functions: solar shading to glass walls, specific visual effects. Where aluminium is used (which is not as
guarding to full height balustrades, and as visual screen to back- rigid as stainless steel), the material can be anodised in addition
ing walls. Woven stainless steel has cables set in one direction, to these finishes, though panels are made from either greater
which can be tensioned at points or along its edges to pro- diameter rod or smaller panel sizes.
vide a rigid, lightweight screen that has little visible supporting
structure, while metal rods set perpendicular to the direction Mesh which is flexible in one direction is sometimes woven in
of the cables provide rigidity in one direction. Stainless steel is groups of cable, running the length of the material, with thin
preferred to mild steel for its greater durability and resistance rods woven into these cables in the opposite direction, across
to corrosion. Copper and bronze are being introduced, but the the width of the material, creating a visually textured surface.
lower tensile strength of these materials currently limits their The material is manufactured in long lengths, allowing it to be
use to smaller scale applications. Because the cables require used as a continuous facade ‘wrapping’ material, either ten-
tensioning, their supporting structure can be visually prominent, sioned horizontally across the facade or hung from top to bot-
which has led to a greater interest in using more rigid meshes tom. Meshes are typically hung to reduce the sagging that could
made from rod woven in both directions, where the material occur when used horizontally, but cables beginning to be set
is set into a frame at its edges. Consequently, there are three at different angles, even 45° from the vertical direction. These
generic types of varying rigidity: rigid mesh, mesh flexible in one meshes are usually made in widths up to around 7500mm but
direction and fully flexible mesh. they require restraint at close centres if used as guarding, as
their deflections can be high. A wide variety of weave pattern
Rigid mesh is made from rods which are woven in two direc- is used to suit different amounts of transparency, rigidity and
tions that can use very similar patterns to those where cable weave. Light transmissions ranging from 25% to 65%, making
is used in one direction. The material is made in relatively small them very suitable for solar shading where a specific percent-
panels of around 1800mm x 1500mm, and is fixed by clamping age of shading is required. Light transmission can be reduced
MCH_ 109
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 5: mesh screens
10
4
1 4
8
2
6
2
2
3D detail view showing panel junction of perforated metal screen
12
8
1
4
10
6 6
8
1
3D detail view showing external corner of perforated metal screen Vertical section and elevation 1:25. Mesh flexible in one direction fixed to
brackets supported on adjacent wall
6
7 12
8
10
1
1 9
1
8
6
1
8
3D detail view showing external corner of perforated metal screen 3D detail view showing mesh panel in front of curtain wall glazing
MCH_ 110
12
12
2
10
2
10
4
2
9
Details
3D detail view showing mesh panel in front of curtain wall glazing
5. Fixing bolt
6. Framed perforated 11
metal sheet
7. Backing wall
8. Insulation
9. Window frame 12
10. Floor slab 2
7
11. Pressed metal 8
parapet coping
12. Double glazing 1
10
9
6 10
4
3D detail view showing mesh panel in front of curtain wall glazing Vertical section 1:10. Parapet of perforated metal screen
by reducing the distance between cables, between rods, or a same material. The plates are clamped with bolts, which can
combination of both, depending on the visual effect required. be countersunk to avoid highly visible fixing bolts. The frames
Cable thicknesses vary from 2mm to 6mm with rod diameters are then fixed back to the facade on support brackets. An
ranging from around 2mm to 4mm. Weave patterns can be as alternative edge frame is to use a C-shaped folded section
dense as 4mm x 10mm for low light transmission to 4mm x into which the rigid mesh is fixed. Rigid mesh can be curved in
10mm for high light transmission. Meshes can also incorporate either one direction or two directions to give a highly modelled
a varying weave within a single length of material to suit varying surface. The form of the curves is typically influenced by its
light transmission requirements. supporting structure, which needs to be a balanced blend of
structure and mesh to avoid the supporting structure from
Fully flexible mesh is less commonly used in facades, but has becoming visually dominant.
a visually rich appearance as a result of its non-rectilinear
open weave. Metal widths range from around 1800mm to Mesh which is flexible in one direction avoids the need for a
2400mm and are manufactured in long lengths. More open highly visible supporting frame, but typically requires substantial
weave versions are available, which resemble thin cable woven mild steel brackets projecting from the facade that can absorb
in two directions. These are manufactured in widths of around the tension in the cables at each end. Panels can be set side by
6000mm, requiring restraint at around 1500mm centres. The side to create a continuous texture of material across a facade,
material is held in place by tensioning the material in two direc- which is one of its preferred visual characteristics. Whether
tions, typically in an edge frame, but where panels can be as the material is set vertically or horizontally, a similar variety of
wide as the material as manufactured, subject to its deflections support methods can be used at the ends of the cable. Cables
being within the limits of its prescribed use. can be turned over a continuous rod at its ends to form a loop,
with the rod being supported on individual brackets to suit the
System details design rather than being aligned with each cable. Alternatively,
Where rigid mesh is fixed into a frame around its edge, the the continuous rod can be woven into the mesh, usually during
material is usually clamped between flat bars, or angles of the manufacture, with the rod being supported in the same way.
MCH_ 111
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 6: louvre screens
Details
1. Extruded aluminium frame
2. Curtain wall carrier system
1
3. Extruded aluminium louvre blades
4. Floor slab
3D view showing metal louvre screen in

front of curtain wall system
System design outside. The perimeter of the frame is sealed against the sur-
Metal louvres are used typically in facades either to provide rounding waterproofed wall where a different material is used
weather resistance to the ends of ducts for mechanical equip- for the surrounding area of facade.
ments or as acoustic screens. Glass blade louvres with metal
frames are used to provide ventilation to daylit spaces such as Where metal louvres are set into a curtain walling system,
semi-open circulation spaces where high levels of thermal insu- blades are placed in a perimeter frame to form a complete
lation are not required. The orientation of metal louvres is as panel which is then fixed into curtain walling framing in the same
much a visual consideration as one of technical performance, manner as a glazed unit or metal panel would be fixed. This is
with the blades used to conceal views through as well as to allow particularly useful where a glazed wall has a few louvre panels
the free passage of air through the panel. For this reason metal that form part of the facade. The louvres can be introduced
louvre blades can be set either vertically or horizontally with an without the need for changing the system to accommodate the
orientation that avoids views through the blades. At ground/ louvres, simplifying the interfaces between glass/metal units
street level, horizontal blades usually conceal views through the and the open louvre panels. Water that penetrates the glazing
void behind, but above ground floor level, the 45° orientation of system is drained away through the drained and ventilated cav-
the blades allows views through unless an additional bank of ity of the curtain walling system. Metal louvre blades are usually
blades is added, which both improves weather protection and made from extruded aluminium or mild steel. Aluminium is typi-
conceals views through the panel. Vertically set blades provide cally polyester powder coated, while mild steel is galvanised and
a screen that conceals views through when seen at an oblique painted. The use of aluminium provides precisely formed sec-
angle, but allows views through a small part of the facade when tions that can both encourage the passage of air through the
directly facing the facade. Deeper vertically-set blades increase panel and minimise rainwater penetration. The blades are fixed
the screening effect for views at close proximity to the louvres. into a perimeter frame also formed from extrusions or angle
Where more than a single row of inclined blades is needed in sections to suit the frame size and method of drainage. Mild
horizontally-set louvres, typically to improve their weather resist- steel is often used where greater resistance to accidental dam-
ance, rainwater is drained by forming a groove along the bottom age is needed, as the material better withstands the effects of
edge of each blade to drain away water through the sides of the local impacts than aluminium, and can also be accommodated
louvre frame, then down the base of the frame and back to the within curtain walling systems.
MCH_ 112
1
4 4
2
1
3 1
2
1
3
3D detail views showing louvre panel fixing details 3
3
3
Vertical section 1:25. Metal louvre system and fixing elements
3D view showing metal louvre screen in front of curtain wall system
MCH_ 113
Chapter
Walls 02Title
Metal 6: louvre screens
5
2
4
1
4
3
2
1
1 3
3D detail views showing profiled aluminium louvres and fixing system
4
2 2 2
1 1
3
1 3
1
1
1
3D view showing profiled aluminium

louvres and fixing system overview
3
3
1 1
2
4
2
3 5
3D detail views showing profiled aluminium louvres and fixing system
MCH_ 114
Details
1. Extruded aluminium frame
8 10
2. Curtain wall carrier system
3. Extruded aluminium louvre blades 6
1
4. Floor slab
5. Glazing
9
6. Masonry rainscreen cladding
7. Brickwork outer leaf 6
8. Thermal insulation 8 6
9. Floor finish 4
10. Blockwork backing wall
3 6
10 1
10
7 8 3
10 8
9
10 3
4
8
3
1
10
3 3
10
10
10 9 6
10 6
7
4
3D view showing 6
3D view showing horizontal horizontal louvres set 3D view showing horizontal
1
louvres set within loadbearing within rainscreen cladding louvres set within rainscreen
masonry facade system facade system cladding facade system
System details els allow them to be used as both fixed or adjustable types on a
Metal louvre panels are made in widths of 1500mm to around single facade, where the louvres are a less visually obvious part
3000mm to suit the facades into which they are set. Individual of the design. Mechanisms for moving louvres typically comprise
blades are supported by vertical or horizontal framing members pivots set on top and bottom with a sliding arm at the bottom,
along the length of the blades in order to provide the required to which the blades are connected to provide louvre movement.
stiffness in addition to the perimeter frame required for each These can be hand or electrically operated. Aerofoil-type sec-
panel. Because of the required technical performance and vis- tions can span up to around 3000mm.
ual criteria required of louvres, they are made as proprietary
systems which are adapted to the requirements of individual Glass louvre blades are held by metal clips, usually made in cast
projects. Doors in louvre panels are usually formed in a similar or extruded aluminium, that provide structural support to the
way to fixed panels to avoid them being highly visible, but usually blades. Clips are linked to rods that form part of the support-
have larger frames to provide the required door panel stiffness. ing frame to the louvres. The rods move up and down, allowing
the louvre blades to be moved to opened and closed positions
Metal louvres are also used for solar shading as part of dou- to suit both ventilation and solar shading requirements. Move-
ble skin facades, typically set 750mm to 1000mm in front of ment of the blades is controlled either manually with a winding
a glazed outer wall. This application of metal louvres has led mechanism, or electrically, with louvres operated in groups of
to them being required in much larger sizes set vertically or panels. Panel sizes are around a maximum of 1500mm high
horizontally to suit the incident sun angles for which shading is x 1200mm wide. Glass blade louvres provide around 70%
provided. Since aluminium is extruded economically in widths free area when fully open. Thermal insulation and lower rates
up to around 300mm, depending on the profile design, metal of air infiltration can be achieved with double glazed units. The
louvres used for solar shading are often made in combinations maximum length of panel is also 1200mm, with blade widths of
of curved sheet and extrusions linked together to form a com- around 150mm to 200mm. The high air infiltration rates asso-
plete shape. The resulting forms of these blades are also finding ciated with glass blade louvres have been improved in many
an application as regular louvre blades in facades where the years, but do not significantly affect their performance for semi
increase in scale makes them a more integrated part of the external applications, with which they are usually associated.
language of metal panel facade design. Larger scale louvre pan-
MCH_ 115
Walls 02
Glass systems
Exploded view showing assembly of stick based curtain wall
System design sometimes set into a pocket in the floor slab in order that they
An essential difference between glazed walls and those built in can be covered by screed and floor finishes. Office buildings
other materials is that the seals in glass construction form a typically have raised floors, so the brackets can be fixed directly
continuity that usually requires the installation to be continuous on the floor slab. If brackets are set on the side of the slab,
starting at one point in the wall and setting glazed panels next to then this done usually to avoid conflicting requirements at floor
each other to continue the assembly. This is different from other level, such as a thin floor build-up, or where brackets cannot be
material systems, which often allow for much more flexibility accommodated in pockets set into the slab. It can also be easier
in their methods of construction, and which do not have any to fix brackets on the edge of the slab if scaffolding is used.
significant influence on the design of the building.
Once brackets are in place, framing members or panels are
The main types of glazing system that use primarily double glazed fixed to them. In the case of stick glazing, mullions (verticals)
units are stick glazing, unitised panels, point fixed glazing and are fixed first, then transoms (horizontals), then glazing and
window walls. In addition, the principles of these systems can be capping. The glass is fixed with temporary short clamps fist,
made as small-scale windows set into openings of walls made in until it is all properly aligned, then the full pressure plates are
a different material. Glass blocks can also be considered to be applied with their rubber-based seals. This makes stick glazing
a glazed wall, but follows none of these principles, using a stack slower to install than unitised types, but has the advantage
bonded version of masonry construction. All these types are set of flexibility of installation on site. Some glazed walls, such as
out in this chapter. those used for full height glazed walls, may be fixed back to full
height steel frame rather than floor slabs. If the steel frame is
For all glazed wall types the first operation on site is usually to fix designed as a single structure that does not have the structural
the brackets that will carry the façade system to the floor slabs. movements associated with slab edge deflections, this provides
These are usually made in stainless steel, though mild steel and the opportunity to omit the aluminium structural box section on
aluminium can be used depending on the specific application. the back of the glazed wall assembly, and fix the glazing assembly
Brackets are fixed either onto the floor itself, or onto the vertical directly to the supporting steelwork.
face of the slab at its edge. Fixing brackets directly onto the
floor slab suits situations in taller buildings, where access to With unitised glazing, panels are typically hung from brackets
the edge would require scaffolding or moving platforms called and are fixed side by side on a single floor, until the floor is
‘mast climbers’ which can be slow to use and suit straight complete, or as much of it as can be closed off. Sometimes
facades in simple arrangements. Floor mounted brackets are gaps are left in glazed wall installations on site in order to allow
MCH_ 116
Stick system Panel system Point fixed system
Glass assembly systems
Stick glazing between

slabs
Exploded view showing arrangement of opaque infill panel within stick based
curtain wall
Stick glazing between

slabs with recessed
window
Exploded view showing window assembly within stick based curtain wall Stick glazing in front of slab
MCH_ 117
Walls 02
Glass systems
Exploded view of unitised, double skin system with

opening windows
Detail of unitised connection for double skin

mullion
Unitised, double skin glazed panel
3D view of glazed vertical louvre set into unitised glazing system Unitised, double skin panel with opaque infill
MCH_ 118
Exploded view of unitised glazing panel with
framing for additional opaque inserts
3D section showing unitised panel hung

Frame detail for unitised system Frame detail for unitised system with opaque from floor slab
glazing
access directly from outside for building materials used for with internal walls, as an edge frame to the glazing is typically
work inside the building, depending on climate and site location. needed in such situations.
Unitised installations typically start at the bottom of the building
and work upwards, slotting panels in one above the other, lifted Where a glazed roof forms part of the same design, the roof
in place by crane. This makes it a fast method of closing the elements are sometimes installed before the glazed wall in
external wall, allowing work to progress inside the building at order to provide a shelter to spaces below, allowing the work to
earlier stage than would be possible with a comparable stick proceed from the top down, away from materials and equipment
glazed installation. being moved in and out of the building below. The sequence of
installation can influence the detailed design of glazed walls and
Point fixed glazing is fixed in a variety of ways, depending on size enclosures, so this should be taken into account during the
of installation and the method of support. Small scale clamped stages of design development.
glazing over one or two floors may be supported at its base,
with clamps used to transmit loads down from the top panel Window walls are installed either as independent sets of
to the floor below. This method of installation starts by fixing windows and fixed panels fixed together to form a single frame,
clamps at floor level and setting the glass in place from the or are fixed back to a structural backing wall. Where installed as
bottom upward, with either scaffolding or temporary supports large-scale window assemblies, the glazing can be installed as
to hold the glass in place. If glass mullions are used rather than complete window panels, sometimes of considerable size. This
a steel frame, then the glass mullions are installed along with makes the system surprisingly quick to install, though the weight
the glass panels. If a steel frame is used, then this is installed associated with large panels requires the use of a substantial
before the glazing. Larger scale bolt fixed glazing is installed with crane. Windows fitted to a backing wall often have the brackets
glass panels being craned into place with bolts or clamps often fixed to the wall in advance, either at the sides for narrow
already fixed to the glass, making it easier to install. These larger windows, or on the bottom of the window assembly for wider
installations are typically supported from a steel frame which is assemblies. The windows are then sealed against adjoining
built either by installing large prefabricated sections, sometimes construction in order to provide a weathertight envelope. The
pre-finished, or by using steel sections which are first set in place infill glass panels are then installed afterwards, allowing work
and levelled, then have prefabricated supports for the glazing to proceed inside the building, while this installation work is
fixed in place, which may also be pre-painted. Clamped glazing conducted in parallel.
is used typically for glazed walls which do not need to interface
MCH_ 119
Walls 02
Glass systems 1: stick systems
4
4
2
4 2
1
10
4
12 8
8
4
Horizontal sections 1:10. Toggle-fixed unitised glazing system frame

4 at internal and external corners
11
10
4 4 4
3D overview of basic stick system Horizontal section 1:2. Unitised glazing system
4
2
1
11
1 1
1 15
4 13
4 10
4 6
4
3D detail views showing basic stick glazing systems 3D detail view showing uncapped 3D detail view showing unitised glazing
unitised glazing detail connection to slab
System design plate is secured with visible fixings at around 300mm centres,
This material system is essentially a site-based method of which are usually concealed with a continuous cover capping
forming glazed walls, with mullions (vertical framing members) in extruded aluminium clips onto the pressure plate. The cover
and transoms (horizontal framing members) prepared in cap is sometimes omitted where a more utilitarian appearance
the factory with the slots and holes required for assembly is required, but the installation of the fixing screws needs to
and installation on site. Stick systems are suitable for glazed be done with additional care, and holes need to be planned to
walls with either a wide variety of conditions or complex avoid visually unexpected results. The capping profile can be
geometry which makes the use of prefabricated glazed panels made in a variety of flat, projecting or recessed profiles to suit
uneconomic. This method also has the advantage of permitting visual requirements. Similarly, the supporting aluminium grid of
a discontinuity of mullion and transom to give an ungridded mullions and transoms can be formed in a variety of structural-
appearance, while maintaining the internally drained and based sections that can vary from a rectangular box section to
ventilated principles of the system, an essential aspect of this an I-section to a T-section with a blade-like appearance.
form of glazed wall. This principle accepts that small amounts
of water will penetrate the outer seal of the curtain wall, but this In terms of panels set into the framing, double glazed units are
water is drained away in a chamber immediately behind this the most typical panel used, though insulated opaque panels
seal, and returned to the outside at the base of the wall. The are used for spandrel conditions at floor level, typically faced
overall continuity of framing required in stick glazing ensures in metal or opaque glass. Spandrel panels are made either as
that the internal chamber in the transom can drain into an single sealed panels or as panels with a separate decorative
adjacent mullion and that any moisture is drained, typically front panel. Single panels have the insulation bonded to the inner
immediately above movement joints. face of the glass, with a vapour barrier set on the inside face of
the panel. Alternatively, the spandrel panel is formed with an air
Stick glazing systems comprise extruded aluminium sections gap between the outer panel and an insulated panel behind. The
onto which glazed panels are set, held in place with extruded insulated panel is typically faced in metal on both sides. Where
aluminium pressure plates which secure the panel to the carrier opaque glass is used as the outer panel, care must be taken
frame with screw type fixings. A synthetic rubber-based outer to avoid dust entering the air gap from becoming visible on the
seal is set between the glass and the pressure plate. A gasket in outer face, if the outer panel is required to be ventilated to avoid
the same material is also set between the inner face of the panel a build-up of heat in the cavity.
and the carrier frame to provide an inner air seal. The pressure
MCH_ 120
2 2
1 1 Details
15
4 4 1. Extruded aluminium
transom
9
2. Extruded aluminium
mullion
Horizontal section 1:10. Unitised glazing system and typical unitised glazing system 3. Extruded aluminium
corner condition 3 section
4. Single glazed or double
glazed unit
5. Pressure plate
6. Rubber-based seal
7. Metal honeycomb panel
8. Capping piece
2 4
9. Metal-faced or opaque
glass-faced insulated panel
2 10. Floor slab
15
11. Floor finish
12. Ceiling finish
13. Thermal break
16 16 14. Projecting bracket to
4 4 4
support external screen
17
16. Toggle-fixing
17. Fixing bracket
9
Horizontal section 1:2. Unitised glazing Horizontal section 1:2. Unitised glazing
system frame system at junction with insulated panel
2
2
11
2
10
15
1
13 4
4
8
4 4
8
4
2
2
3D views showing
flexibility of stick glazing
to allow discontinuity of
capping pieces
13
4
4
3 11
4
8
4
2 1
10
8
4 4
3D views showing corner and angled glazing panel connections
MCH_ 121
Walls 02
Glass systems 1: stick systems
4
11
8 15 1
10 14
9
16
2
10
4
4
9
16
8 15 1 12
1
4
11
4
Vertical section 1:5. Opening window
10 within stick glazed wall
9 12
4
4
Details
1. Extruded aluminium transom
3D view of stick glazed wall with outer glazed screen 2. Extruded aluminium mullion
3. Extruded aluminium section 1
4. Single glazed or double glazed unit 11
4
5. Pressure plate
6. Rubber-based seal 14
1 7. Metal honeycomb panel

8. Capping piece
9. Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced
8
15 insulated panel
10. Floor slab 4
10
11. Floor finish
12. Ceiling finish
13. Thermal break
14. Projecting bracket to support
3D view of stick glazed wall with outer glazed screen external screen Vertical section 1:5. Stick glazing system with
15. Toggle fixing additional outer glazed screen to provide solar
16. Glazing frame shading or as part of a twin face wall
Stick curtain walling is constructed by spanning mullions Windows are fitted into stick glazing by applying an additional
vertically from floor to floor from brackets fixed at each floor sub frame within the main framing against which the opening
level, by either hanging each mullion and restraining it at the light is closed. The overall width of the window frame is usually
floor level below, or by supporting the mullion at floor level and of similar width to that of the main framing of mullions and
restraining it at the floor slab above. The hanging mullion option transoms. Both outward or inward opening windows and doors
usually allows a smaller mullion to be used, but this depends on are used, with some with their frames silicone bonded to the
the specific application. Mullion sections are joined from floor to glass to reduce their visual impact externally, though the frames
floor with a sliding connection that allows the glazing between look similar from within the building. Electrically operated
each floor level to move independently, while maintaining the windows, such as those at high level, usually have a motor in
overall continuity of the system. The movement joint is visible a box that fits within the height of the window frame. With the
in the facade and is accommodated either at the junction of wiring concealed within the framing, the visual impact of motors
the mullion and the transom above, or within the length of the and window opening arms has been reduced significantly in
transom, usually within the spandrel panel. Brackets supporting recent years. Junctions at floors are closed by bringing floor
the framing are fixed either onto the floor at the edge of the slab, finishes up to the transom, which is also set at floor level to close
or on the vertical edge of the slab. off the gap between floors. The spandrel panel has a smoke
seal between separated floors, but a full fire barrier is required
System details in some countries where the spandrel panel is required to be
Interfaces with openings, edges and different adjacent materials fire resisting and to provide a barrier that stops flames from
are formed either by the use of metal flashings or by special passing from floor to floor. Corners are formed, typically, either
components that form part of proprietary systems, such as with a special extrusion that allows a glass-to-glass junction at
synthetic rubber strips that are glazed into the system on one the corner, or has two mullions meeting at a corner and an
side of the strip, and are bonded directly to the face of adjacent insulated metal flashing turning the corner. Parapet copings
concrete or masonry surfaces on their projecting face. This are formed by glazing the bottom edge of the metal flashing
provides a continuity of waterproofing across the interface of into the top transom and folding the flashing over the top of the
two systems, with thermal insulation and vapour barrier set parapet. Junctions between mullions and adjacent areas of wall
behind to form a continuity of the complete construction. in a different material are made in the same way.
MCH_ 122
4
4
2
2
1
10
12
11
4 2
10
3D exploded view of typical restrained connection to steel
12
11 2
4 1
10
2 4
11
10
3D view of inclined and curved stick glazing system
3D detail view showing inclined

stick glazing system connection to
4
floor slab
1
2 2
4
1
(Left) Horizontal section 1:10.
Curved stick glazing system
3D view showing inclined and

curved stick glazing system
2
4
2
2
4
2
11
4 10
2 10
10
4
2
4
11
2
4
10
2
4
Vertical section 1:10. Inclined stick glazing system at Vertical section 1:10. Curved stick
floor junction glazing system
MCH_ 123
Walls 02
Glass systems 2: unitised systems
2
4 2
1 9
1
1 8
2 4 4
4
8 7
Vertical section 1:5. Unitised Horizontal section 1:5. Unitised mullion

transom
2 2
1
10
4
Vertical section 1:25. Transparent unitised panel

2 2 2
Vertical section 1:25. Opaque unitised panel
2 8
2 4
9
7
Elevation of typical unitised glazing

system
8
4 2 Details
7
2. Extruded aluminium mullion
3. Extruded aluminium section
4. Single glazed or double glazed unit
9
5. Rubber-based weather seal
10
6. Rubber-based air seal
7 7. Floor slab
2 8. Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced
insulated panel
2
3D overview of unitised 9. Floor finish
glazing system 10. Ceiling finish
11. Silicone seal with optional
aluminium corner extrusion
Vertical section 1:25. Typical
12. Capping piece
unitised glazing system
2 2
9
4 4
12
12
4
3D overview of unitised 1
glazing system
MCH_ 124
6
4 5
2
2 2
4
4 4
4
3D detail view showing framed corner connection 3D detail view showing unframed corner connection 3D detail view showing frame
assembly
2
1
2
2
4
4
4
4 4
12
4
12
4 11
3D detail view showing framed corner connection Horizontal section 1:5. Unframed corner connection Horizontal section 1:5. Unitised
mullion
System design accidental damage. The double glazed units are secured with
Unitised glazing is essentially a method of using prefabricated pressure plates which are either mechanically fixed to the main
panels which are fixed together on site to form a complete frame, or form part of the frame itself. An alternative method
glazed wall. Like stick glazing, unitised glazing uses aluminium of fixing glass is to bond the glass units to a sub frame which
framing to support the glazing, but where stick glazing is is then mechanically fixed to the aluminium frame. This method
secured to a continuous supporting frame, all of which is fixed provides an all-glass appearance on the outside, usually with a
on site, unitised glazing is put together in the factory. Panels are recessed joint between panels giving a shadow gap appearance
delivered to site and lifted into place and set next to one another, between panels.
the gaps between each panel being sealed with synthetic rubber
gaskets. These gaskets interlock from panel to panel vertically, Vertical joints between panels have an outer seal which is usually
but typically are separated at each floor level with a continuous formed by two gaskets which are pressed together, either in the
horizontal gasket that follows the horizontal joint between panels. form of ‘flipper’ gaskets or as compressible hollow seals. These
Some systems have panels which are completely separate are made from synthetic rubber, typically EPDM. Behind this
structurally from the adjacent panels, allowing a damaged panel outer seal is a drained and pressure equalised chamber closed
to be removed if damages occur, either during construction off by an inner seal, also formed typically in EPDM. At the internal
or later, but the junction between vertical and horizontal joints face of the panel is an air seal. In hot and humid climates, typically
requires special attention. Other systems are semi-interlocking in South East Asia, it is assumed that moisture will find its way to
on horizontal joints in order to combine the structural capacity of the back of the supporting aluminium frame. Consequently, seals
members as well as assist in internal drainage. The term semi- are in horizontal joints to drain moisture from the back of the
interlocking is also used for stick systems where large-scale system to the front face of the panel, where it is released to the
frames, covering several bays both vertically and horizontally, outside. In more temperate climates, unitised panels are sealed
are pre-assembled in the factory and then lifted in place on site. in the mid-depth of the framing, with the inner joint, visible from
The glass units and pressure plates are then fixed on site as per within the building, serving as an air seal only. Any rainwater that
regular stick glazing methods. penetrates the outer seal is drained down through the inner
chamber and is expelled at the base of each unitised panel,
The double glazed units in unitised glazing are fixed to the typically at floor level. Horizontal joints between the transoms
supporting frame either from the outside of the panel or the formed by the top of one panel and the bottom of the panel
inside, to suit the strategy for glass replacement in the event of above are formed in the same way, with seals aligned with those
MCH_ 125
Walls 02
Glass systems 2: unitised systems
Details
2. Extruded aluminium mullion
2 4 glazed unit
2
5. Rubber-based weather seal
6. Rubber-based air seal
7. Floor slab
8. Metal-faced or opaque glass-
4 faced insulated panel
13 13 9. Floor finish
10. Ceiling finish
4 11. Silicone seal with optional
aluminium corner extrusion
13. Capping piece
Horizontal section 1:2. Unitised glazing internal corner Horizontal section 1:2. Unitised glazing external corner 14. Concrete structure
connection connection
2
2
2
2
4 4 4 4
13 13
13
13 4 4
3D detail view showing unitised glazing frame 3D detail view showing unitised glazing frame 3D detail view showing unitised glazing frame
1 2 1
2 4 4
4 2 4
Horizontal section 1:10. Unitised 12 1

4 glazing system at internal and 7
external facade folds
2
1
3D view showing folded

unitised glazing system 2 4
2
4 4
9
13
12 12
12
7
4
2
4
7
(Right) 3D view showing
folded unitised glazing
system
MCH_ 126
12
4
13
14
4
12
7
1
4
9 4
Vertical section 1:10. Unitised glazing at parapet

level and floor-slab level and (below) 3D view of
typical floor-level connection
9
4
9
7
13
13
12
7
4 4
3D detail view showing unitised
glazing connection to floor slab 3D overview showing unitised
glazing connection to floor slab
in the vertical joints to ensure that rainwater is drained to the System details
outside. Unitised panels typically include at least one additional An essential aspect of unitised glazing is that the panels use
transom to provide a spandrel zone at floor level, for example, the same perimeter framing, which can however be of different
though some systems incorporate an additional transom set shape and have different materials set within them. Corner
against the inside face of the glass only, so that it is not visible panels are the most common of the atypical panels, and are
externally, but provides a horizontal edge against which internal often the most complex to construct in the factory. In common
ceiling finishes can be set. with stick glazing, unitised panels can have vertical glass-to-
glass joints rather than setting a mullion at the corner, providing
Panels are set so that they span from floor slab to floor slab, a visual crispness of the frameless corner. The unitised frame
and like stick glazing, are either hung from a floor slab and is stiffened internally to compensate for the loss of structural
restrained on the floor below, or are supported on a floor stability of the corner. Regular framed corners are made usually
slab and are restrained on the floor above. Like stick glazing, with a 45° angled mullion to reduce the visual impact and sight
movement between panels is provided by a sliding spigot joint lines of the mullion.
set into the vertical joint between mullions. This movement is
taken out horizontally in the horizontal joint, typically at floor level. Parapet copings are formed by sealing and waterproofing the
gap between the top of the panel and the parapet wall behind
In common with stick glazing, unitised panels have thermal with a synthetic rubber seal that is integral with the panel.
breaks set within the framing in order to reduce the transmission Thermal insulation is used to provide a complete continuity
of heat or cold from the outside of the frame to the inside, or of insulation from wall to roof. A metal coping is set on top of
vice versa. Since the inner ventilated chamber is typically deeper the panel to provide protection to the membrane beneath.
than that used in stick glazing, the thermal break is positioned Elsewhere, most interfaces follow the principles of stick glazing,
accordingly in order that the thermal break and double glazed with an integral EPDM strip that can be fixed to project out
unit are aligned. The overall width, or sight line, of the unitised beyond the edges of the panels, allowing the strip to be bonded
panels is greater than those used for stick glazing, from around to adjacent construction.
80mm to 120mm depending on the application. The greater
width often suits the needs of internal partitions which are
required to intersect with the framing members of the facade.
MCH_ 127
Walls 02
Glass systems 3: clamped glazing
7 7
10
7
10 7
7
10 7 7
7 7
10
10
3D view showing
clamped glazing with
10 cast steel clamps
7
10 10
10
Elevation, vertical and horizontal sections

4 4 1:5. Spider clamp hung from cable truss
supporting glass panels 3D detail view showing clamped
Elevation and vertical section 1:40. Clamped glazing with cast steel glazing fixing method
clamps held in place by forming part of a continuous truss
System design thicknesses may be higher for a clamped glazing solution as a

There are two types of ‘point fixed’ glazing used for facades: result. When used in a single glazed configuration in double skin
clamped glazing and bolt fixed glazing. Both systems are used facades, the glass is joined with clamps, plates and brackets,
to increase the transparency of a facade, and this is particularly the preferred material is stainless steel due to its resistance to
successful in open jointed single glazing as used in double skin corrosion. The use of plates allows a more complex geometry of
facades. Where double glazed units are used with their black glass to be used, such as in a shingled arrangement of lapped
edge band and joints between units, the width is usually equal to glass panels, where air can pass up through gaps between
that of framed glazing, but the omission of framing provides a lapped glass sheets, while admitting only small amounts of
visual continuity of glass where transparency is required. The all- rainwater into the buffer zone behind. Glass can be supported
glass appearance has visual benefits to oblique views across a either at the corners, or along its edges to suit the supporting
facade, where the double glazed units are seen as a continuous structure for the glass, which is usually visually lightweight in
uninterrupted surface, made all the more dramatic by changes order to maximise transparency. Clamps are formed by setting
in direction provided by corners, as well as increasingly by folds a synthetic rubber gasket, typically EPDM, between the stainless
in the glass surface. Where a sealed facade is required, joints steel plate and the glass sheet. A bolt is passed through one
are sealed with silicone through the full thickness of the joint, side of the plate and is secured into the other plate, usually with
typically with a polymer-based backing rod in the mid depth of a countersunk type.
the joint. Clamped glazing was the first point fixed glazing system
used commercially and developed in the 1960s, using metal Clamped glazing often uses glass fins to provide structural
plates called ‘patch plates’ set on either side of glass sheets at stability, set at 90º to the plane of the glass, typically supported
their corners. This technique is still used, though with increasing at its base on the floor slab. Glass fins are usually in lengths
geometric complexity. equal to the height of each panel, with a patch plate connection
occurring at each horizontal joint of the glass, to form a
The clamped glazing system positions the fixings holding the single structural section, with the dead load of each panel
plates in place such that they pass through the joints between transferred to the glass panel below, in the case of single
the glass to avoid the additional complexity and cost of drilling glazing, or alternatively to the glass fin behind. Installations
the glass. Because fixings are positioned at the glass edges, have reached up to around 15 metres in height, though these
rather than within the glass itself, the span between fixings are flat glass walls or those forming vertical walls which are
is higher than for an equivalent bolt fixed solution and glass curved in plan. Glass panels and fins are joined with cleats and
MCH_ 128
12 8
8
6 12
6
7 7
9
10 9
11
10
10 4
8
10
6
12
7
12 8
6
3D views showing
cable hung clamped
7
glass facade
11 Vertical section 1:100. Cable hung 12

clamped glass facade
8
12 6
10
7
Horizontal section 1:100. Cable hung clamped
8
glass facade
7
Details 10 10
1. Stainless steel patch 7. Ceiling finish
plate 8. Floor finish 8 9 11
2. Single glazed or 9. Access ladder
double glazed unit to 10. Clamped glazed wall 7
suit application 11. Inner curtain walling
3. Silicone seal 12. Maintenance access
4. Glass fin deck 8
5. Support bracket
6. Floor slab 7 6
8
3D view showing cable hung clamped glass facade with vertically
framed supporting system 12
7
12
8
10 12 8
9
11 6
10
6 9 11
7
7
3D detail view showing cable hung clamped glass facade Vertical section 1:50. Cable hung clamped glass facade
MCH_ 129
Walls 02
Glass systems 3: clamped glazing
11
11
11
14
12
5 14
2 3
3
3
3
1 14
14
3 14
3
3D overview
3
showing opaque
clamped glazing
1 panel system
12 14
3D views showing opaque clamped glazing panel system

at panel-to-panel and movement joint conditions 11
3 1
3
2
Vertical section 1:10. Opaque clamped 1 12

glazed panels. Junctions at ground
level, movement joint and panel-to-panel 2
5
conditions
1
12
Details
1. Fixing bracket
2. Extruded aluminium mullions
3. Opaque glazing
4. Ground slab
5. Backing wall
6. Inclined and lapped glass
7. Cable support 14
8. Corner clamp
9. Cast metal fixing bracket 1
10. Clamp bracket
11. Metal parapet coping
12. Thermal insulation Vertical sections 1:5. Opaque clamped glazed panels. at Vertical sections 1:5. Opaque clamped glazed
13. Single or double glazed unit panel-to-panel junction panels. at parapet condition
14. Concrete slab
7 13
13
7
10
10
10
13
10
3D detail views showing clamped glazing system fixing method supported on cables
MCH_ 130
7
13 10
13
7 13
13
13
10
13
13 13
10 13
7
7
Horizontal and vertical sections 1:2.
Clamping configuration in lapped clamped cable hung system
13 10
7
7
7
10
13 13
10
13 13
13
13
Horizontal and vertical sections 1:2.

Clamping configuration in adjacent clamped cable hung systems
10
7
13
10
13
13 13
13
10
13
Vertical sections 1:10.
Clamping configurations in cable hung
3D detail views showing lapped clamped glazing system fixing method systems (lapped and adjacent)
plates at the corner junctions, and are usually fixed through seal with the outside ground level. Supporting glass fins which
holes in the glass rather than through the joints in order to are supported at floor level rather than ceiling level are usually
transfer loads effectively through the plates. Clamping plates set below floor level in order to conceal the patch plate brackets,
usually have a polished finish for ease of cleaning, but brushed which are usually set either with the floor finishes zone or within
finishes are also used. a pocket in the floor slab where this zone is insufficiently deep.
The same solution is used where the fin is hung from the ceiling.
This method of glazing has evolved into an economic method of Clamp plates are also used for doors to give a continuous
fixing glass to a continuous supporting frame behind the glass appearance to the facade. Doors are set typically on floor
joints, as an alternative to the capped glazing techniques of springs, set into the floor, and are supported at the top of the
stick and unitised systems, with silicone seals set between the door leaf with a pivot which is clamped to the glass unit above.
glazed units. This makes it suitable for facades with complex
frame design, particularly when combined with a glazed roof Clamped glazing is usually able to accommodate higher
that uses the same system. Triangular framed glazed walls, amounts of structural movement than an equivalent framed
where the glass is required to have a smooth, continuous glazing system, which has encouraged the use of tensioned
surface free of cover caps, allow clamps to be fixed through cables, usually set vertically, to which the glass is fixed. Cables
the joints between the glass directly back to the supporting are usually set immediately behind vertical joints to reduce
structure set behind. Clamp fixings can be set at the corners of their number and visibility, since plates offset from the vertical
glass panels, where units intersect, or be set along the length joint require either an additional vertically-set cable, or a metal
of joints. The choice of fixing position depends on both the bracket to connect the two patch plates back to a single cable.
geometry and size of the glazing. In supporting cable structures, which allow higher amounts of
structural movement, doors are required to be set independently
System details of the glazed wall, usually with a metal frame around the opening
Clamped glazing with glass fins is usually set into a glazing which is fixed at floor level only, and is structurally independent
channel at floor level in order to fix the glass in place and support of the glazed wall.
its dead weight. A glazing channel also forms a reliable weather
MCH_ 131
Walls 02
Glass systems 4: bolt fixed glazing
3D overview showing
bolt-fixed glazing system with
steel columns and cable
support systems
14
10
3
4
6
8
11
2
3D exploded detail view 1
8 showing cast aluminium 4-point 4
3 spider clamp for bolt-fixed glazing and connection 1
to glazing panels
7 14
1 3
13
1
8
1 4 3 1
3 13 3
7
1
1 14
14
8
3
14
Details
1. Cast steel connector
5 11 2. Mild steel or stainless steel angle bracket 14
3. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit
application 13
12
4. Silicone seal
5. Floor finish 8
6
6. Support bracket
7. Bolt fixing 8 3
8. Stainless steel cable
10 9. Insulated panel
10. Floor slab/structural wall
11. Bolt based cable end
12. Glazing channel at floor level
13. Structural column
14. Steel arm for lateral support
8 3
8 3
4
1
1
1
4
4
1
8
3
3
3D views showing blot-fixed glass panels supported on cables
MCH_ 132
13
13
8 8
13
13 13
13
8
8
14
14
1
3
3D view showing
bolt-fixed glazing system
with steel columns and
cable support system 3
1
14
3
3
3 13
1
14
14
1
13
13
3
3D overview showing
bolt-fixed glazing system with steel
columns and cable support systems 3D detail view showing clamped glazing system with steel structural support system
System design horizontal movement of the cables. In common with clamped

Like clamped glazing, bolt fixed glazing is used for its ability to glazing, glass fins or mild steel posts can be used to support the
provide transparency, but usually with fixings set within the glass glazing, typically supported from their base. Glass fins are fixed
rather than at their edges. In common with that system, it was perpendicular to the vertical joints between glazed units, with an
originally developed for single glazing, but is more commonly L-shaped bracket with a bolt fixing at each end, with glass panels
used with double glazed units, with their 50mm joint width stacked one above the other, using the glass fins to provide
which includes the edge of the unit. Despite the overall 50mm lateral support. Glass fins can also be fixed at the top of the wall
black joint width, the absence of framing and continuity of the or at ceiling level, where they serve as stiffeners in a downstand
reflective surface of glass makes this frameless system more condition, with the glass still being supported at its base. Glass
visually lightweight than framed glazing. Setting bolt fixings fins have clamps fixed to them as per the patch plate system
within the glass can have an advantage in reducing the span described in the previous section.
of the glass between fixings, ensuring that the glass thickness
is optimised to a greater extent versus supporting the glass at System details
its edges only. With both top hung and bottom supported methods of support,
bolt fixed glazing uses a similar fixing bolt which is determined by
Where clamped glazing is supported directly onto a supporting the size of the glass panel, the way it connects to the supporting
structure, bolt fixed glazing can be fixed on brackets which are structure and whether the fixing is countersunk or surface
cantilevered away from the supporting structure, which can be fixed. The bolt fixing is the mechanical connection which is fixed
either hung from the top of the wall, or is supported at its base. through a hole formed in the glass sheet or double glazed unit.
These cantilevered brackets can also be fixed back to tensioned Bolts can have a disc fixed to each external face of the glass,
cables or rods, allowing a visually lightweight supporting structure be countersunk to be flush with the outer face of the glass, or
to be used, but which requires lateral stability to overcome the penetrate only the inner glass of a double glazed unit. Structural
higher deflections associated with cable structures. Lateral movement and deflections between the supporting structure
stability is usually provided by forming a vertically-set cable truss and the glass are accommodated with a rotating swivel
from the primary cable supporting the glass units, or by adding connection at the junction of the bolt fixing that passes through
horizontal outriggers from structural columns to restrain the the glass and the end of the threaded rod that projects forward
MCH_ 133
Walls 02
Glass systems 4: bolt fixed glazing
13
13
14 14
4
1
1
3
13 4
13
3
3
3 1 1
1 3 4
13
4
1
4
3D overviews showing bolt- 3

fixed glazing supported by
3
branching steel framework
13
13
14 14 14
1
3 3
of the glass which is connected to the supporting structure. The provided, particularly for junctions where the meeting angle
rotating joint is allowed to move 12º in all directions away from is not a right angle. Like clamped glazing, bolt fixed glazing is
its regular position. The bolt fixings themselves can vary from sealed between glazed panels with silicone seals, providing a
those with a fully visible thread and nuts, to a fully integrated single barrier to water penetration, but one which is reliable if
type where all these components are concealed in sleeves. properly undertaken.
The bolt fixing is secured to fixing brackets whose shape The ability of bolt fixings to provide limited rotation at their fixing
suits the geometry of the intersection of four bolt fixings with point has led to their supporting structures being structurally
the supporting structure. In small-scale applications, fixing ambitious, with a mixture of steel trusses and cables used to
brackets can be formed from a simple steel angle, with one minimise the amount of material needed to support glazed units.
side supporting the bolt fixing and the other side fixed to Some have horizontally set wind trusses that stiffen an all-cable
the supporting column, or truss, for example. Larger-scale structure, while others use full height vertical steel trusses with
applications typically use X-shaped or H-shaped connectors to additional vertically set cables to reduce the number of trusses
suit the position of bolts set around the intersection of four glass required. They also provide a fixing which is separate from the
panels. Connectors are made as either castings or machined/ seals between glazed units, though both bolt fixed and clamped
welded components depending on the quantity of connectors glazing methods have proved to be highly reliable in their
and their complexity. Where several parts are required to be weatherproofing performance. Where clamped glazing is used
welded and machined, it is usually more economic and visually with flat surfaces or glazed walls of single curvature, bolt fixed
preferable to use a casting. glazing has the possibility of being set on a surface which curves
in two directions, as in those created by cable net structures.
Corner fixings are made either by cantilevering the meeting Special care is needed to ensure that the angles of incidence
panels out in each glazed wall forming the corner, and linking at joints provide a reliable weathertight joint. An additional
the glass panels together with bolt fixings in a pin connection, advantage is being able to fix the glass that is visibly forward of
or by introducing structure at the corner, with bolt fixings being the supporting structure, sometimes creating a visual contrast
attached to a primary member. Where a corner bracket is between large structural members and a thin glazed skin set
used in conjunction with a cantilevered junction, manufacturers forward of it. This is particularly used if the supporting structure
increasingly provide a limited range of standard components, is set in one primary direction, giving the appearance of the
though it is not uncommon for special connections to be glass joints in the opposite direction of spanning freely.
MCH_ 134
Details
1. Cast steel connector
2. Mild steel or stainless steel angle bracket
3. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit
application
14
4. Silicone seal
14
14 5. Floor finish
6. Support bracket
7. Bolt fixing
1 4 4 8. Stainless steel cable
9. Insulated panel
4
10. Floor slab/structural wall
11. Bolt based cable end
3
12. Glazing channel at floor level
13
14. Steel arm for lateral support
7
14
13
4
3 13
3 3 1
3
1
14 7 7
7 8
3D detail view showing

2-point clamp for bolt-fixed
glazing systems
3D views showing bolt-fixed glazing supported by branched steel framework; depicted both with and
8
without glazing panels
3
Glass fixed
3
Glass movable in
7
one direction
1
Glass
free to
move
13
14
14
14
1 1 7
3 3
7 7
3D view showing various 4-point
Elevation and horizontal section 1:50. Bolt-fixed glazing supported by branching steel framework clamps for bolt-fixed glazing systems
MCH_ 135
Walls 02
Glass systems 5: glass blocks and channels
3D view
showing
glass blocks
supported by
I-sections
1
10
2 2
2
2
1
2 1
10
2
1
1
Details
1. Glass block
2
2 2. I-section or box section
2 3. Metal edge frame
2
4. External cladding
Elevation and vertical section 1:20. Elevation and vertical section 1:20. 5. Steel flat or T-section
Glass blocks supported by steel I-sections Glass blocks supported by box sections 6. Thermal insulation
7. Enclosing wall or adjacent
1 1 wall
1
8. Window casement
9. Cast glass channel
10. Floor slab
2
2 1 1 1
2 2
Horizontal section 1:10. Glass blocks supported by box sections
1
7
3 2
1 1
1 6 7
3
4
2
2
2
Elevation and vertical

section 1:10. Glass blocks 1
supported by box sections Elevation and vertical section 1:20. Glass blocks supported by box sections
MCH_ 136
4 6
4 6 4
3
3 3
3
1 1
1
8
5
3 2 2
1 1
1
8 3
3
6
4 7
7 4
4 6
3D view showing glass blocks within masonry wall Vertical sections 1:10. Glass blocks fitted into window frames in masonry wall
System design hour fire resisting panels can be made in panel sizes of around
Glass blocks have been used in recent years for their qualities 3000mm x 3000mm in area, with a maximum height or width
of robustness combined with fire resistance to form economic, of 4000mm. Panels providing fire resistance greater than
translucent, glazed walls. Their translucency varies with the 60 minutes (usually up to 90 minutes) require metal channel
thickness of the wall of the individual glass block, which can range restraints at the perimeter of the panel due to their greater
from solid to hollow type. The hollow type has the advantage of reliability than cement mortar or silicone seals.
slightly greater thermal insulation and acoustic insulation, but
the thermal insulation levels are well below those expected from An alternative to glass blocks is cast glass channels, a long
regular double glazed units, so they tend to be used in locations spanning material which can reach storey height without
where this is not a design consideration, such as in naturally intermediary supports. Channels resemble half glass blocks in
ventilated spaces. The most common block sizes are a nominal section, manufactured in lengths up to around 7000mm. Most
200mm x 200mm and 300mm x 300mm, generally 100mm are made around 250mm wide and 60mm deep. Channels
thick. Blocks are arranged in stack bonded rectilinear grids that are set either vertically or horizontally in a single layer, or can
form individual panels, formed either as openings in walls or as be interlocked by setting channels facing one another to form
bays of a structural frame, typically in reinforced concrete or a double layer with smooth internal and external appearance.
steel. The continuous vertical and horizontal joints of these non- The interlocked version also provides a U-value similar to that
loadbearing panels give their characteristic gridded appearance, of hollow glass blocks. An advantage of glass channels is that
with panel sizes limited from around 3600mm x 3600mm in they are made either with a patterned surface characteristic of
area, to around 4500mm x 4500mm in area, depending on casting, or be made clear, with no pattern or hue. They can be
block thickness. The panel size can be adjusted in proportion Low-E coated to assist thermal insulation, and when interlocked
to give a maximum height of around 6000mm and a maximum can be thermally insulated with proprietary gel to significantly
width of around 7500mm. Glass blocks are well suited to improve their thermal performance, though this process can
providing an economic glazed fire resisting construction. One be disproportionate to the cost of the cast glass channels.
MCH_ 137
Walls 02
Glass systems 5: glass blocks
7
2
2
2
1
3D view showing glass
2 blocks supported by
I-sections 9
9
2
9
9
2 1
3 3
1
2
4 4 2
(Above) 3D view showing vertical sections 1:20. (Left) double skin

8
glass blocks supported by of interlocking glass horizontal channels.
steel box-sections (Right) Single skin
2
9
3 Solar protection can also be added. Like glass blocks, cast glass
channels are known for their properties of sound insulation
1 combined with robustness. When stacked vertically, channels
1 can be set out to form a curved wall, a characteristic well known
with glass block walls.
4 6
2
The relatively poor thermal insulation of glass blocks and cast
1
3
channels, when compared to double glazed units, can lead to
condensation occurring on the interior face of the block, and
3 adequate ventilation is required to avoid this. Consequently,
their use remains ideally suited to semi-external conditions in
9 temperate climates, such as circulation spaces. Glass block
3
panels fixed into reinforced concrete frames or wall openings
are bedded in either mortar or silicone, with flexible joints
8 introduced on the sides and top edge to allow for structural
2
movement. Glass blocks are set within the frame which forms
4 6 the external wall, or on the edge of reinforced concrete floor
slabs. Storey height panels on the edge of floor slabs require
7
4
6 metal angle restraints at the top of the opening to accommodate
Horizontal and vertical 7
the deflection in the slab. This can be overcome by setting the
sections 1:20. Vertically- glass blocks forward of the floor slab on a steel frame in the
set glass channels used 3D view showing glass blocks within masonry
as window wall manner of glazed curtain walling.
MCH_ 138
6 1 1 1 1
Horizontal section 1:10. Connection between glass blocks and cavity Horizontal section 1:10. Detail of Horizontal section
wall, and glass blocks and supporting steel sections door set into glass block wall 1:10. Glass end block
Details
1. Glass block
2. I-section or box
section
1 3. Metal edge frame
2 4. External cladding
5. Steel flat or T-section
1
1
1 7. Enclosing wall or
1
adjacent wall
2
8. Window casement
9. Cast glass channel
10. Floor slab
2
2 1 1
(Above) 3D view showing glass blocks supported by steel box-sections vertical section 1:20. Double skin of interlocking glass horizontal channels
1
1 1 2 1
7
2 1
Vertical section 1:20. Double skin of interlocking glass horizontal channels Vertical section 1:20. Double skin of inter-
locking glass horizontal channels
System details with a flexible seal, either silicone-based or with metal angle
Both glass blocks and cast channels can also be set into restraints. The angles are usually concealed by wall finishes,
steel frames made from I-sections, box sections, T-sections both internally and externally. Flexible seals are used where a
or a combination of these. In smaller openings, a T-section is door or window opening is introduced into a glass block wall. The
set into joints to stiffen the panels at mid-height between floor door is usually fixed at its base only in order to allow the block
and ceiling/soffit. Larger panels can be formed by adding a wall to be structurally independent, but sometimes the door is
rectangular box section to the back edge of the T-section to form tied into the horizontal joints of the glass block wall, depending
a complete structural frame. Some manufacturers offer these on the amount of expected structural movement.
materials as proprietary systems which include edge framing
channels, though the appearance of these can be concealed by Cast glass channels are fixed into aluminium extrusions at their
adjacent finishes. ends, and are sealed with silicone-based seals between long
joints. Vertically-set channels can be bottom supported, but
Glass blocks usually have bed reinforcement between joints, in horizontally-set arrangements, each channel is individually
typically a metal ladder-type reinforcing strip which is set within supported rather than each channel being supported on the
the joints and is not visible. Silicone is also used to bond blocks, channel below. As with glass blocks, the edge frame can be
with a sealing silicone used on the external face to provide a concealed by wall finishes, but cast channels are increasingly
weathertight seal. Cement-based mortars are also used, being used as a primary material on facades where they are
with the choice of material being governed largely by visual used, as they are not required to be set into framed panels, and
considerations. Corners are formed usually with either the can be used in storey height form in long lengths.
structure that supports the panel or special corner panels
which form a part of most proprietary systems, mainly 90º and
45º corners. Junctions of blocks with adjacent walls are formed
MCH_ 139
Walls 02
Glass systems 6: steel windows
13
2
2
18 17 18
17
1 2
1 2
1 2
9
9 6
6
13
1
6
13
9 2
1 6
15
14
2 6
8
6
6
Vertical sections 1:5. Rolled steel frames glazed internally

and externally
Details 6
1. Outside 14
2. Inside
3. Rolled steel glazing section 6
14
4. Transom
5. Mullion
6. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application 14
7. Fixing bead
8. Fixing lug
18
9. Projecting transom
10. Rubber-based seal 17
18 17
11. Fixed light
12. Inward opening light
13. Outward opening light
14. Window cill
15. Condensation tray 3D detail views showing rolled steel window
16. Internal finish 3D view showing rolled steel window embedded embedded within masonry wall construction
17. External wall within masonry wall construction at head and cill conditions
System design and transoms (horizontals) to which double glazed units

Steel framed windows made from rolled sections have been are fixed with steel pressure plates. Seals are provided with
preferred for their thin sight lines when compared to those synthetic rubber gaskets similar to those used in aluminium
in aluminium for small-scale window openings. However, the curtain walling systems. Single glazed units have small channels
thermal performance of the frames is considerably less than or angle shaped glazing beads to hold the glass in place, while
thermally broken aluminium sections, due to the difficulty of double glazed units usually have extruded clips that hold the
introducing a thermal break into small sections. Larger scale glass in place.
steel windows and glazed walls made from pressed steel
sections, used mainly for their fire resisting qualities, can Larger scale, thermally broken, windows and doors are used
incorporate a thermal break but their sightlines are similar to primarily for their ability to provide fire resistance. They are
those of an equivalent aluminium window or glazed wall. Steel made as pressed steel sections in sizes similar to an equivalent
framed windows are either fitted into wall openings or are in aluminium but with slightly different profiles governed by
joined together to form a glazed wall with deeper sections as the process of pressing, which cannot provide the complexity
framing members, which is slightly different to full aluminium- in section of extruded aluminium profiles. Unlike aluminium
based stick glazing. windows, where new extrusions can be made economic for
each project, pressed and rolled sections for steel windows
Steel framed windows with thin frames without thermal breaks cannot produce new sections as easily. Fully glazed walls are
in thin double glazed units are made with rolled steel sections made by fixing individual windows into a frame of pressed box
to form windows of a maximum size of around 3000mm x sections with integral thermal breaks. There is a wide variety of
1800mm down to a minimum size of 250mm x 400mm. standard sections available for the pressed steel profiles that
Fixed lights and opening windows can be joined together with support the glass, though it is more difficult to develop a profile
T-sections to provide a supporting frame. Larger-scale steel for an individual project due to the constraints of pressing steel
curtain walling has a grid of pressed steel mullions (verticals) sheet, which is expensive to modify for individual projects.
MCH_ 140
12 12
3 2
17
18
17
6 6 6 6 6
13 13
17
1
Horizontal section 1:5. Rolled steel frames glazed internally

1 2
2 12
18
6 6 6 6
13 13
17
1
Horizontal section 1:5. Rolled steel frames glazed externally
1 2
1 2
1 2
14
17 18
Vertical section 1:15. Rolled steel frame with single

3D detail view showing rolled steel frames with double glazing in glazing configurations glazing
System details aluminium windows and glazed walls. Door and window lights are
Outward opening lights for both windows in small-scale rolled formed from pressed steel sections which are folded together
sections and larger-scale pressed sections have profiles that to form a family of profiles to suit different sizes and glass types.
lap over the front of the surrounding fixed frame, with a drip Steel framed windows and doors are also made as separate
above the window to avoid rainwater finding its way in through items for glazing into openings in masonry walls. In this instance
the top of the frame. Any water that finds its way into the frame they are fixed through the frame into the adjacent structural
is drained down the sides and out at the bottom. Most windows wall. An EPDM foil or silicone sealant is then used to seal the
have synthetic rubber seals to both assist drainage and reduce gap between the steel window/door and the adjacent concrete
air infiltration through the opening light. With inward opening or masonry wall.
lights the top of the window is protected by the top transom of
the fixed frame. The window is more vulnerable at its bottom Larger-scale glazing has framing with a continuous indented
edge where it is protected by a projecting cill. With steel windows groove that forms a channel into which toggle-type fixings are
made from rolled sections, any water penetrating the outer seal inserted to receive the fixings that secure the pressure plates.
runs around a groove in the frame of the opening light and down The synthetic rubber seals, on either side of the glass provide
the sides into the bottom transom below, where it is drained a sealed chamber behind the pressure plate which is used to
through weep holes to the outside. This is similar to the principle drain away any water that penetrates the outer line of defence.
of traditional timber windows, but windows made from thermally This void is ventilated, with transoms draining water at the base
broken pressed sections can follow the principles of aluminium of each glazed unit using a synthetic rubber strip that slopes
framed curtain walling, with a ventilated and pressure equalised down to drain water to the outside.
chamber behind the outer seal which drains moisture away
and back to the outside at the bottom. Opening windows and For both small-scale rolled sections and larger-scale pressed
doors are set into steel framed glazing with an additional frame sections, doors are constructed in the same way as windows,
which is visible from the outside, a principle which is followed in but with horizontal rails to provide greater stiffness where rolled
MCH_ 141
Walls 02
Glass systems 6: steel windows
6 6
17 18
1
1 8
1
8 2
5 8
1 8 8
1
1 6 2 6
2
6
3
6 1
6
4 8
2
6
6
1
4 1
8
1
1 8
5 8
6
14
Vertical sections 1:5. Sliding/folding door with rubber seals 17 18
Vertical sections 1:5. Pressed steel doors with Vertical section 1:5. Pressed
Details thermal breaks, both outward opening and steel window, thermally broken
1. Outside inward opening
2. Inside
3. Rolled steel glazing section 3 18
18
4. Transom
5. Mullion 17 17
6. Single glazed or double 6 17
glazed unit to suit application
7. Fixing bead
8. Fixing lug
3 3 3
9. Projecting transom
11. Fixed light
12. Inward opening light 3
6
13. Outward opening light
14. Window cill 6
15. Condensation tray
16. Internal finish
17. Concrete external wall
sections are used, and with thicker horizontal sections in doors 6

where pressed steel sections are used. Corners are framed
with either glazed or glass-to-glass corners in the manner of
aluminium curtain walling, but where the glazing is fire resistant,
panel sizes are limited. Those in small-scale rolled sections are
formed with either T-sections that meet to form a recessed
corner, or with a square-shaped hollow section to form a solid 3
corner. Corners using larger-scale pressed sections are formed 3
in a similar way to stick glazing, with mullion profiles set together
joined by a thermally insulated panel on the surface of the glass. 14
14
Some manufacturers provide standard corner sections as part
of a proprietary system. Parapets are formed by fixing a folded
metal coping into the top transom and folding it over the parapet
17
behind. Metal flashings with an EPDM foil behind it are also used 17
to seal steel glazing against areas of adjacent walls, typically of

masonry or concrete construction. 3D views (internal and external) showing pressed steel window, thermally
broken and set within masonry wall construction
MCH_ 142
3 3 10
3
10
3 10
10
3
10
3
10 3
3 19
9 19
6
3 3
3 3
3 3
3
6 6
6 6
18
6 6
19
19
19
3D view and horizontal section 1:2. Alternative 3D view and horizontal section 1:2. Alternative 3D view and horizontal section 1:2. Alternative
capping profile for steel glazing system capping profile for steel glazing system capping profile for angled steel glazing system
6 3
19 3
3 3
6
3
3
19
6 18
3
6
3
19 3
19 3
6 6
19
6 3
6
10
3 Horizontal section 1:2. Capping profiles for steel
double-glazed system
10
Details
18 3 10. Rubber-based seal 1. Outside
11. Fixed light 2. Inside
12. Inward opening light 3. Pressed steel glazing
13. Outward opening section
10 light 4. Transom
9
6 14. Window cill 5. Mullion
6 15. Condensation tray 6. Single glazed or
10
16. Internal finish double glazed unit to
17. Concrete external suit application
wall 7. Fixing bead
6 19 18. Thermal insulation 8. Fixing lug
19. Cap piece 9. Projecting transom
3D view and horizontal section 1:2. Alternative 3D view and horizontal section 1:2. Alternative
capping profile for steel glazing system corner capping profile for steel glazing system corner
condition condition
MCH_ 143
Walls 02
Glass systems 7: aluminium windows
7
7 7 6
3
3
4
1 2
4
7 7 6
Elevation 1:10. Opening window set within large scale aluminium window section Vertical section 1:10. Outward
opening aluminium window
2 2
7
5
5
9
4 4 4
4 4 6
3 3 3 3
1 1
Horizontal section 1:10. Outward opening windows set within large
Horizontal section 1:10. Outward opening window set typical wall construction scale window assembly
9
9
9
3
3
3
1 2
3 4
4
Vertical section 1:10. Outward opening 4

aluminium window set within typical wall
construction
Details
3
1. Outside
2. Inside 3
3. Window frame
4. Single glazed or double glazed unit 5
to suit application
5. Extruded aluminium section 5
7. Aluminium battens for decoration
8. Opening mechanism
9. Surrounding wall
10. Insulated composite panel 9
11. Floor construction
12. Roof construction 3D view showing overview of aluminium glazing system 3D detail views showing details aluminium glazing
13. Internal finish set in masonry wall system set in masonry wall at head and cill
MCH_ 144
13
5
13
7 5
11
11
6 10
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10
5 13
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4 3
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3 3 4
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13 10 10 13 10
5 5
11
11
10
3D view showing build-up of aluminium glazing system 3D cutaway view showing build-up of aluminium glazing system
System design to compensate for the loss of stability of the frame. In common
Windows made from aluminium are formed either as individual with aluminium curtain walling, extruded aluminium window
frames set into structural openings or are set in groups to form frames are pressure equalised and internally drained in order
a complete glazed wall where individual lights are linked to give to provide two lines of defence against rainwater penetration.
the appearance of an overall modular glazed facade. A glazed An outer seal, typically a synthetic rubber gasket, excludes most
wall, formed as a large scale window assembly is used typically of the rainwater, but any water that passes through is drained
where the glazed wall is not of sufficient size to require it to be away at the bottom of the profile to the outside. The internal
supported or hung from floor to floor, which is the principle of barrier serves as an air seal rather than as a full weathertight
stick glazing and unitised glazing in curtain walling. In contrast seal. An additional function of the gasket seal is to provide a
to curtain walling, which is a structurally independent external continuity with the thermal break so that the air temperature of
wall, ‘window walls’ have windows fixed onto a structural frame the inner chamber is much closer to the internal temperature
or backing wall, which is set into a larger structural opening in a than the external temperature.
facade. Window walls provide the appearance of a curtain wall
combined with the acoustic and fire resisting properties of its Where window frames tend to be narrow and deep in section, in
backing wall, making it suitable for apartments, for example. order to accommodate the seals and thermal breaks, doors are
Window walls are typically supported at their base, but can also usually wider in order to provide greater stiffness for the glazed
be top hung or side hung depending on their geometry. units which they support. Doors were not usually thermally
broken until recently, since rigidity and durability of the frame is
An advantage of aluminium windows over those in other usually the most important consideration, but thermal breaks
materials is their use of extruded profiles which can take up are becoming much more common in door sections. Doors
complex shapes in section to which thermal breaks and seals with lower air infiltration rates and a thermal break are made
can be fixed with ease, and within which water can be drained from window sections rather than door sections. The increased
with a high level of precision. This allows aluminium window performance usually results in smaller maximum door sizes,
frames to be relatively well thermally insulated, and have low at around 2400mm for a thermally broken, internally drained
rates of air infiltration when compared to other materials. The and ventilated door. Doors with thermal breaks can reach
main disadvantage, from the visual point of view, is the wide a maximum of around 3000mm to 3500mm without wide
sightlines required for structural reasons in accommodating sightlines. Doors with thermal breaks can exceed 2400mm
seals for internal drainage and thermal breaks. Where high by silicone bonding the glass to the frame so that glass
sightlines are reduced, the overall depth of window is increased assists in stiffening the frame. The maximum width of doors is
MCH_ 145
Walls 02
Glass systems 7: aluminium windows
6
10
10 6
13
5
7 11
5
13
4
3
10
3 5
4
3
4
3
4
6
4
7
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5
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10 3
13 3
11 8
3
5
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7 5
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10
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3D exploded view showing opening window set into large scale 3D detail views showing opening window Vertical section 1:5. Opening window
aluminium frame assembly set into large scale aluminium wall detail
system
a function of their height, in order to restrict the overall weight, Windows and doors are sealed at their interface with the
but a 850mm wide door leaf forming a 1700mm wide pair of surrounding walls usually with a synthetic rubber strip which
doors is not uncommon. Minimum width of opening lights is forms an integral part of the window frames, or alternatively
about 250mm where a double glazed unit is used. Minimum with a seal between window frame and opening, typically with
heights of glazed ventilators, such as those set above doors for a silicone-based product. Some synthetic rubber seals have
night time ventilation, are around 250mm to suit the needs of a metal facing for additional protection, called a ‘foil’, which
the opening mechanism. Side hung, top hung, bottom hung and is bonded to the adjacent wall and is usually concealed by
tilt/turn windows use similar aluminium profiles. the adjacent construction. The EPDM-foil seal is used where
the window is fitted first, since the surrounding wall must be
System details clear in order to fix it, and a perimeter seal is usually used
A recent development has been the introduction of parallel where the window is fitted after the adjacent external wall
opening lights, where windows open in a direction parallel has been completed.
to that of the frame. This has an advantage of increasing the
amount of air that is admitted without exposing a complete Where aluminium window walls are used, opaque glazed infill
section of wall to the effects of both wind and solar radiation. If panels are set between window panels as a facing to the
solar control glass is used in the opening light, then that shading insulated backing wall arranged immediately behind. Metal infill
function is largely maintained when the window is in the open panels are also used, sometimes in rainscreen configuration,
position. These windows also help smoke evacuation where but more typically sealed in a supporting framework. Where
used as smoke vents, but an essential characteristic is visual, in opaque panels are used, opaque panels are fitted to a simple
having opening lights in glazed walls which do not interrupt the support as required by rainscreens and composite panels
visual continuity of the overall facade design. Parallel opening rather than a full window wall framing system. In this window
windows use a scissor-shaped hinge which slides within the wall configuration, windows are set forward of the opening
frame to provide a stable support for the open window in any where the complete facade is required to be in a single plane,
position. These opening lights are used with windows that use rather than within the opening itself. The gap between window
stick glazing sections used in curtain walls, particularly where and opening is closed with metal flashings, which can be
the double glazed units are silicone bonded to reduce the visual concealed with internal finishes.
impact of their supporting frames.
MCH_ 146
7
13
6
13 6
5
11 7
10
7
10 11
5
5
3D view showing aluminium- 13
framed timber window wall
10
system
7
5
3D detail view showing aluminium-framed timber window

10 wall system
5
13
11
11
6 13
Details
1. Outside
2. Inside
(Below) 3D view showing build
3. Window frame
up of aluminium-framed timber
window wall system
glazed unit to suit application
7. Aluminium battens for 13
decoration
8. Opening mechanism
9. Surrounding wall 6 13
10. Insulated composite panel

7
12. Roof construction 10 5
11
13. Internal wall finish 6
13
3D rear view showing aluminium-

framed timber window wall system
1 1 1 1
7 7
7
5
10
10 10 10
3 3
4 4
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
Horizontal sections 1:5. Aluminium window wall system showing typical panel and window details
MCH_ 147
Walls 02
Glass systems 8: timber windows
Details
1. Timber window frame
2. Outside
4 3. Inside
4. Head
9 5. Cill
1 1
1 6. Single glazed or double glazed
6
unit to suit application
2
6
7. Fixing bead
6 6
9. Structural concrete column
10. Timber spandrel panel
6 6
13. Internal finish
2
1 13
11 1
12
10
11
3
5
Vertical section 1:5 Sliding doors

6
1 9
2
1
1 13
6
12
3D view showing timber

doors and windows in wall
1
6 system
3 3 3
1 6 6 6 6
6 6 6 6
1 1
3-D detail views of sliding doors

2 2 2
Elevation 1:5 Sliding doors
1
1 6
1
1
1
6
1
6
3D view showing horizontal section cut through timber sliding doors
MCH_ 148
9
13
1 1
1
6
6 6
6
6
1
10
1
3D view showing timber doors and windows in wall system 1

6
9
6
1
6
9 6
4 13
13 12
1
1
12 11
Vertical section 1:5 Outward

11 opening casement windows
10 6
9 Details
6 1. Timber window frame
2. Outside
3. Inside
4. Head
4 1 5. Cill
6. Single glazed or double glazed
9
unit to suit application
13
7. Fixing bead
12 8. Rubber-based seal
3D detail view showing spandrel panel in 3D views showing head and
timber door and window wall system cill conditions in timber door
System design window wall. Drainage channels are used on all four sides of the
In common with aluminium windows, timber windows are window in the manner of aluminium curtain walling. The steel
used either individually within wall openings or are grouped to stiffening rib or bracket does not extend forward of the drainage
form a complete ‘window wall’, formed by linking windows into groove to allow water to be drained away unimpeded. Mullions
a continuous arrangement. They are supported by an integral and transoms (verticals and horizontals) may be of different
timber frame, typically reinforced internally by steel flats or depth to suit their individual structural requirements and may
sometimes supported by separate secondary steel supports be in a different wood. Hardwoods and softwoods can be mixed
in the form of columns or complete frames. Where individual in a single window wall construction, but the relative moisture
windows are linked together with thin steel reinforcing plates, movements associated with each type are taken in account
the panel size is limited to storey height, and the window wall to ensure that this movement does not adversely affect the
arrangement is fixed back to the supporting structure of floor appearance or stability of the window wall.
slabs or supporting wall. Where the visual presence of timber
framing members is not the preferred expression of the facade Timber framed window walls typically span up to two floors,
from the outside, a secondary steel frame can be set internally, typically restricted by the self weight of the panels, which are
typically made from tubes, T-sections or box sections to reduce usually supported at their base. This is due to the need to tie
their visual impact. Alternatively, the steel components can be the frame into large single units to avoid the effects of thermal
set within timber members forming the supporting frame to movement of the sections. If timber sections are not tied
the window wall, depending on the required sizes of the steel together, they tend to wrap and twist when exposed to outside
members. These steel components are set within the timber elements. Even if the surfaces are painted or sealed with varnish,
construction to avoid being exposed to the effects of the any movement due to moisture will crack the outer finish and
weather. In addition, the high moisture movement associated allow further movement to occur. Timber sections are jointed
with timber makes the penetration of the steel supporting with either tongue-and-groove or rebated joints. Where tongue-
structure through the external face of the timber glazed wall and-groove joints are used, the linking material can be a durable
more difficult to waterproof. Where windows are linked and hardwood or aluminium. Sections can also be bolted together if
reinforced with a mild steel flat, a drainage groove set into the the sections are of sufficient size, such as around 75 x 50mm.
joint ensures that any water that penetrates the outer joint is
drained away to the outside at the bottom of the window or
MCH_ 149
Walls 02
Glass systems 8: timber windows
3D section through timber frame top hung window
2 1
6 1
6
6
1
2
6 1
1
6
6 6
6
1
1
5 6 6
Vertical section 1:5. Vertical sliding sash 3D horizontal section views showing various timber
1
window window frame configurations
3 3 3 3
6 6 6 6
6 6
7 7
1 1
2 2 2 2
Horizontal section 1:5. Sliding sash windows
MCH_ 150
4
9 4
3
10
2
1
6 4
6
1
9 1
6
6
5
9
Vertical section 1:5. Top 1
hung windows
1
7
3D view showing timber
window within masonry wall 6
construction
(Far Right) 3D detail

6
views showing timber
window within masonry 1
wall construction at head, 7
window and cill junctions 9
1
Details
1. Window frame 5
2. Outside
3. Inside
4. Head
5. Cill 5
6. Single glazed or double glazed unit
to suit application
7. Fixing bead
9. Surrounding wall
System details suffered from poor jointing at the corners of the frame. These
Inward opening windows are inherently vulnerable to water have been improved across all window types in recent years with
penetration at the bottom of the frame, while outward opening the use of double mortise and tenon joints and wood glues with
frames are weaker at the head of the frame. For this reason, better resistance to heat and moisture. Where timber windows
drainage channels are provided within the frames, together are set into an opening rather than being part of a window wall,
with weather seals and weather bars. Like aluminium windows, the most common materials used are masonry block, brick or
timber windows use a single section for all four sides of an timber boarding. With all these materials, timber windows are
opening light, and a single section for three sides of the frame, fixed either into the reveals of the opening or are fixed into the
with the cill being different to drain water away from the window. face of the opening. The position of the window in the opening
Timber windows can achieve relatively low levels of air infiltration has more influence over the junction with the surrounding wall
and have vastly improved in their weather performance in than the choice of material for the wall. In proprietary ranges of
recent years, primarily as a result of the use of synthetic rubber windows from manufacturers, a common frame design is used
seals and aluminium weather bars. Weather tightness has for different hinge arrangements in opening lights, which gives
been enhanced by the use of pressure equalised rebates in the a harmonious appearance to window walls with lights that are
window section so that any water passing through its outer seal required to open in different directions.
is drained away without being drawn through by capillary action
as a result of an air pressure difference between inside and Timber glazed walls can be sealed against adjacent wall
outside the framing. The inner synthetic rubber seal also serves construction with metal flashings which can be formed either
as an acoustic barrier, providing improved sound insulation. as an integral part of the window frame, or alternatively be fixed
Seals between the window and the opening have been enhanced to it with synthetic rubber based seals mechanically fixed to the
in recent years with the increased use of folded aluminium and frame. Corners can be formed with either a timber post forming
UPVC profiles which are set into a groove around the window the corner or as a fully glazed junction. Where transoms meet
during manufacture and are sealed against the surrounding wall. at a corner without the benefit of a mullion (vertical) the junction
There has been an increased control of moisture movement of is usually joined with a toothed junction to ensure that no visible
the timber used with better controlled kiln-drying. Treatments to movement occurs. The full interlocking connection between
timbers are also changing to avoid toxic runoff while providing components in these exposed conditions is vital to the success
some protection against colour fading from UV radiation from of timber glazed walls.
sunlight. Some more economic timber windows have traditionally
MCH_ 151
Walls 02
Concrete 1: cast in-situ
3D view of concrete cast-in-

place panels in structure
6
6
7
4
9
5
4
9
1
5
5
Details 4
2. Concrete internal wall 9 7
3. Metal lining to gutter

4. Window frame 9 4
5. Slot formed as part of
casting concrete.
6. Metal parapet flashing 7
7. Single glazed or 5
double glazed unit to
suit application 4
8. Metal cill, though

precast concrete could
be used
9. Internal floor slab 7
10. Single concrete wall 4
12. Internal finish
System design insulation at the interface of concrete and glazed openings is

The method of forming concrete by pouring it into a shape increasingly important in order to avoid thermal bridging. In this
created by formwork makes its construction quite different method of construction, diaphragm walls are used with two
to working with other materials. While metal, glass, timber walls linked structurally being set either side of a rigid thermal
and masonry are made in relatively small panel and unit sizes, insulation core. This allows part of the concrete structure to
concrete is restricted only by the available formwork and the remain closer to the internal temperature of the building, and
amount that can be poured at one time. The use of in-situ benefiting from the thermal mass of the primary structure as
loadbearing concrete walls as a facade system exposes the well as permitting the internal face of the building to have a
cast concrete as a surface finish. This is in contrast to the visible concrete finish. In diaphragm wall construction, the two
use of in-situ loadbearing walls as backing walls to a different linked concrete walls are joined structurally by concrete ribs
facade system, where the function of the wall is only as primary which form limited thermal bridges, or alternatively are linked by
structure, while the external skin is non-loadbearing cladding. stainless steel ties. The use of metal ties reduces the thermal
The use of in-situ reinforced concrete as a self-finish to external bridging with its associated risk of condensation and pattern
walls was popular in avant-garde architecture throughout most staining forming on the inside of the wall in temperate climates.
of the 20th century, but walls were constructed without thermal
insulation within the wall depth. Instead, insulation was eventually An alternative method of constructing an in-situ cast concrete
added on the inside face of the wall, which both prevents the wall is to set the thermal insulation on the inside face of the
thermal mass of the concrete wall from being used to regulate wall, but this results in the loss of the wall’s thermal mass. This
the air temperature within the building as well as prevent method has the benefit of economy, especially where there is no
the concrete surface from being seen inside the building. An requirement for night-time cooling.
important development in recent years has been an increase in
the provision of thermal insulation set typically within the depth System details
of the construction, allowing the external face to have a visible Dust particles that settle on horizontal or slightly sloping
concrete finish. surfaces such as window cills are washed off during rain and
can be deposited on the wall below. Consequently, openings,
Setting thermal insulation within the wall allows the thermal parapets and cills in exposed concrete walls have projecting
mass of the concrete to contribute to night-time cooling as cills and flashings to ensure that rainwater is thrown as clear
part of an environmental design strategy. Continuity of thermal as possible from the external wall surface. In urban conditions,
MCH_ 152
6
6
3
1 5
9
2 7
1 7
7
11
7
9 4
12
9 7
12
7 9
4
12
9
12
8 4
7
7
12
1
Section 1:25. In-situ cast concrete

wall cast in two skins with rigid
closed cell insulation between skins 3D view showing roof parapet and
window details within cast in-situ
concrete wall system
7
7
4
9
9
12
12
12
4 7
4
3D sectional view showing window opening in in-situ cast concrete wall and floor slab interface
MCH_ 153
Walls 02
Concrete 1: cast in-situ
2 2 2
2
11 11
7
7
3 3
4 4
11 11
3 3
4 4
Horizontal section 1:10 and 3D view. In-situ cast concrete wall with internal insulation at window opening
10 10
10
10 10
4 4
7
7 11
10
10
3 3
Horizontal section 1:10 and 3D view. In-situ cast concrete wall with external insulation at window opening
dust-catching surface textures are usually avoided and smooth The most common finishes for concrete walls cast in-situ are
finishes are often preferred. However, where protective either an as-cast finish or a washed finish. Other finishes are
treatments are applied to the external surface of the concrete discussed in the section on precast panels: acid etching, sand
to reduce porosity, this can give a reflectivity to the material that blasting, tooling and polishing, though these additional finishes
reduces its characteristic stone-like appearance. can be used on in-situ cast concrete. With as-cast finishes,
the colour variations result not usually from the cement
Drips in the form of continuous grooves are cast into the tops colour, but rather from the marbling effect of fine particles
of window reveals to reduce both staining to the soffit and to of sand, becoming unevenly distributed during vibration when
reduce the amount of water reaching the windows. Cills are the concrete is poured in place. Smooth concrete is typically
usually formed with a metal sheet apron that helps throw water self-coloured in large areas of facade to avoid colour variations
clear of the wall below, while metal copings are usually inclined in associated with pigment additives. Smooth and visually
order to drain water onto the roof or gutter behind rather than consistent natural finishes are achieved largely by both the
down the face of the concrete wall. accuracy of mixed proportions including water.
The colour of concrete for in-situ loadbearing concrete walls is Textured finishes can be achieved with specially formed
influenced mainly by the choice of cement, with fair faced visible shuttering boards or with an additional lining sheet containing
concrete walls using either grey or white cement bases to the texture pattern. Polystyrene (one time use) or synthetic
produce the surface colours associated with each. The physical rubber sheet (multiple use) are commonly used. Recessed
properties of these two cement types are very similar, with grey joints are usually introduced between the formwork boards to
being associated with architectural concrete finishes which avoid uneven and blurred lines at the junction between boards.
usually provide a consistent appearance, when pouring methods Washed finishes are formed by applying a deactivator to the
and conditions remain consistent during construction of the external face of the concrete, either to the face of the formwork
facade. The tone of grey will vary with the cement/water ratio, before casting or to the concrete surface when the formwork
the porosity of the shuttering, vibration conditions, formwork has been removed. The deactivator is used to slow down or stop
stripping time and weather conditions. White cement is much hydration of the cement, and is applied by brush or spray. The
more tolerant of variations in methods and site conditions in concrete is then sprayed with water or aqueous acid solution to
providing a consistent white colour. remove the surface, revealing the material below.
MCH_ 154
Photos illustrating texture that can be achieved through in-situ casting
Details
2. Concrete internal wall
3. Metal lining to gutter
4. Window frame
5. Slot formed as part of casting con-
crete.
6. Metal parapet flashing
7. Single glazed or double glazed unit to
suit application
8. Metal cill, though precast concrete
could be used
9. Internal floor slab
10. Single concrete wall
Internal wall elevation 1:50 In-situ cast concrete wall with textured effect as above right
Timber/aluminium formwork on upper floors of building construction Timber formwork used to achieve texture
Elevation 1:50 In-situ cast concrete wall showing how formwork can be arranged and cut to form different shaped panels and window openings
MCH_ 155
Walls 02
Concrete 2: storey height panels
2
3
1
5
3
3 2
5
1
2
2
3D view showing typical storey-height panel wall assembly with windows, in various panel configurations
System design is very dependent on both spatial requirements within the build-
The method of casting in-situ walls described in the previous sec- ing and whether concrete nibs can remain a visible part of the
tion is one of forming loadbearing construction. With precast panel design or are required to be concealed within the internal
panels, walls can be formed as either loadbearing walls or as finishes. Storey-height panels can have either thicker edges, to
cladding panels to a structural frame. Loadbearing types have form an integral ‘frame’ to the panels, or be completely flat, but
storey height panels ‘stitched’ together to become integral with the later will usually be thicker, and consequently heavier. The
the floor slabs. Junctions are usually pin jointed, with structural ‘framed’ version has a visual language of framing which can be
stability provided by other components such as service cores visible from either the outside or the inside.
elsewhere in the building. Precast panels may have a decorative
finish on one side, with thermal insulation set within the panel, or Due to their self weight, panels are usually supported at their
may be used as a backing wall to another facade system such base at the floor slab and are restrained at the top of the
as a rainscreen set forward of the panel, where thermal insula- panel with mechanical fixings. Panels are usually a maximum of
tion is set on the outer face of the precast panel. In addition to around 3600mm wide to suit road transportation, with a maxi-
setting panels full height from floor to floor, loadbearing panels mum weight of around 10 tonnes to suit regular site cranes. As
can also be set horizontally to form structural beams between with in-situ cast concrete walls, the thermal insulation can be
precast columns, typically around 1200mm high to provide set either on the inside face of the panels or within a diaphragm
spandrel panels. This allows full length glazing to be used, set wall construction. Panels are manufactured in flat moulds, with
between the top of the panel and the bottom of the panel above, the finished face at the bottom of the mould when the concrete
rather than glazing individual openings associated with full- finish is required to be visible, or with the finished face on the top
height precast panels. Non-loadbearing precast cladding panels of the mould where another material is applied such as ceramic
typically span from floor to floor, with panels supported either tiles, or where metal fixings for a masonry finish are cast into
directly on the floor slabs or set forward of them, fixed back the face of the panel. Where a concrete finish is formed in the
to the floor structure with brackets made typically from stain- bottom of the panel, textured finishes are formed within the
less steel or reinforced concrete. The method of fixing panels mould, usually by a synthetic rubber mat or polystyrene. The
MCH_ 156
Details
1. Concrete floor deck
3
2. Precast concrete panel
3. Window
4. Vertical joint (typically a baffle) between
panels
5. Horizontal joint (typically a lap) between
panels
7. Steel dowel
2
8. Concrete coping
9. Thermal Insulation
10. Roof construction
4
5
1
1 2
3D detail view showing storey-height concrete panels at window and floor interface
5
6
9
Vertical section 1:25. Typical wall construction
2 4 2
Horizontal section 1:25. Typical wall construction
MCH_ 157
Walls 02
Concrete 2: storey height panels
2 3
3 2
3
4
5
3
1
2
2
3
5
1
1
2
3
2 4
3D view showing typical storey-height panel wall assembly with windows, in various panel configurations
shape of the panel is adjusted to suit the ease of removing the movement between the panel and supporting structure and for
mould when the concrete has been poured in place, but most adjustment during construction. The cleats are typically fixed to
panels can achieve sharp lines that do not have an obviously a small channel fixing cast into the concrete. Panels are lifted
‘moulded’ appearance. into place on site by crane, using hooks that are screwed into
threaded tubes set into the concrete typically on top or on the
System details back face of the panel. The hooks are unscrewed when the panel
Joints between panels are similar for both loadbearing and clad- is in place, and the holes plugged.
ding panel types, with a common use of either ‘open’ or ‘closed’
joints. Open joints have an outer open joint that is narrow but The most common finishes in precast panels are acid etching,
admits small amounts of rainwater, which is drained down an polishing, sand blasting and tooling. The last two techniques are
inner chamber and released back to the outside at the base discussed in the next section on small precast panels but can be
of the panel through a stepped horizontal joint. This internally applied equally here. Polished finishes are formed by an abrasive
drained and pressure equalised system is similar in concept to grinding wheel lubricated with water that removes up to 2mm of
that used in unitised curtain walling. In closed joints the outer the material with a single pass of the grinder to a honed or fully
face is sealed with a wet applied silicone or polysulphide seal- polished finish. This exposes the colour of the aggregate but the
ant in a similar way to the sealing of joints between bolt fixed surface does not shine naturally. Varnishes can be applied to
glazed panels. Joint widths both vertically and horizontally for achieve this stone-like appearance. Acid etched finishes are well
both open and closed joints vary from 10-25mm increasing with suited to precast panels since the amount of acid applied can be
panel width up to a maximum of around 6000mm. The inner more carefully controlled in the factory than can be achieved on
chamber between panels in vertical open joints is closed with a site. The outer face of the panel is treated with hydrochloric acid
synthetic rubber strip which provides a primary seal. The inte- to reveal the concrete texture beneath, which is then rinsed off,
rior face of both vertical and horizontal joints is closed with an having the effect of revealing the concrete texture immediately
air seal formed with either an extruded synthetic rubber gasket beneath. Acid etching attacks limestone aggregates, and some-
or a wet-applied sealant. Loadbearing panels are sealed with a times more quickly than it does the cement, while silica-based
cement-based grout. Closed joints are mostly used in loadbear- aggregate remains. The surface texture achieved varies with
ing panel construction where panels are joined together with the fine aggregate used, being more granulated in the case of
mechanical fixings. Panel fixings are positioned near the cor- silica and less coloured in the case of limestone.
ners, with slotted fixings used in order to allow for both thermal
MCH_ 158
10
Details
1. Concrete floor deck 9
3. Window
4. Vertical joint (typically a baffle)
between panels
5. Horizontal joint (typically a lap) 3
between panels
2
7. Steel dowel
8. Concrete coping 2
5 Vertical section 1:25. Parapet

detail
4
1
2
5
1
4
5
1 2
6
3D detail view showing typical wall assembly
3D detail views showing various

Vertical section 1:25. Typical details corner details
MCH_ 159
Walls 02
Concrete 2: small precast panels
6 1
2 4
Horizontal section 1:25. Glass reinforced concrete (GRC) panels with open joints 3
2
6
1
13 14
5
2
6
8
2
3
8
2
3
14 2
15
3 2
6
3
1
3D detail view showing parapet condition in typical GRC wall construction 3D detail view showing panel connection in typical GRC wall
construction
System design avoiding intermediary posts that would be required to provide

Small precast concrete panels have a greater sense of visual lateral restraint. In terms of weight, the long panels compensate
variety possible with a reduced unit size than large panels. by being low in height in order to ensure their weight can be
While storey height panels suit larger scale projects, smaller lifted by a site crane, typically with a lifting capacity of 4 to 6
self-supporting and interlocking panels can be stacked together tonnes. Since the stacked, interlocking panels have concrete on
in the manner of composite metal panels. Panels have an inner all sides, both horizontal joints and vertical joints usually have a
core of thermal insulation with a finished concrete face on each limited thermal bridge which can lead to pattern staining as a
visible side of the panel. Alternatively, individually supported result of different rates of thermal transmittance in the material,
rainscreen panels use the visual language of stone or metal in addition to the increased risk of condensation occurring on
cassette facades to a backing wall in a different material. Small the internal face. The thermal bridge can be avoided by the use
precast rainscreen panels are fixed to a backing wall either of metal connections between two skins of concrete in place of
directly with individual fixing brackets or onto an aluminium or a fully encased concrete panel, but this makes it more difficult
stainless steel carrier frame, with open joints that follow the to stack panels and to maintain the economy of the system.
rainscreen principle. Self-supporting stacked panels fabricated in thicknesses of
75 - 100mm can also form the outer skin of a complete cavity
Panels can also be made as self supporting walls supported wall construction of 200 - 300mm thickness. The inner wall
at their base. These panels are shaped so as to ensure they can vary widely in its construction from concrete block to light
interlock to provide a stable form of construction. Panels can gauge metal stud wall with an outer waterproof facing. The
be stacked to a single storey height of around 10 metres, with cavity between concrete panels and backing wall is 50 - 75mm,
lateral restraint provided by the structural frame, and at every ventilated at the top and bottom of the wall.
floor level in buildings with more than one storey. Panels at
ground floor level are set on a beam edge to a concrete floor slab Small precast rainscreen panels can be formed with narrower
or structural beam. Panels are stacked with continuous vertical joints than those possible in full height panels, together with
joints and are restrained by columns. The need to restrain panels the possibility of a non-rectilinear arrangement of joints. Fixing
on their vertical joints results in interlocking panels being long brackets are similar to those used for stone cladding, but are
in order to optimise the distance between structural columns, usually bigger to support the heavier panels. While stone panel
MCH_ 160
1
2
3
14
8 8
6
1
14
8
2
7
7
2 1
2
2
vertical sections 1:25. Typical precast concrete wall con- 7

struction (Left) Panels with drained joint.
3
(Right) Panels with sealed joint
15
Details
1. Backing wall 5
3. Closed cell thermal insulation
4. Vertical joint open or closed type
5. Horizontal joint open or closed type
6. Internal finish
7. Window frame
9. Precast concrete coping
10. Steel angle 7
11. Rubber-based baffle
13. Parapet
14. Metal bracket
15. Double glazing
16. Window cill
MCH_ 161
Walls 02
Concrete 2: small precast panels
Details
1. Backing wall
2. Precast concrete panel 11

4. Vertical joint open or closed type
5. Horizontal joint open or closed type 11
6. Internal finish 1 3
7. Window frame 11
3
9. Precast concrete coping
10. Waterproof membrane 2
11. Rainscreen panel
support rail
12. Double glazing 11
11
3
3
1 11
11
11
2
2
1
2
3D views showing wall assembly

with profiled, precast concrete tiles
sizes are typically around 1500mm x 750mm or 1500mm x The closing of parapets is provided by a metal flashing that
1000mm, depending on stone type, precast rainscreen panels covers the top of the panel and the vertical face of the parapet
can typically reach 1500mm x 3000mm. Panels are supported wall that may be set behind the panels to close off the roof. The
on stainless steel brackets which are fixed either to primary coping is sloped towards the roof to ensure that rainwater is
structure or to a carrier frame that is in turn fixed to primary drained onto it and not directed down the facade. A precast
structure. Slotted holes in the bracket provide adjustment coping can also be used instead of metal, but an additional
vertically, horizontally and laterally. In common with stone membrane is set under both metal or concrete copings to
cladding, individually supported concrete panels are supported ensure a fully watertight seal. The base of walls is detailed in a
on short lengths of stainless steel angle at each floor level in similar way to other forms of loadbearing masonry. A continuous
order to avoid the possibility of progressive collapse of cladding damp proof membrane (DPM) extends up from the outside of
panels in the event of a single panel failing or slipping from its the structure beneath and forms a damp proof course (DPC)
position. Fixings are designed so that they can support the full which is positioned so that it extends at least 150mm above
load of the panels immediately above it in the event of fixings to external ground level, depending on climate conditions. The DPC
panels above failing either partially or completely. is positioned so that the lowest row of panels at ground level
appears to sit on the ground with its bottom edge either level,
System details or slightly above the adjacent ground level or pavement. This
Interfaces for individually supported panels are similar to those avoids the need for a 150 - 200mm waterproofed plinth at the
for stone cladding. An advantage of small precast panels is that base of the wall.
interfaces of stacked panels with openings, parapets and cills
are relatively straightforward. Windows are fitted into openings Sandblasting and tooling are common on small cladding
relatively easily, since the stepped profile at the base of the panel panels. Panels are sandblasted with iron filings rather than
provides an integral cill profile to the opening. The concrete sand particles, with the blasting slightly eroding the face of
facing to all sides of the panel provides weathertight edges on the concrete, either back to the surface or more deeply to the
the jambs and at the head of the opening. Windows are set in a coarse aggregate beneath, resulting in a matt finish. Tooled
position which suits the position of the thermal insulation in the concrete is a method of texturing concrete with chisels or picks
precast panel, typically in the middle, but windows are positioned to make grooves or continuous textures. The textures usually
to provide continuity with the thermal insulation. stop short of corners of walls to give a crisp edge.
MCH_ 162
12 9
1
3 5
1
5
2
3
6
3D detail view showing window opening in
2 typical GRC panel wall system
1
2
1 3 10
7 6
12
2
3
5
7
12
7
7
6 3
1 3
2 Vertical section 1:10. Junction
at window jamb and at parapet
8
8
3D detail view showing typical wall assembly for GRC panels 4

with open joints and window Horizontal section 1:10. Corner GRC Vertical section 1:10. Panel soffit and
panel with open joint window junctions of GRC panels with
open joints
MCH_ 163
Walls 02
3
2
4
8 1
6
3
1
2
4 9
9
3D sectional view through
loadbearing wall with stone
facing blocks
11
Horizontal section 1:10. Window jambs in 1
brick loadbearing wall with stone facing blocks 9
10
18
8
1 9
3
4
14
19
Vertical section 1:10. Window jambs in brick

loadbearing wall with stone facing blocks
System design brick, typically 215mm to 315mm thick, are set apart, joined
Loadbearing masonry walls are used mainly in small scale by fin walls set perpendicular to the main walls. Concrete block
construction, but in recent years there has been a revival in their walls are made from skins 200mm to 300mm thick. The
use for larger scale buildings as an alternative to the language of position of the insulation within the walls, or on the internal face
cavity wall construction. Walls are most commonly made from of the wall, allows a straightforward continuity with the thermal
brick or concrete block. In continental Europe, terracotta blocks insulation provided by windows within openings. An essential
are more common, but are usually rendered on their external benefit of using loadbearing masonry walls is their ability to
face, both to enhance their appearance and for its traditional avoid movement joints through the use of lime mortar. This
role as a weathertight outer layer. Concrete blocks are similarly traditional material has lower strength than mortars used in
protected by render. Only brickwork is fully exposed, relying on contemporary cavity wall construction but has greater flexibility,
the depth of wall to avoid the ingress of rainwater. allowing it to move more freely without cracking. This reduces,
or can even avoid the need for, movement joints which are
In brick construction, it is assumed that a 315mm thick wall introduced to avoid cracking in masonry walls. Movement joints
(1½ bricks) is the minimum depth sufficient to resist rainwater in walls where cement-based mortars are used are set typically
penetration in temperate climates. This is dependent upon brick at 6.0–8.0 metres depending on the required strength and size
density and manufacturing dimensions. With brick, thermal of wall. In lime mortars the strength of mortars is varied by
insulation is set on the inside face to allow the material to be altering the proportion of cement and lime which are used to
visible on the outside, but with concrete block, the insulation bind the mortar together. Increasing the proportion of cement
can be set on the outside with an external layer of render to will increase its strength, while increasing that of lime increases
provide the weatherproof skin. An alternative solution is to its flexibility, with mortar mixes having different proportions
set thermal insulation within the wall, creating a loadbearing of strength and flexibility. In addition, the comparatively low
diaphragm wall where the brick or block can be seen on both water permeability of lime gives it greater resistance to rain
sides of the wall, and also allows the internal face of the wall to penetration than mortar mixes with a high proportion of
be used for night time cooling within the building. Two skins of cement. Lime has the effect of making mortars increasingly
MCH_ 164
1
3
1
9
1
3
9
5 10
4
1
2
3D section view showing

window opening and Vertical section 1:10. Floor connection in brick
connection to ground in loadbearing wall
typical brick loadbearing
wall assembly
2
6
4
1
9 4
9 9 3
1
9
9
3
11
1 2
10
19
19 2
Details
1. Loadbearing brick wall
2. Timber framed window
3. Internal plaster finish or dry
3
lining/drywall
4
5. Precast concrete lintel
6. Precast concrete cill 6
7. Concrete loadbearing blocks 1
8. Damp proof course (DPC)

9. Stone facing blocks 2
10. Floor slab

12. Hollow bricks 1
14. Stone lintel/arch
15. Stone cill
16. Parapet
17. Loadbearing concrete block wall
18. External finish Horizontal section 1:10. Window jamb connection in Vertical section 1:10. Window opening in
19. Ground loadbearing brick wall loadbearing brick wall
MCH_ 165
Walls 02
7
7 18 4
18 3
3
2
2
3D views showing window

opening in typical concrete block
wall, with insulation applied
interior of wall system 2
18
6
6
3
3
18
7 7 4
4
light in colour with its increased proportion in the mix. However, quickly. Where softer stones are used such as sandstones and
mortar colour can be modified by adding pigments to the mix. limestones, the material must be sufficiently dense and durable
Where stone is used on the outer face of the loadbearing wall, to avoid staining occurring due to water absorption. Cills are
typically facing a brick wall behind, the mortar has crushed usually made as single pieces to avoid joints being formed
stone added in place of sand in order to give mortar its texture which are less impervious than the cill material. A DPC is set
and some of the texture of the stone itself. under the cill to ensure that rainwater penetrating the outer cill
drains away any water that soaks through the cill, particularly
System details at the joints. The heads of openings in loadbearing masonry
An essential aspect of loadbearing masonry walls is the need walls are supported by lintels or arches which are structural,
for the structural requirements of walls to take precedence taking on an appearance informed by that primary requirement.
in the ways openings are formed, particularly where the wall In brick construction, a flat or curved arch is typically used to
supports both itself and other elements such as floors and roof. support the brickwork above. In concrete block construction,
For example, the use of flat arches to window openings that a reinforced concrete lintel is used, which spans the complete
form the equivalent of lintels to support the wall above result width of the wall, while in stone a thin arch is used on the outer
in the structural requirements being the dominating criterion face of the wall, often with a more rudimentary brick arch behind
in bringing components together. There are visual benefits, it, concealed by the window frame. In parapets, the coping piece
such as openings in loadbearing masonry walls having the has a damp proof course (DPC) set beneath it to avoid rainwater
ability to reveal the thickness of the wall to give it a massive being absorbed into the wall beneath. The DPC is continuous
appearance. Cills to openings are formed from either the same with the waterproof layer used for the roof immediately behind
material if stone is used for the wall or, more commonly, precast the parapet. In common with copings in other facade systems,
concrete. Sometimes the timber or metal cill that forms part of the top is sloped inwards to drain water towards the roof rather
the window is used to form the cill where visual criteria permit than down the facade where it would cause staining. The coping
its use. Cills are sloped with a projecting edge that throws the usually projects beyond the face of the wall on the roof side in
rainwater clear of the wall beneath. A throating is also used order to throw water clear of the wall.
to avoid water running back to the external face of the wall
from the underside of the projecting cill. Where stone is used
to form cills, the material must be sufficiently impervious or
alternatively have sufficient slope to ensure that water runs off
MCH_ 166
4
3
8
7
7
7 2 3
18
4
4 18
7
2
2
Horizontal sections 1:10. Window

opening in concrete block wall
illustrating application of insulation to 6
interior or exterior of wall system
3 8 7
4
2
12
8 Vertical sections 1:10. Window opening

in concrete block wall illustrating
application of insulation to exterior of wall
system
2
7
6 8
18 4
3
4
7
4
3D detail view showing window opening in typical concrete block

wall, with insulation applied interior of wall system
Details
1. Loadbearing brick wall
3. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/drywall
5. Precast concrete lintel
6. Precast concrete cill 3
7. Concrete loadbearing blocks
7
9. Stone facing blocks 8
10. Floor slab
12. Hollow bricks
14. Stone lintel/arch
15. Stone cill
16. Parapet Vertical sections 1:10. Window opening
17. Loadbearing concrete block wall in concrete block wall illustrating
18. External finish Vertical section 1:10. Window application of insulation to interior of wall
opening in hollow brick wall system
MCH_ 167
Walls 02
Masonry cavity walls: 1. brick
3D views of assembly showing cavity brick

wall fixed to concrete frame with window
and door openings
8
9
10
Details
7
1. Outer brick wall (or 'leaf')
2. Inner blockwork wall (or 'leaf') 6
3. Timber framed window 12. Outer precast concrete lintel
4. Steel/aluminium window or brick flat arch
5. Timber cill 13. Floor construction
6. Cavity closer 14. Roof parapet
7. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/ 15. Stainless steel tie
drywall 1
17. Ground
9. Air cavity (sometimes omitted where 18. Primary structure
insulation fills cavity)
10. Inner precast concrete lintel
11. Pressed steel lintel
3D detail view through window connection
System design The outer brick skin is usually only one brick thick, typically of
Where loadbearing brick walls use the overall wall thickness 100mm width, with both skins being supported at ground level,
to stop the passage of rainwater from outside to inside, cavity at intermediary floor levels and at the roof, depending on the
walls use two skins of masonry separated by a ventilated air height of the building. The inner skin is built off each floor slab
gap, where only the outer skin is saturated with water. The inner and is restrained at the head by the floor slab or roof structure
skin is usually formed in concrete block or timber studwork, with above. Taller buildings have the inner skin built directly onto
thermal insulation usually set on the external face of the inner floor slabs in the same way, but the outer skin is supported at
skin. Earlier examples of cavity walls were built by tying inner each floor level on a series of continuous stainless steel angles,
and outer skins together with floor slabs to form diaphragm fixed back to the floor slab. A damp proof course (DPC) is set on
walls, so that both inner and outer skins performed a structural top of the steel angle to drain the cavity. Weep holes (vertical
function. Their use was reduced with concern over the thermal slots) are formed in the vertical joints immediately above the
bridge created by linking the two skins of brick, with its attendant steel angle in order to allow water in the cavity to drain to the
issues of heat transfer across the wall and condensation risk. outside. In addition to being restrained at floor slabs, the outer
Current practice uses the outer skin as cladding to a drained and skin is also tied at intermediary points back to the inner skin
ventilated void behind, with an inner skin that is waterproofed with stainless steel ties. These are set typically at 450mm
with a high level of thermal insulation. The cavity is vented top horizontal centres and 900mm vertical centres. Vertical
and bottom to ensure the free passage of air through the cavity. movement joints are provided at around 7500mm centres, or
This allows the cavity to remain dry as well as assisting in drying are avoided altogether in the construction by keeping lengths
out the outer skin of brick, which can become fully saturated in of wall within this limit.
a rainstorm. The cavity is bridged only by openings for windows
and doors, but typically this is done with proprietary cavity System details
closers, which are insulated strips that create a thermal break Unlike loadbearing masonry walls, the inner and outer skins
between inner and outer skins. of cavity walls can be supported separately, with the outer
MCH_ 168
3D view of assembly showing cavity brick
wall fixed to concrete frame
14
14
11
1
4
13
12
4
2
9
1
7
13
8
13
Vertical section 1:25. Wall assembly
1 8 2
7
16
1
8
12 10 2 7
7
16
8 2
15 9
3
9
1
Vertical section 1:10.
Window assembly
Horizontal and vertical section 1:10. Typical connection or restraint to primary
structure
MCH_ 169
Walls 02
Masonry cavity walls: 1. brick
7
8
1
2
4 13
6
15
17
13
Vertical section 1:10. Junction at ground

13 floor level
Details
1. Outer brick wall (or 'leaf') 8. Thermal insulation
2. Inner blockwork wall (or 'leaf') 9. Air cavity (sometimes omitted
3. Timber framed window where insulation fills cavity)
4. Steel/aluminium window 10. Inner precast concrete lintel
5. Timber cill 11. Pressed steel lintel
6. Cavity closer 12. Outer precast concrete lintel
7. Internal plaster finish or dry or brick flat arch
3D view of double brick skinned cavity wall system lining/drywall 13. Floor construction
skin required to support only itself. However, when an opening and the adjacent external level. The DPC in the outer skin is set
is formed, the cavity is closed by a lintel to support the inner at around 150mm above external ground level. The DPC for the
and outer skins at the top of the opening, and is closed by a cill internal skin is set at the same level if the step up from outside
at the bottom of the opening. The jambs (sides) are closed by to inside is around 150mm. If the difference between outside
either returning one of the two skins so that they meet, or by and inside levels is around 300mm then the DPC is stepped up
setting an insulated cavity closer, usually made as an aluminium from outer skin to inner skin in the same place but a separate
extrusion filled with thermal insulation. Because the downward DPC is added to the inner skin at the same level as the bottom
passage of water inside the cavity is interrupted by the lintel at of the cavity tray.
the head of the opening, a cavity tray formed from bituminous
felt is set above the lintel to drain water out of the cavity. Water At roof level there are many variations for eaves junctions, with
is drained at the bottom of the tray through weep holes in the the top of the wall maintaining a consistent principle of closing
vertical joints immediately above the DPC. The ends of the DPC the cavity at the top with a brick or block that allows the load
are tucked down into a vertical DPC set into the jambs of the from the roof structure to be supported on the inner skin.
opening which is in turn linked to a DPC set under the cill to Alternatively, the roof structure may be supported on a column
form a complete watertight seal to the opening, which in turn is set into the inner skin of the wall or on blockwork piers, also
drained to the outside. A similar cavity tray principle is used to forming part of the inner skin. The closing of the cavity wall at
drain water at roof level and at ground level. In addition, a DPC the top allows for continuity of thermal insulation from cavity
is used at ground level to avoid water being drawn up into the wall to roof structure while allowing the roof construction to be
wall construction to the inside face of the wall within the building. ventilated if required, and the top of the cavity in the wall to be
DPCs are also used beneath parapets and copings as well as at ventilated. A DPC is set on the underside of the brick or block that
the junction of wall and pitched roof. closes the cavity to ensure continuity of waterproofing between
wall and roof. Parapets are closed at the top by a coping, either
The position of the DPC at ground floor level is dependent upon in masonry or metal. A DPC is set beneath the coping to stop
the difference in height between ground floor level in the building the passage of water downwards from the top of the cavity.
MCH_ 170
1
15 9
2
15
18
7
Horizontal section 1:10. Corner conditions
2
2
8
9
1
7
2
8
8
12
1
1
3
10
Vertical section 1:10. Window 6

assembly 7
14. Roof parapet

15. Stainless steel tie 11 1 2
16. Damp proof course (DPC) 8
17. Ground
18. Primary structure
9
3
7 10
2 6
Vertical section 1:10. Window

assembly
1 13
17 5 8 2
1
10
12
3
2
1 Vertical section 1:10. Window

assembly
Vertical section 1:10. Junction at ground 3D view showing typical timber window connections in brick cavity
floor level wall
MCH_ 171
Walls 02
Masonry cavity walls: 2. stone and block
2 10 3
13
12
1
15 8
10 4
2 3
Vertical section 1:10. Roof connection to stone faced cavity wall system
3D fragment views showing junction at ground

floor level of cavity wall
2
17
16
8
3
19
2 2
16
17 10
11
8 9
19
Vertical section 1:10. Typical window at

cill and head in stone cavity wall
System design Loadbearing cavity walls used to support two storey structures
The principles of cavity wall design are set out in the previous on their inner skins are very common in housing construction
text on brick cavity walls. The same principles can be applied in Europe and North America. Vertical movement joints are
for use when stone and concrete blockwork are used to form provided at around 7500mm centres, or else are avoided
an outer skin. altogether in the construction by keeping lengths of wall within
these dimensions. When cavity walls are used with large scale
Stone can be used either as an outer skin approximately building frames in either steel or concrete, the inner leaf is no
100mm thick, or as panels around 40mm thick bonded to longer loadbearing and instead the complete wall construction
an outer brickwork skin. When used as a 100mm thick skin forms a cladding to the frame. When reinforced concrete
in order to be self-supporting, the stone becomes expensive, frames are used, the junction between inner skin, typically
so sandstones and limestones are most commonly used. This concrete block or terracotta block, is straightforward with a
method suits granites and denser limestones. An essential gap between the two to allow for structural movement in the
difference between the detailing of brick cavity walls and frame. Stainless steel sliding anchors are used either in the
stone/block cavity walls is that there are fewer joints in the sides of the inner skin panel where it meets the column, or
material due to their large size. Consequently there are fewer at the head where it meets the floor slab. The outer skin runs
opportunities to design a damp proof course (DPC) with floor continuously in front of it. The situation is more complicated with
slabs, for example, particularly where shelf angles are used. a steel frame, where the column needs to be protected from
The smaller unit size of brick makes it a very flexible material corrosion from water vapour in the cavity. Typically the column
when detailing; stone/block requires careful co-ordination of is painted to form a protective coating and thermal insulation is
stone/block size and floor to floor heights to allow for windows set across the face of the steelwork to provide a continuity of
to be suitably placed. For this reason, alternating bands of thick thermal insulation. Sometimes the outer skin is restrained with
and thin stone are used in coursing. This allows horizontal joint cavity ties fixed to the face of the reinforced concrete or steel
lines to be provided at shelf angles, cavity trays and DPCs column. This is particularly useful when forming a movement
at ground level, without disturbing the stone pattern with joint in lengths of brickwork, or movement joints that form
additional horizontal joints. Unlike open jointed stone cladding, part of the building structure, which typically occur at columns
where the mortar is omitted, the mortar and joint profile have in the building frame. The vertical movement joint is filled with
a big visual impact. two parts polysulphide sealant that also matches the colour of
the mortar as closely as possible and provides a seal that can
accommodate the structural movement within the cavity wall.
MCH_ 172
18
14 14 14
17 3
2 2 2 2
10
10
10
10
3D fragment views showing various wall assemblies
3
10 2
10
11 14
Horizontal section 1:10. Typical wall system showing

wall tie
2
2 4 3
12
13
4
5
3
4
10
4
11
3D view showing timber window
frame in stone cavity wall
6
Details
1. Damp proof course (DPC) 11. Air cavity (sometimes omitted where
2. Outer block wall (or 'leaf') insulation fills cavity) 4
3. Inner block wall (or 'leaf') 12. Inner precast concrete lintel
4. Timber framed window 13. Outer precast concrete/stone lintel 3
5. Precast concrete cill 14. Stainless steel tie
11
6. Stone cill 15. Roof construction
7. Timber inner cill 16. Floor construction
8. Cavity closer 17. Timber framed inner skin
Vertical section 1:10. Typical window at
9. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/drywall 18. Steel framed inner skin
cill and head
10. Thermal insulation in cavity 19. Ground
MCH_ 173
Walls 02
Masonry cavity walls: 2. stone and block
10 3
3
10
10
11 2
11
9
9
3 2
2
12
12 11
8
5
7
3 11 2 10
1
10 2 10
3 2
Vertical section 1:10. Typical window at cill and

head in block cavity wall system
3D views showing typical window at cill and head in block cavity wall
system
System details The vertical steel angles are usually concealed within the cavity
This section discusses variations and details additional to those to give a continuous masonry appearance. The masonry is
set out in the previous section on brick cavity walls and focuses sometimes restrained within the panel by vertical stainless
on different materials for the inner skin. steel rods which are tensioned against the frame to form
lightly prestressed panels. Vertical joints between panels are
When a timber framed inner skin is used, the window is usually sealed, typically with a polysulphide sealant.
an integral part of that inner skin so that a complete enclosure
is formed in timber with masonry used as an outer skin For parapets the inner skin is thickened up when used as a
providing some lateral stability. The outer masonry skin can balustrade. A handrail on top of the coping is fixed by drilling
be returned to form a reveal up to around 125mm depending through the top and bolting it to the inner skin beneath. The
on the thickness of insulation in the cavity. Alternatively, the coping is cut to receive the balustrade or handrail, unless the
timber window can be set forward close to the line of the outer uprights supporting the handrail pass between the joints. The
face with a timber cill projecting forward of the wall. This gives adjacent area of flat roof or gutter usually has a waterproofing
the outer wall an appearance of a brick texture, giving a planar layer returning up the wall, regardless of the roof finish. The
appearance to the material. waterproofing layer is set into horizontal joints in outer masonry
skin. A metal flashing is set into the same horizontal joint and is
With reinforced concrete inner skins, stainless steel fixings set over the top of the waterproofing to protect it from damage.
and restraints are usually post-fixed to the concrete. In recent Metal copings are used increasingly on parapets in order to
years, outer masonry skins have been made as prefabricated match the appearance of windows and doors, particularly where
panels on some projects when fixed back to a reinforced metal cills are used. The same principles apply as for concrete
concrete wall. Panels of stone, terracotta or even brick are copings, with a DPC set on top of the masonry wall. Drips are
bonded together with mortar and then held in a steel edge formed on either side of the vertical face to ensure that water
frame, which is fixed to the inner skin. The concrete inner skin is thrown clear of the wall. For all parapets, the waterproofing
is waterproofed with bituminous paint and thermal insulation layer is continued up the wall to become continuous with the
is set on the outside face of the inner skin. The steel angle on DPC in low parapets. For high parapet walls, a stepped DPC is
the bottom edge forms a closer to the window below, while used to drain water back to the inner skin to ensure that water
the steel on the top edge forms a cill to the window above. inside this part of the cavity wall is drawn away.
MCH_ 174
3D view showing section through block cavity wall system
15
9
10
2
13
8
10
11
16
2
10
3
3
10
10
16
16
Details 13. Outer precast concrete/

1. Damp proof course (DPC) 8. Cavity closer stone lintel
2. Outer block wall (or 'leaf') 9. Internal plaster finish or dry 14. Stainless steel tie
3. Inner block wall (or 'leaf') lining/drywall 15. Roof construction
4. Timber framed window 10. Thermal insulation in cavity 16. Floor construction
5. Precast concrete cill 11. Air cavity (sometimes omitted 17. Timber framed inner skin
6. Stone cill where insulation fills cavity) 18. Steel framed inner skin
Vertical section 1:25 showing typical
7. Timber inner cill 12. Inner precast concrete lintel 19. Ground
details
MCH_ 175
Walls 02
Masonry cladding
2
2
13
1
8
3
(Top left) 3D view of stainless steel fixing pins

(Bottom left) 3D view of stone panels on carrier
system
(Right) 3D view of stone panels on individual fixings
System design Stainless steel is used for stone fixings because of its resistance
Stone cladding panels are typically fixed back either directly to corrosion combined with high strength and rigidity. Fixings
to a backing wall or to a metal carrier frame with a separate have a three-way adjustment vertically, horizontally and laterally
backing wall behind. The use of stone for cladding requires an in order to align the stone panels accurately. The type of fixing
emphasis in the design stage on choosing not only the specific used varies with the thickness and stone type used. Fixings are
material, but also setting the range of colours and textures of usually set at the top and bottom of the panel, with the bottom
the material. This requires an investigation into establishing fixings being loadbearing and the fixings at the top of the panel
the physical properties of the actual stone to be used if this is being restraints. Side fixings are sometimes used depending on
not already known, to a structural-based design to establish or the weight and strength of the panel.
confirm maximum panel dimensions and suitable fixing methods
for the proposed sizes of panel. The physical properties of the Stone cladding can be used as a ‘wrap’ to a structural frame as
stone may be available from the quarry at an early stage, but well as its more traditional use for cladding walls with punched
sometimes testing is done during the early procurement stage openings. The mixture of large stone panels with long narrow
to ensure that the material meets the requirements of the panels associated with reinforced concrete structural frames
building code. The thickness of stone required for a facade is gives a visual drama not usually associated with stone cladding
usually established by structural calculation. Flexural strength, until recently. The arrangement of stone panels can imitate
also called the modulus of rupture, is usually the most significant traditional patterns of jointing such as stretcher bond, but can
structural consideration in establishing panel size. Codes of also benefit from the mechanical fixing of each stone panel by
practice often set out minimum thickness for various panel forming an arrangement that is independent of the backing
sizes, but this is only a general guide and calculation is usually wall behind, mixing both stone sizes and different shapes in a
undertaken for specific facade applications. Since the material single wall composition. The development of water jet cutting
may not already be cut from the quarry at the time of its techniques in addition to development of established stone
selection, stone facades can involve longer procurement times cutting tools has led to a greater variety in the size and shape
than other facade systems, particularly on larger projects. The that remains within the limits of economic construction. The
stones used are typically granites, sandstones, limestones and introduction of triangular panels in rainscreen configuration has
slates, and are once again being considered as a material that encouraged the use of stone cladding on folded facade surfaces
might be locally sourced; a material laying in abundance beneath to complement the geometries used in glazed walls. Finishes for
the region in which the building is to be constructed. stone have also developed in recent years, with rubbed, honed,
polished and flamed finishes for different stone types.
MCH_ 176
2
14
1 12
15
1
3
1
14
Horizontal section 1:10. Typical stone
carrier system made from extruded alu-
minium section
1 2
8
14
2
1
15
7
14
1
8
12
Details
1. Stone panel
2. Backing wall, typically
concrete block
3
3. Stainless steel fixings
8
5. Stone cill
6. Timber inner cill 1
7. Internal plaster finish or
dry lining/drywall
14
1
3
15
8
9. Stone coping
12. Extruded aluminium/steel Vertical section 1:10. Typical stone
sections carrier system made from individual
13. Rainscreen panel support rail 3D view showing stone panels
with stainless steel fixing pins fixings
14. Internal finish
MCH_ 177
Walls 02
Masonry cladding
9 9
2 2
8 11
11 1 8
3
3
8
10
10
1 7
7
4
Vertical section 1:10. Stone supported

on individual fixings
Details
1. Stone panel
5 2. Backing wall, typically concrete block
3. Stainless steel fixings
5. Stone cill
6. Timber inner cill
7. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/drywall
9. Stone coping
2
3D view showing stone panels 11. Roof construction
12. Extruded aluminium/steel sections
supported on individual fixings
13. Rainscreen panel support rail
MCH_ 178
3D view showing stone panels supported
on aluminium rails and blockwork
8 backing wall, at internal and external fold 3
2
8 2
3
8
2
1
12
1
13
3
2
2
1
8
3D view showing stone panels

13
supported on aluminium rails
4 and blockwork backing wall, 3D view showing stone 10
with window opening panels supported on
8
aluminium rails and
blockwork backing wall 1
13 2
3
13
1
8 13 12
2
1
Vertical section 1:10. Typical stone
panels on carrier system
System details size and the cutting machine used. Joint widths of 4mm are
Joints between stone cladding panels are either of open common, but this can rise to around 12mm when required for
rainscreen type or are closed with mortar or sealant. Closed visual reasons.
joints sealed with mortar or sealant are used where the
cladding is supported at each floor level on stainless steel Movement joints are set both horizontally and vertically to
angles with jointed stones. With open jointed stones, each panel accommodate movements in the building structure. Horizontal
is individually supported in a rainscreen construction, where movement joints are used to deal mainly with structural
rainwater passing through the joints is drained away down deflections in floor slabs, and are usually provided at floor
either the back of the stones or down the face of the backing level, where the stone cladding is supported from either short
wall, which is typically insulated. The choice of joint type is partly a lengths of stainless steel angle, or a continuous steel angle. The
visual decision and partly one that ensures adequate ventilation movement joint is set immediately below the stainless steel
to the cavity between the stone and the backing wall, allowing angle, where vertical deflection will occur. Horizontal movement
stones to dry properly. Closed joints allow the stone cladding to joints can be set at intervals of two storeys if a carrier frame
perform in a similar way to a cavity wall, with ventilation provided is used that will span the full height. The movement joint width
at the top and bottom to dry the void behind the stones. Joints in is usually around 20mm, formed as an open joint. Vertical
sandstones and limestones are usually filled with cement/sand movement joints in the facade, located to correspond to
mortar or cement/sand/lime mortar. Granites and slates movement joints in the building structure, are set immediately
typically are proprietary sealants such as two-part polysulphide. forward of these movement joints where they reach the facade.
Mortar used for pointing is made frost resistant when used The distance between joints is typically at around 6 metres in
in temperate climates, and of similar strength to the joining a continuous run of stone cladding with closed joints. The joint
mortar, with the structural mortar behind. The maximum width width corresponds to the expected movement in the cladding,
of mortar filled joints is around 12mm, but sealant filled joints but where sealed joints are used, the joint width is dependent
can exceed this, subject to visual requirements. Joint widths are on the amount of movement that the sealant is required to
partly a function of the cutting tolerance of the stone, which can accommodate.
vary along its length by up to 2mm, depending on stone panel
MCH_ 179
Walls 02
Masonry rainscreens
11 1
12 7
7
4
2
3 6
10
3
4 5
5
3D views showing terracotta rainscreen system with window opening
2
1
7
3
6
9
4
8
3
7 2
6
1
8 4
2
1
3
7
2 6
13
3D view showing terracotta

rainscreen system with window 4
opening
Vertical section 1:10. Terracotta rainscreen

fixed to loadbearing concrete wall
MCH_ 180
1
Details
1. Backing wall, typically concrete
3. Terracotta rainscreen
4. Extruded aluminium carrier frame
5. Support clip, typically aluminium 4 5
6. Aluminium window surround
7. Metal framed window
8. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/drywall 2
9. Vapour membrane
1
11. Metal coping 6
5
12. Coping support
3
13. Stone paving
2
1
6
4
7
5 4
1
3 6
5
6
3
3
4
3D detail view showing terracotta rainscreen system 3D views showing build-up of terracotta
at window opening rainscreen system
System design project to project. As with aluminium framed curtain walling,

Terracotta rainscreens are a recent development over the past the die creates different heights and depths of block, while
15 years, and can be seen as a development of brick cavity walls maintaining a hollow interior to keep the material relatively light
to a fully ventilated version in full rainscreen configuration. Over and easy to handle, allowing long panel lengths to be formed.
that time the sizes of terracotta panels have increased and
fixing systems have developed, and have also been adapted for System details
use as solar shading louvres to glazed walls, particularly where Terracotta panels have two extruded edges and two cut edges,
terracotta is also used as an adjacent wall cladding material. resulting in panels being arranged on a facade so as to avoid
Terracotta louvres typically comprise hollow sections reinforced a cut edge being visible at a corner. This arises because the
internally with aluminium sections to form louvered screens that surface finish and colour of the end face will not match that of
can match with adjacent areas of terracotta cladding. Terracotta the front face. The ends of panels are usually concealed with
rainscreen panels are fixed either on rails, into aluminium or aluminium trims, sometimes at the corners but typically around
stainless steel panels, or onto individual brackets like masonry window openings. Alternatively, special corner shapes can be
cladding with concealed fixings. Vertically-set or horizontally- formed by hand to match the standard extruded tiles, made by
set rails are used to suit a range of joint arrangements that a pressing method, usually with a maximum length of 150mm
imitate traditional masonry bonds, or alternatively can be fixed on one leg and 300mm on the other. Large corner pieces
in a stack bonded arrangement. Recently developed systems are made by hand by joining two sections together, but these
have interlocking panels to provide visually crisp joints, and currently produce less reliable results that can lack a straight
panels extruded as twin wall sections to provide long spanning and crisp edge. In addition, manufacturers often provide
panels. The range of glazed finishes has developed considerably extruded cill sections for parapets and window sections to suit
in recent years to give a very wide range of textures and colour wall constructions of 300mm to 500mm wide.
mixes derived from contemporary pottery. Terracotta is made
from natural clay that is first extruded, then cut to the required Fired terracotta is either left in its natural colour or is glazed.
length of panel, then fired in a kiln. The use of extrusion dies A glazed finish can give the material a reflective finish which
allows the manufacture of terracotta panels to be flexible from provides better protection from surface staining. However,
MCH_ 181
Walls 02
Masonry rainscreens
3D views showing terracotta shingles hung on

horizontal rails with projecting window
7 8
4 1
1 6 6
7
3
4
2
4
1
3
1
1
6
2
4
3
water absorption of regular terracotta panels is between 3% cavity zone behind the terracotta. Where used, the projecting
and 6%, with a density of around 2000kg/m3, making the use fins give the facade a characteristic appearance of vertical bays
of glazes not essential for excluding rainwater, but important of panels, where only vertical backing supports are used, divided
more for visual reasons. Panels are fixed to support rails which by the visible edge of the aluminium support. Corner pieces can
are set either vertically or horizontally, made from aluminium be made in sizes of 250mm x 300mm high, which often do not
for their ability to be formed precisely as extrusions for ease of correspond with the maximum length that can be manufactured
fixing. Vertical rails are well suited to ‘stack bonded’ terracotta, for the planks, but this constraint will no doubt be overcome
where joints form a rectilinear grid of continuous vertical and with the development of this facade system. Thinner terracotta
horizontal joints. Horizontal rails are suited to staggered bonds panels of 30mm thickness are used, in sizes with a maximum
of panels that imitate the stretcher bond used in traditional wall length of around 800mm and corresponding maximum height of
construction where vertical joints are not continuous. At least 300mm. These thinner panels have maximum corner panels of
twice as many vertical rails are needed as those for a stack bond 150mm on one leg and 300mm on the other leg. The minimum
arrangement. Since horizontal joints are continuous, horizontal sizes that can be accommodated with the vertical rail system
rails are used to fix courses of terracotta. Joint widths vary from are terracotta panels around 200mm long x 200mm high, with
2mm to around 10mm, depending on the size of panel and type a thickness of 30mm to 40mm. Windows and doors are set
of fixing system chosen. into terracotta rainscreen cladding by fixing them to, and sealing
them against, the backing wall. Aluminium trims used at corners
The largest panels are planks up to around 1500mm long x and edges of the panels can also be used to close the gap
600mm wide x 40mm thick, requiring a more substantial between terracotta and window, with the trim on the bottom
aluminium support section behind the panels. The aluminium edge of window openings used to provide a cill. Windows and
extrusions, set at the ends of each panel, sometimes project doors are positioned to form a continuity of weather proofing,
forward of the terracotta as structural fins to provide the rigidity and are typically set back from the face of the terracotta panels,
to the support framing without requiring greater depth in the with the trim providing a crisp edge from a visual point of view.
MCH_ 182
3D view showing terracotta shingles hung on
horizontal rails with projecting window
2
1
6 2
1 5
3 6
9
7 7
7
3
10
4
9
Details
1. Backing wall, typically concrete 1
3. Terracotta shingle rainscreen
5. Support clip, typically aluminium
6. Aluminium window surround
7. Metal framed window
8. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/drywall 5
9. Vapour membrane
10. Roof construction 2
11. Metal coping 3
12. Coping support
13. Stone paving
Typically, trims are made from either folded aluminium or rolled

steel channels. The flat, planar nature of terracotta has led to
the increased omission of reveals around window openings
by pushing the window frame forward to align with the face
of the terracotta panels, with insulated panels closing the gap
between the window and the backing wall. Where terracotta is
introduced as the material to form a reveal, corners are mitred Vertical section 1:20. Terracotta shingles fixed to concrete loadbearing wall
with open joints if special corner panels are not used.
MCH_ 183
Walls 02
Plastic 1: plastic-based cladding
1
1
4 2
1
2
2
3D detail view showing corner junction of polycarbonate 3D detail view showing junction between polycarbonate composite wall panel and window
composite panel wall assembly inserted into assembly framing
2
Details
1. Translucent polycarbonate
cladding panel, insulated
2. Thermally broken extruded
aluminium framing
3. Window inserted into framing
4. Insulated corner panel
5. Adjacent wall
2
(Right) 3D detail view showing junction between panels in 1 1
polycarbonate composite panel wall assembly
1
2
3D sectional detail view showing window assembly within composite panel wall system
System design GRP panels are characterised by their lightness in weight

The use of plastics is based on both proprietary systems combined with being manufactured by moulding, allowing them
and those developed by manufacturers for specific projects. to be made in large panel sizes, up to 6000mm x 1500mm.
Plastics are resinous, polymer-based materials, used in facade Panel thicknesses are usually 70-75mm to provide structural
systems as the primary material in both sealed cladding panels stability and high levels of thermal insulation. In common with
and rainscreen panels. As sealed cladding panels their use has metal composite panels, GRP panels have undergone much
been enhanced by the successful use of proprietary systems development in the use of adhesives to avoid delamination
which combine lightness in weight with high levels of thermal between the outer skins and the insulation core. GRP cladding
insulation with panels of visually elegant appearance. Concerns panels can be made either as separate panels glazed into an
about the long term weathering aspects of plastics, with their aluminium pressure plate system (in a similar way to glass) with
tendency to deteriorate noticeably with time, have been largely a secondary supporting structure behind, or alternatively by
addressed by manufacturers. The materials used are principally setting thermally broken aluminium extrusions within the depth
glass reinforced polyester (GRP), polycarbonate and UPVC. of the panels. That allows them to be fixed together in the manner
This section discusses the use of GRP in sealed cladding panels of composite metal panels. Panels are also stiffened internally
which is the most common material used. GRP is a composite with aluminium I-sections or T-sections where large-scale panels
material made from thermosetting polyester resins, which set are used. The arrangement of the framing can provide differing
hard and do not melt when re-heated, that are mixed with glass amounts of translucency across a panel, where some of the
fibre mat. This composite material has high tensile, shear and framing is either partly visible, or completely concealed.
compressive strength combined with lightness and resistance
to corrosion. However, like aluminium it deflects considerably In addition to proprietary panels, GRP and polycarbonate
under high loads and requires stiffening, but is more rigid than (discussed in the next section) can be used to form larger scale
other plastics. GRP is not combustible and can reach one hour panels which are made by fabricators for individual projects.
fire resistance in some cladding applications. GRP panels are These typically comprise two sheets of either profiled GRP or
formed by laying glass fibre cloth into a mould and coating it polycarbonate fixed either side of metal framing spanning floor
with resin and catalyst, or alternatively spraying a mixture of to floor, or full height with some additional restraint, to suit
glass fibre and resin into a mould. The face of the mould is individual projects. The main issue from the visual point of view
coated with a releasing agent to allow the GRP to be removed is the choice of thermal insulation, which can provide either
when it has set hard. translucency or opacity. Where translucent sheet is used, the
MCH_ 184
4 3D view showing polycarbonate composite
panel construction
2 5
2
3
3
1
2
2
3D view showing polycarbonate composite

panel construction
1
4
3D exploded detail view showing polycarbonate Horizontal section 1:10. Wall assembly showing typical details
composite panel construction
MCH_ 185
Walls 02
Plastic 1: plastic-based cladding
Details
1. Translucent polycarbonate
cladding panel, insulated
2. Thermally broken extruded
aluminium framing
3. Window inserted into
framing
4. Insulated corner panel
5. Adjacent wall
2 1 3D view showing polycarbonate composite

panels in a typical facade construction
1
4
5
2
insulation itself can form the primary visual expression of the T-section aluminium profiles are sealed against the adjacent
facade panel rather than the plastics. Natural materials such as concrete floor slab with silicone, at both top and bottom. When
straw bales and wool have been used to this effect. fixed to a secondary support frame, panels are supported at
each floor level on metal brackets in either aluminium, mild
System details steel (if internal) or stainless steel (if exposed to the weather).
When formed as translucent panels, aluminium framing is Cills and copings are formed with the methods described in the
set within the panel forming a visible grid resembling that of section on metal composite panels.
traditional Japanese Shoji screens. These internal ribs are
typically set out on a grid of between around 300mmx300mm Where twin wall polycarbonate is used in conjunction with other
to 300mmx600mm centres. The void between the two skins plastic-based panels, the material is fixed with either conventional
of the panel can be filled with translucent insulation quilt to aluminium framing for windows or, alternatively, framing for stick
increase thermal insulation, while still allowing a diffused light glazing curtain walling. Some manufacturers provide extruded
to pass through the panel. Light transmission without additional I-sections, similar to those used in GRP cladding, to clip the twin
thermal insulation is typically around 15%, with a U-value of wall sheets to provide a completely lightweight system. This is
1.5W/m2 ºK, similar to an argon filled double glazed unit, and a a very economic form of cladding which can be screen printed
shading factor of 20%, which provides a high level of shading for to create visually dramatic translucent facades. As with profiled
a glass-based wall. Windows can be glazed into the panels, giving polycarbonate sheet, other standard components are not
the possibility of a rich mix of windows, doors and translucent usually manufactured, and folded aluminium sections are used
panels without the need for complex framing. Window frames for drips and parapet copings instead of polycarbonate sections,
can form part of the T-section extrusion around a window. which are expensive to produce as new profiles. Although
Integrating the window frame into the extrusion that supports plastic-based panels are usually made as panels fabricated in
the GRP panels avoids the risk of leaks associated with single a factory and fixed together on site in an extruded aluminium
silicone-sealed butt joints when a separate window frame and glazing system, they can also be formed on site by fixing plastic-
panel frame are fixed together. The integrated window frame based sheet on either side of metal framing supports. The
allows water to be drained from the frame. GRP panels can be cladding may be formed into panels or as a continuous wall
glazed into large structural openings, from floor to ceiling for structure. The use of translucent insulation as an infill material
example, or can form a complete glazed wall, restrained by a that is not fully bonded to the supporting plastic skins provides
secondary steel frame. When glazed into an opening, the edge considerable possibilities for innovation.
MCH_ 186
1
2
1 1
1
1
3D detail view showing polycarbonate

2
5
4
2
2
1
3
3
3D detail view showing polycarbonate

3D view showing polycarbonate

composite panels in a typical 1
facade construction
1
2 2
1
5 1
MCH_ 187
Walls 02
Plastic 2: plastic rainscreens
4
13
2
7
12
10
4 8
8
1
1
5
5 3
7
9
3-D views showing section through
polycarbonate rainscreen
3 7
3
12
5
5
8 9
11
12
Vertical section 1:10. Polycarbonate rainscreen cladding
MCH_ 188
8
7
3
9
5
4
12
11 10
8
10
1 4 5
1
4
5
7
3D detail view showing cutaway through polycarbonate rainscreen
Details
1. 10mm plywood sheathing 7. Thermal insulation
2. Breather membrane 8. Internal dry lining
3. Vertical timber battens 9. Timber framed window
4. Reflective foil breather 10. Horizontal timber battens
12
membrane 11. Screw fixing with plastic spacer
5. Profiled polycarbonate cladding 12. Aluminium window surround
(orientated vertically) 13. Roof construction
5 6. Composite timber joist
System design than glass, scratching easily which makes the surface dull with
Plastic-based rainscreens are use in a variety of types reflecting time, and has high thermal expansion, up to 20% more than
the overall range made in other materials: flat panels, cassette glass. Opaque flat sheet is fixed as rainscreen cladding panels,
panels, profiled sheet and shingled tiles. Plastic panels are made in a wide range of colours, Sheets are fixed either at their
used as either outer screens to glazed walls, typically as corners with an aluminium clamp on both sides, or with visible
solar shading, or as rainscreen panels to an opaque wall. The point fixings. Generally, plastic panels can be used with the full
materials used are either polycarbonate or glass reinforced range of rainscreen configurations of other materials, including
polyester (GRP). The use of GRP is discussed in the previous the lapped construction of timber boards and shingles. Like
section. Acrylic and UPVC, while softer than both these sealed plastic panels, plastic rainscreen panels have the benefit
materials, are used for window frames and special moulded of translucency, though the visual effects of dust settling on the
elements. In addition, composites are used for cladding panels, rear face of the rainscreen, and any periodic cleaning they may
made from thermosetting polymer resins mixed with cellulose require, varies between facade applications.
fibres to provide sheet materials with high durability which
fade little in sunlight. In common with rainscreens in other System details
materials, panels or sheets are fixed with either visible point Single layer polycarbonate sheet sizes are around 2000mm
fixings, vertical/horizontal rails with partially concealed framing x 3000mm and 2000mm x 6000mm, in thicknesses from
members, or partially interlocking panels where there is no view around 3mm to 8mm. Profiled sheets are produced in lengths up
through the joints. Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic, that is to to around 10 metres, around 1200mm wide, with thicknesses
say it melts at high temperatures, which is used in cladding around 1mm. When opaque colours are used, rather than the
for its translucency and transparency, achieving up to around translucent or clear types, hook-on fixings can be secured to the
90% light transmission. The material is extruded or moulded rear face of the panel, secured to vertically- or horizontally-set
(from polymer-formed granules) to form sheet materials that rails without the fixings being visible. Profiled sheets are fixed
are flat or profiled. Polycarbonate has a tendency to yellow with self tapping screws sealed with a weathertight washer
with age, which can be overcome with an acrylic coating. It is and lapped on all sides, in the manner of profiled metal sheet.
also used for its high strength and impact resistance, ductility This technique creates a shadow where they lap, which can be
and lightness in weight. However, because the material is masked by the support structure behind, or may even contribute
combustible, its use in facades is limited. It is also less durable to the overall visual effect. Cill, drip and coping profiles are made
MCH_ 189
Walls 02
Plastic 2: plastic rainscreens
2 4
3
3
6 6
1
2
2
4
5
2
1
1
Details
1. Opaque polycarbonate cladding panel
3. Concrete loadbearing wall
1 4. Internal plaster finish or dry lining
7. Thermal break 3D views showing opaque polycarbonate
panels fixed to concrete loadbearing wall
from any of the typical materials used: extruded aluminium, and almost impervious surface. Although the finish colour is
extruded UPVC or GRP. Profiled sheet can be curved to a formed by using pigmented resins as a top coat in the mould,
minimum radius of around 4000mm for a sheet of 50mm the colour extends all the way through the material, allowing
thickness, making it possible to create complex geometries cut edges to be visible. Plastic-composite panels have high UV
with an economic translucent material. Profiled polycarbonate resistance, high colour stability, high fire resistance and can be
sheet is also made in a translucent white colour to provide a cut and drilled easily, allowing them to be used as overlapping
light transmission of around 45% and in grey colours with light shingles. Their high impact resistance makes them well suited
transmission of around 35%. Multi-wall polycarbonate sheet to conditions susceptible to damage. The material is made in
can also be used for rainscreens, where its main advantage is sheet sizes from 3600mm x 1800mm, 3000mm x 1500mm
the ability to provide large, flat panels as well as its inherently and 2500mm x 1800mm in thicknesses from around 5mm to
high level of thermal insulation. Thicknesses range from 4mm to 12mm. Corner panels and parapets are also manufactured in
32mm in sheet sizes from 1000mm x 6000mm to 2000mm the same material. Plastic-composite flat panels can be fixed
x 7000mm. The material can be screen printed or coated to with visible fixings or concealed point fixings.
provide a wide variety of colours on a large format sheet. As
with flat sheet, the material can be coated to give UV protection Polycarbonate is generally a more expensive material than
on one side or both sides to avoid yellowing. The sheet material GRP, making GRP more suitable for lower cost applications.
is used in increasing numbers of walls, from twin wall to five However, GRP has one advantage over all the other plastic-
or six walls thick. Panels are fixed using the same methods as based materials, which is its ability to be moulded easily and
flat sheet, with thicker sheets being supported up to around economically for small scale applications. When used as
1800mm centres. Panels can be curved by setting them into rainscreen panels the material needs a top gel coat to avoid
a pre-formed aluminium edge frame, when the material can be its fibres being seen. The ability to see the fibres through the
curved to a minimum radius of 1500mm for twin wall sheets material makes it very unsuitable for transparent or translucent
and around 4000mm for the thickest sheets. panels, but for moulded rainscreen panels it is possible to
introduce some 3-D modelling into the facade panels. GRP can
Plastic-composite flat panels typically have a mixture of around be bonded to honeycomb panels formed in the same material to
70% softwood fibre and 30% resin, manufactured at high produce large panels with high fire resistance.
temperature and pressure to provide coloured panels of smooth
MCH_ 190
3D view showing opaque polycarbonate panels fixed to concrete
loadbearing wall
5
2
2
6
2
3
3
5
6
2
5
3D detail view showing vertical rail fixing opaque polycarbonate panels to 3D detail view showing corner fixing of opaque polycarbonate panels to
concrete loadbearing wall concrete loadbearing wall
3D views showing opaque polycarbonate

panels fixed to concrete loadbearing wall
5
4
3
5
1
1
6
6
MCH_ 191
Walls 02
Timber 1: timber frame
10
1
Framing
A B C D
Boarding arrangements
A. Feather edge boarding
B. Tongue-and-groove boarding
14
C. Tongue-and-groove boarding with inserts
D. Shiplap boarding
Details
15 1. Timber boards Sheathing
2. Timber battens
3. Plywood sheathing
4. Timber studs
5. Timber rail
6. Breather membrane
7. Engineered floor joist
8. Damp proof course
10
9. Vapour barrier
10. Timber floor
11
11. Concrete ground slab
12. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/drywall Cladding
13. Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame
15. Timber cill Assembly sequence
3D view showing cutaway section 16. Air gap
through typical wall construction 17. Roof buildup
System design provide lateral bracing, typically 12mm-18mm thick, depending

There are two enduring generic forms of loadbearing on panel size and loads. Timber boards can also be used as
timber frame that use small section timbers to form framed sheathing, but this is an expensive solution. Framing members
loadbearing walls: the platform frame and the balloon frame. are typically formed from 100x50mm softwood sections at
Both the platform frame and the balloon frame are based on 400mm vertical centres which are nailed together. Voids
softwood sawn timber sections. The platform frame comprises between the framing members are filled with thermal insulation.
studs spanning from floor to floor, with the timber floor A breather membrane is then fixed to the face of the sheathing
structure being supported at each storey height set of timber layer. This provides a waterproof barrier which also allows
frames. The balloon frame, which is now used to a much lesser the vapour to escape, allowing the timber wall to release and
extent, is enjoying a revival in light-gauge steel sections. This absorb moisture with changes in the weather. Outer timber
method has vertical framing members which are continuous, cladding boards are then fixed on the outside of the breather
with the intermediary floors being supported by the wall running membrane. Traditionally, timber cladding was used to stiffen
continuously past it. A recent development has been in ‘solid’ the structural frame by fixing the boarding directly to the
construction rather than the framed type. Laminated structural frame, with a breather membrane set between the frame and
timber has been developed to make wall panels as complete the timber boards as a weatherproof layer. More recently, the
proprietary systems where the material is glued together to timber cladding is fixed to battens set forward of the breather
make full timber panels. Thermal insulation is added to one side membrane, or waterproofing layer, to ensure that the timber is
of these panels, with the possibility to expose either the outside ventilated on both sides. The inside face of the timber framed
or inside, depending on exposure and location, but mostly these wall has a continuous vapour barrier set (in temperate climates)
panels are clad with an additional material on the outside to on the warm-in-winter side of the wall. The inner face of the wall
provide weather resistance. Another system, where plywood is is then finished with a dry lining.
bonded to each side of a rigid insulation panel, called structural
insulated panels, or ‘SIP’ panels, provides a solid panel where the Solid laminated structural timber is made in panels up to
insulation holds the structural plywood sheets in place, allowing approximately 16000mm long, 3000mm wide and to a
timber wall construction to be thinner and lighter. maximum thickness of around 500mm, varying between
proprietary systems. The main benefit of the system is that it
Timber frames comprise studs (vertical sections) fixed to rails provides an alternative to steel and concrete frames for larger
(horizontal members) which are clad with plywood sheathing to scale projects. This panel system has recently been used for
MCH_ 192
4
17
Vertical section 1:20. Roof junction 1

10
13
1
5
14
14
15
15
12
10
16
8 11
11
10
3D view showing cutaway section

Vertical section 1:20 showing typical details through typical wall construction
MCH_ 193
Walls 02
Timber 1: timber frame
Details
1. Timber boards 10. Timber floor
16
2. Timber battens 11. Concrete ground slab
3. Plywood sheathing 12. Internal plaster finish or
4. Timber studs dry lining/drywall
3 5. Timber rail 13. Thermal insulation quilt
6. Breather membrane 14. Timber framed window
13 7. Engineered floor joist
1 15. Timber cill
8. Damp proof course 16. Air gap
9. Vapour barrier
13
7 6
3 13
14
Vertical section 1:20. Flat roof connection
12
4
14
13
3
3
16 2 6
Horizontal section 1:5. Outward opening window
10
1 13
14 13
3
5
16 2 6
7
Horizontal section 1:5. Inward opening window 8

11
3D view showing cutaway section through typical wall construction
MCH_ 194
3D view showing cutaway section through ground floor junction
3D view showing
cutaway section
through upper
suspended floor
3D view showing cutaway section junction
through typical wall construction
buildings up to eight storeys high, providing loadbearing walls slab or the vertical face of the basement wall. The DPC is also
in a single material which is light in weight. Structural insulated made continuous with the DPM set on top of the concrete slab.
panels, with integral insulation, are made in panels up to Where concrete foundation pads are used, the timber beam
approximately 6500mm long, 1200mm wide and in thicknesses is set into stainless steel shoes fixed to the pads. Timber can
up to around 150mm, depending on the manufacturer. Curved also be supported on brick walls set at a minimum of 150mm
wall panels are made to shallow radius. They are used typically above external ground level and be supported on a concrete
as a direct alternative to traditional timber framed construction, strip foundation or ground beam. An insulated raised floor is
and like laminated timber panels, are set to become more widely then set into this brick wall. The void beneath the timber floor is
used in timber construction. ventilated with air bricks that encourage cross ventilation. This
avoids stagnant air in the void from damaging and eventually
System details rotting the timber floor.
For all these timber wall types, the timber cladding is terminated
at ground level at a minimum of 150mm above external ground Corners, both external and internal type, are formed typically
level. The cladding is usually supported at ground level on a with a timber bead set so that the timber boards on both sides
concrete slab or edge beam that forms part of the concrete butt into it. If a breather membrane is used behind the cladding,
wall. Alternatively, the wall can span between concrete pads then an additional waterproof flashing is added to the corner.
at 3000mm–5000mm centres, with timber beams at the This is formed in a durable polymer-based sheet or metal sheet.
base of the wall to provide support between pads. Where an Alternatively, the boards can be allowed to make a corner with a
expression of a concrete floor slab is required, the edge of the butt joint, and an additional L-shaped timber trim, formed from
slab is covered with thermal insulation, with an additional outer two separate timber sections, is added on the face of the corner
protection, typically a thin concrete facing panel. The timber wall to protect the exposed end grain of one of the sides forming the
frame is usually set on a continuous timber section at ground corner. Boards can be joined with a mitred joint (45º) without
level, which is first fixed to the concrete slab to provide a level any cover strip but the timber used must be of the highest
surface to set the timber in place. A damp proof course (DPC) is quality to avoid the joint opening up with moisture movement. A
set beneath the continuous timber base plate usually extending waterproof layer or flashing is set behind the mitred joint.
down the vertical face of the concrete slab where it connects
with the damp proof membrane (DPM) beneath the concrete
MCH_ 195
Walls 02
Timber 2: cladding panels
4 4
12
3 6
5 7
13
1
2
10
13
Exploded diagram showing assembly 3

of timber cladding panels
9
System design Where timber cladding panels are set forward of floor slabs in
Timber cladding panels have been more widely used in recent the manner of glazed curtain walling, panels extend from floor to
years as a method of cladding steel and concrete frame floor, either hung from a floor slab or, more typically, supported
buildings with prefabricated, factory made panels that have a on it at floor level. Vertical joints between cladding panels have
natural finish. They are also used in twin wall facades, or ‘double a stepped joint to allow for deflections in floor slabs between
skin facades’ where an inner timber wall with window openings panels, following principles of glazed curtain walling. This stepped
has an additional glazed screen set approximately one metre in joint is covered on the outside with timber boards, set forward
front of it to provide a thermal buffer to reduce the effects of of the face of panels on battens in rainscreen configuration.
heat and cold at different times of the year, as well as allow the The construction of panels follows the same principle of timber
windows to be opened in taller buildings. Where timber cladding cladding described in the previous section. Horizontal joints
panels are fixed to a timber frame, or structural laminated have an inner chamber formed between two adjacent panels.
frame, the cladding panels can be set between timber columns Any rainwater that penetrates the outer seal, which is also kept
as well as in front of them to give a combined timber frame open in some designs, is drained down an inner chamber where
and panel building using a single primary material system. These the water is discharged through the horizontal joint at the
cladding panels are typically faced in timber boards in rainscreen bottom of the panel. Where timber cladding is used in twin wall
configuration. A recent addition to the language of timber construction as an inner wall to an outer glazed wall where the
rainscreens has been the use of thin slats to create a degree outer wall provides a thermal buffer, the outer screen provides
of translucency in timber screens, particularly when set forward protection by allowing the material to maintain its appearance
of windows set into the panel behind. This can create a visually without full exposure to outside conditions, other than the
rich mix of timber panel assemblies that use a single timber effects of the sun which cause the timber to change colour.
species. However, the higher moisture movement associated
with timber has the consequence of requiring junctions between When cladding panels are set onto floor slabs, and restrained
cladding panels to provide an allowance for both structural at the slab above, timber posts that may form part of the
movements and moisture movements both between cladding structure can also be set between panels rather than inside
panels as well as within the panel itself. the building, since there is no significant thermal bridge from
MCH_ 196
11
1 9
10
5
14
Details
1. Timber boards
14
2. Timber battens
4. Timber panel frame
5. Timber louvre
7. Timber framed window (fixed)
9 8. Vapour barrier
9. Profiled metal cover strip
11. Air gap
lining/drywall
13. Thermal insulation quilt
(outward opening)
15. Timber cill
Elevation of timber cladding panels showing relationship with

structural frame
15
Framing
3
13
Sheathing
5
10
3D view showing section through

Cladding
timber cladding panel showing
Assembly sequence integrated window
MCH_ 197
Walls 02
Timber 2: cladding panels
10 10
9
3 9
4
1
4
8
6 13
5 7
10
8
6
12
11
4 2
15
4
10 10
1
9 13 9 13
13
3D view showing connection between timber cladding panel and Vertical section 1:10 through timber cladding panels
supporting frame showing typical details
outside to inside, allowing the structural frame to be exposed on and air humidity, this being one of the essential aspects to be
the outside. Cladding panels are set into openings in laminated considered in timber detailing. Most timbers used in cladding
timber frames, with panels supported at their base on the beams will have a moisture content from around 5% to 20% when in
set beneath. Floor decks in timber are then fixed to the side of use. Similar levels are found in timbers from timber suppliers,
the laminated timber beams. Timber panels are fixed at their and are classified as ‘dry’, ‘kiln dried’ or ‘seasoned’. The most
base to the beam beneath, but have a lateral restraint at the top common types of jointing of boards is ‘ship lapping’ where
to allow the slab and panel above to deflect without damaging timber boards are set horizontally and lapped over one another
the panel below. A metal flashing at the base of the panel drains with the upper board lapped over the top of the board below to
water and throws it clear of the beam beneath in order to protect it from rainwater ingress. Ship lapping can be assisted
avoid staining of the timber beam. The outer timber rainscreen by the use of ‘feathered’ or wedge-shaped boards to give the
cladding is set flush with the outer face of the laminated timber lapping a more elegant appearance. Tongue and groove boards
frame to avoid any views into the waterproofing layer behind. are used to give a continuous flat appearance, while having
the advantage of locking boards together into a continuous
System details plate-like structure. Boards are typically around 20mm thick,
Both softwoods and hardwoods are used for cladding panels, made as long as possible at around 3000mm – 3500mm, to
with durable hardwoods being more commonly used for avoid vertical joints which are a potential source of rainwater
rainscreen applications. Where less expensive, less durable penetration except in rainscreen configuration. Timber cladding
timbers are used, higher levels of both protection and is finished with the timber being left either as supplied, with
maintenance are required. Softwood boards are made usually preservative applied or injected by the supplier, or alternatively
in 250mm widths, with trimmed boards with profiles routed is given coats of preservative in clear, stained or opaque finish
into them usually trimmed down to 150 - 200mm widths. All on site with preservatives that repel rainwater, or wood stains
timbers vary in moisture content with changes in temperature and paint. Paints can be oil-based or acrylic, while preservatives
MCH_ 198
13
9
10
4 Details
1. Timber boards 14
2. Timber battens
4. Timber panel frame
5
7 5. Timber louvre
7. Timber framed window (fixed)
15
8. Vapour barrier
9. Profiled metal cover strip
11. Air gap
lining/drywall 3
1
13. Thermal insulation quilt
14. Timber framed window 13
(outward opening)
5
15. Timber cill
9
9
15
13
13
10
10
13
13
3D view showing timber cladding panel consisting of 3D view showing cladding panel assembly with built-in opening window
fixed glazing and louvre screen
14
15 13
are clear and can be used as a finish that does not appreciably
change its appearance. It can also be used before staining or
painting the timber. Preservatives help to prevent moisture
absorption as well as reduce fungal growth, enhancing the 1
life of the timber but not preventing the material changing
colour and fading to its characteristic silver grey appearance.
An essential issue in the use of timber cladding panels and
rainscreens is the coordination of timber types and finishes
used for windows, doors, visible panel framing and rainscreen
cladding, in order to give a controlled visual appearance that will
weather consistently together.
9
13
10
3D view of timber cladding panel assembly

MCH_ 199
MCH_ 200
MCH_ 200
3
ROOFS
Trends in roof design
Metal roofs
1 Metal standing seam
2 Profiled metal sheet
3 Composite panels
4 Rainscreens
5 Metal louvres
Glass roofs
1 Greenhouse glazing and
capped glazing
2 Silicone-sealed glazing and
rooflights
3 Bolt fixed glazing
4 Bonded glass rooflights
Concrete roofs
1 Concealed membrane
2 Exposed membrane
3 Planted roof
Timber roofs
1 Flat roof: mastic asphalt
coverings
2 Flat roof: bitumen-based
sheet membranes
3 Pitched roof: tiles
Plastic roofs
1 GRP rooflights
2 GRP panels and shells
Fabric systems
1 ETFE cushions
2 Single membrane:
cone-shaped roof
3 Single membrane:
barrel-shaped roof
MCH_
MCH_ 201 201
Roofs 03
top left: metal composite panel:

Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, Norwich, U.K.
Architect: Foster Associates.
top right: metal standing seam:
Walt Disney Concert Halll, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
bottom right: profiled metal sheet:
metal standing seam: The Core, Eden Project, U.K. Atelier and House, Bwa-Cho, Japan.
Architect: Grimshaw Architects Architect: Shuhei Endo
An overview of roof systems or a metal capping that clips over a standing seam-type joint.
Where roofs were once considered to be either of traditional Composite panels are now being used as an insulated structural
appearance, as with tiled and slated pitched roofs, or else deck to a separate waterproof membrane set on top. While
completely concealed as flat roofs, they are now increasingly lacking visibility of metal faced panels, they are very adaptable
considered to be a part of a completely visible envelope design and economic, with thermal insulation not only filling the voids
which is as visually important as the external walls, both in between peaks and troughs of the metal sheet on its underside
their appearance and their technical performance. In recent but also providing some structural stability.
projects, walls and roofs are taking on a single form, with the
same construction methods, materials and detailing used on Metal rainscreen panels are a recent addition to metal roofing
both walls and roof. The increased technical performance systems. They do not use the outer seal as a first line of defence
and long term reliability of roofing materials of all types has against rainwater penetration but rather as a protection to the
led to a much more ambitious design approach. However, an membrane beneath against the effects of the sun as well as foot
essential difference between facades and roofs is that facades traffic. Metal rainscreen panels are required to be sufficiently
have rainwater running across their surface, but roofs can be rigid and resistant to impact damage from occasional access.
submerged in water during rain. A roof has to be completely Composite sheets with a plastic core and thin metal outer
sealed in areas where water can collect, such as parapet facings are popular in this regard since they achieve high levels
gutters, with the assumption that rainwater will be expected of flatness and are flexible enough to withstand foot traffic,
to remain on the roof if the rainwater outlets become blocked. usually when aluminium sections are silicone-bonded on the
underside of panels. Perforated and slotted metal sheets are
Metals also being used as metal rainscreen panels, partly shaping
The increased reliability of jointing together with the increased the expression of the building envelope in forming a continuity
use of aluminium sheet, with its increased flexibility, instead of between different parts of a roofscape, ranging from covering
steel sheet has led to more adventurous roof forms without air extract terminals, rooflights and gutters to producing a
affecting the waterproofing performance. By the early 1990s (seamless) smooth continuation of the facade below. These
profiled metal roofs were using standing seam joints, which rainscreen panels can also accommodate complex geometries
combined the long span capability of profiled sheet with the without having to make individual composite panels to achieve
visually refined and very water tight standing seams which are the same visual effect. Although such panels are an additional
‘zipped’ together by machine on site. Since the introduction roof covering rather than being formed entirely from metal, they
of ‘zip up’ sheeting, the difference between profiled metal and can provide varying amounts of translucency and transparency
standing seam systems has reduced, with new hybrid systems in a single metal layer that can reveal its depth both from inside
having a lining panel system which can be fixed with metal the building and from outside.
sheets, some of which are being hung down from the roof level
without scaffolding. This makes large roof spans, particularly A change over the past 10 years which has influenced all types
at high level, such as in covered sports halls, much easier to of metal construction is the increased quality of the finishes.
construct since scaffolding is not required. The quality of powder coating has improved enormously, with
greater durability and colour-fastness, so that it competes
Composite roof panel systems have been in development strongly with the more expensive PVDF finishes. Consequently,
since the 1980s, with panels that provide an internal ceiling the main constraint in the design of metal roofs in any of these
finish and outer roof covering in single panels that are semi- systems is that metal sheet is produced in widths of around
interlocked, with either a lapped metal joint between panels 1200mm or 1500mm, from which most metal panels in
MCH_ 202
top left: concealed membrane: Persistence Works, Sheffield, U.K.
Architect: Fielden Clegg Bradley Studios
top middle: exposed membrane: Tenerife Concert Hall, Spain.
top right: greenhouse glazing: The Glasshouse, RHS Wisley, U.K.
Architect: Peter van der Toorn Vrijthof
bottom left: silicone sealed glazing: Dulwich picture gallery, London,
U.K. Architect: Rick Mather
bottom right: capped glazing: House in London, U.K.
Architect: Gianni Botsford Architects
facades are made, but is usually available in long lengths where much water to drain down the roof as possible, and accepts
coil material is used, that is, where the metal is rolled into a long that the same water will be trapped behind the upper edge of
coil in the factory. Thicker plate, at 4mm thickness and above, is the pressure plate. Small amounts of water that find their way
made in flat sheet form, at around 1000mm x 2000mm in size, through the outer seal are drained away within the system back
with larger sheets being more difficult to obtain easily in large to the outside. Both the recessed fixing method with a silicone
quantity. Working with the width of the coil in forming joints, and seal, and the modified pressure plate ‘toggle’ system have been
allowing for the folding or turning of the material at the joints, is proved reliable in their performance.
the main constraint, but the material can be curved and folded
economically in a durable material. Bonded glass rooflights are a recent development in glazed
roofs, where double glazed units are bonded directly onto a
Glass lightweight metal frame that has no visible fixings on its external
Although drained and ventilated systems have been in use face. While bolt fixed glazing can conceal the fixing bolt within
for the past 25 years, the issue of the water tightness of the the double glazed unit on one side, structural silicone glazing
horizontal joint, running perpendicular to the fall of the roof, has has no visible structure at all, with supporting glazing bars being
been undergoing continual development. Glazing bars have been concealed within the width of the joint behind the external seal.
used to support glass down the slope of the roof where they This has led to greater freedom in the forms used for rooflights
do not impede the passage of rainwater. Horizontal joints have in this technique, where the position of the glazing bars, and
been supported with stepped joints where water runs off the how they intersect, does not have to be considered in rooflight
top of the upper glass down onto a lower glass. The glass is design. Bonded glazing has encouraged the use of structural
traditionally secured with clips and is sealed with a proprietary glass beams, which suit well a structurally glazed rooflight. Most
sealant. This joint is difficult to seal reliably in order to achieve bonded glass rooflights with a gently sloping, but planar surface
water tightness for higher wind pressures, and is difficult to are derived in part from examples of glass floor decks and
adapt to a drained and ventilated system. This issue has been staircases used in buildings that have been developed over the
resolved over the past 20 years with the development of silicone past 15 years. A new addition is to bond point fixings directly to
sealed glazing that was originally used in glazed curtain walls. the inside face of the glass, with brackets and support systems
In this method, a metal channel is set into the edge of double used for regular bolt fixed glazing.
glazed units, with the units being set flush with one another
along the horizontal joints. The units are then secured with metal Concrete
‘toggles’ held to the metal channels within the depth of the joint, Developments in waterproofing membranes for concrete roofs
and fixed to an aluminium frame below to provide a mechanical over the past 25 years have focused on increasing the flexibility
fixing. The flush horizontal joint between units is then sealed with of the material used. Asphalt, a well established material
silicone. The aluminium frame onto which the glass is fixed has for concrete decks, suffered traditionally from an inability to
ventilated drainage channels to take away any water that passes take up movement from either the building structure or from
through the outer silicone seal. With the development of silicone solar gain when exposed to the effects of the sun. A solution
bonding techniques, the double glazed unit can also be bonded to this problem has been the ‘inverted’ roof configuration,
to aluminium profiles which are mechanically fixed with screws where thermal insulation is fixed above, rather than below, the
to a supporting frame. The joint between the glass units is then waterproof membrane in order to keep its temperature cool
sealed with silicone in the same way as the previous example. and relatively constant. Pebbles or paving slabs are set onto the
An alternative approach has been to introduce horizontal insulation. In addition, the introduction of polymers into asphalt
glazing bars with pressure plates that are shaped to allow as to provide greater flexibility has led to the material being easier
MCH_ 203
Roofs 03
top left: bolt-fixed glazing: Louvre gallery, Paris, France.

Architect: I M Pei
bolt-fixed glazing: Tower Bridge bottom left: exposed membrane: Canary Wharf underground
House, London, U.K. station, London, U.K. Architect: Foster and Partners
Architect: Rogers Stirk Harbour top middle: timber flat roof: Private residence, London, U.K.
+ Partners Architect: Lynch Architects
top right: timber pitch roof: The Lighthouse, Watford, U.K.
Architect: Shepherd Robson Architects
to apply on site, particularly as torch-on membrane sheet rather easily provided by using a high performance vapour barrier on
than in liquid applied form. However, polymer materials, mainly the inside face of the wall construction immediately behind the
thermoplastics and elastomers, are becoming more economic. internal finishes. Manufacturers also provide increasingly better
Polymer materials have the advantage of increasingly being performance vents to ensure that air can be drawn through
able to be exposed to sunlight, which is leading to roofs being the void between the roof tiles, slates or shingles, and the
covered in a few of these materials as a self-finish, with some breather membrane or roofing felt that is set above the thermal
buildings taking the membrane down the facades to form a insulation. Most of the effort in ventilating pitched roofs of this
complete building envelope. Where a smooth or level insulated type is in trying to retain the appearance of traditional roofs,
substrate can be formed, these waterproofing layers can be where ventilation ducts and boiler flues did not, until recently,
fixed in a similar way to fabric membranes, welded together play a part. Modern tiled, slated and shingled roofs use two lines
in the factory to form a membrane with straight and crisply of defence against rainwater penetration, where the outer layer
formed joints that can form a visible self-finish to a roof, with is the outer line of defence to, and protection for, a waterproof
an appearance similar to that of fabric ‘tent’ membranes. This membrane or breather membrane beneath.
change from roof membranes which are kept concealed, due to
their poor visual aspect, to ones that are now capable of being a The use of metal shingles has been a recent development. This
visual part of the design. technique is a hybrid of lapped tile roofing and standing seam
facades, and can be used to form both wall and roof in a single
On pitched roofs, visually exposed polymer-based membranes, system that is both economic and able to deal with a variety
or polymer modified asphalt sheet, are beginning to be used as of fixing angles. While shingles or tiles are hung from their top
materials in their own right rather than imitating the appearance edge, metal shingles are folded over into a seam on their sides
of traditional roof tiles or shingles. The more refined fixing and lower edge, or edges, if the shingles are not rectilinear, but
techniques that are being made available by manufacturers will are set at 45° to the vertical, for example. The top edge or edges
assist in this change. Waterproof membranes are increasingly are fixed with nails or screws with the shingle immediately above
being used on substrates such as folded steel sheet decks and being lapped over the top of the nailed fixing in the manner of
foam insulation-clad roof decks where there is a strong modelling tiling. This fixing method secures the shingles on all sides while
of the form of the roof structure seen either from inside or from retaining a visual lap, allowing the shingle to be fixed in any
outside the building. Membranes are required to accommodate position, even in a soffit condition. The fixing method usually
more structural movement and higher temperatures combined follows rainscreen principles by assuming that rainwater will
with an external wearing surface that can be walked upon pass through the joints, which are drained in a ventilated cavity
without reasonable risk of damage, for maintenance access. behind. Metal shingles are economic to fabricate, since they can
be cut easily from sheet metal, aluminium, mild steel, copper or
Timber zinc. In addition, tiles can be formed to a curved shape in a press
Timber-based roofs have developed over the past 20 years to to give a very textured facade with a three-dimensional quality
improve their thermal insulation performance. So-called ‘cold’ that has yet to be explored.
roofs, with the insulation set at ceiling level with the roof void
being ventilated, continue to be used, however ‘warm’ roofs have Plastics
undergone much development in order to properly deal with Translucent plastics are used mainly both to imitate the
the needs of ventilation to avoid condensation occurring within appearance of glass rooflights as flat sheet materials and to
the roof construction. Some manufacturers prefer to have form composite panels. This is gradually changing as plastics are
no ventilation within the roof construction where it cannot be no longer seen as economic substitutes for other materials but
MCH_ 204
top left: GRP roof: ARC, Hull, U.K.
Architect: Niall Mclaughlin Architects
bottom left: fabric ETFE cushions:
Kingsdale school, London, U.K.
Architect De Rijke Marsh Morgan
top middle: fabric single membrane:
Whitlingham Park Water Activities
Centre, Norwich, U.K.
Architect: Snell Associates
top right: GRP panels: Bus Station,
Hoofddorp, The Netherlands.
Architect: NIO architecten
bottom right: single membrane fabric:
National Tennis Centre, Roehampton,
U.K. Architect: Hopkins Architects
as construction materials in their own right. Earlier examples of purely weather barrier to a thermally insulated roof, making
plastic rooflights suffered from the effects of colour fading or of them more attractive for roofs to internal spaces than shelters
yellowing in transparent / translucent rooflights. The materials for external spaces. More translucent insulation materials
and finishes used in bonding are superior to those used reduce the amount of light transmission lost through these
previously, ensuring that colour fading is far less pronounced roofs, with research being undertaken to form an economic and
than it was. A greater acceptance of plastics as durable and highly translucent thermal insulation material that would suit
capable of being moulded economically to complex shape has double layer membranes. An alternative method of insulating
prompted a revival in roof design. Some panels have been membranes is to fill the gap in a double layer membrane
used as translucent rainscreen panels with lighting or graphic roof with air to form an inflatable roof. The concern with this
displays set beneath the outer plastic skin. The essential approach is that it relies on a constant supply of air to hold the
difficulties for plastics remain in their perception as being less roof in place rather than by a supporting frame. This method
durable than either glass or metal, for which polymer materials has been adapted as small ’cushions’ or ‘pillows’ filled with air
are seen as economic substitutes. This perception will change to provide an insulated fabric membrane roof. The most visually
only when more complex geometries of external envelopes are striking examples use ETFE foil which is both very durable when
demonstrated in buildings which could not otherwise have the compared to other polymer fabrics, and also highly transparent.
budget available for such work in other materials. Working with While this can be a disadvantage in rooflights, where some
plastics and composites is still undertaken in relatively small- amount of solar shading is usually required, it is ideal for many
scale workshops, where mock-ups can be produced easily and facades and is finding use in complete building envelopes, where
economically, allowing an interaction between designer and wall and roof are formed from a mixture of transparent and
fabricator that is more difficult in larger scale factory-based translucent panels. These panels are inflated and fixed to a
methods where repeatability of large numbers of identical permanent air supply that periodically refreshes the cushions
components still dominates production methods. with more air to maintain the pressure required to give them
structural stability. The use of fabric is set to grow, with air
Fabrics cushions that can be used in conjunction with external solar
The use of woven textiles made from polymers has been shading or internal screen walls in a variety of twin roof or twin
focused on its application to form tent-like roof forms. Tent- wall applications. Like sheet plastic materials, ETFE cushions
based structures stretch a single membrane sheet, which is are becoming liberated from the design language of glass
waterproofed on its external face, over a supporting structure rooflights, with more complex geometries to form curved roofs.
that may use a mast to support the tent, and cables to hold Loadbearing air cushions, which do not require any supporting
the membrane in position, in the imitation of a traditional tent. structure, are in their early stages of development and
This has led to developments in the connection of membrane to application, and we are likely to see much of this development in
cable and restraint of cables to adjoining structure. Alternatively, roof structures and self-supporting envelope structures in the
membranes are stretched over more sculptured supporting coming years.
frames, which are derived more from the established language
of building construction rather than from the masts and cables
of tent-based roofs. The design life of these roofs is gradually
increasing as both a result of observing earlier examples and
developing them, as well as an improvement in the performance
of the protective coatings applied. The introduction of double
layer membrane roofs will no doubt change their use from
MCH_ 205
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 1: metal standing seam
1
Details
1. Metal sheet 10. Clips at centres
1 2
2. Standing seam joint 11. Folded metal gutter
3. Breather membrane 12. Curved eaves sheet
4. Thermal insulation 13. External wall
5. Substrate, typically timber/ 14. Structural frame
metal rafters with plywood 15. Outersheet fixing bracket 2 4
facing 16. Rooflight 1
5
6. Vapour barrier 17. Metal flashing 5
7. Drywall/dry lining if required 18. Ridge piece
8. Outer standing seam sheet 3 4
9. Inner lining sheet
5
6
5
3D detail view showing section through metal profile roof on timber structure
1
2
1
2
3
5
5
5 4
4
6
5
5
3D sectional view showing section through metal profile roof on timber structure
System design 600mm centres down the slope of the roof, corresponding to
Standing seam roofs are increasingly being used for industrial the width of the sheet metal used. Sheet metal is laid along
and commercial buildings where concealed fixings and low roof the length of the roof from top to bottom, with the sides of the
pitches are required for visual reasons. The main advantage of sheet folded up and over the timber battens. Successive strips
standing seam roofs over profiled metal roofs is that almost no of metal sheet are lapped over the next to form a continuous
fixings pass through from outside to inside the construction. sealed surface. The standing seam joint is produced by folding
This gives the roof surface a visually crisp appearance with very the metal together to create a seal. Because the roof is formed,
few visible fixings. The standing seams allow the technique to be effectively, as a series of linked gutters, the standing seam
used on very low pitch roofs. The traditional method of forming a between each gutter is above the level of the water draining
standing seam roof is to set the sheet onto a timber substrate, down it. Rainwater is avoided being drawn through the joint
and to fold the long edges of the metal upwards to form a by capillary action by one of two methods, where the joint
standing seam joint. However, this method is increasingly giving is either sealed or ventilated. In a sealed joint the seam is
way to prefabricated systems where the sheet metal is folded pressed tight, as in a traditional lead or copper roof, either by
to a specific profile either in a factory or on site with a rolling folding the metal over itself to form a thin seam, or by forming
machine. The folded metal is then secured with a clip-based the metal over a timber roll or section. In a ventilated joint, a
fixing system rather than onto a continuous substrate. small gap is left between the folded sheets to allow air to pass
through but not rainwater.
The site-based method of fixing sheet is well suited to smaller-
scale applications, or where complex geometries are used. For prefabricated standing seam roofs, the most common
These applications make the use of prefabrication both configuration is to fix the brackets supporting the outer sheet to
unnecessary and uneconomic, due to the time saved by forming a set of metal purlins. A metal liner sheet is set below the purlins
junctions and edges on site. The use of a single sheet metal to support the thermal insulation quilt, set between the purlins.
profile and angle support clips used in prefabricated methods A vapour barrier is set between the insulation quilt and the liner
is typically too inflexible for such conditions. This traditional tray on the warm (in winter) side of the thermal insulation. An
method of forming standing seam roofs has timber boards alternative configuration is to have a full structural deck with
or plywood sheet used to form a continuous substrate, or insulation set on top and an outer (upper) sheet supported on
supporting surface. Standing seams are formed by timber brackets set onto the structural deck. In hot, humid countries
strips of rectilinear or curved section which are set at 450- an additional vapour barrier is set on top of the insulation where
MCH_ 206
2 8
10
8
4 4
6 9 10 3
Vertical section 1:10. Typical roof assembly without acoustic layer Vertical section 1:10 Typical roof assembly
without acoustic layer
4
4
15
3D cutaway view showing typical roof assembly
18
2
8
10 10
3
4 4
9 4 4
14 9
14
Vertical section 1:10. Ridge with recessed flashing Vertical section 1:10. Ridge with flashing
(Left) 3D views showing rooflight

opening within sheet metal roof
3D view showing sheet metal

on pitched timber roof
MCH_ 207
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 1: metal standing seam
Details 4. Thermal insulation 11. Folded metal
1. Metal sheet 5. Substrate, typically timber/ gutter
17 2. Standing seam joint metal rafters with plywood facing 12. Curved eaves
3. Breather membrane 6. Vapour barrier sheet
1 7. Drywall/dry lining if required 13. External wall
2 8. Outer standing seam sheet 14. Structural frame
9. Inner lining sheet 15. Outer sheet fixing
4 10. Clips at centres bracket
16. Rooflight
17. Metal flashing
9
2
18. Ridge piece
4
14 1
13
3D view of folded eaves and ridge junction (Below) 3D sectional view showing metal standing seam roof construction
2
2
8
6
1
10
1
4
10
4
10
4
14
the risk of interstitial condensation is from the outside as well

as the inside.
Vertical section 1:10. Folded eaves
For both site-based and prefabricated construction methods,
the roof pitch can go down to 1°, after taking into account any
structural deflections that would further reduce this angle.
8
10
Metal sheets can be made up to 40 metres in length, but road
transport is difficult, being considerably longer than a trailer
6
length. For larger projects, long sheets are formed on site with
a rolling machine that can form the profile of the standing seam
sheet to any length required, the profile being formed from
4 metal coil.
5 4 System details
Support brackets are usually T-shaped and are fixed either to
the structural deck or to purlins with self-tapping screws. The
brackets are usually made from extruded aluminium in order
14 to provide a profile that is both thick enough to form a rigid
connection and sufficiently precise in section to retain a given
standing seam profile in place. Metal sheet is formed in long
Vertical section 1:10. Monopitch ridge
lengths of folded trays which are then fixed onto the support
brackets. Finally the standing seam joints are crimped to form
a seal, usually with a ‘zip up’ tool that travels along the joint and
across the roof, sealing the joint as it moves along.
MCH_ 208
10 8
4
6
5 17
11
8 4
12
4 15
13
14
Vertical section 1:10. Junction with rooflight
Vertical section 1:10. Eaves with curved gutter

17
8
16
10
13
17 4
6
4 5
14
1
4 Vertical section 1:10 Parapet gutter at abutment
14
3D detail view showing metal roof
12
showing eaves with curved gutter
11
(Below right) 3D detail view showing

14
metal roof at abutment
3D detail view showing eaves with
curved gutter
4
13
Standing seam sheets can form shallow curves by gently

bending the metal on site, or alternatively by curving the sheets
16
in the factory, to give a smooth appearance. Small radius curves
are formed by crimping the sheet in the factory, where the
material is mechanically formed with small local folds. Sharp
folded corners are made by welding two sheets together along
the fold line. 17 4
Ridges are formed by a variety of methods, the visually sharpest

1 2
being a ridge line formed as a standing seam joint, with the 1
seams meeting the ridge being terminated to avoid the need

for visually bulky filler pieces which could be seen from below. 8
Valleys are formed by lapping the ends of the standing seam 4
roof into a folded metal tray forming a continuous gutter. Eaves
are formed in a similar way, with a gutter set at the edge of
the roof. Increasingly, gutters are being integrated into roof
8 4
forms in order to avoid a weak visual line formed by a gutter 1
which is not continuous with the smooth lines of the roof. When 17
11
additional closer pieces are used, such as bull nose profiles, the
metal panels are usually designed to be drained and ventilated 12
to the exterior, and the line of waterproofing continues up the

4
external wall to the underside of the standing seam roof.
13
MCH_ 209
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 2: profiled metal sheet
Details
1. Outer profiled metal sheet
3. Clips at centres
4. Plywood substrate 1
7. Folded metal gutter
8. Curved eaves sheet
9. External wall
11. Structural frame
12. Outersheet fixing bracket
13. Rooflight
14 Metal flashing 1
15. Ridge piece
3D detail section view through typical ridge

11
and valley gutter construction
11
System design quickly. In common with standing seam roofing, profiled

The main advantage of profiled metal sheet over other metal metal roofs can be used as a roof covering in either sealed
roof types is the ability of the material to span economically up to or ventilated construction. Ventilation is used mainly where
around 3.5 metres between primary structural supports. This a timber supporting structure is used, where the timber is
self-supporting ability of the material, combined with its weather ventilated to avoid rot in the material from moist air in the void
resistant, painted coating applied during manufacture, makes that would otherwise be trapped within the construction.
it able to be used as both a substrate material for a finish in a
different material set onto it, or as a single layer structural and In sealed roofs, the thermal insulation usually fills the voids in
weatherproof material. While standing seam roofing, with its between the inner and outer skins, but ventilators are often
high projecting folds, is suited to long, straight, or gently curving provided at the ridge and eaves to allow some breathing through
spans, profiled metal sheet can both span between supports the ribs of the profiled sheet. This helps to keep the insulation
and form complex geometries. It is this flexibility of being both completely dry. Because the inner lining sheet presents a
structural deck and waterproofing layer that has an advantage hard surface under the roof, perforated sheets are used to
where the interior finish is designed to be in a different material, improve sound absorption. Sound is allowed to be absorbed
such as dry lining or decorative boarding. In recent years partly by the insulation quilt. This helps to reduce reverberation,
roof pitches have greatly reduced to make the roof as flat as particularly in noisy internal environments. A vapour barrier is
possible, usually for visual reasons. Most profiled sheet is laid set between the thermal insulation and the thin layer of acoustic
to a minimum pitch of around 4°. Standing seam roofs can go insulation beneath. Profiled metal sheet roofs have the ability to
down to a 1° pitch, depending on the geometry of the roof. conceal the supporting structure within the depth of the roof
construction. This gives a smooth finished appearance to the
Profiled metal sheet provides a continuous weatherproof inside face of the roof. An outer metal sheet is supported on
skin with the ability to be curved in one direction, where the metal roof purlins, and an inner lining tray, which supports the
supporting structure beneath requires only a few structural thermal insulation, is fixed to their underside. Sheets are fixed
members to be curved, and most framing can be straight. The with self tapping screws which, in addition to fixing the sheets to
material is lapped on all four sides like metal standing seam the supporting structure, are also required to be weathertight.
roofs. The laps are made long enough to avoid capillary action A vapour barrier is provided on the warm (in winter) side of
through the joint. This simple jointing system provides large the insulation, between the liner tray and the thermal insulation.
areas of reliable, weathertight roofing that can be installed Laps between profiled sheets along their top and bottom edges
MCH_ 210
14 1
8 8
8 6
5 5
2 6 6
6
7 2 12
2
11
11 11
Vertical section 1:10. Concealed gutter detail Vertical section 1:10. Typical profiled metal sheet roof build-up and supporting structure
8 2
3D views showing curved profiled metal

7 roof construction
11
1
1
7 11
6
11
(Right) 3D views showing gutter condition in
curved profiled metal roof construction
MCH_ 211
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 2: profiled metal sheet
Details
1. Outer profiled metal sheet
3. Clips at centres
4. Plywood substrate 6
8. Curved eaves sheet
2
9. External wall 15
11. Structural frame
12. Outersheet fixing bracket
13. Rooflight
14. Metal flashing
15. Ridge piece
11
1
3D detail view through typical ridge construction
1 1
2
1 1 6
6
3
7
2 5
15 11
6
11
Vertical section 1:20. Prefabricated valley gutter

11 3D detail view through
prefabricated valley gutter
are sealed with butyl sealant strip. Two strips are normally parapet coping with laps over the top. The gutter is formed
used, one at the end of the external lap and the other at the from a single folded sheet to avoid the possibility of leaks, and
top end of the internal lap. The outer seal provides protection is lapped under the vertical sheet that forms the seal between
against capillary action of rainwater being drawn up into the lap gutter and coping. Parapets in profiled metal sheet are often
between sheets, while the other provides a vapour barrier that used where the external wall is formed in a different material, so
avoids moisture, generated inside the building, from condensing that the parapet forms a visual break between them. However,
in the joint. Self-tapping screws that hold the sheets in place many profiled metal roofs are used in conjunction with walls in
clamp the two sealed surfaces together. Sheets are normally the same material using a concealed gutter that allows wall and
lapped 150mm over one another, while laps between sheets roof to be continuous.
on their side edges are made with a single lap of profile, with a
single seal of butyl tape set at the centre of the lap. Ridges and valleys are formed using the same methods
discussed in the previous section on standing seam roofs. But
System details where standing seams can be cut down to form a flat ridge
Ridges at the junction of a double pitched roof use a folded without a projecting ridge piece, this is not possible in profiled
metal strip to form a continuous ridge sheet. These sheets can sheet, and instead a folded ridge piece is fixed to the upper
be folded on a straight line or formed to a curved line. The void surface of the profiled sheet. The gaps between the ridges and
beneath is filled with thermal insulation in addition to that used troughs of the profiled sheet are filled with a proprietary metal
beneath the profiled sheet. Closer strips are used to seal the filler piece, usually forming part of the manufacturer’s system.
gaps in the profiled sheet where it meets the ridge cover strip Ventilated roofs do not require this filler piece, with the resulting
set on top of the profiled sheet. gap between the folded ridge sheet and the profiled sheet being
usually sufficient to provide ventilation into the construction.
Parapets are formed by creating a gutter at the base of the
profiled sheet, then continuing the line of the gutter up to a
MCH_ 212
1
1
6
5 3
6
14 3
2
11
5 7
11
9
Vertical section 1:20. Monopitch ridge 11
15
3 6
2
5
11
Vertical section 1:20 Ridge with flashing

1
15
12
1
6 6
5
2
2
11
Vertical section 1:20. Ridge with flashing
1 Vertical section 1:20. Eaves with exposed gutter and abutment with vertical
roof panel
6
1
7
6
6
2
3D detail view through typical ridge construction
11
11
3D detail view through 1

6
prefabricated valley gutter
15
11
MCH_ 213
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 3: composite panels
1 4
3
2
7
11
3
3D views showing vertical section through parapet

edge and folded metal gutter between panels 5
System design insulated panel to allow movement to occur freely in both the
There are two types of composite panel used for roofs: double- membrane and the composite panel substrate. The membrane
sided panels and single sided panels. The first is a development is often protected with a lightweight covering of smooth pebbles
of profiled metal sheet, where outer sheet, thermal insulation that can be walked upon for maintenance access without
and inner sheet are combined into a single panel. These are puncturing the surface. Metal rainscreen panels are also used
used in pitched roofs and have an appearance very similar to to protect the membrane from the effects of direct sunlight.
that of profiled metal roofs. Their main advantage over profiled
metal roofs is the speed of erection on site, but they are usually Double-sided composite panels which combine the separate
a little more expensive than an equivalent profiled metal sheet components of profiled metal sheet have two joint types: a
roof. Single-sided panels consist of profiled metal sheet bonded double seam with a cap on top in the manner of standing seam
to one side only of a layer of foam-type thermal insulation. The roofing, or a single projecting lap of metal profile that forms
insulation is laid face up to receive a separate waterproofing a lapped connection with the adjacent panel. With the first
layer, typically a single layer membrane. The membrane is method, panels have raised edges on their long sides running
then typically finished in rainscreen panels or smooth pebbles, down the slope. The raised edges are butted together and
depending on the geometry and required appearance of the sealed with butyl tape. A metal capping is fixed over this joint to
roof. This second panel type can be used on nominally flat roofs. provide a weathertight seal which sheds water onto the panels
either side of the joint, giving this method a distinct appearance
Single-sided composite panels have a single sheet of profiled of wider joints. The second method has an uninsulated rib of the
metal on the lower loadbearing face of the panel, which is outer sheet projecting from the panel on one long side which
bonded to a foam-based insulation that fills all the voids in the laps over the adjacent panel. This gives a continuous ribbed
profiled sheet, providing a smooth, flat upper surface. The depth appearance to the roof that is visually no different on its outside
of the panel is determined by both structural requirements face to profiled metal roof cladding. Both methods have lapped
and the U-value required, varying the thickness of the thermal joints on their short (horizontal) edges, where an uninsulated
insulation. The upper face of the panel is waterproofed with edge projects down to form a lapped joint very similar to that
an independent membrane, typically an elastomeric type that used in profiled metal roofs. These horizontal joints are also
requires no upstands or special joints between sheets. Panels sealed with butyl tape to avoid capillary action from rainwater
are usually set butted up to one another, with the gap between outside, and to prevent the passage of water vapour into the
panels filled with foam-based thermal insulation. A separating joint from inside the building.
layer is usually set between the waterproof membrane and the
MCH_ 214
3
Vertical section 1:10 through composite panel showing panel-to-panel junction
1 1 1 1
5
5 5
3D detail views showing composite metal panel build-up
4 13
12
11
3D detail view showing panel connection

3 9
3
5 Details
1. Metal rainscreen panel
5
2. Single layer membrane
5 3. Composite panel
4. Folded metal coping
5. Purlin or structural beam
6. Secondary purlin
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel
10. External wall
3D view showing verge with parapet upstand 11. Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Panel 1
13. Panel 2
3D view showing vertical section through parapet edge

and folded metal gutter between panels
3 3
7
3
5 5
MCH_ 215
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 3: composite panels
2
2
3 3
Details
3. Composite panel
4. Folded metal coping
6. Secondary purlin 1 1
7. Folded metal gutter 1
3
8. Folded metal drip 3
10. External wall
11. Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Panel 1
13. Panel 2 3
System details The inner face of the panels forming the ridge is sealed with a
Ridges and folds of single-sided panels are formed in the same folded metal sheet, typically fixed to adjacent roof purlins and
way as the panel to panel joints, filled typically with a foam sealed against the inner face of the composite panel to provide
insulation applied by injection on site. The membrane sheets a continuous vapour barrier. This inner trim is made either flat
are usually joined at the fold in the roof and a strip of the same or profiled to suit the composite panels used.
material is bonded along the joint to provide a weathertight seal.
At parapet gutters of single-sided panels, an upstand is formed Eaves are formed in a similar way to profiled metal panels, by
in the same insulation material as that used in the composite lapping the edge roof panel over a gutter. The gutter is closed
panels, the upstand being bonded to the composite panel against the underside of the composite panel either by folding
beneath. The outer edge of the upstand is sealed and stiffened it outwards and sealing it or by folding the top edge inwards,
with a metal strip fixed to the underside of the composite roof up the underside of the panel. Unlike eaves gutters, parapet
panel or the supporting structure beneath. gutters are thermally insulated, forming part of the external
envelope. The gutter is usually prefabricated to form part of
Ridges for double-sided composite panels are formed by fixing the overall composite panel system. The gutter shape, in cross
a metal flashing over the junction between the panels. The section, is formed to provide continuity in the thermal insulation
flashing is profiled to match that of the panels onto which it sits. from roof panel through to the adjacent parapet wall.
The gaps are then closed with a profiled filler piece as used in
profiled metal roof construction. The ridge flashing has visible The tops of parapets are closed with a pressed metal coping
fixings which are difficult to conceal, so that precise positioning that is folded down over the face of the external wall and the
is essential to the overall visual appearance of the ridge. The inside face of the parapet to provide a complete weathertight
gap between the panels is filled with thermal insulation on site, seal. The top of the coping is usually inclined towards the
with either mineral fibre quilt or, more frequently, with the inside face of the wall, into the gutter, to avoid dust settling on
same foam-based insulation used to manufacture the panels. horizontal surfaces from being washed down the face of the
Insulation is injected into the gap to provide a U-value to match external wall during rain.
that of the adjacent panels.
MCH_ 216
1 1
11
3
7
5
3D detail views showing gutter detail within
composite panel arrangement, hidden by
rainscreen above
1
1
11
3
7
3
5 5
3
5
3D detail view showing panel fixing method
1 1 1
11 11
2
3
3
3
3D detail view showing gutter detail
within composite panel arrangement,
hidden by rainscreen above
MCH_ 217
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 4: rainscreens
Details
4. Structural deck
6. Secondary purlin
10. External wall
12. Cap piece
3D view of metal rainscreen roof assembly

(Below) 3D views of metal rainscreen roof assembly with
varying panels joint approaches
System design
1
The use of metal rainscreen panels is relatively new in roof
construction and has developed from using the panels in external
walls, albeit in a different configuration. Firstly, most of the rain
falling onto a metal rainscreen roof is not usually drained away
11 on the outer layer of panels, unless the roof has a relatively
2 steep pitch or curved section. Rainwater is still expected to drain
onto the waterproofing layer beneath as if the panels were not
in place. The main function of the rainscreen panels on roofs
3 is to protect the membrane from the effects of the sun (heat
and UV radiation), from the worst effects of windblown rain
and as protection for maintenance access. Rainscreen panels
4 also provide a lightweight covering that forms part of the visual
language of the external walls. Although smooth pebbles are
also used to protect waterproofing membranes on non-visible
flat roofs, they are obviously not suited to sloping or curved
5
roofs. The use of metal rainscreen panels is well suited to these
more complex roof geometries which form a visible part of the
design. These rainscreen panels allow traditional roof elements
Vertical section 1:10 through roof assembly which are usually visually dominant such as gutters, parapets
and ridges, to be accommodated within a smooth, continuous
outer skin, allowing roofs to take on the visual characteristics
of external walls, contributing to the overall architectural effect.
MCH_ 218
1
1
2
3 3
12
4 4
11
11
3D view of metal rainscreen roof support system 3D view of metal rainscreen roof assembly with optional capping
to seam
1 1
2
2
12
3
3
11
4
11
3D view of metal rainscreen roof fixing channel 3D view of metal rainscreen roof assembly with optional capping
to seam
Although metal sheet is used for rainscreens, metal and Rainscreen roof panels are typically arranged either as panels
plastic composites are becoming increasingly popular. In such laid in a flat grid or as lapped panels, where the bottom edge
materials a thin layer of plastic is faced with two thin sheets of is lapped over the top of the panel beneath. Side joints remain
aluminium which are bonded to the plastic sheet core to provide open jointed and are set in the same plane in this configuration.
longer size panels than those of sheet metal, with the benefit Panels in a flat grid are set onto metal Z-sections, which are
of providing greater flatness. They are less likely to experience either bonded to the top surface of the waterproof membrane
localised impacts from foot traffic during maintenance work, to avoid any risk of water penetration through mechanical
with the ‘oil canning’ effect of depressed or dented panels fixings, or are set above the membrane on support pads. These
resulting from regular maintenance access usually avoided pads are usually covered with a waterproofing membrane to
by using these composite sheet materials. However, the size reduce the number of fixing penetrations through this layer. The
of metal rainscreen panels is restricted more by the panel rainscreen panels are then screw-fixed to the Z-section with
width that can be walked upon for maintenance access than brackets that avoid the screw fixings being seen at a distance
by the sheet size available. The maximum size of metal sheet where this is a visual requirement. Concealed fixings are more
is usually in a width of 1200mm or 1500mm metal coil. difficult to accommodate, though such systems are likely to
Composite sheets are typically 1000mm to 1200mm wide, appear over the next ten years as demand for this roof system
in lengths from 2400mm to 3000mm, depending upon the increases.
manufacturer. In practice, panels may only be around 600mm
wide if they do not have additional supporting framing beneath System details
to stiffen them. Framed panels can reach the maximum sizes An advantage of rainscreen panels for parapets is that the
already mentioned, but care must be taken to avoid the pattern gutter and upstand can be made without either element being
staining or denting that can reveal the frame behind during the visible, allowing parapets to function as concealed gutters while
life cycle of the roof. providing a visual continuity between wall and roof. Consequently,
eaves, monopitch ridges and verges can have a similar outward
appearance of an uninterrupted panel layout extending from
MCH_ 219
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 4: rainscreens
2 3
Vertical section 1:25. Typical

long secion through metal
rainscreen roof 1
11
1
3D view of metal rainscreen roof 3

draining from panel to panel
Details
1 2. Single layer membrane
4. Structural deck
2 5. Purlin or structural beam
6 6. Secondary purlin
4 3 7. Folded metal gutter
15
10. External wall
MCH_ 220
1
2 3
7
4
10
Vertical section 1:10. Concealed parapet gutter with cantilevered edge
2
1
4 5
3D view of concealed parapet gutter with cantilevered edge
the roof down to the external wall. Parapets are formed only edges onto the membrane below, there is no need to leave the
by a gutter that also provides the necessary upstand height for gutter uncovered, as is the case with other metal roof systems.
the parapet itself. A coping is then formed by using the same Water running down the membrane is drained directly into the
rainscreen panels as elsewhere on the roof in order to provide gutter, and water underneath the gutter cover drains through
a continuity of appearance. The waterproof membrane beneath slots or perforations.
is then sealed against the wall construction or against the side
of the sealed roof deck, which is closed off with a folded metal An advantage of rainscreen panels is their ability to form complex
strip, in the case of profiled metal sheet or composite metal geometries from flat panel components. Since the panels are
panels being used. not required to be waterproofed, they do not require any joints
between panels that would become difficult and expensive for
The depth of the roof construction is then finished with another roofs with complex geometries. Flat panels can be fixed down at
rainscreen panel, set vertically, which is fixed in front of the their corners on a curved roof to create a set of gently curved
parapet. Unlike parapets in profiled metal or composite panels, panels that are turned in either one or two directions. Panels
the vertical fascia panel can extend up to the top of the wall are increasingly being twisted in two directions in order to
in order to conceal the coping flashing. In other types of metal create genuinely curved roof finishes. Alternatively, panels can
roofing, the coping extends over the top of the wall, resulting in be set flat but with each panel at different angles to create a
a thin visual edge to the top of the wall. This coping line can be facetted roof section.
concealed from view in rainscreen roof panel construction. The
external wall beneath is typically sealed up to the underside of
the roof deck.
The parapet gutter can be covered with a perforated or slotted

metal cover in the same material and finish as the adjacent
rainscreen panels. Since rainwater runs off each panel at its
MCH_ 221
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 5: metal louvres
Details
1. Extruded aluminium louvre
blade
2. Mild steel box section
3. Mild steel tube
4. Structural pin connection
5. Mild steel l-section
6. Bolt fixed metal panel
7. Aluminium sheet
1
1 8. Mild steel or aluminium
support frame
5
5
1
3D views showing louvred metal canopy and
support
3
1
8
1 5
5
3
1
(Left) 3D view showing 1

underside of louvred metal
canopy and support
System design System details

Arrangements of metal louvres are used as canopies to provide The supporting structure to the example shown comprises
solar shading while still allowing daylight to pass through the a mild steel frame fabricated from box sections, supported
canopy. Louvre blades are set typically at 45° to the vertical by tube sections that spring from points below the roof. The
in order to block the passage of direct sunlight but allow the box sections are shown bolted together to form a flat frame
light to be reflected off its surfaces down to the space beneath structure, into which are set louvre panels, prefabricated and
the canopy. Louvre sections are created from folded strips of finished in a factory, then fixed to the supporting mild steel
aluminium or mild steel sheet, but these have limited stiffness frame on site. The steel tubes are fixed to the flat frame with
and stability, requiring restraint along their length to hold pin connections. Two flat plates are welded to the ends of the
their straightness in length. Greater stiffness is provided by tubes, and a single plate forming a cleat is fixed to the underside
extruded aluminium sections, where the elliptical section is of the flat frame and the base support below the roof. The fork
most commonly used, mainly for its ability to reflect daylight ends of the tubular supports and the support cleats to which it
in a way that reveals its three-dimensional form, enhancing its connects are fixed together with face-mounted or countersunk
appearance. Sections are either a half ellipse or a full ellipse. bolts to form a visually crisp connection. The tubes have tapered
Flat louvre arrangements provide much less visual vibrancy ends shown which is typical of this type of steel construction. The
when viewed from below. Extruded aluminium sections require aluminium louvre panels are fixed to the supporting flat frame
end caps, usually for visual reasons, and these are either fixed with brackets that are welded to the sides of the bottom flange
with countersunk screws into the wall of the section, or are of the steel I-section. The aluminium louvre panel is supported
welded and ground smooth. Where end caps are screwed to on these brackets, with a nylon spacer between them to allow
the ends, the aluminium profile has screw ports that form part for thermal movement. The louvre panel is fixed to the cleat
of the extrusion, into which the screws are fixed. Aluminium bracket with a countersunk bolt.
extrusions can be made in lengths up to around 6000mm,
and are supported at centres to suit their structural depth. The supporting structure to the moving louvre assembly
An elliptical section will span typically 1500mm for a 75mm to shown is made from either mild steel or aluminium sections.
100mm deep section while a 250mm deep section will span Aluminium sections are usually preferred for their durability
2500mm, depending upon design wind speed and relative but mild steel is often used for its greater rigidity. Mild steel is
loads. When fixed at their ends, a fixed louvre assembly can be galvanised, painted, or both, while aluminium, with its greater
made without visible fixings. durability, can be natural, anodised or cromated (similar to
MCH_ 222
3D view through louvred metal canopy edge and
support
3D views through louvred metal canopy edge and

support
1
6
2
1 3
3
1
2
3
3
3D view showing underside
of louvred metal canopy and 8
support
3D view showing underside of louvred metal

canopy and support
MCH_ 223
Roofs 03
Metal roofs 5: metal louvres
1
1
1
1
2
4
3
3D views showing
3D views showing electrically operated louvre
3
electrically operated louvre panel in open position
panel in open position
1
1
4 3
2
1
2
1
4
2
1
3D view showing electrically 4
operated louvre panel in
open position
3D view showing electrically
3
3 operated louvre panel in
closed position
1
1
1
3D views showing electrically operated

louvre panel in closed position
3 3
MCH_ 224
3D view showing electrically
operated louvre panel in
open position
4 4
1
Details
1. Extruded aluminium louvre blade
2. Standard rackarm 3D view showing electrically
3. Drive shaft operated louvre panel in
4. Slat clip
1 1 open position
anodising) depending on the individual application. Metal panels to each set of controlled louvres of 6000mm x 6000mm size
of large size, made from a 1200mm x 2400mm sheet, can which are fixed into the supporting I-section frame. A 100mm
result in a gentle oil-canning effect around their edges. This deep I-section will span typically 1000mm - 1500mm between
gives panels their characteristic soft edge, but they look supports depending on the design of the glazed roof below. The
smooth and consistent, and this is usually accepted visually as distance between the moveable louvre panels and the glazed
part of their appearance. If much thicker sheet is used, there is roof below is made sufficient to allow for access for cleaning
a disadvantage in increased cost as well as a greater difficulty the glass below and the louvre assembly itself.
in working the sheet to form smooth shaped pressed panels.
Aluminium panels are typically either PVDF coated or polyester Electrically operated louvre canopies are also used for
powder coated, while steel sheet is usually polyester powder horizontal and inclined glazed roofs, excluding up to 90% of
coated only. The use of anodised aluminium as a finish on sheet solar heat gain when set at a 45° angle. Louvre blades are
has increased in recent years as the result of greater reliability 75mm-100mm in typical proprietary systems but blades up to
of the finish, which until recently has suffered from uneven 300mm wide can be made as a single extrusion. Nylon sleeves
colour consistency. The silicone used to seal the joints can be and washers are used at the connection of moving parts,
applied in a variety of monotone tints, ranging from white, to rather than metal, to avoid the need for regular lubrication.
greys, to black. Some silver-grey colours match well with silver Louvres can be solid or perforated to different percentages
coloured panels to give an overall appearance of a single colour of solid to void, from around 10% void to a maximum of 50%,
for the complete canopy, particularly when recessed joints are though the latter is difficult to fabricate. Louvres are fixed by
used between panels. Flush joints in silicone tend to give the steel pins into a sliding aluminium section at each end of the
canopy surface an homogenous appearance, giving it more the profile. The louvres are also fixed at their centre in section.
appearance of concrete than of metal. This can detract from As the sliding aluminium rod moves, the aluminium louvres
the crisply fitted assembly of panels which is characteristic of move together, opening and closing together. The sliding rods
metal and also one of the advantages of the material. are connected at each end of the louvres and are fixed to a
supporting frame of aluminium I-sections. The single tube is
Louvres are typically a maximum of around 6000mm long for powered by an electric motor, and as it turns, the sliding arms
those 75mm to 100mm deep, requiring support at 1000mm move through the arrangement of gears.
to 1500mm. Sliding arms typically support up to a 6000mm
length of louvre blades, giving an overall square shape (in plan)
MCH_ 225
Roofs 03
Glass roofs 1: greenhouse glazing and capped systems
3D detail view showing glazing support
Details
1. Extruded aluminium glazing bar
2. Single glazed sheet
3. Rubber seal
4. Aluminium glazing clip
6. Aluminium clip on capping
7. Aluminium footing
8. Concrete base
9. Polycarbonate sheet
10. Double glazed unit
3D view of typical eaves connection
Systems design either a sealant, typically silicone, or with continuous aluminium

Curtain walling principles used in external walls have been clips. Some greenhouse systems still have lapped glass with no
adopted, over the last 20 years, as a reliable method of seal at between the glass sheets, making it very economic but
constructing glazed roofs to replace earlier systems developed not very airtight, which suits certain agricultural applications.
from greenhouse glazing. This glazing system is still used in
greenhouses for agricultural activities, but has poor thermal Ventilation in greenhouse glazing is provided at the eaves and
insulation, since their purpose is to absorb the heat from the at the ridge, while opening lights are used for more closely
sun rather than excluding it. The use of single glazing, with no controlled ventilation. Single glazed sheets are held in place on
thermal breaks and high air infiltration rates (by curtain walling their sides by supporting them on the glazing bars and securing
standards), make it ideal for agricultural use, but very poor for them in place with continuous aluminium clips that snap onto
use in general building construction. However, the concept the glazing bar. The aluminium sections are separated from
of greenhouse glazing has been developed into the highly the glass by extruded rubber-based seals which are held in
insulated, air sealed and watertight glass roof systems used in place on the aluminium glazing bars and which press against
contemporary buildings. the glass to provide both a cushion for the glass as well as a
water and air seal. The strength and stiffness of the glazing
An essential component of greenhouse glazing that has been bar is provided by the central flat bar that extends beyond the
retained in modern glazed roofs is the glazing bar, which glazing line either inside or outside the glazing. Unlike curtain
corresponds to a mullion in glazed walls. The greenhouse walling based systems, where the structural mullion extends
glazing bar has a condensation channel beneath the glass on the inside face of the glass with a pressure plate on the
to drain away water that passes through the outer seal outside, greenhouse glazing has only clips on either side of the
during rain. The condensation channel also serves as a drain control bar, allowing it greater freedom to extend both inside
for moisture inside the building that has condensed within and outside the face of the glass. The rubber seals are deep
the framing. Condensation channels are either open at the enough and soft enough to allow the bottom of the glass sheet
edges or are enclosed. Modern greenhouse glazing is made to lap over the top of the sheet below on the horizontal joints.
from extruded aluminium sections with no thermal break,
since high thermal insulation is not required, but includes the System details
condensation channels to avoid water from dripping below. Systems for contemporary glass roofs use the principles of
The horizontal joint between lapped glass sheets is sealed with traditional greenhouse glazing, but incorporate the techniques
MCH_ 226
2 2
5 3
10
1 5
2
Vertical section 1:5. Ridge in

greenhouse glazing
5
3
10
(Right) 3D detail of
ridge
2
5
2
2
3
9 3
1
5
3D view of ridge in greenhouse roof 5 2
9 3
1
Vertical section 1:5. Clamping Vertical section 1:5.

details for glass to glass connection Clamping details for glass to
polycarbonate connection
5
10 10
3
7
3
8 5
5
Vertical sections 1:5. Greenhouse Vertical section 1:5. Typical ridge and valley details
glazing system showing typical details
MCH_ 227
Roofs 03
Glass roofs 1: greenhouse glazing and capped systems
10
1 9
3D view of capped glazing system with 5
insulated ridge
8
7
4
6 6
10
10 6
2 2
1
1
10
8
1
6
Vertical section 1:10. Ridge detail
10
Details
7 1. Extruded aluminium glazing bar
8 3. Ridge bar
5 4. Ridge capping
6. Pressure plate and capping
7. Rubber seal
8. Aluminium flashing
8
9. Aluminium clip on capping
Vertical section 1:10. Capped glass roof
with abutments
MCH_ 228
4
10
6
2
3D view of capped glazing roof

system 10
10
6 10
3
2
10
3D cutaway of glass to glass corner detail in 3D detail of capped ridge

cpped glazing
of glazed curtain walling. Drained and ventilated systems are wall, and the system is drained at the base of the wall, which
used, with thermal breaks and double glazed units. Pressure could be a reinforced concrete slab at roof level.
plates rather than clips are used to hold large glass units in
place in capped systems, and toggle-type plates are used to While glazing bars running down the roof project above the
provide flush joints in silicone based systems. This latter type surface of the glass, those running along the roof which hold
is discussed in the next section on silicone sealed rooflights, the top and bottom edges of the glass in place, require a
while this section focuses on pressure plate systems, so-called method of allowing the water to run over the junction. Some
‘capped’ glazing. A typical system comprises glazing bars which systems use a step at this point, without a pressure plate
are assembled on site in a grid of members that resemble on top that would otherwise impede the passage of water
the mullions and transoms of stick glazed curtain walling. The down the roof. Other systems use a pressure plate and cover
base of the curtain wall, at the bottom of the extruded profile, capping with chamfered edges that allow rainwater to pass
may have an additional condensation channel, as shown. over it easily. A small amount of water is left trapped on the
This provision can also be made by setting the condensation top edge of this horizontally-set glazing bar, but this is soon
channels immediately beneath the glass. The glass is set onto blown away by the wind or else evaporates. Any water that
rubber-based air seals fixed to the glazing bar and is secured penetrates the outer seal is drained away through the internal
with a continuous pressure plate of extruded aluminium. A strip drain in the glazing bar.
of extruded EPDM is set between the pressure plate and the
glass to provide a weathertight seal. As with glazed curtain Ridges, like glazing bars, follow the main principles of
walling, the glazing bars are drained and ventilated, or pressure greenhouse glazing. The box section, or chosen profile of the
equalised, internally. Water that is able to find its way through typical glazing bar is usually made deeper to take the higher
the outer seal drips into an internal channel where it is drained structural loads of the ridge. Gutters, at both valleys and eaves,
away safely to the bottom of the roof, typically at the eaves. In are very different to greenhouse glazing. Instead of lapping the
smaller roofs without eaves, where the roof angle changes from glass into the gutter, the gutter profile (or downstand flashing)
pitched to vertical wall, rainwater is allowed to run on down the is clamped into one side of the horizontally-set glazing bar at the
wall to the base of the roof. At the ‘fold’ point of the roof the base of the pitched roof.
internal drain in the glazing bar is continuous with the vertical
MCH_ 229
Roofs 03
Glass roofs 2: Silicone sealed glazing and rooflights
2 5
4 6
1
3 3
3D view of connection
detail with gutter
9
8
8
7 9
Vertical section 1:10 through rooflight showing

typical details
System design
While capped systems, described in the previous section, suit
4
pitched roofs, they cannot reliably be used on nominally flat
roofs, where the roof pitch is usually 3° to 5°. This is mainly
because the rainwater running down the roof cannot pass the
2 horizontal glazing bars which project above the surface of the
1 3
glass. The smooth, continuous finish required for flat glazed
roofs is achieved with a silicone seal between glass panels that
is set flush with the surface of the glass. The glass is clamped
in place with short lengths of pressure plate that are recessed
below the outer seal. The recessed plates are secured to an
aluminium channel which forms an integral part of the double
glazed unit and which is continuous around its perimeter. The
extruded aluminium channel is recessed into the gap at the
edge of the unit usually used to bond the unit together and to
seal the edges behind the spacer. The adjacent spacer in the
7
double glazed unit both keeps the glass at a fixed distance apart
as well as having desiccant within it to absorb any residual
moisture within the sealed cavity between the glass sheets.
The recessed aluminium channel is bonded to each glass sheet
and also provides the edge seal to the completed unit, as in a
regular double glazed unit. The short lengths of pressure plate
are then set into the gap formed by the recessed channels
3D view of connection to concrete base of abutting glazed units, and are clamped to the glazing bar
MCH_ 230
6
4
8
9
7
3D view of typical rooflight assembly with

uncapped horizontal joints
Details
1. Extruded aluminium glazing profile
3. Mild steel support frame
4. Double glazed unit with recessed edge 7
6. Silicone seal
7. Concrete base
8. Gutter
9. Internal finish
with self tapping screws, typically at 300mm centres. The gap

between the glazed unit is sealed with silicone, typically 15mm
to 20mm wide, and with a backing strip or ‘backing rod’ behind 4
it to form a back edge to the silicone seal.
The glazing bar has its structural box or fin removed in order
to fix it directly to a steel support frame. Alternatively, an all-
aluminium glazing bar can be used. As with capped systems, 3
small amounts of rainwater that pass through the outer silicone 2
seal are drained away in the condensation channels set below 1

the glass, within the glazing bar. In practice, silicone seals are
very reliable but are dependent upon correct workmanship on
site, so the condensation channel is often not used in practice
but serves as a secondary chamber to support the inner air
8
seals. Silicone-sealed glazing bars can be used in all directions
across a roof, unlike capped systems, since the glazing bars
present no barrier to the passage of water. 7
System details
Since the advantage of silicone-sealed systems is of continuous
glazed surfaces uninterrupted by visible glazing bars, ridges and
valleys are treated only as folds in the surface of the glazing, for
rainwater runs across the complete sealed surface of the glass 3D view of gutter detail
rather than being directed into gutters set across its surface.
MCH_ 231
Roofs 03
Glass roofs 2: Silicone sealed glazing and rooflights
4 2
4
6
1
Vertical section 1:5. Corner detail

3D view of corner detail showing folded
pressure plate to achieve desired angle
Details
1. Extruded aluminium glazing profile
3. Mild steel support frame
4. Double glazed unit with recessed edge
6. Silicone seal
7. Concrete base
8. Gutter
10 9. Internal finish
2 10. Opaque roof cladding panel
2 10
4
3
5 5 (Right) 3D view showing silicone-
sealed rooflight set within opaque-
panelled roof configuration
The short lengths of pressure plate can be folded in the factory meet the corner, while the inner glass stops at the glazing bar
to the required angle, while the glazing bar forming the ridge to allow the recessed aluminium angle to be bonded in its usual
is the same as that used elsewhere on the roof, with some position adjacent to the glazing bar. The glass unit is secured in
modifications to the angle of the clips that hold the inner EPDM the same way, with a recessed length of pressure plate, while
seal in place. The edges of roofs are also treated as folds, with the outer glass is cantilevered to meet the adjacent glazed unit
rainwater usually allowed to run off the edge into a gutter, either at the corner.
just below the roof, or down to the base of the glazed wall below
the glazed roof. An advantage of this system is the ability of the An advantage of silicone sealed glazing is its ability to be mixed
roof to be continuous with a glazed wall in the same system with with capped glazing. Since both systems are drained and
a simple ‘fold’, without reducing its weather tightness. Typically ventilated (pressure equalised), the same glazing bar can be
the wall is not very high, forming part of a larger glazed roof. used in a mixed roof system of flush silicone joints and capped
Dust that is carried down off the roof during rain is washed profiles. Although this mix is often done for visual reasons, it
down the vertical glazing, rather than being carried away in a does allow for easily formed junctions with adjacent areas of roof
gutter, but in practice glazed rooflights require regular cleaning in different materials, and for a mix of actual panels and glazed
to maintain their crisp appearance. panels in a single roof using a reliable drained and ventilated
system. The most common application of this method is where
Folded corners are formed with either a single specially formed capped profiles are used for the vertically-set glazing bars
glazing bar, or with two glazing bars meeting. The recessed running down the slope of a roof, while silicone-sealed glazing
lengths of pressure plate are folded to form the required angle, is used on horizontal joints to allow rainwater to pass down it
and the silicone is chamfered to form a flat surface between unimpeded by any projecting glazing bars. Junctions in silicone
the two meeting glass panels. Silicone is rarely used to make a sealed glazing, such as edges of roofs and ridges, are formed
sharp angle between the two double glazed units, as it is very in the same way, while the capped system follows the folds with
difficult to achieve a straight line without the assistance of an continuous pressure plates that are mitred and sealed at the
additional metal angle bedded into the silicone. The alternative folds. Butyl tape is used as an extra seal at folds, set between
method of forming a roof edge requires the edge of the double the pressure plate and the outer EPDM gaskets. Cover caps
glazed unit to be coated or ‘opacified’ to avoid the frame are also mitred to give a crisp appearance.
behind being visible through the glass. This is often achieved
by stepping the glazed unit, with the outer glass extending to
MCH_ 232
2
10
10
5
4
3
3D view showing silicone-sealed rooflight set within

opaque-panelled roof configuration
1 4 4
6
3 3 3
3D view of panel to panel junction

Vertical section 1:5. Panel to panel junction with
detail without capping
capping
3 4
4
3
3D view of corner detail showing insulated 3D view of panel to panel
corner covered by opaque glazing junction detail with capping
MCH_ 233
Roofs 03
Glass roofs 3: bolt-fixed glazing
3
3
4
5
5
5
5
4
3
3
3
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
3D view showing bolt fixed glazing with internal fold 3D view showing bolt fixed glazing with external fold
5
3 3
3
4 3
4 (Far Left) Horizontal section 1:25. Typical

clamp assembly
5
(Left) 3-D view showing typical clamp
5 assembly
System design The single tube section shown in the diagrams would suit only a
This method of glazing for roofs has been adapted from short span, as in a rooflight, but large span roofs require deeper
the technique used for glazed walls, where glass is fixed at beams, usually formed as open trusses in order to maintain the
points with specially designed bolts rather than with a frame sense of transparency at oblique viewing angles. Triangulated
supporting the perimeter of the glass. Bolt-fixed glazing for trusses provide both structure and support for the glass, but
facade construction developed from earlier patch plate tend to be visually heavy. Cable trusses are often preferred, but
glazing, where single glazed sheets of glass are bolted they require a ring beam around the edge of the glazed roof
together with mild steel brackets. Glass fins are used to to form a tensile supporting structure like a tennis racquet.
stiffen the glazed walls to replace the aluminium mullions. The cable trusses, always in tension, require an equivalent
The L-shaped patch fittings bolt the fins and glass together, surrounding structure in compression to transfer the loads to
as well as bolting the glass to the supporting structure at the the main building structure.
top and bottom of the wall.
System details
Where glazed walls are usually structurally supported by either The essential component in this glazing method, the bolt fixing,
top hung or bottom supported methods, the support of glazed is made typically in stainless steel and consists of several
roofs is by trusses, steel sections or purlins that span across components that form the complete assembly. The part that
the roof opening. For nominally flat roofs, the most common passes through the glass has either a disc on each side of
arrangement is a supporting beam set under each glass joint, the glass to clamp the glass or double glazed unit together, or
so that bolts are supported on each side of the beam by a short alternatively is angled to form a countersunk device within the
bracket. Only half the number of beams are required to support depth of the double glazed unit. The countersunk fitting is set
the same three panels of glass. This is achieved by setting the flush with the outer face of the glass, and the face fixed disc
beam in the middle of alternate glass panels. Brackets are type is set forward of the face of the glass. A polished stainless
cantilevered from the beam to support the edge of the panel steel finish is mostly used on the outside in order to make
above as well as one side of the panel next to it. This method it easy to clean and maintain. In the face fixed type, which is
provides greater visual transparency but requires larger currently the most commonly used fixing, the inner disc screws
brackets, which in practice detract little from the increased over the threaded shank that forms part of the outer disc until
effect of transparency. it is tight up to the inner face of the glass. The threaded shank
MCH_ 234
4
3 Details
3
1. Structural steel support
2. Connector plate
5 3. Bolt fixing
1 4. Silicone seal between
1 glass panels
3 5. Single glazed or double
2 4
glazed unit
3
6. Support bracket
7. Silicone seal
8. Adjacent external wall
2 9. Insulation
5 10. Extruded metal
cylindrical section
3 3
1 12. Concrete base
4
Vertical section & elevations 1:25. Bolt fixed roof with folded profile
3 3
5 5
5
1
Vertical section 1:10. Internal fold 3D view showing external fold
5 5
5
1
1
3D view showing bolt fixed roof with folded profile
MCH_ 235
Roofs 03
Glass roofs 3: bolt-fixed glazing
5
3
2
4 5
10
10
11
3 9
5 12
Vertical sections 1:10. Bracket support Vertical section 1:10. Connection to roof deck
5
10
5
5
12
10
3D views showing overview

12
10 of folded bolt fixed glazing
projecting into the building is able to rotate about a ball bearing capped roof glazing systems, the entire double glazed unit
where it meets the inner face of the double glazed unit. This is visible from both outside and inside, the edges are not set
allows the double glazed unit to rotate up to around 12° under behind pressure plates that conceal any variations in glass
wind load and associated structural deflections. This swivel joint panel size. Joint widths up to around 28mm, which is deemed
is essential in avoiding the over stressing of the glass under full close to the maximum practical joint width for the adhesion
wind load that would otherwise result in breakage of the glass of silicone sealant in a regular double glazed unit, is used
unit. The threaded shank is then used to clamp the complete where brackets penetrate the outer seal from inside the roof
bolt fixing to a support bracket with either threaded discs or to outside. If required, these brackets are used to support
nuts. The visible thread in the shank can be either left exposed, external sun shading and maintenance equipment. These
or be covered with threaded sleeves and stop ends. This bolt brackets are usually in the form of flat plates that are welded
type is used regardless of the orientation of the roof, whether to the internal supporting structure, and project through
flat or pitched. the joint. Although an additional lip around the projecting
plate may provide additional protection to water penetration
In common with other glass roof types, the inner glass of between the silicone and the bracket, in practice it has been
a double glazed unit is usually made from laminated glass. found that this detail performs well if the seal is applied to a
In the event of a double glazed unit being broken, the inner good level of workmanship.
laminated sheet remains intact, while the broken pieces of
the heat strengthened or fully toughened outer sheet come Seals between double glazed units are made as an outer silicone
to rest on top of the damaged, but intact, inner sheet. The seal with an inner backing rod of extruded EPDM. The gasket
double glazed units are first fixed and adjusted to form even has projecting flaps on each side to form a ‘fir tree’ section
joint widths between all the units. Joints of 20-28mm are which prevents any water that penetrates the external seal
used, though around 20mm is the most common joint width from reaching the inner face of the seal. This EPDM gasket also
(in elevation) that allows for both structural movement and serves as an inner air seal, and provides a crisp appearance of
the slight variations in the size of the glass panels. Unlike sharp lines in the interior face of the glazed roof.
MCH_ 236
3 10
10
5
10
4 6
6
10
3
5
5
10
12
3D view showing bolt fixed glazing with external fold
10
3
3D view showing bolt fixed glazing with 10
external fold 4
5 5
3D view showing bolt fixed glazing with internal fold
Details
1. Structural steel support 7. Silicone seal
2. Connector plate 8. Adjacent external wall
3. Bolt fixing 9. Insulation
4. Silicone seal between glass panels 10. Extruded metal cylindrical section
5. Single glazed or double glazed unit 11. Roof construction
6. Support bracket 12. Concrete base
3
5
9
10
11
10
3
12 9
Vertical section 1:10. Junction with Vertical section 1:10. Upstand at base Vertical section 1:10. Base upstand junction
adjacent wall
MCH_ 237
Roofs 03
Glass roofs 4: bonded glass rooflights
6
Details
1. Silicone bond 3
2. Mild steel support
frame
3. Single glazed 6
laminated glass panel
2
4. Silicone seal
1
5. Concrete base
6. Insulated metal panel 3
7. Folded metal flashing
8. Reinforced concrete
support frame
9. Folded aluminium
protective cover
10. Steel aluminium 3 2
support shoe
11. Structural glass 7 1
beam
3
3 2
2
3 5
2
Vertical section 1:5 through rooflight showing typical
7 details
3
5
Vertical section 1:10. Base upstand, Junction Horizontal section 1:20 of typical rooflight layout 3D view of typical roof light assembly
with adjacent material
System design
1 The method of silicone bonding glass to aluminium framing is
well developed for use in glazed curtain walling to provide visually
3
smooth glass facades with no visible cappings. The use of
silicone sealed rooflights can be taken a step further to become
2 a full bond without the need for the mechanical restraint of
pressure plates. In silicone bonded rooflights, the glass is glued
to a supporting frame. The glue is also the external seal. This
technique is useful for small rooflights, where cappings would
be very difficult to fabricate, and in rooflights which are walked
upon, where the rooflight is an external glass floor.
The generic conical rooflight shown has curved double glazed

1 units bonded to an aluminium frame. Silicone bonding avoids
cover caps that would have to be curved both vertically and
3
horizontally, which would be extremely difficult to fabricate.
The rectangular rooflight shown is bonded together without
a supporting structure; the glass provides its own support.
2 The flat monopitch rooflight is bonded to a frame to provide a
small rooflight from one double glazed rooflight, with laminated
glass sheets used to form a surface which can be walked upon.
Similar to a glass floor used inside a building, it must also take
3D Details showing glass to glass junctions
heavier traffic loadings and be weathertight.
MCH_ 238
3
3
5
11
2
11 12
9 10
10
5
2
3D view of glass beam with central steel support beam
3D view of underside of glass beam and steel support beam

3
Vertical section 1:10. Support systems for rooflight
4 3
11
2
10
5
11
3D detail of steel support beam

10
The generic conical rooflight shown has a lightweight steel
frame used to support double glazed units that form a rooflight.
The structural frame comprises box sections set vertically,
held in place by thin tube sections running horizontally to form
a circle. The glass panels are supported on steel flat sections
which are welded to the horizontally set tube section. The glass Vertical section 1:10. Junction with adjacent wall
is levelled on blocks set onto the horizontal flat section, and
the silicone is applied to the joint. At the base, the horizontal 3 4
metal section projects out to form a flashing over the upstand 1
in which the rooflight is set. An additional inner metal upstand
can be provided with another silicone seal if there is risk of
future flooding from blocked rainwater outlets, for example. 2
The waterproof membrane for the roof slab is continued up the

upstand and is bonded to the base of the horizontal section that
supports the glass. This provides a complete seal from the glass 9
to the roof membrane, with the metal flashing providing both a 11 11
protection to this seal and a means of concealing the closed
cell thermal insulation set on top of the waterproof membrane.
The generic rectangular rooflight shown is constructed without 10
a supporting frame. Mechanical restraint is provided at the

corners in the form of pressure plate clips. The double glazed
units at the corners are fabricated with a recessed groove
on the two sides of the panel forming the corner in order to
Vertical section 1:10. Bracket support
MCH_ 239
Roofs 03
Glass roofs 4: bonded glass rooflights
3
3 7
7 7
3 3
3 2
2
7
Vertical section 1:10 through bonded glass roof light showing typical details
3 4
7 3 3
5
3 2
3 2
2
7 3
Vertical section 1:5. Typical corner detail Horizontal section 1:5. Vertical section 1:5. Bonded Vertical section 1:5. Typical connection to roof
Typical corner detail glass to glass connection
receive the clip. An alternative method is to fix the metal clip The glass used is laminated, in common with other rooflights,
to the outside of the glass at the corner. This avoids the need both to avoid the possibility of any falling objects from penetrating
for specially made corner pieces but it does form a visible the glass on impact, as well as preventing damaged glass from
fixing. The modest size of this rooflight allows the horizontally- falling immediately into the space below. The glass is set into
set glass to span from side to side with no additional support. a series of extruded aluminium angles to which it is bonded
The corners of the rooflight are stiffened by short lengths of on its underside. A gap between the frame and the top of the
pressure plate which hold the glass in place. The glass has a glass is sealed with silicone of a different type. An additional
specially shaped groove in the depth of the double glazed unit, condensation channel is set below the glass to catch any water
to which the pressure plates are fixed. Corner joints have an that penetrates the silicone seal, or any water that passes
outer corner piece of folded aluminium which is silicone bonded through a damaged joint.
either to the face of the adjacent glass units, or is folded at 90°
to bond it to the side of the unit. Glass-to-glass joints between The details here show alternatives for both steel beam and glass
horizontally-set units have a silicone seal with an aluminium beam supports to the glass panels. A typical rooflight is shown
angle set on the inside face to provide a second seal. with glass panels 2400mm x 1200mm in size. The supporting
structure has a glass beam set in the centre, spanning the full
System details length of 6000mm. Its depth is approximately 600mm, but the
Rooflights formed as nominally flat, accessible roof decks have beam depth will vary depending upon the individual design. Here,
been in use over the past 10 years. Previously used only inside steel plate is used to provide a beam instead of laminated glass;
buildings for walkways and stairs, they are now being used as a steel flat is welded to the top of the beam to form a T-section
fully waterproofed external decks, manufactured as proprietary that gives enough bearing for the glass deck. The ends of the
systems. Single glazing is used, since double glazed units are glass beams are supported by a metal shoe support, made
difficult to use as a result of solar gain around the edge of the from either mild steel or aluminium. Stainless steel is used
unit, where the glass is exposed to the outside but is supported where corrosion is an essential consideration of the design.
on its underside, allowing heat to enter but not to escape. The metal shoe is bolted back to the supporting structure or
Where black coloured edge ‘fritting’ is used, the situation reinforced concrete floor slab. The gap between the edge of the
is made difficult. However, double glazed roof decking is in glass deck and the adjacent roof finish material is made with a
development and will no doubt become much more common silicone seal.
over the next 10 years.
MCH_ 240
7 7
7 7
3 3
3
7
3
7
7
Axonometric view of glass
bolted rooof system
7
3D cutaway of typical corner detail 3D cutaway of typical rooflight assembly 3D cutaway of typical junction with roof
3
3
11
11
5
3D detail of connection between glass beam and concrete wall 3D detail of junction between glass and steel support beams
3 3
11
3D view looking up at interior finish at edge of glass beam

and concrete base
3
5
3D detail of connection between glass beam and concrete wall
Details
1. Silicone bond 8. Reinforced concrete
2. Mild steel support frame support frame
3. Single glazed laminated 9. Folded aluminium
glass panel protective cover
4. Silicone seal 10. Steel aluminium support
5. Concrete base shoe
11
6. Insulated metal panel 11. Structural glass beam
5
7. Folded metal flashing
3D view of junction at edge of glass beam and steel support
MCH_ 241
Roofs 03
Concrete 1: concealed membrane
Details
3. Concrete deck
4. Paving slabs
6 5. Smooth pebbles
6. Parapet coping
7. Rainwater outlet
8. Slot drain
9. Opening for overflow
1
5
3 2
1
5
2
3
3D overview of a concrete roof with a concealed membrane and visible

rainwater outlets
System design layers thinner, to reduce the material required while enhancing
Bitumen has traditionally been used as a waterproof layer, its properties of strength and flexibility. This has been achieved
applied while hot in liquid form onto a concrete roof slab. As by replacing the thick two-layer method with a mixture of thin
it cools it hardens, forming an impervious membrane, but will layers, still applied in hot liquid form on site but reinforced
soften again if heated by the effects of solar radiation. For this with an elastomeric sheet, usually bedded between the layers.
reason, in order to keep the material cool, bitumen membranes This is typically two layers, each 3mm thick with reinforcing
are concealed by smooth pebbles or paving slabs, usually with layers bedded into the material. This allows the bitumen to
thermal insulation set between the bitumen and the pebbles or accommodate both small amounts of movement at these
paving. Traditional bitumen roofs are usually laid in two layers, junctions as well as the sharp fold in the material, creating
with an overall thickness of around 25mm. One of the limiting a weakness in the membrane which might otherwise be
factors with bitumen is folding the material at a corner or damaged during the life of the building. An outer protective
edge. When the material turns through a right angle from the layer is added for vulnerable locations such as at gutters
horizontal roof to a vertical parapet wall, it can pass through a and at upstands.
maximum of 45° in a single fold. For this reason 45°angle fillets
are used to make a 90° turn from roof to wall. System details
Concealed membrane roofs are typically in 'inverted' roof
Modern bitumen-based membranes that are concealed configuration with either open joints or sealed joints in the
beneath roof finishes are typically a combination of bitumen- top layer that covers the thermal insulation, usually paving. In
based sheet mixed with synthetic rubber to give flexibility the open joint version the membrane, bonded to the concrete
combined with a reinforcement to give dimensional stability and slab, is covered by a protection layer, with closed cell and
tensile strength. This reinforcement often allows the material rigid thermal insulation set on top. A polyester filter sheet
to be folded through 90°, making its use considerably easier, is set on top, with paving or smooth pebble ballast on top to
where angle fillets are not required. hold the insulation in place as well as to walk on. Pebbles are
20mm - 40mm diameter, while paving slabs are around 600
With the development of much thinner membranes x 600mm in size and 30 mm - 40mm deep. In the sealed joint
in thermoplastics and elastomers, together with their configuration, the bitumen membrane with its protection layer
competitive costs, there have been considerable efforts made has a drainage layer on top, onto which is laid a minimum 65mm
by manufacturers over the past 20 years to make the bitumen sand/cement screed, usually reinforced or made sufficiently
MCH_ 242
4 4
5 5
1 4
1
2
2
4
5 5
7
3
3
2
Vertical section 1:10. Rainwater outlet detail
3
7 3
3D view showing detail of

rainwater outlet
4 4
3
3D view showing details of parapet and rainwater outlet
4 4
5
1 1
2 2 2
3 7 3
Vertical section 1:10 . Parapet and rainwater outlet details

MCH_ 243
Roofs 03
Concrete 1: concealed membrane
4 4 4
3
1
2
2 2
1
1
3
3D detail of concrete upstand

Vertical section 1:10. Concrete upstand
Details
1. Waterproof
4
5 membrane
2. Thermal
1 insulation
1 2
3. Concrete deck
4. Paving slabs
3 5. Smooth pebbles
6. Parapet coping
1
2 7. Rainwater outlet
8. Slot drain
3D overview of a concrete roof with a concealed membrane and
concrete upstand
thick to avoid cracking both in the screed and the sealed paving
above. Paving slabs or blocks are bonded to the screed with
mortar and grouted.
4
5
Expansion joints between concrete slabs of widths between
2 around 10mm to 50mm are formed by stopping the material
1 each side of the joint and setting a rubber-based strip that dips
into the gap between the slabs, linking the membranes into
3
a continuous seal. The joint is protected and reinforced with
an additional layer, either flat and bonded on one side only, or
formed as a folded, S-shaped cover that folds back over itself,
held in place by an additional protection sheet on top. The
Vertical section 1:10. Junction of external wall and roof
slab gap between the membrane, dipped into the joint, and the
reinforcement cover is filled with a foam backing rod or tube,
as used in the glass joints of bolt fixed glazing. The material
used for the reinforcement is either the same bitumen based
material, or increasingly, a rubber-based strip.
4
The top of the joint is finished as level as possible with the
2 adjacent areas of roof to allow water to drain freely from the
1
roof. The reinforcing membrane is sometimes folded down into
7 the gap, separated from the membrane below with a foam
backing rod. It can be difficult to drain water from this groove
3
at the edge of the slab unless water at this lower level can
discharge into a rainwater outlet.
Vertical section 1:10. Two-way drain outlet In forming parapet upstands, an essential requirement is to
keep the waterproof membrane as well protected from the
MCH_ 244
7
4 4
4
5
5
5
1
2
2
3
3
3D detail of balustrade within roof system 3D detail of roof parapet
4 4
4
2
1
2 1
2 3
3 Vertical section 1:10. Expansion joint in concrete slab

3
3D detail of expansion joint in concrete slab
4
effects of the sun as elsewhere on the roof. For this reason, 5
thermal insulation is applied to the inside face of the parapet,
even if this has no direct benefit to the passage of heat through 2
the building. The membrane is turned through a full 90° as 1

shown in the drawings, but an angle fillet is required by some
manufacturers to limit the angle of any fold to 45°. A reinforcing 3
strip is usually added where a 90° fold is made.
Plinths which are formed as short columns for the support

of roof-mounted mechanical equipment or balustrades are Vertical section 1:10. Parapet detail
waterproofed in a similar way to a parapet upstand. The
membrane is folded up through 90° from the roof level and
is formed to cover the complete plinth. The thermal insulation
extends across the complete plinth to prevent a thermal bridge
through the roof construction.
Rainwater outlets are set at the level of the waterproof 7
membrane, drained at both the level of the sealed paving and

the level of the waterproofing layer. The base of the rainwater 4
5 5
outlet is fixed to the concrete slab. The waterproof membrane
is dressed down into the top of the rainwater outlet and the 2
upper part of the rainwater outlet is bolted down onto the
1
part already fixed and sealed. The geotextile sheet is wrapped
around the outlet to avoid dirt and debris being washed into the 3 3
rainwater drainage system.
Vertical section 1:10. Base of balustrade
MCH_ 245
Roofs 03
Concrete 2: exposed membrane
11
10
1
6
10
11
3D overview of concrete roof with an exposed membrane
System design a building. Single layer membranes are made from either
Exposed membranes have been used for flat roofs which are elastomeric materials, typically EPDM, or from thermoplastic
not visible from below, but this has changed in recent years as materials, typically plasticised PVC (PVC-P). Elastomeric
membranes are produced in increasingly smooth and regular materials are very popular in the US while thermoplastics are
finishes. Because of their lightweight nature, they are often preferred in Europe. EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer)
used in conjunction with lightweight roofs such as profiled metal is a flexible and elastic material that has the appearance of a
deck and timber. This section considers their use in concrete synthetic rubber. EPDM is manufactured in the limited colours
construction, though the same principles of waterproofing can of black, grey and white.
be applied to these other materials.
Both elastomers and thermoplastics can be mechanically fixed,
The introduction of polymer-based membranes provided bonded or secured with ballast to the concrete deck beneath.
economic waterproofing materials that are more flexible than Developments in these materials have led to them being used
their bitumen-based predecessors. The increased flexibility on timber decks and profiled metal decks in addition to the
of the new sheet materials allowed for greater amounts of concrete decks discussed here. Both thermoplastic and EPDM
movement between adjoining components and assemblies, membranes can be welded together to form a continuous
allowing the detailing of junctions to be relatively straightforward waterproof sheet. While both material types were glued, there
in forming a reliable weathertight roof membrane. As a result of is an increasing use of hot air welding methods, which avoid
these developments, polymer modifications were also made in the need for flame techniques or adhesive bonding methods
the earlier generation bitumen-based materials to make them that can be both slow and can damage adjacent work during
more flexible, in order to compete with the polymer-based sheet their application. In hot air welding, a jet of heated air is used
materials. As a result there is now a wide range of exposed to soften the materials and weld them together, applied from
membrane materials available to suit different budgets and a range of tools that are either hand held or fully automated,
individual roof designs. depending on the application.
Polymer-based membranes have the main advantage of an Membranes are reinforced with glass fibre sheet or polyester
ability to be cut and formed to complex shapes, allowing them to fabric. These layers are bonded into the material. The glass
take up shapes precisely, sometimes pre-formed in the factory fibre provides dimensional stability, making it more stable for
before being delivered to site. Single layer membranes are very bonding to the substrate. The woven polyester fabric, used in
practical on roofs with a large number of penetrations, typically in tent membrane structures, has high tensile strength to resist
commercial buildings where mechanical ventilation equipment wind loads.
is regularly being modified or replaced during the lifetime of
MCH_ 246
1
1
1
2
10 2
10
3
3 3
Vertical section 1:10. Pipe penetration 3D detail of pipe penetration
11
2
11
3
3
Vertical section 1:10 Junction of external wall and 3D detail of junction between roof slab and external wall.
roof slab
11
Details
3. Concrete deck
2 4. Paving slabs
2
5. Smooth pebbles
6. Parapet coping
3 7. Rainwater outlet
9. Balustrade
10. Pipe or duct
11. External wall
12. Rooflight
11
3D detail of junction between roof slab and external wall.
MCH_ 247
Roofs 03
Concrete 2: exposed membrane
5 5
2 2
1
3 3
7
1
Vertical section 1:10. Rainwater outlet (balusted

2 method)
3 1
3 3
3D detail of rainwater outlet within exposed membrane roof
Vertical section 1:10. Rainwater outlet (bonded

method
A typical build-up for a single layer membrane is a concrete In the bonded fixing method the exposed membrane of the
deck with a vapour barrier set on top, with thermal insulation vapour barrier is usually bitumen-based and is bonded to the
above that, sealed on top with a single layer membrane. PVC-P deck. Joints between the vapour barrier sheets are lapped to
membranes are typically 1.5mm - 3.0mm thick, while EPDM avoid any risk of vapour passing through the roof structure from
membranes are typically 1.0mm - 1.5mm thick. inside the building. The thermal insulation is then bonded to the
vapour barrier. Insulation can also be mechanically fixed with
The mechanically fixed method is suited to applications with high pressure plates to the concrete deck beneath. The membrane
wind uplift forces, as bonded systems tend to be limited by the is then bonded to the insulation with a continuous layer of
bonding strength of the vapour barrier to which the membrane bonding adhesive on its underside. Some systems still bond the
is itself bonded through the thermal insulation layer, which is membrane at points only rather than across the entire surface
typically made from expanded polystyrene board. The vapour of the membrane, but this is dependent upon the wind load and
barrier is loose laid on the concrete deck and thermal insulation the proprietary system used.
is then mechanically fixed through this barrier to the deck
beneath. The spacing of the fasteners varies with the design Bonded membranes have a visually smooth appearance,
wind loads. A separating layer of glass fibre sheet is usually making them suitable where the roof surface is seen from
laid onto the insulation with an outer single layer membrane. points around the building. This fixing method still requires
The membrane is mechanically fixed with pressure plate bars, mechanical fixing at the edges, and around openings such
similar to those used in glazed curtain walling systems to hold as rooflights.
the glass in place. Bars form strips of pressure plate to hold the
roof build-up in place. The pressure plates are fixed by bolts at Membranes can be bonded or mechanically fixed to parapet
centres along their length to the substrate below. upstands. The fixing method that is used on the main area of roof
is usually continued on these vertical areas. With mechanical
System details fixing the pressure plate can be fixed either to the upstand or to
Membranes can also be secured by point fixings rather than the flat roof area. The pressure plate forms a junction between
by pressure plates. 50 - 75mm diameter rigid plastic discs the membrane sheet forming the upstand and the membrane
are used to hold the build-up in place. These are set at centres sheet of the roof. Intermediate pressure plates are applied
to suit the design wind loads. The closed cell rigid insulation horizontally on the upstand when its height exceeds around
is typically made in panel sizes of 1200mm x 2400mm in 500mm, depending on the specific material used.
thicknesses from 25mm to 100mm.
MCH_ 248
9
6
6
1
1
1 1
2
2 2 2
3
3
Vertical section 1:10. Upstand for balustrade 3D detail of upstand
6
2
11
1
1
2
2
11
3
3
3D detail of low parapet Vertical section 1:10. Low parapet
1
6
2
6
Details
2 1. Waterproof membrane
2
3. Concrete deck
4. Paving slabs
2
3 5. Smooth pebbles
6. Parapet coping
7. Rainwater outlet
3 9. Balustrade
10. Pipe or duct
11. External wall
12. Rooflight
11
11
3D details of low parapet
MCH_ 249
Roofs 03
Concrete 3: planted roof
2 2
14
14 3
3 3 3
10
10
10 10
4
4
4
7 4
6
7
7 7
9
8 8
9
9 9
3D detail of rainwater outlet
in heavily planted roof Vertical section 1:10. Heavily planted roof rainwater outlet detail
2 2
12
2
2
12
3
3
3 3
10
10 4
4 4
6 4
7
6 6 6
8
7
7 7 8
8 9
8
9 9 9
Vertical section 1:10. Heavy planting. Pipe penetration. 3D detail of pipe penetration in heavily planted roof
System design
Concrete decks used for planted areas can be waterproofed
with either a concealed membrane or an exposed membrane
as discussed in the previous sections. Planted roofs are of two
3
types: light planted and heavy planted. Unlike other concrete
roof types, planted roofs are not always insulated as they often
5
4 form the roof of underground structures such as car parks,
8 providing a planted roof at ground level.
7
Light planted roofs have resilient plants that require little or no

9
irrigation, and that will grow in a thin layer of soil or organic
3D detail of cill junction growing medium. They are not usually used on a roof accessible
in heavily planted roof to building users, but are seen from vantage points around
the building. Light planted roofs have plants and flowers that
require little maintenance and do not usually have an irrigation
system to supply water at controlled times, relying on rainwater
and modest amounts of watering during maintenance at
2
specific times of the year. These lightweight planted roofs suit a
lightweight deck, such as a thin concrete shell, although profiled
metal decks are commonly used as substrates. Maintenance
3
access is provided by the pebble strips at the roof edges or by
10
4
individual paving slabs that avoid the need to walk across the
5 planting.
6
7 Heavy planted roofs permit a wide variety of plants, shrubs
8 and trees to grow on a concrete roof deck. Due to the size and
9 intensity of the planting they require an automated irrigation
Vertical section 1:10. Heavy planting. Cill junction. system, usually from pipes set into the soil that provide a trickle
MCH_ 250
3D overview of concrete roof with heavy planting
12 7
3 10
2
4
14 10 4
2 3
11 9
7
10
3
15
11
4
2
7 9
10
9 7 3
6
4
8
Details
1. Light vegetation 8. Vapour barrier
2. Heavy vegetation 9. Concrete deck
3. Soil/growing 10. Smooth gravel 3D views showing low parapet condition
medium 11. Coping on heavily planted concrete roof
4. Filter sheet 12. Pipe/ duct
5. Drainage layer 13. Supply pipe
6. Waterproofing layer 14. Rainwater outlet 11
7. Thermal insulation 15. Wall cladding 2
of water fed to the soil at specific times which may vary during
3
the course of the year. Heavy planted roofs require regular 10
maintenance, provided by paved paths or by areas of grass.
4
6 7
Both light planted and heavy planted roofs have drainage layers
8
beneath the growing medium that hold water and release it
back to the plants when required. This allows the soil depth 9
to be much less than that which would be required for older
landscaping methods, where the soil was expected to hold
all the water. The reduced depth of soil allows planting to be
considered for concrete roof structures that would require
no significant strengthening to receive the added weight of
soil. In terms of drainage it is estimated by manufacturers of
proprietary systems that 50% to 90% of rainfall is retained 2
7
in planted roofs, but this varies considerably with local climate
conditions and rainwater drainage provision.
System details 3
Both light planted and heavy planted roofs have a similar build- 4 10
up, comprising typically a top layer of planting, with a growing 15
5
medium or soil beneath. A filter layer is set underneath, and
below this, a drainage layer and moisture mat. Beneath this 6
lowest layer is set thermal insulation if required. Although 7
planted roofs provide a limited amount of thermal insulation 8
from the soil, in practice this is reduced due to the varying 9

amounts of water held within the soil. A root barrier is set
beneath the insulation to protect the waterproof membrane,
Vertical section 1:10. Heavy planting. Low parapet.
that is the bottom layer, bonded to the concrete roof deck.
MCH_ 251
Roofs 03
Concrete 3: planted roof
1 1 1
14
10 10 10
3 3
4
5 5
4 4
7
7 7
8
8 8
9
9
9
15
Vertical section 1:10. Light planting. Rainwater outlet Vertical section 1:10. Light planting. Low
parapet junction
14
10 1
10
10 1
14
3
3
5 3
4 4
5
5 7
7 4
8
8
7
9 8 9
3D detail of rainwater outlet in lightly planted roof 3D detail of low parapet in lightly planted roof
The root barrier is sometimes bonded to the waterproofing a moisture mat is set between the waterproof membrane and
layer, usually when the complete build-up is a single proprietary the drainage layer above.
system. To prevent the passage of organic matter and fine
particles into the water drainage system, a filter sheet is set The soil depth in light planted roofs ranges from 50mm to
underneath the planting. This sheet is lapped up the sides of the around 150mm. Water is stored in the growing medium and
planting where it meets an upstand, to the level of the planting. drainage layer, making it efficient in mild, temperate climates.
Light planted roofs can be grown on both nominally flat roofs
The drainage layer beneath the filter sheet retains water and on sloping roofs with a pitch of up to 25° to 30°. Heavy
that drains through the planting. Water is retained in profiled planted roofs have a deeper drainage layer to provide greater
troughs in a typically polystyrene egg-crate shaped tray that water storage. The soil depth, in excess of 150mm, requires an
releases water back to the planting. This method also performs automatic irrigation system to provide a reliable water supply
satisfactorily on sloping concrete roofs. Excess water is drained coverage of the complete roof.
away through gaps between the drainage trays. The egg-crate
form allows aeration, permitting the soil to absorb the water At upstands and eaves the same principles apply to planted
stored here. In drier months, water diffuses up through the roofs, as discussed in the previous sections. The waterproofing
soil to the plant roots. A moisture mat is often set under this extends a minimum of 150mm above the level of the planting,
layer to catch water that runs off the drainage layer. The mat is providing a continuity from the roof membrane to the flashing
made from a durable fibre that retains moisture and nutrients at the top of the upstand or to the adjacent wall construction.
as well as serving as protection to the root barrier beneath. It Upstands for parapets and door sills, high walls and rooflights
is not used in inverted roof configurations. In inverted roofs, a are formed by extending the waterproof filter sheet and root
root barrier is set immediately below the insulation to protect barrier up to a minimum of 150mm above the level of the soil
the waterproof membrane forming the lowest layer. This layer or growing medium. The visible membranes and sheets are
prevents planting roots from damaging the waterproofing. In concealed with thermal insulation and typically either paving
warm roof construction, the waterproof membrane is set on turned on edge, as per the paving used for adjacent access
top of the thermal insulation, positioning the insulation within paving, or a metal sheet to match that of the parapet coping
the building envelope. A vapour barrier is set between the where a metal coping is used.
thermal insulation and the concrete deck. In this configuration
MCH_ 252
Details 8. Vapour barrier
3D detail of rooflight upstand 1. Light vegetation 9. Concrete deck
in lightly planted roof 2. Heavy vegetation 10. Smooth gravel
3. Soil/growing medium 11. Coping
4. Filter sheet 12. Pipe/ duct
5. Drainage layer 13. Supply pipe
6. Waterproofing layer 14. Rainwater outlet
7. Thermal insulation 15. Wall cladding
10 1
4
10
1
4
7
6 7
9
9
Vertical section 1:10. Light planting. Rooflight

upstand
3D overview of concrete roof with
12
light (sedum) planting
10
1
10
1
1 10
4 10
9
7 5 1
4
7
9
8 10
9 9
(Right) 3D detail of pipe penetration
in lightly planted roof
12
1 1
10 10 1
3 3
4 5 4
5 3
4
5
7 7
7
8 8
8
9 9
9
Vertical section 1:10. Light planting. Pipe penetration. Vertical section 1:10. Light planting. two-way outlet
MCH_ 253
Roofs 03
Timber roofs 1: flat roofs: mastic asphalt coverings
Vertical section 1:10.

2-way drain outlet
3
4
1
2
1 3
11
4
1
3 3D view showing
13 2
4 step in flat timber
7 roof with mastic
6 2
2 asphalt covering
7 1
3
4
8
6
2
1
1
8
3
6
2
2 4
7
7
2 7 Vertical section
1:10. Step in roof
2 8
3D view showing
ridge in mastic roof
System design
Details This section discusses flat timber roofs that use the common
1. Mastic Asphalt 8. Drylining/drywall internal finish
2. Plywood sheet or timber boards 9. Metal flashing combination of bitumen sheet-based membrane as a
3. Separating layer 10. Fascia waterproofing layer in a warm roof. Although other membrane
4. Rigid thermal insulation 11. External Wall materials are used on flat timber roofs as both warm and
5. Freestanding timber upstand 12. Expanded metal lathing cold roofs, typically formed in elastomeric and thermoplastic
6. Vapour barrier 13. Rain water outlet/ other membranes, their application is discussed in the earlier section
7. Softwood joists penetrations
on exposed membranes in concrete roofs. The principles of
detailing in that section can be similarly applied to timber roofs.
Bitumen-based sheet can also be used in ‘inverted roof’, or
concealed membrane configuration as described in that earlier
6
section where the detailing is similar, but bitumen-based sheet
is generally less robust than the membranes described in that
section. Membranes applied to concrete decks are usually
10
7
laid in hot liquid form and are reinforced to suit the specific
conditions of folds and joints occurring within the structural
deck. In this section the material is considered as an exposed
and visible material on a relatively lightweight deck.
Bitumen sheet membranes are economic, and are often used

with timber roof decks, which together provide an economic
roof design for relatively small-scale applications, or designs
Vertical section 1:10. Eaves with a complex geometry of low pitched roofs, as is often used
MCH_ 254
9
5 1
12 1
7
4
5
6
2
11 3
4
2 7
7 6
7
8
Vertical section 1:10. Low parapet wall 2

3D view of low parapet wall
12
5 1 1
3 3
4 4
6 2 6
2
7
7
8 8
Vertical section 1:10. High parapet wall Vertical section 1:10. Roof light junction
in housing and in school buildings. Bitumen-based membranes heat, making the material gradually more brittle which eventually
have developed over the past 25 years to compete with the results in cracks. The polymer additives reduce this effect,
newer elastomeric and thermoplastic materials by increasing particularly the TPO additives that help to increase the life of the
their flexibility and making them thinner, requiring less material, material, which can now be up to around 25 years. TPO-modified
which helps to reduce their overall cost. Bitumen-based sheet can be exposed to the effects of the sun, requiring no
membranes can also be used with concrete and metal decks, additional solar protection, since the material provides better
and the principles here can be applied in a similar way to those UV resistance than older-type bitumen-based membranes. SBS-
roof deck types. modified sheet is usually covered with stone chippings or solar
reflective paint to protect them from the effects of the sun.
Bitumen-based sheet is manufactured in roll form in widths
of around 1000mm, is black in colour, and is typically mixed System details
with SBS (styrene-butadiene-styrene) polymers or with TPO Where plywood is used to form the structural deck of a timber
(thermoplastic polyolefin) polymers. The addition of these roof, the joints between plywood boards are usually taped to
polymers raises the melting point which ensures stability in hot provide a continuously smooth surface. On timber boarded
weather as well as increasing the flexibility of the material at decks, where this is not as practical a method, a thin layer of
low temperatures (usually in winter in temperate climates) and bitumen is laid onto the deck, applied typically in thick liquid
enhancing the fire resistance of the material. Bitumen-based form to seal the joints between the boards, the bitumen setting
sheet often has a glass fibre reinforced upper face to provide to form a smooth substrate. A vapour barrier is set onto the
greater dimensional stability and resistance to accidental prepared timber deck, the barrier often being bitumen-based as
damage, as well as a polyester reinforced core to increase part of a proprietary system. Rigid closed cell insulation such as
tensile strength. These sheet materials are typically around polyurethane is bedded in hot bitumen onto the vapour barrier
4mm thick, depending on the proprietary system used. Even to hold the insulation securely in place. A loose laid perforated
with these additives, bitumen-based sheet is slowly oxidised by isolating layer is set onto the thermal insulation which is used to
MCH_ 255
Roofs 03
Timber roofs 1: flat roofs: mastic asphalt coverings
1
9
1
12
5
1 1
13 3
3
4 4
12
6 6
2 2
13
5
4
7 7
3
2
7 4
6
8
2
8 7
Vertical section 1:10. Pipe Penentration
9
1
3
5 3D views showing pipe penetration in
4
mastic roof membrane
12
1 2
4
13
2
7
allow the membrane and thermal insulation to release gases lapped by around 100mm to ensure a water tight seal. Torches
into the isolating layer which are formed as a result of bonding are usually gas fuelled, supplied from a small canister as part of
the bitumen to the insulation. The bitumen-based membrane is a hand-held tool, or are supplied from a large gas cylinder set
then bonded to the thermal insulation through the holes in the onto the roof to a variety of tools, either hand-held or wheeled,
isolating layer. for larger scale applications.
Resistance to UV radiation is provided by either a coating of fine Upstands in bitumen-based sheets are formed by either fixing
stone chippings or by aluminium solar reflective paint applied the sheet to the plywood face of a timber framed upstand,
to the visible surface of the bitumen-based sheet. As a result or to the face of the thermal insulation, depending on the
of providing this additional UV protection, these coatings have configuration of the external wall. Where a timber roof deck
the additional benefit of reflecting heat, which has the effect of meets a masonry wall, with the concrete block wall being
reducing the surface temperature of the roof below that which clad in timber rainscreen panels, the bitumen-based sheet is
would otherwise be the case. Solar reflective paint gives the shown fixed to the face of the upstand. With a low upstand, the
roof a metal appearance, which provides a visual alternative membrane continues up the full height and extends across the
to the characteristic black colour of bitumen-based sheet. top of the wall underneath the coping. The roof membrane is
Membranes can also be provided with a solar protection layer made continuous with the waterproof seal of the external wall,
during manufacture as part of a proprietary bitumen-based with the membrane terminating against the bitumen paint finish
membrane system. of the external face of the blockwork wall. The coping can be
made from any impervious and durable material. A pressed
Bitumen-based membranes are fixed typically by either torching, metal coping, overhanging on both sides, provides additional
bonding or mechanical fixing methods. With torching, a flame protection to the membrane as it folds over the top of the wall.
is used to melt an adhesive layer on the underside of the sheet
so that the membrane adheres to the substrate. Sheets are
MCH_ 256
9 9
1 1 1
3
3
4 4
4
6
6 6
2
2 2
7 7 7
8
8
11
Vertical section 1:10. Expansion joint
Vertical section 1:10. Eaves
1 1
1
3 3
3
4 4
6 4
6 2 6
2 2 3
7
4
6
7 2
7
8
7
Vertical section 1:10. Expansion joint 3D detail of expansion joint in mastic roof 8
9 Details
1. Mastic Asphalt
2. Plywood sheet or timber boards
3. Separating layer
1 1 1 4. Rigid thermal insulation
3 12 12 3 5. Freestanding timber upstand
4 4 4 6. Vapour barrier
7. Softwood joists
6 6
2 2 8. Drylining/drywall internal finish
2
9. Metal flashing
10. Fascia
11. External Wall
7 7 10 12. Expanded metal lathing
13. Rain water outlet/other
penetrations
8 8
11
Vertical section 1:10. Balustrade Vertical section 1:10. Eaves
MCH_ 257
Roofs 03
Timber roofs 2: flat roof: bitumen-based sheet
3
1
9
3D overview showing typical flat timber roof

construction with rigid insulation above roof
structure, low parapet and drain outlet
(Below) 3D view showing alternative drain outlet detail on flat timber roof
arrangement
1
1
3
3
2 2 3
2
5
5
2
System design
Flat timber roofs are described as being in either ‘warm’ roof
or ‘cold’ roof configuration. In the warm roof configuration,
thermal insulation is set on top of the timber deck, which is
protected by a waterproof layer set onto its upper face. A vapour
barrier is set between the thermal insulation and the timber
3D view showing drain outlet detail on flat timber roof arrangement deck. The roof build-up is not required to be ventilated as the
timber structure is maintained at near internal temperature
conditions. In the cold roof configuration the waterproof layer
7
is set directly onto the timber deck. Thermal insulation is set
beneath the timber deck, in the voids between the timber joists
and air is allowed to circulate in the void to provide ventilation
that prevents the possibility of rot forming in the timber. A
12
3 vapour barrier is set beneath the insulation, on the warm (in
1
winter) side of the insulation, with a dry wall or internal lining
10
board set below this. In both warm and cold roofs, the vapour
2 barrier avoids the passage of damp air up into the thermal
5 insulation where interstitial condensation can form that might
damage the internal construction of the roof.
6
In a mastic asphalt waterproofed warm roof, thermal insulation
is set on top of the timber deck, with an asphalt layer on top
of this. A separation layer is set between the asphalt and the
Vertical section 1:10. Low parapet wall with drain outlet thermal insulation. A vapour barrier is set between the thermal
MCH_ 258
1
4
3
7
2
5
2
1
6
4 5
Vertical section 1:10. Flat 9

roof with rigid insulation
above roof structure
1
4 2 3
6
5
3D overview showing typical flat timber

3
roof construction with insulation
between roof joists.
6
Vertical section 1:10. Flat

roof with insulation between
joists 7
Details
1. Bitumen based sheet 1
2. Plywood sheet
3. Rigid thermal insulation
4. Vapour barrier 2
5. Softwood joists 3
6. Dry lining/drywall internal finish 4

9
7. Metal Flashing
8. Timber upstand 5
9. External Wall
10. Angle fillet
11. Proprietary skirt flashing
12. Rainwater outlet
13. Paving bonded to bitumen based sheet
6
3D overview showing typical flat

insulation and the timber deck. In the mastic asphalt cold roof timber roof construction with rigid
configuration, the asphalt is set directly onto the timber deck, insulation above roof structure
with a separating layer beneath the asphalt.
Mastic asphalt, used to form a continuous waterproof covering

on flat or sloping roofs, has polymer additives in some types to
provide stability at the relatively high temperatures experienced
7
when exposed to the effects of the sun, as well as providing
1
flexibility of the material at low temperatures, which allows it to
take up movements in the substrate. Asphalt is applied in a hot
liquid form on site, allowing it to form a homogeneous material
at complex junctions such as at upstands, roof penetrations 2
3
and changes in level. It was used more commonly 25 years
ago, and its popularity is being challenged by single layer sheet
membranes, which have greater strength, flexibility, a higher
melting point and UV resistance. However, the use of this 5
material is set to continue, mainly a concealed membrane,
but its use as an exposed membrane is discussed here since 6
this application is much more common in timber construction.
Mastic asphalt is laid on rigid substrates, typically reinforced
concrete decks, but its use as an exposed membrane on a
timber deck is set to continue, particularly as a result of
additives which make the material more flexible than was 3D isometric showing typical flat timber roof construction with rigid
insulation above roof structure
previously the case.
MCH_ 259
Roofs 03
Timber roofs 2: flat roof: bitumen-based sheet
Details 7. Metal Flashing

1. Bitumen based sheet 8. Timber upstand
2. Plywood sheet 9. External Wall
3. Rigid thermal insulation 10. Angle fillet
4. Vapour barrier 11. Proprietary skirt flashing
5. Softwood joists 12. Rainwater outlet
6. Dry lining/drywall internal finish 13. Paving bonded to bitumen
2 based sheet
1
3D view showing step in flat

timber roof arrangement
1
3
5
3D overview showing typical flat timber roof 2
construction with rigid insulation above roof 2
structure, low parapet and drain outlet
1
1 5
3
9 2
10
5
3
12 5
5
5
2
3D detail showing step in timber roof construction
3
7
2
7
1 1 1 10
4
4
3 3 3 5 6
3
2 2 2
5
5 5
6 6
Vertical section 1:10. Pipe penetration and step in roof Vertical section 1:10. Step in roof
MCH_ 260
7
1
1 1 3
10 10 10 10
4 8 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
5 5 5
6 6
6
Vertical section 1:10. Balustrade detail Vertical section 1:10. Expansion joint
Vertical section 1:10. Low
7 1
7 parapet wall
1 10 4 3
8
1 8 10
10
1 2
10 3
3
3
5
2 5
5
5
2 2 (Left) 3D views showing
expansion join in typical timber
flat roof construction
In warm roof construction, a protective surface is usually applied Verges can be formed by creating an asphalt upstand, built to a
to all exposed areas with a solar reflective paint, stone chippings height of around 50mm to suit the expected flow from the roof.
or thin paving slabs which are bedded into the asphalt surface An alternative detail is to stop the asphalt at the edge of the
with a proprietary adhesive. A single layer of 10mm – 14mm roof and terminate in a metal strip so that the asphalt cannot
stone chippings is used as permanent surface protection for be seen from below, but in practice it can be difficult to achieve
asphalt. The chippings are usually bonded to the asphalt after a reliable seal between the asphalt and the metal trim.
the asphalt has cooled, with a bitumen solution to provide only a
limited bond. This allows the chippings to be removed easily at a Penetrations through an asphalt covered roof are formed by
later date for repair and maintenance work. extending the asphalt up by 150mm to create a collar round
the material. The top of the asphalt collar has an apron flashing
System details around it to protect the top of the asphalt. An alternative
At upstands, where the asphalt is usually set vertically, or at a method of sealing a roof penetration is to form a complete
steep slope, the material is laid in three coats. The first coat upstand around the penetration which can be insulated to
is very thin in order to key in the substrate, then two further the top of the opening. An insulated metal panel can then be
separate coats are applied to give an overall thickness of mechanically fixed and sealed, or bonded, to the duct or pipe
around 20mm. In forming an upstand, sheathing felt is fixed to creating the penetration. An additional secondary seal, formed
the substrate, often a separate upstand fixed to the roof, as typically with either EPDM or metal sheet, forms a secondary
mentioned earlier. Expanded metal lathing, typically at 150mm seal to this penetration.
centres, primed in bitumen, is fixed to the face of the sheathing
layer, which provides a ‘key’ to which the asphalt will bond. Gutters can be formed to any shape created within the timber
Where the upstand is formed in lightweight concrete block, the deck since asphalt can be laid to suit a complex geometry
surface is faced with either a sand cement render, or metal without the need for joints in the material. Where the gutter
laths and sheathing felt is used as described. is formed as a parapet gutter at the base of the tiled roof,
the asphalt is carried up over the tilting fillet of the tiled roof.
Trims to verges and eaves are formed with a GRP or aluminium Rainwater outlets are formed by setting the outlet at the level
trim in order to support the bottom edge of the asphalt. Some of the structural deck. The asphalt is stepped down with 45°
installations use no trim at all, but the edge becomes vulnerable folds down into the rainwater outlet, and the metal grating and
to damage and can result in a visually uneven appearance. When cover is fixed down onto this. The sheathing felt extends up to
the asphalt edge is terminated by a gutter, a metal flashing can the edge of the rainwater outlet.
be set under the bottom of the asphalt.
MCH_ 261
Roofs 03
Timber roofs 3: pitched roof: tiles
14
2
2
3
7 10
5
3D view of ventilated roof with terracotta tiles
14
14 14
1
1
1
5 2 2 2 2
5 5
3
5 10 7
5
2 10 5
7 7 7
3
3D view of ventilated roof with terracotta tiles Vertical section 1:20. Unventilated roof Vertical section 1:20. Ventilated roof
System design windblown rain, the effects of the sun, as well as protecting the
Clay tiles for roofs are most commonly made from clay or felt from accidental damage. Many tile shapes and profiles are
concrete. In the clay type natural clay is mixed with additives available which have been developed from historical examples.
such as quartz, mica, iron oxide and crystalline aluminium The design life for tiled roofs in both clay and concrete types
oxide. Clay tiles are fired in a kiln at around 1100°c to make is around 30 years but they are actually expected to last for
the material both rigid and resistant to moisture penetration. around 100 years.
Plain tiles are used on pitched roofs ranging from vertical tile
hanging to pitches as low as around 35° above the horizontal. Like flat roofs, pitched roofs are formed as either warm roofs or
Interlocking tiles, with grooves and complex laps can be used cold roofs. In the cold roof, horizontal joints are insulated and the
in down to a minimum pitch of 22.5° above the horizontal. void is ventilated to ensure that any condensation forming in the
Concrete tiles are made from aggregate and Portland cement roof void can escape, which avoids damage to both the timber
which are mixed together and then cured in temperature- and the thermal insulation. In recent years it has become more
controlled chambers in the factory. Their appearance tends to common to use a vapour permeable membrane or ‘breather’
imitate those of traditional clay tiles in both shape and variety of membrane as the underlayer to the tiling instead of waterproof
colour, but large interlocking tiles are available in sizes that are roofing felt. This is done to avoid ventilating the roof void, which
difficult to achieve in clay. In common with clay tiles, concrete can become very damp in temperate climates during winter.
plain tiles are used in roof pitches down to 35° above the
horizontal. An advantage of concrete tiles over clay tiles is that In the warm roof, the sloping rafters are filled with thermal
some concrete interlocking tiles can be used for pitches as low insulation in order to allow the internal space of the roof void to
as 12.5° above the horizontal. be used. As with the cold roof, a vapour barrier is set between
the thermal insulation and the internal dry wall lining. A vapour
Both tile types are fixed to timber battens set horizontally, that permeable membrane is set on the outside face of the sloping
is, at right angles to the direction of the slope. The battens are rafters as an underlay to the tiling. If the insulation completely
fixed onto roofing felt, which forms a second line of defence fills the void between the rafters, then this breather membrane
and a full weathertight barrier to the roof. The roofing felt is serves to allow moisture trapped within the construction to
set on timber rafters (sloping timbers) or full timber trusses. escape. If the thermal insulation does not fill the void, and is
The tiles provide the first line of defence against rainwater set against the internal dry lining, then the void between the
penetration as well as protecting the roofing felt from direct insulation and the breather membrane is ventilated at the ridge
MCH_ 262
14
14
1
1
3
1
3
Vertical section 1:20. Ridge

detail for ventilated roof
3
5
5
2
5
3
14 1
5
15 5
9
1 10 7
5
3 1
2 5
7
10 7
5 13
10 4
11 12
7
13
3D view of timber shingles on 3D view of timber shingles on timber

timber roof construction roof construction
Details
1. Roof tiles, slates or shingles
(tiles shown)
2. Softwood battens
3. Roofing felt
3
4. Gutter
5. Softwood rafter
1
6. Ventilation void 9
2
7. Thermal insulation 1 3
8. Vapour barrier 2 1
2
9. Softwood joist 7 7
10. Dry lining/drywall internal 3 4
finish
11. Soffit board to conceal 5 11
rafters but allow ventilation
4 Vertical section 1:20.
to air gap behind
Tiles applied to vertical
12. Fascia board
Vertical section 1:20. Eaves detail for profiled tile wall
13. Supporting wall (brick cavity
wall shown)
14. Ridge capping (ridge tile
shown)
15. Metal flashing Vertical section 1:20. Eaves detail
16. Standing seam sheet
MCH_ 263
Roofs 03
Timber roofs 3: pitched roof: tiles
14
1
7
1
5
2
10 10
15
3D view showing slate tiles on unventilated

1
timber roof at ridge
7
2
5 10
1
5
2 1
1
4
7
3
4
10 1
3 7
15
5 2
5
7 4
3D section through slate tiles on unventilated timber roof
showing valley and fold details 9
15
10
13
Vertical section 1:20. Eaves detail. Vertical section 1:20. Valley details
2 Standing seam roof covering for ventilated and unventilated roof
1
3 and at the eaves. Where a breather membrane is used, the

5
7 cavity between the outside face of the membrane and the tiles is
15
increased from 25mm to 50mm with counter battens to allow
10 the air within the void to move more freely, ensuring that vapour
being released to the outside can be dispersed easily.
System details
Both plain tiles and interlocking tiles are terminated at their
base with a gutter. In order to maintain a constant pitch of tiles
2 down to the gutter, the bottom row of battens is raised up on
1
a wedge-shaped timber profile called a tilting fillet. This allows
the underlay to meet the underside of the bottom tile, and drain
both rainwater running down the tiles as well as any moisture
7
15 running down the underlay into the gutter. A ventilator, typically
5
10 in PVC-U, is set between the bottom tile to ventilate either the
roof void in a cold roof, or the cavity between the underlayer and
2 the tiles in a warm roof configuration.
In the cold roof version the proprietary ventilator is set beneath

the underlayer. Fresh air is allowed to flow into the ventilator set
beneath the bottom tile and is released into the roof void without
affecting the thermal insulation of the roof at ceiling level, which
Vertical section 1:20. Internal fold is continuous between wall and roof. In the warm roof version,
a ventilator set between the bottom tile and the felt underlay
MCH_ 264
15
1
9
7 5
3
1 2 16
3 10 7
5
10
4
13 13 9
Vertical section 1:20. Eaves detail of slate tile Vertical section 1:20. Ridge detail. Metal tiles on timber roof
15
5
16
5 16
7
15
10
7
4
13
3D section through standing seam

roof on timber structure
13
introduces air into the void between the tile and the breather
membrane. The thermal insulation either continues to the fascia
board, then returns horizontally back from a continuity with the
wall insulation, or alternatively the wall insulation continues
vertically until it reaches the sloping insulation set between the
rafters. In the second version, the void forming the fascia and Details
soffit immediately beneath it is in ‘cold’ roof configuration and 1. Roof tiles, slates or shingles (tiles shown)
is required to be ventilated in order to avoid damp, stagnant air 2. Softwood battens
from damaging the timbers. 3. Roofing felt
4. Gutter
5. Softwood rafter
Where a sealed ridge is required, ridge tiles are either bedded 6. Ventilation void
in a sand cement mortar, or are dry fixed with metal screws, 7. Thermal insulation
typically stainless steel, where a rapid installation is required. 8. Vapour barrier
For ventilated ridges, proprietary fixings usually made in PVC-U 9. Softwood joist
with ventilation slots are used to ventilate either the batten 10. Dry lining/drywall internal finish
11. Soffit board to conceal rafters but allow
cavity between the underlay and the tiles, in a warm roof, or the ventilation to air gap behind
roof void in a cold roof configuration. Where the batten cavity 12. Fascia board
is ventilated the cavity is sealed across the ridge. Air is allowed 13. Supporting wall (brick cavity wall shown)
to pass through a gap between the bottom of the ridge tile and 14. Ridge capping (ridge tile shown)
the roof tile immediately beneath; the gap being formed by the 15. Metal flashing
16. Standing seam sheet
PVC-U ventilator. Where the complete roof void is vented to the
outside in a cold roof, a gap of around 10mm in the underlay is
formed at the ridge.
MCH_ 265
Roofs 03
Plastic roofs 1: GRP rooflights
2 4
7
Details
1. Translucent & insulated
GRP roof panel
2. Thermally broken
aluminium framing
3. Pressure plate
4. Supporting structure
5. Folded metal cover strip
6. Masonry/concrete wall
7. Gutter
3D views of typical GRP rooflight system details
3 1
1 1
2
3D views of typical ridge detail

4
3
1 1
3D view of typical gutter/eaves detail
MCH_ 266
Details
1. Translucent & insulated
2 GRP roof panel
2. Thermally broken
aluminium framing
3. Pressure plate
1 5. Folded metal cover strip
7. Gutter
2
4 1
3D view of typical edge detail
3D overview of
GRP rooflight
3D overview of GRP rooflight
System design walling or are clipped to it and secured in place by self tapping
Glass reinforced polyester (GRP) is used in the form of thermally screws that hold the pressure plate in position.
insulated panels to form translucent rooflights which are robust
and economic when compared to an equivalent glazed rooflight In small rooflights, up to around a 3000mm span, GRP
with double glazed units. The advantages of GRP over glass are composite panels require no additional support, while those of
its strength, lightness and flexibility as well as the material’s greater span use an additional aluminium or steel frame beneath
high resistance to impact damage. GRP is a composite to support the composite panels over the greater span. Panel
material formed by reinforcing flexible fibreglass mat (or fibres) sizes vary with the proprietary system and with the individual
with thermosetting polyester resins that provide high tensile rooflight design. Typical panel sizes range from around 400mm
and compressive strengths. The material is not combustible, x 800mm to 800mm x 3000mm. GRP rooflight panels use
making it a suitable material for rooflights as well as an opaque a lightweight framing system rather than a lapped junction or
roof cladding material. While GRP rooflight systems do not raised edges providing a standing seam type joint used in metal
usually achieve the high levels of resistance to wind blown rain composite panels. These make their appearance more refined,
of internally drained and ventilated curtain walling systems, since the framing is very visible in translucent GRP panels, unlike
they are robust and economic, making them ideal where their metal equivalent. An extruded aluminium T-section forms
translucency is required rather than the transparency provided the support to the panels on all four edges, with an extruded
by glass panels. aluminium pressure plate being used to hold the panels in place
on the outer face of the GRP panels. Most support frames
Rooflights are made from GRP sheet which is bonded to an are now internally drained and ventilated to provide a second
aluminium carrier frame around its edges. Thermal insulation line of defence against rainwater penetration. The outer seal
set into the void is usually bonded to the outer GRP facing is provided by an extruded EPDM gasket clipped into the
sheets to provide true composite action between the GRP aluminium extrusion. Proprietary tapes are also used but are
skin and the insulated core. Like metal composite panels, GRP more dependent upon good workmanship on site than gaskets,
panels increasingly have a thermal break introduced into the which are fixed to the pressure plate in factory conditions.
framing to reduce the possibility of condensation forming on
the underside of the panel in temperate climates as well as Pressure plates for panel joints running down the slope are
to improve the overall thermal insulation value of the rooflight. set over the joint between the panels in the manner of glazed
Thermal breaks are usually made from an extruded polymer curtain walling. Joints running across the slope sometimes
that has a much lower thermal conductivity than aluminium, have pressure plates with lapped joints, in order to avoid water
and are bonded to the extrusion in the manner of glazed curtain building up on the upper side of the joint and being unable to run
MCH_ 267
Roofs 03
Plastic roofs 1: GRP rooflights
1
2
3D view showing typical

monopitch GRP rooflight
3D view showing typical monopitch GRP

rooflight ridge detail
1
2
2
over the joint. The lap is formed by setting an aluminium strip

1 or extrusion under the bottom edge of the panel, which laps
over the top of the panel below. In addition to these standard
junctions which form part of proprietary systems, panels are
jointed with folded metal sheets, where unusual junctions are to
be formed. An inner metal sheet is bonded to the junction of the
panels to provide an inner seal and vapour barrier.
System details
When a rooflight terminates in an eaves, an intermediary
2
aluminium extrusion or folded sheet is used to form the junction.
An outer EPDM or extruded silicone seal is used as an outer
line of defence against rainwater penetration at the junction
with the GRP roof panel. Drainage slots formed in the bottom
of the aluminium closer piece drain away any water that passes
through the outer seal. These drainage slots also take away
any water to the outside from the drainage channels within the
joints between panels that run down the slope of the roof. The
GRP panel beneath the closer piece that forms a vertical part
of the rooflight is formed by setting the panel behind a vertical
aluminium strip that forms a lapped joint over the top of the
panel, avoiding the possibility of rainwater passing through the
3D view showing typical monopitch GRP rooflight ridge detail
joint. The gap between the aluminium closer and the GRP panel
MCH_ 268
3 Details
1. Translucent & insulated GRP roof
panel
2. Thermally broken aluminium framing
3. Pressure plate
5. Folded metal cover strip
5
1
3D overview of GRP rooflight shell structure

2
1
3D detail of junction with external wall
1 5
3D overview of GRP rooflight shell

2
structure
6
is sealed with either an EPDM gasket, a proprietary tape or a
silicone sealant. A metal gutter is fixed to the metal closer if 6
required, but this is usually exposed unless it forms part of a

fascia, such as the curved eaves used in profiled metal roofing,
for example. In smaller rooflights the rainwater typically runs off
onto the surrounding area of the flat roof.
The gable ends of sloping GRP rooflights are formed with an

aluminium flashing that is bonded, or mechanically fixed and
3
sealed, to the metal edge frame to the side of the GRP panel 1
forming the sloping panel, and to the top of the triangular-
shaped vertical end panel. The sloping panel extends slightly
forward of the vertical panels to give a thin edge to the roof,
but alternatively the roof can terminate in a sharp edge, with
a folded aluminium sheet or angle closing the gap between the
panels. As with other panel to panel junctions, a waterproof
membrane is set on the underside of the outer metal flashing
as a second line of defence against rainwater penetration. 6
The void between the panels is filled with mineral fibre quilt-
type thermal insulation, which has the flexibility required to fill
the irregular-shaped voids between GRP panels. An additional
aluminium angle is used at the junction of the inner face of the
3D detail of junction with external wall
panels to provide an additional seal and vapour barrier.
MCH_ 269
Roofs 03
Plastic roofs 2: GRP panels and shells
1 1 1
1 1
3 3
5 5
5
Vertical section 1:5. Panel to panel junction
1 1
3
5 5
3 Vertical section 1:5. Panel to panel
1 junction
1 1
1
Vertical section 1:10. Panel to panel junction 1
1
3
3D section through GRP roof

panels
5
1
1 5
System design being laid into the resin, usually with rollers. The process of
While glass reinforced polyester (GRP) rooflights, discussed in fabricating GRP panels is very labour intensive, but requires no
the previous section on rooflights, are made as panels which expensive equipment, making panel production a craft-based
are joined to form translucent rooflights, opaque GRP panels technique rather than an industrial process. When the panels
can be made as monolithic, self-supporting shells, usually made are released from the mould they are trimmed along their edges
from panel segments which are brought to site and bolted and ground smooth where necessary. An alternative method is
together. The segment sizes of GRP shells are made in sizes to apply a mixture of resin and glass fibre particles as a spray
which are suitable for transportation by road, usually set upright directly into the mould. The mixture is applied to a thickness of
on a trailer. The shells can then be lifted by crane into place as 3mm to 5mm depending on the panel size required.
a completed assembly, which makes them quite different from
roof structures in other materials. In the example shown, GRP panels are supported by a light
metal frame beneath. The frame comprises steel or aluminium
The example shown is of a small shell for a rooflight. The shell T-sections which are welded together to form a structure
consists of a set of segmented panels which are bolted together that supports the complete outer skin. The frame has curved
to form a roof shell of approximately 7.0 metres diameter, members that radiate from the centre at the top to the edge
supported by an additional frame. Panels are made in a mould, and from the centre at the lowest point of the structure, back
usually from a single segmented panel type to form a complete to the perimeter. The radiating ‘spokes’ of the wheel are held
rooflight. Moulds are usually made from plywood to create in place by T-sections that, in plan, form concentric circles. This
the shape and are then finished in GRP to create the negative ‘bicycle wheel’ form is supported near its perimeter by a metal
shape of the panel being formed. GRP panels are fabricated by ring beam that is set immediately above the glazing beneath the
first applying a release agent to the mould to allow the finished GRP roof. The ring beam is supported by posts that are fixed to
panel to be removed easily, then thermosetting polyester resins the roof deck beneath.
are applied to the face of the mould with flexible fibreglass mat
MCH_ 270
Details
1. GRP shell panel
2. GRP outer cladding panel
3. GRP structural rib
4. GRP thin panel with
honeycomb core 1
1
5. Mild steel or aluminium frame
5
1
3-D overview of GRP shell

3
1
3
1
5
3 3D views of underside of
3
roof
5
3
5
1
1
Horizontal and vertical sections 1:50. 3
Generic example of roof geometry
5
1
3
1
3
3D section through roof
assembly
MCH_ 271
Roofs 03
Plastic roofs 2: GRP panels and shells
3D overview of GRP shell

1 5
Details 5
1. GRP shell panel
2. GRP outer cladding panel 3
3. GRP structural rib
4. GRP thin panel with honey
comb core
5. Mild steel or aluminium
frame
6. Mild steel or aluminium
truss
7. GRP flashing
8. Waterproofing membrane
1
3
5
3
5
5
3D detail of GRP panel connection 3D detail of GRP panel connection to supporting aluminium frame
3
3
5
3
1
3 1
3D section through GRP shell showing internal structure
MCH_ 272
3D overview of GRP shell
3
1 3
1
3
1
Vertical section 1:10. Junction at base 1
4
4
10
10
6
6
2 1
3
3
3
2
1
4
4 1 4
4
Horizontal section 1:10. Panel to Vertical section 1:10. Panel to panel junction Vertical section 1:10. Panel to panel junction
panel junction
System details around 200mm deep to avoid the need for an additional
The metal frame is clad in prefabricated GRP panels which steel frame. Panels would be bolted together to form a self-
are bolted to the support frame on their internal face in order supporting GRP shell. Ribs would be made in solid GRP in order
to avoid visible fixings. Panels are made with an outer skin of to allow them to be bolted together easily. Panels are joined and
GRP around 5mm thick, with an overall panel depth of around sealed on their external face in the same way as the example
45mm for the panels sizes shown of 3500mm long and shown. Where panel segments converge at the top of the shell,
1800mm wide. The GRP panels are stiffened by concentric a separate centre panel is used to create a smooth external
ribs, around 120mm wide, but ribs on the edges are thin in finish. A central external panel avoids the difficulty of bringing
order to facilitate their bolting together. Panels are secured up to 16 panels together at a single point which would make
with bolts which are fixed through the metal support frame into it difficult to achieve a smooth transition from one side of the
reinforcing ribs at the edges of the GRP panels. Joints between shell to the other. In the example shown, a shadow groove is set
GRP panels are formed by butting panels up to one another around the joint between the central panel and the segments
and sealing the gap between the panels. The seal is formed in in order to avoid any misalignment between segmented panels
a continuous step profile on the long edges of each panel that from being visible. The perimeter joint of the panel can be filled
creates a continuous groove at the joint between panels. The and sealed using the method described earlier, with additional
groove is filled with a lamination of glass fibre and resin to fill the grinding required on site to ensure a smooth finish.
groove to the level of the top of the panels. The external face of
the GRP is then ground smooth, usually by a hand-held grinder, The internal part of the shell, on its underside, has the same
to achieve a uniform, smooth surface that conceals the joint panels with the same finish but without any thermal insulation,
lines. Finally, a paint finish is applied, usually as a spray, to give which is typically set around the outer edge of the shell in order
a smooth and reflective finish. Where pigments are applied to to keep temperatures within the void close to those within the
the top coat, or ‘gel’ coat, in the factory, a more limited range of building. Close to the edge of the shell, on the underside, the
colours is available. Thermal insulation is set on the underside joint between the top panel, which curves around the edges,
of the shell, being bonded to the inner face of the GRP panels in and the adjacent panel underneath, has a groove formed along
order to achieve continuity of insulation. the joint to serve as a drip. Windblown rain will still be pushed
along the underside of the soffit panel, but the drip reduces the
Alternatively, the glass fibre ribs that form part of the shell amount of water that runs down to the glazing below.
to provide it with integral structural stability, could be made
MCH_ 273
Roofs 03
Fabric systems 1: ETFE cushions
3D views showing joint between ETFE cushions showing air supply

pipes
10 2 3
1 1 1
5 5
5
Vertical section 1:20. Connection between ETFE cushions
System design ETFE cushions usually consist of a minimum of two layers of

Fabrics used as roof membranes have the advantage of being ETFE sheet which are set back to back to form a flat panel and
light in weight, strong in tension and durable, and have the ability are sealed at the edges. The void within the cushion-shaped
to be cut to different shapes and joined together economically, panel is inflated with air to a pressure that varies with cushion
which is difficult to achieve so easily with metal and is very size and the manufacturer’s proprietary system to provide
expensive to achieve with curved glass. Roof membrane fabrics structural stability to the panel. The increased air pressure
are used in tension structures, either by stretching the material, stretches, or ‘prestresses’, the outer membranes, giving ETFE
or ‘prestressing’ the membrane, between structural supports cushions their characteristic curved shape. The cushions are
or, alternatively, by supporting the material pneumatically in held in place by clamps that form a frame around the cushions
inflated structures. The use of fabric membranes in prestressed in the manner of glazed rooflights. The clamping frames are
roofs is discussed in the next two sections on single layer fabric then supported by a mild steel structure formed typically as
membranes. This section considers ETFE cushions, also called box sections or tubes. Cushions typically have three layers that
‘pillows’ or ‘foils’, which are the most common application of form two chambers. The two chambers are linked by a hole
inflatable fabric roofs. formed in the middle (flat) membrane in order to allow air to
pass to both chambers from a single air supply, and to ensure
Although large scale self-supporting inflatable roof structures that the air pressure in both chambers remains equal. This
are in use, particularly for covering sports stadiums, they three-layer cushion provides a U-value of around 2.0 W/m2K,
remain structurally stable only while air is being supplied to which is similar to a double glazed unit used in glass roofs.
the structure. If the air supply is interrupted, the complete
roof structure deflates. In smaller scale applications, air-filled System details
cushions remain in place when the air supply fails or is switched Air is supplied to cushions from rubber pipes or flexible plastic
off when used as non-loadbearing panels. This type, where ETFE pipes that are connected to the underside of the cushion near
sheet is used to make panels formed as air-filled ‘cushions’, the clamping assembly. Pipes are usually of around 25mm
provide highly transparent, lightweight and resilient roofs that diameter, and are connected to a larger pipe that supplies
have thermal insulation values similar to those of double glazed the air to all the cushions either side of a single structural
units. The complete ETFE cushion assembly is supported by support. This main pipe is also usually made from plastic
a structural frame beneath, with mild steel, aluminium and and can be concealed within the supporting structure, being
laminated timber all being used to suit the design. only up to a diameter of around 60mm. The air supply, which
maintains the air pressure within the cushions at a constant
level, is supplied by electrically powered fans with air filters (to
MCH_ 274
Details
1. ETFE Cushion
2. Extruded aluminium clamping plate
3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to ETFE membrane
6. Plastic air supply tube
7. Main air supply tube
8. Insulated metal lined gutter
9. Metal flashing
10. Thermal insulation 3D overview of ETFE roof system
MCH_ 275
Roofs 03
Fabric systems 1: ETFE cushions
2
1 4 1
10
6
5
Vertical section 1:10. ETFE clamping detail
3D detail of cushion to cushion air supply
3D detail of cushion to cushion air supply
2
10 4
1 1
3
6
Vertical section 1:10. ETFE clamping detail with insulated gutter 3D view showing irregular-
shaped ETFE cushions
used in facade assembly
avoid the passage of dust), as used in mechanical ventilation

systems within buildings. The humidity level of the air is usually
controlled to avoid the possibility of condensation forming within
the cushions. Once the ETFE cushions have been inflated, air
is supplied to the cushions for only around 5–10 minutes per
hour to compensate for loss of air pressure caused by leaks
from cushions or from air supply pipes.
If air pressure within the cushion is lost as a result of damage to

one of the outer membranes or from loss of air pressure in the
supply pipe, the cushion deflates to its flattened shape. As wind
pressures are applied to the external face of the cushion, the
outer skin will deflect either inwards or outwards as a result of
the positive or negative pressures. This does not usually cause
damage to the cushions before the air supply is restored. Some
manufacturers’ systems have one-way valves to prevent loss of
air pressure from the cushions back to the supply pipes.
ETFE cushions are usually fabricated in the workshop but can

be assembled on site to suit project conditions. The material is
manufactured in rolls of considerable length but of a width of
around 1.5 metres. For this reason, ETFE cushions are often
made with spans in widths of around 3.0 metres to 4.0 metres
3D detail of junction between ETFE facade and ground between clamped frames, in lengths up to between 15 - 30
MCH_ 276
1 Details
1. ETFE cushion
clamping plate
retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to ETFE
membrane
5
6. Plastic air supply tube
7. Main air supply tube
8. Insulated metal lined gutter
9. Metal flashing
11. Concrete slab
Vertical section 1:10. Junction at base
3D sectional views showing

ETFE roof and wall panel
construction with steel tube
support structure
3D detail view showing underside of ETFE roof panel at roof-wall junction
with location of air-supply pipes and gutter
metres, but lengths of up to 60 metres have been used. Larger

cushions are made by welding sheet together in the workshop to
form wider sheets for cushions that vary from the rectangular
form created from a standard width of ETFE sheet. Cushions of
up to around 7.0 x 7.0 metres have been made in a variety of
shapes from circles to hexagons using a hot welded process
undertaken in the workshop. Larger cushions sometimes use a
net of connected cables to provide additional restraint.
The cushions have an edge bead, typically in plastic, which is

used to retain the panel in its supporting frame. The cushion
is set into a clamping frame, usually made from extruded
aluminium, that holds the panel in place by clipping it into an
aluminium profile, then holding it in place with an aluminium
pressure plate that clamps the edges. The complete assembly
usually performs in a similar way to the framing used for glazed
roofs, with a drained and ventilated inner chamber that serves
as a second line of defence against rainwater penetration. Any
rainwater that passes through the outer clamping plate is
drained away in grooves formed adjacent to the edges of the
ETFE cushions, the water being drained back to the outside of
the roof. The clamping assembly is typically around 100mm
wide, which is wider than that used for glazed roofs, but less
framing is required than that used on glazed roofs .
MCH_ 277
Roofs 03
Fabric systems 2: single membrane: cone-shaped roof
2 4
4
2
1
2
1
1
3D overview of cone shape roof with tension cable support. 3D overview of cone shape roof with tension cable support.
Tensile roof shape types:
1. Cone 2. Saddle 3. Arch

4. Wave
System design Both the cone-shaped example in this section and the barrel-
The advantages of single membrane fabric roofs are their shaped example in the following section make use of an internal
smooth curves, typically with different, in opposite directions, steel structure that supports part of the membrane, to tension
and thin, sharp edges that provide translucent roofs allowing it in some areas with roof edges where the material is held and
diffused daylight to pass through them. They use their curvature tensioned, either at points or with continuous clamped fixings
as a method of tensioning the membrane against a supporting similar to those described in the previous section on ETFE
structure, which is typically a mixture of mild steel tubes and cushions. Generally speaking, the high points of the supporting
stainless steel cables. structure take up the downloads from the membrane and
imposed loads (mainly wind loads) and the lower points at the
In a fabric roof the membrane is structurally modelled so that edges take up the effect of wind uplift. In shallow sloped roof
the resultant form developed between architect and structural membranes, more of the structural loads are taken by the
engineer distributes the tensile forces within the membrane edges or points at the base, often resulting in large columns
without over-tensioning some parts and under-tensioning other or posts being required at these points. The distribution of
parts of the membrane, with the resulting design resisting loads within the fabric roof design is revealed in the supporting
all load combinations in their different directions. This work structure, which can be as visually lightweight and elegant as the
is usually developed in the form of a computer model, either fabric membrane itself, or can become visually heavy which can
by specialist structural consultants or by manufacturers as detract from the intended lightweight effect of the membrane.
part of the design development process. The minimal surface Where roofs transfer forces to an adjoining structure, rather
form must also be suitable for draining away rainwater, which than contain the loads within their own supporting frame, the
forms another aspect of design development together with visual effect on the adjoining structure is balanced with the
the treatment of interfaces with adjacent areas of roof and requirements of the membrane roof and its own frame. As
external wall. The resulting form is designed to keep all parts imposed loads such as snow or sand can cause permanent
of the fabric membrane in tension, not just from the supporting stretching of the fabric membrane, the form of the roof and its
structure but from imposed loads; mainly wind loads. Wind associated slopes are made sufficiently steep to avoid creating
pressures are resisted by re-distributing the forces within the areas or pockets on the fabric roof where they can collect.
fabric membrane. Any areas of the fabric roof that go into
compression as a result of slackness in the membrane reveal System details
themselves as creases in the material. The two most common fabrics used are PVC-coated polyester
fabric and PTFE-coated glass fibre fabric. Both are woven cloth
MCH_ 278
Details
1. Fabric membrane panel
2. Supporting mild steel structure
3. Extruded aluminium clamp
5. Membrane hood
6. Plastic edge bead to membrane panel
4
4 2
2
6
1
1
3D detail of edge ring supported by tension cables 3D detail of alternative pinnacle condition with membrane hood
6
1
2
3D detail of edge ring supported by tension cables
Vertical section 1:5 Clamping ring with membrane skirt
5
4
1
1
3D detail of cone top with protruding structural support 3D detail of cone top with protruding structural support
MCH_ 279
Roofs 03
Fabric systems 2: single membrane: cone-shaped roof
1
1
1
3
3D cutaway detail of junction

2
between 2 fabric panels
Details
5
5. Membrane hood
6. Plastic edge bead to membrane panel 1
3
7. Thermal Insulation 7
5 1 2
1
3D exploded detail of junction

between 2 fabric panels
materials which are protected by coatings, usually applied

2
on both sides. Other open-weave materials are used as
solar shading only, and are manufactured without protective
3-D detail of junction between 2 fabric panels coatings. These are made from polymer threads, sometimes
with a protective coating applied to the manufactured thread
itself, to increase the life expectancy of the material. In all these
woven materials the strength of the fabric can be different in
3
5
the two directions in which the ‘cloth’ is woven. When selecting
3 a material, the strength of the’ warp’ threads running the
7 length of the material is compared to the ‘weft’ threads running
1 the width. In most commonly used roof membranes, the tensile
2 6 strengths of the warp and weft directions are similar, but these
need to be checked when the material type is chosen.
Most fabric roof materials imitate the appearance of natural

canvas, but this material is used only where its appearance
and individual texture is considered to be the most important
feature. Natural canvas is less stable than synthetic fabrics
when used in tension structures, and is difficult to clean. A
modified acrylic canvas material, with a similar texture to
natural canvas, is sometimes used for its greater dimensional
stability. Neither material is suitable for long span fabric roofs.
Vertical section 1:5 Edge of roof at abutment
MCH_ 280
3 5 3
7
1
1 1
6 2 6
1
1
2
Vertical section 1:5 Junction between panels
1
5
3 7 3
3D detail of junction between 2 fabric panels
Fabric roofs are highly susceptible to damage from sharp

objects. Small cuts in the membrane can be repaired with 5
patches made from the same material which are glued into
position. Larger tears are repaired with hot air welders, usually
undertaken by the specialist contractor who installed the fabric
roof. Large repairs are visible, and panels are replaced where
visibility is the most important consideration. Since large tears
can affect the overall structural performance of the membrane,
the complete membrane is sometimes removed for another
7
panel to be stitched or welded, and re-coated in the factory.
3
The outer surfaces of fabric roofs are cleaned with soft brushes
that wash the membrane surface, the work being done typically
from either a mobile platform or by rope access cleaners 1
(abseilers) who are attached in harnesses and suspended from 6
cables attached to a steel bracket anchor point on the top of
the membrane roof. The anchor point forms part of the steel or
timber supporting structure to the membrane roof. Cleaning is
also an important consideration in areas of high humidity where 2
there is a higher risk of mould forming on the surface of the
fabric which can cause permanent staining. Regular cleaning
prevents mould growth. PVC/polyester is more susceptible
to mould growth than PTFE/glass fibre fabrics, essentially
3D exploded detail of clamp and membrane skirt
because the latter has lower surface friction.
MCH_ 281
Roofs 03
Fabric systems 3: single membrane: barrel-shaped roof
Details
5. Membrane hood
6. Plastic edge bead to membrane panel
8. Perimeter wall build up
9. Fixing clip
10. Aluminium clamp assembly
3D detail of edge clamp
3D cutaway detail of fabric roof

edge
System design brane with a series of stainless steel link plates. Straight
Roof membranes are made from individual panels of fabric edges are usually formed with an edge bead made from a
which are cut from sheet material, the curved forms of mem- flexible PVC or EPDM rod in a small pocket. This reinforced
branes being formed from flat sheet material. The conical- edge is then held captive within an aluminium clamping plate
shaped example shown here is made from panels with edges assembly similar to that used for ETFE cushions, or alterna-
that curve inward, while the barrel-shaped roof shown in the tively in a luff groove extrusion.
next section is made from panels with edges that curve out-
ward. PVC coated polyester fabric is made in widths from 2000 System details
- 3000mm, in thicknesses up to 1.2mm, while PTFE coated Cable restrained curved edges to fabric roofs usually follow a
glass fibre fabric is made in widths up to around 5000mm in circular or catenary shape. A sleeve is formed by folding the
thicknesses up to 1.0mm. Large panels are usually cut by CNC membrane back over itself and stitching or welding it to form a
cutting machines, with small pieces cut by hand, but even small continuous pocket in which a stainless steel cable is inserted.
pieces are now being made increasingly by a cutting machine. A 25mm diameter stainless steel cable is typical, depending on
Fabric panels are usually made slightly undersized to allow for the structural forces. A strip of membrane material or plastic
the stretching of the material when it is under tension as a is set between the cable and the membrane to allow the two to
roof membrane. Fabric panels are joined together with lapped move independently without abrasion occurring. A reinforced
seams which are either sewn, welded, bonded or joined in a plastic strip is sometimes added into the pocket but this is not
combination of stitching and welding, with all processes being visible from either above or below the roof. Straight clamped
carried out in the workshop. The width of the lap, which is vis- edges use clamping plates, around 100mm wide set back to
ible from below the roof as well as from outside the building, back and bolted together, which comprise two flat, grooved
is determined by the structural forces on the membrane with plates rather than the clamping plate and supporting extrusion
higher loads requiring wider seams. used at joints between panels. Where two cables meet at mem-
brane corners or points, they are usually fixed to a single mild
Edges of membranes are usually either gently curved or steel plate. The cable is fixed into a stainless steel cable fixing
straight. Curved edges are formed with a cable held in a con- which is secured with a pin connection back to a supporting
tinuous pocket at the edges of the membrane. An alterna- steel plate. The corner of the membrane is cut to form a curved
tive detail used in PTFE/glass fibre canopies is to have an end. Additional straps are sometimes added to ensure that the
exposed cable connected to the clamped edges of the mem- membrane does not slide away from the corner.
MCH_ 282
5
7
5
2
3
9
2
9
9
8
3D cutaway details of fabric

roof edge
7 3
1
2
10
5 5
1 1
10
Vertical section 1:10. Junction of adjacent fabric membrane meeting at same angle
10
5
5
1 1
10
10
Vertical section 1:10. Junction of adjacent fabric membrane meeting at same angle
MCH_ 283
Roofs 03
Fabric systems 3: single membrane: barrel-shaped roof
3D fragment view showing barrel roof

configuration
3D fragment view showing barrel roof

configuration
Vertical section 1:10. Single skin system with steel edge

support
8
7
9
10
3D detail view showing membrane barrel roof

connection to steel support structure Vertical section 1:10. Double skin system with steel edge support
MCH_ 284
Details
1. Fabric membrane
2. Edge seal clamped to continuous plate
3. Structural support 3D fragment view showing barrel
4. Wall panel roof configuration
5. Outer membrane
6. Liner membrane
7. Steel supporting structure
8. PTFE film or similar slip layer
9. Continuous stainless steel or aluminium bar
10. Pressed metal flashing
3D fragment underside view showing barrel roof configuration
Suspension points at the top of a cone-shaped fabric roof are In an external fold in a roof membrane, the material is draped
usually formed either by a metal ring, which is fixed back to a over the supporting structure, fixed with fabric strips that
central mast by cables or cantilevered brackets or, alterna- are sewn or welded to the underside of the membrane and
tively, by a ‘palm tree’ arrangement of projecting curved metal clamped to the supporting structure. An additional membrane
brackets which serve to tension the continuous membrane cover strip is fixed to the top of the joint to conceal the stitching
against its supporting mast set within the building. if required. An alternative method is to form a joint between two
membranes at the external fold, clamping them with a pres-
The first option with a metal ring requires an additional mem- sure plate to an aluminium extrusion which is supported by the
brane cover piece, while the second ‘palm tree’ option forms a primary structure, such as a mild steel tube, curved to form the
continuous membrane with a smooth curved top, without any shape taken up by the membrane. Internal folds are formed in
breaks in the continuity of the membrane. In the ‘ring’ solution, the same way as ridges, with the membrane folded outwards
the membrane is clamped between an inner ring and an outer rather than across the ridge and downwards. In some cases
ring fixed together with bolts. A second clamp is used to fix the the membrane may pass under the cable. These junctions are
cone-shaped membrane that covers the top of the ring. The formed by clamping the ends of adjacent membranes that
top of the conical-shaped cover is either pulled over the top of form the valley. The edge of each membrane is clamped with
the central mast or clamped around it. The ring is either freely an edge bead, while the clamp itself is fixed to a central cable.
suspended from cables, or is firmly fixed to the mast with canti- The gap between the membranes is closed by two membrane
levered brackets to which the ring is secured. In the ‘palm tree’ strips which are sewn or welded to the base of the strip and
supported solution, cantilevered brackets with a curved shape are clamped down to a thin pressure plate between the mem-
are set out radially in order to create a smooth curved form on branes. The clamp that closes the two membrane strips is
which the membrane is set. The brackets are usually aligned supported off the metal straps beneath. By raising the closing
with joints between membrane panels. strips above the height of the joint, two adjacent gutters are
formed, with the clamping strip securing the closing flaps above
the level of the water being drained.
MCH_ 285
MCH_ 286
4
STRUCTURE
Material systems for structures
Elements of structures
Braced frames
1 Reinforced concrete
2 Steel
3 Timber
Portal frames
Loadbearing boxes
1 Reinforced concrete
2 Brick
3 Glass
Trusses
Arches and shells
Space grids
Floor structures
1 Cast in-situ /Cast-in-place concrete
2 Precast concrete
3 Steel and steel mesh
4 Timber
5 Glass
Stairs
1 Concrete
2 Steel
3 Timber
4 Glass
MCH_ 287
Structure 04
Material systems for structures
Glass stair. Apple store, Regents Street, London, Reinforced concrete structure. Tod's Building, ETFE Roof structure. Eden Project, Cornwall, U.K.
U.K. Architect: Bohlin Cywinski Jackson Tokyo, Japan. Architect: Toyo Ito Architect: Grimshaw Architects
Curved concrete frame. Science Park, Valencia, Spain. Architect: Calatrava Curved concrete frame. Science Park, Valencia, Spain. Architect: Calatrava
Structural stability direction is provided by floors and, in the case of single storey
This chapter sets out the most commonly used material systems structures, by bracing in the plane of the roof. The most
for structures together with the relationship between structure common elements used to make building structures are braced
and enclosure. Typical details are shown for each material frames, portal frames, loadbearing boxes, trusses, arches and
system and their interface with walls and roofs. Structural 'types' shells, and space grids. Reinforced concrete and masonry
in this chapter are described as systems based on the use of structures, despite their essentially monolithic nature, are
a primary material used to make a complete building structure. considered to be braced structures as some walls provide
Each example can be used as a single structural system for specific bracing elements.
a complete building or, more commonly, be combined in a
mixed construction. Building structures are put into categories Structural movement
depending on whether they are either ‘braced’ or ‘unbraced’ in The term 'structural movement' covers a wide range of effects
their construction. Braced types use devices such as internal of deformation and movement in building structures. Dead
walls or service shafts, or alternatively use cross bracing to and imposed loads, together with wind and snow loads and
stabilise the structure. This vertical bracing is usually provided forces specific to use or location such as dynamic and seismic
in two vertical planes at right angles to one another in order loads, can bring about movements seen as bending and shear
to stabilise the structure both along its length and across its deformations which are a normal part of the building in use. An
width. Horizontal bracing is provided by the floor structures essential aspect of structural movement in the overall design
which act as horizontal girders. The roof, if sufficiently rigid in the of buildings is that its effects need to be taken into account
horizontal direction as in a reinforced concrete slab, can also in the external envelope and its interfaces, primarily at roof
be considered to be horizontal bracing. Unbraced structures, in level. Temperature changes, and differences in temperature
contrast, are allowed to sway as a result of their being unbraced between different parts of a structure, can cause expansion
in one direction. Their stability is provided by rigid connections and contraction of structural members, with possibly some
that provide stiffness within the structural elements, such as in local bending of those members. The detailing of both the
portal frames. Like braced structures, bracing in the horizontal components and any associated weatherproofing or internal
MCH_ 288
Loadbearing glass box. Broadfield Glass Museum, Glass footbridge. Rotterdam, Holland. Architect: Timber truss roof structure. Resource Centre,
West Midlands, U.K. Architect: Design Antenna Dirk Jan Postel Cumbria, U.K. Architect: Sutherland Hussey
Braced steel frame. Saltwater Pavilion, Neeltje Concrete frame. Siobhan Davies Dance Studios, Steel frame structure. Fawood School, London.
Jans, Holland. Architect: Oosterhuis Associates London, U.K. Architect: Sarah Wigglesworth U.K. Architect: Alsop Architects
Reinforced concrete structure. CAC Museum, Branced steel roof structure. Heathrow Terminal Braced steel frame. Educatorium, Utrecht
Cincinatti, U.S.A. Architect: Zaha Hadid Architects 5, London, U.K. Architect: Rogers Stirk Harbour University, Holland. Architect: OMA
MCH_ 289
Structure 04
Elements of structures
Loadbearing masonry. Brindleyplace, Birmingham, Loadbearing glass box. House extension, London, Steel staircase. Museum of Contemporary Art, Los
U.K. Architect: Porphyrios Associates. U.K. Architect: Paul Archer Design Angeles, U.S.A. Architect: Arata Isozaki and Associates
Concrete staircase. Hyogo Museum of Art, Japan. Architect: Tadao Ando Steel stair. City Hall, London, U.K. Architect: Foster and Partners
finishes must accommodate this movement without causing language of architectural design. Assemblies in steel, ranging
damage to these finishes. Moisture penetration can cause from small lattice trusses to cable-stayed structures that
expansion and contraction in concrete, masonry and timber resemble 'kits of parts', have led to their widespread use as
structures. Frost action, caused by the freeze/thaw cycle of highly visible structures, set either outside or inside the building
moisture within structural materials, can eventually cause enclosure. The necessity of joining steel sections with either
damage if the detailing is not sufficiently robust. welds or bolts has led to a visual richness in both the design
of structural members and the joints between them. This has
Trends in the use of building structures been helped enormously by the development of intumescent
Much effort in the design of building structures is focused on paints, which protect the structure during a fire by expanding
economy combined with safety, in terms of both the quantity to form a heat-insulating layer that protects the integrity of the
of material used and the amount of fabrication needed to structure for a limited period, usually one hour. These finishes,
assemble the structure. The appropriate use of structure can once only roughly textured or trowel applied, can now achieve a
often be seen in the 'fine tuning' of the balance of material used smooth finish previously associated only with the regular paint
and fabrication undertaken. This approach is being increasingly finishes used in unprotected structures such as single-storey
paralleled in architectural design in the external envelope and roof structures. Issues of thermal bridging in steel structures
internal fittings where there is a growing tendency to use the and the penetration of the waterproofing layer with steel
least number of components, while tempering this approach components are now easier to overcome with thermal breaks,
with the needs of their fabrication. This has led to an important within joints and across weatherproofing membranes such as
trend in structures of their increased visibility and as self-finished with the use of a set of bolted connections that are difficult to
components within buildings. This brings the aims of structural achieve in either concrete or timber.
design and architectural design much closer together where the
relationship between structure, enclosure and internal finishes Concrete structures are now being exposed as self-finishes
are co-ordinated at an early stage of the design, continuing within buildings, both on the external walls and in the soffit
through the following detailed design and construction phases. (underside) of structural slabs, with a quality of finish traditionally
In steel structures, frames have become a full part of the associated with only plastered walls and ceilings. Exposed
MCH_ 290
Clad steel frame. Jewish Museum, Berlin, Germany. Loadbearing concrete. Lyon-Satolas Station, Lyon, Braced steel framed construction. Wood Street,
Architect: Daniel Libeskind. France. Architect: Santiago Calatrava London, U.K. Architect: Richard Rogers
Organic concrete forms. Phaeno Centre, Wolfsburg, Germany. Architect: Braced steel frame. Pompidou Centre, Paris, France. Architect: Richard
Zaha Hadid Rogers
finishes in concrete are now less common due to their poor further the drive towards prefabrication. Timber and concrete,
weathering, from a visual point of view, but are enjoying a revival traditionally considered to be materials that are worked on site,
in predominantly dry climates where thermal insulation is set are now more frequently fabricated at the factory, for example
within the depth of the wall. The renewed interest in precast in the pre-cutting of timber components and in the precasting
concrete structural systems, other than those used for parking of concrete components instead of their casting in situ. The
garages, is set to continue with ever-greater expression of building site will inevitably become a place where assemblies
jointing forming part of the visible language of detailing. are fixed together rather than being the temporary workshop to
which we are accustomed.
Timber structures are becoming ever more complex both
in terms of construction techniques and geometries used in Thermal bridging, and the related effects of condensation,
their design. The development of pinned jointing systems as associated with the integration of building structure with walls
well as the interest generated in the material by its low levels and roofs, continues to be a significant issue in building design in
of embodied energy have resulted in the revival of exposed almost all climates. This has led to the increased use of vapour
timber structures. The new generation of pinned joints helps barriers and the careful placing of thermal insulation, which
to overcome the traditional problem of creating reliable and need to be co-ordinated with the structural design in order to
elegant joints that perform well in tension, particularly in large- avoid interstitial condensation. The thermal mass of exposed
scale glue-laminated structures. concrete structures is being used for the night-time cooling of
buildings in conjunction with ventilated facades. The increased
The use of CAD/CAM techniques, or computer aided design/ prefabrication of both structures and facades has led to a
computer aided manufacturing, for both timber and steel greater awareness of issues of co-ordination at an early stage
structures as well as the use of these materials for concrete of the project to ensure that highly visible finished components,
formwork, is set to transform the geometries of structures built which in earlier buildings would have been covered over by
from all these materials. The use of CAD/CAM permits much successive building trades, can be successfully exposed as high
greater accuracy and closer tolerances in assembly with joints quality finished components.
that are increasingly visually elegant. CAD/CAM is set to push
MCH_ 291
Structure 04
Braced frames 1: reinforced concrete
1
3 1
3 Details
1. Reinforced concrete wall
3. Timber-framed double glazed windows
4. Steel reinforcement bars
3D view showing 5. Internal floor finish
reinforced concrete frame construction 6. Concrete roof deck
The use of precast and in-situ cast (cast in place) concrete in (lift) shafts and service cores. Typically, deflections in concrete
frames provides a homogeneous structure where joints are beams or slabs are designed to be compatible with the external
made as rigid connections. These frames require additional cladding, partitions and fittings within the building.
stiffness from bracing that can be provided typically by either
concrete shear walls or steel cross bracing. Alternatively, lateral Movement joints are introduced to allow for thermal movement.
stability can be introduced into concrete frames by stiffening These junctions are effectively breaks in the structure, resulting
other elements such as cores, shafts or stair enclosures. The in the overall structural frame comprising a set of smaller linked
inherent fire resistance of concrete provides structures that frames, each an independent stable structure. Movement
require no further fire protection measures. With in situ cast joints are usually taken through the external walls and roof,
construction, the ability to re-use formwork is important in requiring envelope details that allow for structural movement
keeping its use economic. Each 'lift' of concrete, typically a floor while remaining weatherproof.
with its supporting walls and columns, takes longer to construct
than an equivalent steelwork structure, since the concrete Interface with external envelope
takes time to reach an adequate strength to allow another floor Concrete frames can be either exposed outside the weather
to be built on top. Although the construction of an in-situ cast line of the cladding, that is, the non-loadbearing walls, or be
reinforced concrete frame is considered slower than erecting completely enclosed by the external envelope. When exposed
a steel frame, the construction times can be matched if the externally, the penetration of the frame through the walls and
concrete work is well organised. Frames in concrete combine roof requires careful detailing to overcome weatherproofing
easily with ground structures such as retaining walls and and thermal bridging around penetrations of structural
foundations because they are of the same material and can be members through the cladding. Grooves are often cast around
continuous. penetrating beams to allow flashing pieces to be inserted to
assist in forming a weather seal. Cladding is fixed either by a
Joints and Connections continuous stainless steel channel that is cast into the edge of
Stiffness at the junctions of the frame is important both to the concrete slab, or by expansion bolts secured into the slab
provide sufficient rigidity in the frame itself and to make its when the cladding is fixed. The bolts may also secure stainless
deflections compatible with the cladding and internal elements steel angles, brackets or continuous rails depending on the
such as staircases. This can be achieved either within the joints nature of the lightweight cladding. Reinforced concrete panels
forming the frame, by including extra reinforcement, or by using can be secured with additional metal pins cast into the top
additional stiffening walls such as those used to enclose elevator surface of the concrete slab.
MCH_ 292
1
3
1
4
4
2
2
3
1
4
5
3D cutaway view showing concrete frame and steel reinforcements bars 3D cutaway view showing concrete frame and steel reinforcements bars
Details
1. Reinforced concrete wall
3. Timber-framed double
glazed windows
5. Internal floor finish
6 6. Concrete roof deck
4
2
1
5 3
5
2 3
3D exploded view of concrete frame and panel system
MCH_ 293
Structure 04
Braced frames 1: reinforced concrete
3
1
3D cutaway view showing concrete frame and steel

reinforcements bars Details
1. Reinforced concrete wall 6
3. Timber-framed double
3
glazed windows 2
5
6. Concrete roof deck
3
5
6 6
3
3D cutaway views showing

4 3
concrete frame and steel
reinforcements bars
4
1 2
6
5
3
1 3
5
3
5
3D cutaway view showing concrete frame and steel reinforcements bars
MCH_ 294
Bending moment diagram for dead loads. Bending moment is transmitted from the Bending moment diagram for lateral wind load.
beam to the column through the rigid
connections of the frame.
Structural model of concrete frame structure: typical floor system Stresses in the structure under dead loads: the secondary concrete slabs
deflect in their plane, transferring the load to the intersecting primary
frames (the structural movements shown are magnified).
Considerable bending strength in the columns is required against lateral wind loading (the structural movements shown are magnified)
Reinforced concrete frames provide an integration of wall, made from plywood sheets but any material can be used. The
roof, floors and columns into a single form of construction. material used for formwork leaves a strong impression on the
Supporting walls and floors can be integrated into shell forms concrete finish, often with a high degree of visible detail. This
as seen in the Science Park in Valencia by Santiago Calatrava. allows the concrete frame to have a wide range of finishes from
Concerns about the weathering capability of concrete have timber boards, leaving a high degree of visible texture on the
led to the material being covered by an additional weathering surface, to very smooth concrete where plastic laminate coated
material, which can be thin metal panels or even an applied plywood is used. Digital fabrication has had a modest influence
coating. Recent improvements in surface finishes, with over concrete construction, with the introduction of CNC cut
honing and polishing used in precast concrete, have allowed polystyrene forms that are set into the formwork to produce
a slow re-introduction of concrete as an expressed finish. An complex shapes in either precast or in-situ cast concrete. The
essential issue has been the thermal bridging associated with ability of concrete to take up complex shapes using economic
concrete structures, which has led to thermal insulation being formwork has led to a gradual move to more sculpted forms
set externally with an additional weathering material on the in concrete frames, as seen in the work of Zaha Hadid and
outside. The positioning of the insulation externally allows the Santiago Calatrava. The visual continuity of openings in walls,
environmental strategy within the building to benefit from the roofs and floors within buildings gives a spatial continuity and
thermal mass of concrete. In recent years, with the enhanced fluidity which can be achieved without the need for elaborate
weathering characteristics of precast concrete, the thermal decoration; the frame provides an elegant expression of form
insulation is set into the thickness of the wall, resulting in the without the need for secondary finishes. The development of
construction being of diaphragm type rather than a single wall the reinforced concrete frame of columns and beams has seen
with a non-loadbearing skin set either internally or externally. considerable elaboration in the work of Calatrava, following
In the diaphragm wall, the two halves of the wall are linked by visual principles of animal skeletons as well as drawing visual
either stainless steel ties or by reinforcing bars. inspiration from equivalent steel structures. Reinforced
concrete frames have shown the ability to move from being
Regardless of whether concrete is formed in-situ or is precast, simple, rectilinear flat forms to being visually rich structures of
the material is cast in formwork. In-site formwork is typically complex geometry of either curves or folds.
MCH_ 295
Structure 04
Braced frames 2: steel
2
Details
1. I-section column
2. I-section beam 2
3. Floor deck 5
4. Cleats formed from steel angle 1
5. T-section or flat sections 1
commonly used for cross bracing
6. Bolt
3
2
4
2
4
1
5
3
1
3D overview showing typical braced

frame construction
Steel frames are made from columns and beams that are on site associated with steel frames is often continued into the
fabricated in factories and workshops and assembled together configuration of the floor slab, which often uses trapezoidal
on site. Unlike reinforced concrete frames, steel frames can be shaped floor deck instead of full concrete slabs. The profiled
readily assembled with either rigid moment connections or with metal deck is used as both permanent formwork as well as
pin connections. Lateral stability is provided typically with either having a structural role in composite action. Concrete is poured
the cross bracing of some bays, or with staircase enclosures, on top of the metal deck, which typically has shear studs or
cores or shafts. connectors to form a bond between the two materials. The
profiled metal deck is set either on top of the steel beams
Steel frames are usually shot blasted, cleaned and primed prior of the structural frame, or is set on a continuous steel plate
to erection. Frames that are not to be left exposed visually welded to the bottom flange of the steel beam. The advantage
require no further painting. However, most steel structures of the former method is its simplicity of construction, while
require fire protection, which is provided typically with either the advantage of the latter is in reducing the overall depth of
concrete encasement, an intumescent paint or by enclosing the structural floor zone, which can in turn reduce the overall
the frame with fire resistant board. Steel frames not requiring height of the building with attendant savings in the cost of the
fire protection, such as those used for roof structures only, external walls. In addition, the use of a composite concrete and
are painted to avoid corrosion during construction and after steel deck provides essential properties of fire protection and
the frames are assembled. Members which are to remain acoustic separation. Movement joints are introduced to allow
visible when assembled, such as in visible roof structures, are for thermal movement in the steelwork, which can be greater
often delivered to site as pre-painted components that can be than that of concrete. These joints are breaks in the structure
assembled on site and lifted into place by crane, avoiding the where each part of the structural frame must be independently
need for substantial scaffolding. Care is taken not to damage stable of its neighbour. The corresponding movement joint on
the surface finish, as touching up of galvanizing and paintwork the external wall and roof is detailed so as to provide a continuity
on site is slow, laborious and more difficult than in the factory. of waterproofing while creating a break in the structural
support of the external wall across the joint. Movement joints
Joints and Connections in the external wall are typically up to around 20mm wide, so
Joints in steel frames are bolted or welded. Bolted connections do not have a significant visual presence on the facade, but
are the most commonly used, with either cleats or plates used are usually designed to make them an intentional part of the
as connectors. The advantages of a fast speed of construction language of construction.
MCH_ 296
2
2
2
3
1
2 5
3
4
6
1 4
2 6
2 2
3
5 1
3D detail view showing steel connection plate detail 3D detail view showing steel connection plate detail
5 1
5
5
1
1
3
5
2 2
5 2
1
2
5
2
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
Details
1. I-section column 2
2. I-section beam
3. Floor deck
2
4. Cleats formed from steel angle
5. T-section or flat sections commonly used
for cross bracing 3D overview showing typical braced
6. Bolt frame construction
MCH_ 297
Structure 04
Braced frames 2: steel
Details 1
1. I-section column
2. I-section beam 1
3. Floor deck
4. Cleats formed from steel angle
5. T-section or flat sections
3
commonly used for cross bracing
2
2
1
2
1
2
2 4
3
2
5 5
1 1
1
1
3
1
2
2 1
2 2
5
3D overview showing typical braced frame construction 3D detail view showing curved steel I-beam
connection
Smaller scale steel frames for one or two storey buildings have the connection of the externally-set columns and beams to the
the advantage of being possible to fabricate in the workshop as floor slab through the external wall can be challenging. The need
a ‘kit of parts’ for complex forms. Profiles can be cut, curved, to create a weathertight seal around this junction requires
welded and bolted in factory conditions for individual projects special attention as the seal is usually formed within a spandrel
where the steel frame is visible from either inside or outside panel. More commonly, external walls are set on the outside
the building. This method allows welded joints which can be of steel frames as cladding fixed to the edge of the concrete
ground smooth and painted before being delivered to site in floor slab, sometimes with an additional backing wall set onto
sections, where they can be bolted in place, achieving a level of the edge of the floor slab. Sometimes facades are supported by
workmanship that would be more difficult under site conditions. brackets fixed to the outer face of the steel beam at the edge of
For short spanning, lightweight steel frames, cold formed the frame, but this can be difficult to achieve in practice due to
sections can also be used. They have the advantage of being the co-ordination needed between steelwork and facade away
lighter to handle, forming frames which are more like a steel from site, which can be challenging from the point of view of
equivalent of the timber platform than a regular steel frame, with sequence of procurement and construction.
members at closer centres. The ability to mix hot rolled steels,
capable of long spans, with cold formed or ‘pressed’ sections Roofs in different material systems are set onto steel frames
provides a mixture of material systems in a single material, using either directly, as in the case of a profiled metal deck, or with
a common method of fixing with screws and bolts. Small frames support brackets fixed to the steel framing members in the case
can benefit from the wide range of structural steel sections of a glazed roof. The use of brackets that lift the roof system
available, from I-sections to T-sections, box sections, tubes and clear of the steel supporting members give a sense of visual
flats, as well as specially fabricated sections of irregular shape. separation, which can assist visually in the relationship between
The introduction of irregular shapes has been possible as a frame and covering.
result of the development of digital cutting tools.
Interface with external envelope

In common with reinforced concrete frames, steel frames can
be either exposed outside the external skin or set inside the
building; but when set externally, the frame is typically thermally
insulated to reduce thermal movement of the frame. However
MCH_ 298
Structural model of a steel frame structure: concrete floor
slabs provide horizontal stiffness.
Column compression forces under dead loads.

Diagonal bracing is necessary in steel frames for lateral wind and seismic
loads (the movements shown are magnified)
Tension and compression forces in diagonal

2
memebers under lateral wind load.
2
1 1
5
1
1
1 2
2
3D views showing various braced steel

frame structure configurations
2
MCH_ 299
Structure 04
Braced frames 3: timber
1
1
1
2
2
4 4
4 9
4
4
5
3D views showing typical timber joinery 8
and connection details
3D cutaway view showing typical timber

balloon frame on a masonry base
The platform frame make walls. Floors are usually set on top of the beams. The large
The platform frame consists of softwood timber studs, typically scale nature of the frame makes it necessary to introduce cross
100mm x 50mm, spanning vertically from floor to floor between bracing or timber framed wall panels to provide lateral stability.
horizontally-set timber sections, called plates. The studs are set These large scale frames are increasingly being formed in cross
at close centres, typically 400mm as described in the section laminated timber, which have the ability to also be used as floor
called ‘Cladding to the platform frame’ in the Walls chapter. Floor decks that have higher acoustic performance than timber joists
joists are aligned with the studs to transfer the loads efficiently and floor boards. Although sand pugging and layers of ceiling
from floor to wall. Timbers are butt jointed and nailed, following board can be added to the timber joist floor, their disadvantage
the tradition of using simple techniques and relatively few tools has been to add mass without increasing the strength of the
to make a complete structural frame from cut timber sections floor construction.
that can be lifted by hand. The stability of the frame is provided
by plywood sheets, which also form a substrate for a breather Hardwood timber frame
membrane and external finishes. Prior to the use of plywood, There has been a revival in recent years in the UK for the use of
timber boards were the main form of sheathing for the frame. timber frames that use large size sections of hardwood such as
Floor spans are typically at up to around 3500mm to suit the oak, Douglas fir and larch to make frames that use traditional
ready availability of cut sections, but plywood-based floor joists methods of frame construction rather than those of the
can achieve longer spans depending on the design. Openings in platform frame. This method uses timber sections from around
walls, floors and roofs are easily formed and steel or engineered 300 x 300mm down to small scale 100mm x 50mm sections;
wood beams can be incorporated to increase floor spans. The in a hierarchy of primary, secondary and tertiary members,
walls to the platform frame are discussed in the Walls chapter, allowing most of the timber construction to be revealed rather
and timber floors are discussed later in this section. than being concealed behind plywood sheathing and internal
lining more typically associated with timber construction. Spans
Long-span timber frames are modest, typically achieving those of platform frames.
Larger frames can be made from either laminated timber or
large cut sections which are connected pairs, spaced apart, to Joints and Connections
make larger components. These frames consist of columns and Where platform frames use primarily nails to fix the frame
beams at 5-6 metre centres with infill panels between them to together, hardwood frames use knee bracing and wooden pegs
MCH_ 300
1
1
1 1 1
1
7
7 2
2
6 6
Details
1. Softwood rafter
4 4
2. Softwood purlin
4
3. Softwood batten
4
4. Timber primary columns
5. Timber floor joists 5
6. Roof tiles
5 7. Roof build-up (timber boards
and vapour barrier)
8. Masonry footing 4
9. Timber board
4
4
4
9 9
5
3 4
4 5
4 4
8
5
3D cutaway views showing typical timber

8 balloon frame on a masonry base
at joints as an alternative to visible metal connectors. The use of span frames, the framing forms a primary part of the external
larger size sections allows them to be cut to curves from single walls, providing an opportunity to use infilling panels such as
pieces of timber, or even to use traditional joints between large double glazed units or low energy materials such as straw
scale sections which interlock as a result of their shape rather bale and hemp, described in the Environment chapter. Roofs
than rely on straight metal connectors to hardwood frames follow traditional principles of keeping the
structure dry within the building, with the roof covering the
Long span timber frames, connected in with timber blocks and complete structure, but allowing the frame to be fully visible within
bolted together, often form simple bolted connections with timber the building. A traditional issue of infill panels has been to assure
columns by setting the beams on the outside of the column, or a weathertight joint between a timber frame which undergoes
vice versa to suit the structural design of the frame. However, structural movement, and an infill that is also subject to its own
this technique is being superseded by tight-fit connections movements. The use of breather membranes and rainscreen
that use CAD/CAM techniques to direct computer-operated construction has greatly improved this traditional technique
machinery that can plane, rout or drill structural timbers. This to meet modern requirements. The timber frame can also be
new technique can provide economic connections that transfer fully protected externally, typically with a breather membrane
loads more efficiently than do traditional techniques. Solid and rainscreen cladding to control moisture movement in
timber circular columns are increasingly being used to reduce the frame as well as providing ventilation to the construction
the amount of fabrication required and provide a substantial where it meets the external wall. As with other forms of timber
and smooth appearance. Timbers are fixed together using a construction, timber frames are set onto masonry or concrete
set of tight-fit steel pins that are inserted into the connecting bases to keep them dry and ventilated, typically set a minimum
members. This type of connection is used at tension joints, of 150mm above external ground level, but subject to specific
which are hard to achieve except by either bolting or by using design requirements. The base wall follows the principles of
split ring connectors. that form of construction, typically a cavity wall in the case of
brickwork or a waterproofed concrete wall with an additional
Interface with external envelope outer skin to protect and conceal the membrane.
The use of the platform frame suits continuously supported, or
short-spanning, cladding materials such as timber boarding and
metal sheet. In the case of hardwood timber frames and long-
MCH_ 301
Structure 04
Braced frames 3: timber
1
1
3 1
7
2
6
1
2
4
4
4
3 5
3D sectional view showing typical timber balloon frame 3D views showing typical timber joinery and
on a masonry base connection details
MCH_ 302
1
1 1
1
2
1 5
1
4 2 5
5 4
4 5
5
5
5
4
4
5 4
3D overviews showing
typical timber balloon
frame constructions
4
Details
1
1. Softwood rafter 1
2. Softwood purlin 1
3. Softwood batten
4. Timber primary columns 1
5. Timber floor joists
6. Roof tiles
7. Roof build-up (timber boards and vapour barrier)
8. Masonry footing
9. Timber board
1
5 5 4
4
3 5
5 4
4 4
4
2
1 1
1 1 1
4
3
4
4
4
4 4
4 4
3D overviews showing
typical timber balloon
frame constructions
MCH_ 303
Structure 04
Portal frames
5000.
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
-0.
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
-5000.
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
-10000.
-10000. -5000. -0. 5000. 10000. 15000. 20000. mm
Y All loads, Loadcase 3 line , (1 cm 3D = unit) Free line load (force) in global Y (Unit=9.80 kN/m ) (Min=-10.0) (Max=-10.0) M 1 : 128
Z X
163.9
155.7
147.5
-163.9
163.9
139.3
5000.
-111.5
111.5
131.1
-69.2
69.2
-36.9
122.9
-14.6
36.9
-2.28
14.6
2.28
114.7
106.5
98.3 -163.6 163.6

90.1 -109.0 109.0
81.9
73.7 -54.5 54.5

65.5
57.4
-0.
49.2
41.0
-135.0
135.0
32.8
-82.2
24.6
82.2
-39.3
39.3
16.4
Structural model of typical timber portal frames

-6.55
6.55
8.2
0.0
-134.7 134.7
-16.2
16.2
32.0
-29.0
29.0
-8.2
-89.8 89.8
-5000.
-16.4
-24.6
-44.9 44.9
-32.8
-41.0
-49.2
-57.4
-65.5
-134.5
134.5
-73.7
-82.2
82.2
-81.9
-39.9
39.9
-7.71
7.71
-90.1
-10000.
-98.3
-134.1 134.1
-14.5
14.5
-106.5
-29.3
-26.7
26.7
-114.7
-78.0 78.0
-122.9
-131.1 -21.8 21.8

-139.3
-147.5 34.4 -34.4

-155.7
-10000. -5000. -0. 5000. 10000. 15000. 20000. mm
-163.9
Y Beam Elements , Bending moment My (Maximum values cubic interpolated), Loadcase 3 line , 1 cm 3D = 132.8 kNm (Min=-163.9) (Max=163.9) M 1 : 135
Z X
Under the same dead loads applied, the rigid frame shows the
lowest bending moment values.
Different structural behaviour of pinned and clamped columns.
An essential characteristic of the portal frame is that it supports arches but the loads in each member are resisted in bending.
loads by bending at its primary joints rather than using the pin Portal frames are linked together with purlins to form linear
joints of other frame types. However, in practice portal frames arrangements at around 3000mm to 6000mm centres. Since
are made in sections which are pin jointed; typically at the top, the purlins alone do not usually provide sufficient rigidity in the
in the centre and at their base. The frame is made stable in the transverse direction, the frames are stiffened with additional
plane of the frame as a result of the rigid moment connection lateral bracing in a few of the bays, usually near the ends of the
between the column (or vertical member) and the rafter (or structure, but this depends on the scale of the structure and
horizontal member). Structural members are formed typically the specific design.
either as solid beams or framed trusses, and resist bending
at their knee joint to form the moment connection by the use Joints and connections
of rigid connectors. These connectors might be glued joints in Moment connections are typically either welded or bolted with
laminated timber, metal connectors in framed timber members plates to form haunches. Some steel portal frames use specially
or welds in steel sections. An advantage of this structural type fabricated connectors into which standard size box sections can
is in its economic use of material, combined with a simple be slotted and welded. Larger scale connectors use castings for
construction technique. A wide range of structural components both moment and pinned connections, giving a visual continuity
can be used, from trusses and trussed columns to I-sections. to the design, though they are used primarily on larger scale
Although associated primarily with single storey structures, the projects where the benefits of making castings in high volume
principle of the portal frame can be applied to multiple storey can be made economic. Pinned connections use types illustrated
frames, though they are typically used to provide economic here. Smaller scale portal frames can be fixed together in a way
structures for long-span single storey buildings with the benefit that gives them the appearance of being single components,
of their comparatively low weight. but which are bolted or glued together on site. This can give the
portal frame a more sculptural appearance, with the structure
Portal frames are typically made from steel, laminated timber resembling more boat construction than traditional building.
and reinforced concrete. As is the case with arches, there are The use of digital fabrication tools such as CNC routers brings
three types: the rigid frame, the two-pin frame and the three-pin the opportunity for portal frames to be made in different sizes
frame. In the rigid portal frame, the structure uses the least in order to form a more complex space within the building. The
material, with the rigidity of the joints being taken down as far as purlin members that connect the portal frames together are
the base of the frame. The pinned types act in a similar way to then cut at different angles on their ends in order to follow a
MCH_ 304
1
4 4
4
4
3D view showing rigid reinforced steel

portal frame
Details
1. Portal frame 2
2. Cladding 1
3. Floor slab 1
4. Timber board
3D view showing rigid reinforced steel portal frame
3D view showing rigid reinforced steel

1
portal frame
1
2
4
3
MCH_ 305
Structure 04
Portal frames
Details
2
1. Portal frame
2. Cladding
3. Floor Slab
4 4. Timber board
1
2
4
3
1
3D view showing 3 pin timber portal frame
2
2
4
1
1
3D view showing pin detail within timber portal frame
2 4
4
1
3D view showing corner detail through rigid

steel portal frame
1
3
3D view showing 3 pin timber portal frame
1
3
3D view showing rigid reinforced steel portal frame 3D view showing base plate acting as pin joint
for timber frame timber frame
MCH_ 306
2
2
1
3 1
3D views showing rigid

Details reinforced concrete
1. Portal frame portal frame
2. Cladding
3. Floor Slab 3
3D view showing rigid reinforced concrete portal frame
particular line across the structure, which may be visible from fixed to these purlins rather than directly to the portals in order
inside or set in a staggered arrangement to suit the external to keep the connection type simple. The stiffness of junctions
roof and wall finishes. Portal frames are being increasingly between walls and roof makes the transition in the external
associated with non-rectilinear structures due to their ability to envelope straightforward and economic. Larger scale portal
form complex shapes with visually elegant connections. Large frames require a gutter at the edge of the roof, which cannot
scale portal frames can provide a visually elegant and more always follow the geometry of the frame itself. A solution is to
slender alternative to classic trusses, creating roof structures set the external envelope away from the portal frame, usually
that more resemble shells than frames. A recent development by setting the purlins on the outside edge of the portal frames,
is a hybrid of portal frame structures which is the use of a ‘tree’ thus creating a gap between frame and envelope. This gap can
like column arrangement of portal frame connections at the top then accommodate the shape of the gutter without interrupting
of a structure that supports curved beams along its length. the visual line of the roof / wall enclosure on the outside. The
inside face of the external skin can also be lined to conceal the
Interface with external envelope gutter if required. The base of portal frames typically has an
An advantage of portal frames is their ability to form a single upstand to provide weatherproofing at this point, dependent on
surface for both walls and roof. In recent years, sheet metal the position of the portal frames, either at ground level or as
roofs have been used with small scale portal frame structures, part of a larger structure. The upstand provides a termination
with their ability to render the shape created by the structure. to the external envelope, forming a transition between wall and
In other examples the external skin is set between the portal adjacent roof deck or ground conditions. The hybrid structures
frame members, revealing the shape of the frame and making with their tree-like base use a range of curved and welded steel
the structure the visual expression of the design. The portal plate and cast connections to create complex forms that serve
frames are weather protected and thermally insulated, often as moment connections that can contrast visually with adjacent
using the same metal sheet system, but with the opportunity for pinned connections at roof level. Generally, the use of portal
setting glazed units between the portal frames in line with the frame structures as single enclosures suggests a continuation
adjacent covering for wall and roof. Purlins are used to support of the interdependency of structure and envelope that are
the external cladding. Where profiled metal cladding is used they clearly visible in contemporary examples.
are called sheeting rails. In common with arches, cladding is
MCH_ 307
Structure 04
Loadbearing boxes 1: reinforced concrete
4
7
6
5
4
6
6
1
2 1
6 2
6
2
2
1 1
Details
1. External reinforced
loadbearing concrete wall
3D overview showing reinforced concrete 2. Window opening
loadbearing box construction 3. Floor slab
4. Parapet upstand
5. Window frame
6. Double glazing
In this section are considered structures where loadbearing 7. Concrete roof
walls and floors are linked together with some degree of
interdependency. Although not strictly regarded as a structural
system, techniques of loadbearing concrete wall and floor
construction are very common in Europe for large-scale housing
projects. Many European houses are built with loadbearing 1
masonry walls with either timber or concrete floors that provide

stability to the external walls.
5
Concrete loadbearing boxes

Loadbearing walls and floors made in reinforced concrete can
be combined to make a complete monolithic structure. Both
in-situ cast and precast concrete techniques can be used, 6
though precast methods suit projects where a high degree

of repetition occurs in panel types. Concrete loadbearing
boxes have the advantage of high fire resistance combined
with high sound insulation from both airborne and impact
sound. Concrete can be used in conjunction with both steel
and concrete structures. In situ cast techniques generate
a monolithic connection between floor and walls. Precast
5
components are stitched together to form a similar connection.
Since concrete is not regarded as vapour-proof, the outside
of the concrete is either rendered or covered with a cladding 3 1
system, typically a rainscreen. Measures to ensure thermal

insulation, together with finishes, are discussed in the in-situ
3D detail view showing window opening in reinforced concrete loadbearing
cast walls section in chapter 2. box construction
MCH_ 308
4
4
4
7
1
7
6
Structural FE model of a loadbearing reinforced

7
concrete structure.
1
3D overview showing reinforced concrete loadbearing

box construction
4
7
6
6 6 2
1
1
1
Stress distribution analysis for lateral wind loads (the
1
movements shown are magnified)
3D overview showing reinforced concrete loadbearing box construction
1
1
6
6
2 9
2
1
6
3
3D section view showing window opening in reinforced concrete loadbearing box construction 3D view showing window openings of varying
recess depths in reinforced concrete
loadbearing box construction
MCH_ 309
Structure 04
Loadbearing boxes 1: reinforced concrete
4
4
4
6
4
6
1
2 6
9
9
9
6
6
3
5 6
1
3D sectional view showing reinforced concrete

6
loadbearing box construction
5
2
9
4 1
6
6 2
6
6
2 1
3
2
1
1
1
9
3D overview showing various openings in reinforced

concrete loadbearing box construction
3D sectional view showing window openings varying recess
depths in reinforced concrete loadbearing box construction
MCH_ 310
4
4
9 6
1 3
3D sectional view showing reinforced concrete

loadbearing box construction 8
4
4
4
4
6
9
6
6
9
1
3 1
6
3
1
Details
1. External reinforced
loadbearing concrete wall
2. Window opening
3. Floor slab
4. Parapet upstand
5. Window frame
6. Double glazing 3D sectional view showing reinforced concrete
7. Concrete roof loadbearing box construction
8. Internal staircase
9. Internal concrete loadbearing wall
MCH_ 311
Structure 04
Loadbearing boxes 2: brick
2
2
2 1
4
7
4
3D detail view showing typical loadbearing brick bay showing

concrete beams supported on brick piers and brick arches
5
1
4
3D view with typical loadbearing brick bay 7
showing concrete beams supported on
brick piers and brick arches 3D view showing window opening in typical loadbearing brick
bay
Loadbearing brick structures are rarely used in buildings in of the same material as the surrounding wall and in flat, curved
industrialised countries since they are more expensive than cavity or pointed variations. Flat arches require considerable skill to
walls, use more material and are slower to build. Traditionally, construct, and are often reinforced with bed reinforcement in
they have also been less efficient at excluding rainwater than the form of steel rod or expanded mesh. In common with other
contemporary cavity walls, with the separation of internal types of masonry construction, brickwork cannot be loaded, and
and external skins that has made cavity wall construction a will fail in tension.
technically accomplished and less expensive alternative to
solid, loadbearing construction. Over the past 100 years, the Loadbearing brickwork was used in the Indian Institute of
design of brickwork has generally aimed towards increasing its Management at Ahmedabad, India (completed 1974) and part
strength through the use of higher strength mortars, though of the National Assembly at Dhaka, Bangladesh (completed
this results in a more brittle structure with reduced flexibility 1983), both designed by Louis Kahn. The architect had
that was provided by the lime-based mortars. This has led to the previously used brick slips (thin brick tiles that imitate brickwork)
need for movement joints in the material, usually at around 6.5 to conceal openings formed in either steel or concrete. In these
metres centres, with the effect that loadbearing walls become a two projects structural brick arches are used. Because of their
series of linked panels. The gradual re-introduction of lime putty large size, spanning up to approximately three metres they were
mortars, with their lower strength but greater allowance for combined with reinforced concrete lintels as tied arches. The
movement, is set to change the nature of loadbearing brickwork, ends of the ties were specially formed to bond into the adjacent
and its use is discussed in the Walls chapter. brickwork, thus avoiding the need for additional steel connectors.
The use of brick in these structures is restricted to the walls, Recent built example
since traditional vaulted brick floors have been superseded by Glyndebourne Opera House in England has loadbearing brick
timber or concrete floor construction, which can more easily walls, which consist of two skins 220mm thick with a 50mm
achieve longer spans. Loadbearing walls are usually much cavity providing acoustic separation. The inner leaf supports
thicker than their cavity wall equivalents, making the structure the back of the balconies. The brickwork forms a loadbearing
much heavier in order to provide sufficient waterproofing, since drum 33.7m in diameter, 17.7m high, truncated on one face
the brick absorbs rainwater near the surface and later dries where it intersects with the fly-tower. From this wall radiates
out. Traditionally, openings in walls have been made with arches a series of precast concrete panels that form the soffit to the
MCH_ 312
1
4
1
3D detail showing window opening in loadbearing masonry

construction configuration
3D views showing loadbearing
masonry construction
configuration
3
2
4
3
Details
1
5 1. Solid structural brickwork pier
4 2. Brick arch
3. Precast concrete floor beams
7
with padstone
4. Aluminium window frame
8 5. Loadbearing brickwork wall in
English Bond
6. Floor slab
7. Double glazing
8. Aluminium window cill
5
3D sectional view showing typical loadbearing
brick bay showing concrete beams supported
on brick piers and brick arches
MCH_ 313
Structure 04
Loadbearing boxes 2: brick
3
4
7
1 4
7
3 2
6
1 4
7
1 1
5
5 1
3
6
2
3D elevation showing typical 3D elevation showing typical loadbearing brick wall

loadbearing brick bay with masonry piers configuration with masonry piers
balconies and partially support the seating above. In-situ cast between slab and wall. These applications are set to revitalise
columns that are tied together with an in-situ cast topping and the use of brickwork as they start to combine the authenticity
ring beam provide additional support. Where the structure runs of loadbearing walls with contemporary requirements for
alongside the side stages, the inner wall becomes an acoustic weatherproofing and thermal insulation. An advantage of
wall 220mm thick, but elsewhere it is less dense and where it loadbearing brickwork is its ability to vary in thickness to suit
is punctured by openings providing access to the auditorium, it structural requirements without the need for the stainless steel
becomes a series of piers. The walls supporting the balconies fixings and supports associated with cavity brick walls, where any
are 334mm thick continuous skin, supported by flat arches modelling of the surface of the wall is difficult to accommodate
resting on gently tapering brick piers. The mix used for the structurally due to the nature of its construction, which is to be
lime putty mortar in the brickwork was a 1:2:9 (cement:lime non-loadbearing. Loadbearing brickwork is also able to use other
putty:sand) ratio by volume. The cement gave early strength materials in its construction, from cut stones forming pieces
to the wall and slightly improved durability and weathering. The of loadbearing arches to precast concrete ties, lintels and cills
compressive strength of the bricks was 27.5N/mm2 and that as an integral part of the construction. The additional cost of
of the lime putty mortar was 1.5N/mm2. This provided an this form of construction over that of cavity wall construction
overall compressive strength of 6.2N/mm2, which is less than makes its application less widespread, but this may change with
half that of conventional brickwork at around 15N/mm2. the possibility of prefabricating sections of the wall away from
the site, and assembling the pieces on site in the manner of
Current applications precast concrete construction, where speed of construction is
The use of loadbearing brickwork in recent economic applications a benefit. Some recent examples have set steel reinforcement
has been mostly in situations where thermal insulation is not into the depth of the wall so as to increase its strength, and
required, such as in walls set externally to form a screen wall resistance to wind load, without increasing its thickness beyond
to external spaces or semi-external spaces. Alternatively, the one and a half bricks thick, which is generally considered to be
loadbearing wall is used in a hybrid condition, where it supports the minimum thickness of loadbearing walls which can exclude
itself in the manner of the outer leaf of a cavity wall, but is only rainwater (though this is not always sufficient, of course). The
connected at points to the floor slabs behind in order to reduce use of steel reinforcement can help reduce the overall weight
the thermal bridge through the material. Thermal insulation, of the wall in order to remain within the loadbearing capacity
when required, is set on the inside face of the wall, and is also set of the wall.
MCH_ 314
3
7
1
4 3
8
3D view showing window opening in typical loadbearing brick bay
4 7
Details 7
1
1. Solid structural brickwork pier
2. Brick arch
3. Precast concrete floor beams with padstone
4. Aluminium window frame 8
1
5. Loadbearing brickwork wall in English Bond
6. Floor slab
7. Double glazing 5
8. Aluminium window cill
7
4 1
7
4
1 8
3D view showing typical

loadbearing brick bay
4
7 4
1 5
3D view showing window opening in typical loadbearing brick bay at brick pier
3D view showing floor slab junction in typical loadbearing brick wall

configuration
MCH_ 315
Structure 04
Loadbearing boxes 3: glass
Structural FE analysis of a typical Glass pane thicknesses

glass box bay: stress distribu- need to meet the required
tion under dead loads. Stress deflection criteria under wind
concentration points can be loads. Vertical glass fins may
identified as they may present replace standard mullions
potential issues. in providing stiffness to the
facade.
7
1
7
1
3D detail view showing glass

fin fixing detail in structural
glass box assembly
3D view showing structural

glass box assembly
MCH_ 316
Details
2. Triple glazed unit
3. Laminated glass beam
4. Laminated glass beam with slot for column
5. Laminated glass column
6. Laminated glass column with projecting
lamina that slots into beam
7. Silicone seal
1
7
4
1
4
3D exploded view showing structural

glass box assembly
4
6
1
1
7
1
7
1
5
3D detail view showing glass fin fixing

detail in structural glass box assembly
All-glass loadbearing structures are a recent development units have an edge spacer with a groove around the edge to
in the design of small scale glass enclosures. Their intention which the toggle plate can be fixed. The silicone between double
is usually to maximise transparency, and their application on glazed units can then be silicone sealant rather than a silicone
single storey enclosures ensures that glass sheets can form bond. The junction between vertical glass fins and glass beams
walls without the need for aluminium or steel framing. Typically, supporting the roof panels may still use a silicone bond. The glass
double glazed units are set vertically, with examples 1500mm types used are a combination of tempered and laminated glass
wide x 3000mm high. These larger size panels require glass which is bonded or bolted together to form beam and column
fins set vertically to take the place of glass mullions, but glass components. In common with bolt fixed glazing, an essential
units 2100mm high sometimes do not require any glass fins, consideration in the design of loadbearing glass structures is the
depending on the wind load. Double glazed units are also used avoidance of any stress concentrations that might lead to glass
to form roof panels, set onto glass beams which are fixed to the breakage while the structure is under normal load conditions.
vertical glass fins. Where no vertical fins are used, the glass Since the techniques used are very recent, no general principles
beams can be fixed to stainless steel brackets or shoes which for construction are set out here but two recent examples are
are bolt fixed to the double glazed units forming the external shown. Sometimes a glass fin can be used at roof level only,
wall. The beams, fins, wall panels and roof panels are bonded projecting down the wall for a short distance and remaining
together, typically with silicone, to form an all-glass structure. In above head height to avoid risk of injury to users.
practice, most all-glass structures have additional mechanical
fixings to secure all components, as a completely bonded glass All-glass enclosure, Broadfield Glass Museum, West
structure has obvious risks associated with its design. A typical Midlands, England. (see page 289)
fixing might be a toggle type fixing where a flat metal plate is The architect was Brent Richards of Design Antenna working
used to hold double glazed units in place. The double glazed with structural engineers of Dewhurst MacFarlane. The
MCH_ 317
Structure 04
Loadbearing boxes 3: glass
(Left) 3D exploded view showing glass fin fixing

detail in structural glass box assembly
1
7
4
7
1
(Left) 3D view showing
1
5 glass fin fixing detail in
structural glass wall
assembly
3D view showing structural glass 5

wall assembly
5
5
1 7
3D view showing structural glass wall assembly
enclosure is constructed without metal fixings or supports in foam backing. The roof slope is 1.5º. The roof can be walked
any another material. It is 11m long, 5.7m wide and 3.5m high. upon for maintenance, and supports expected snow loads. The
The primary structure consists of glass beams 5.7m long x front walls consist of 3.7 metre x 1.1 metre high double glazed
300mm deep, at 1000mm centres. One end is supported by panels composed of two sheets of 8mm toughened glass with
an existing masonry wall, whilst the other is supported on glass a 10mm air gap.
columns 3.5m high and 200mm deep.
All-glass footbridge, Rotterdam, Holland (see page 289)
The beams and columns are made from three sheets of glass This footbridge was designed by the architect Dirk Jan Postel
laminated together, making them 32mm thick. At the rear, the of Kraaijvanger-Urbis, working with Structural Engineer ABT
beams are secured by shoes in steel fixed to the wall, while Velpe. The bridge spans three metres with floor plates of 15mm
on the glazed side they are connected to the columns in an laminated float glass supported on two laminated glass beams
interlocking of the glass layers. The junction was bonded on site made from float glass. The side-walls consist of double glazed
with a catalyst-cured resin. The glass roof panels are bonded units made from 10mm and 6mm thick toughened glass sheet.
to the top of the glass beams. The double glazed roof panels In addition to being self-supporting, the walls support the glass
have an outer layer of 10mm thick toughened glass, a 10mm roof, which has the same type of laminated construction as the
air gap and an inner skin of two sheets of 6mm glass laminated walls. The all-glass components are fixed together with stainless
together. A silver film on the inner face of the upper sheet steel brackets and plates. The use of stainless steel fixings does
reduces solar gain, as does the ceramic fritting on the inside not noticeably reduce the transparency of the structure, instead
face of the panel. adding a sense of visual refinement, while the curve of the beams
supporting the floor deck contrasts with the rectilinear design
The roof panels are bonded to the beams with structural of the glass enclosure. From a visual point of view, the all-glass
silicone bead with a rigid foam backing. The gap between the design makes it easy to link with existing buildings on either side.
panels is sealed using a silicone-rubber weather seal with a
MCH_ 318
3D view showing single-glazed
7 glass footbridge assembly
9 7 with steel frame
9
11
11 11
8
10
10
Details
2. Triple glazed unit
3. Laminated glass beam
4. Laminated glass beam with slot for column 10
5. Laminated glass column
6. Laminated glass column with
projecting lamina that slots into beam
7. Silicone seal 11
8. Single glazed wall panel
9. Single glazed roof panel 11
10. Glass as floor deck 3D exploded view showing

11. Steel frame single-glazed glass footbridge
12. Stainless steel bracket bolt fixed to assembly with steel frame
beam and wall
13. Bonded glass connection
9
7 9
7
11 11
11
8 8
11 8 8
11
11
11
11
11
11
3D exploded view
showing single-
3D view showing single-glazed 11
glazed glass
footbridge assembly glass footbridge assembly
with steel frame with steel frame
MCH_ 319
Structure 04
Trusses
3D overview showing timber truss roof structure 3D detail views showing timber truss roof structure clad with
supported on brick walls and clad with slate roof tiles slate roof tiles
Details a c
a. Warren truss
b. Modified Warren truss
c. Pratt truss
d. Vierendeel truss
b d
(Right) Traditional timber

roof truss assembly types
Trusses are used for large spans where a solid girder would mainly as axial loads in the members, the 'N' truss which has
be at a disadvantage due to its self-weight. Instead of using a vertical and diagonal members in a rhythm of alternating
deep solid section, such as a girder, a more economic solution tension and compression, and the Vierendeel truss, which has
for larger spans can be provided by transmitting forces across an orthogonal rather than a triangulated series of members.
a series of diagonally set and connected members to take In the Vierendeel truss, forces are transferred between
up the vertical, horizontal and diagonal shear stresses. With members by localised bending, called Vierendeel action, with
the exception of the Vierendeel type, trusses use pin-ended rigid connections between members. As such, it is not strictly a
members that utilise tension and compression in a series of ties truss type. The bending makes members slightly larger than in
and struts. While trusses bend along their overall length, local an equivalent triangulated truss, resulting in their being heavier
bending within the truss can be largely avoided if loads onto the than a Warren truss spanning the same distance.
truss are applied at the node points. Loading trusses away from
the nodes introduces local bending into horizontal members with Whereas beam members are predominantly I-shaped to
a resulting increase in their design size, as members now have accommodate the bending effects, the cross-sectional shape
to resist bending as well as axial loads, resulting in trusses that for individual truss members can vary enormously, since
are heavier, usually less elegant and more expensive. The voids truss members are generally subject to small direct forces.
between members are often used to accommodate services Consequently, T-sections and tubes can be used in steel trusses,
and mechanical ventilation ducts. These structures maximise for example, while a mix of timber and steel can be used in other
the lever arm between the compression and tension flanges to types. Flat shaped sections make the connections easier to
generate a greater moment of resistance in order to provide form than box sections, but this situation provides opportunities
a greater loadbearing capacity while minimising weight. Simply to design elegant connections, which can be one of the most
supported trusses exert no thrust at their supports allowing significant considerations from a visual point of view.
them to be easily supported on columns or supporting walls
within a larger structure. Joints and connections
Trusses are typically formed in timber, mild steel or a combination
Truss types vary enormously in their design; the most common of the two materials. In trusses using mixed materials, steel
types being the Warren trusses, where loads are carried rod or cable are used to form the ties, typically on the bottom
MCH_ 320
6000.
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
10.0
10.0
18.1
18.1
4000.
23.7
23.7
25.3
SHC 300 x 200 x 6
10.1
4000.
10.0
18.1
18.1
23.7
25.3
2000.
SHC 300 x 200 x 6
2000.
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
6.01
6.01
8.34
0.
SHC 300 x 200 x 6
0.
3.43
3.43
7.85
7.85
SHC 300 x 200 x 6
-2000.
SHC 300 x 200 x 6
-2000. 0. 2000. 4000. 6000. 10000. mm 0. 2000. 4000. 6000. 8000. 10000. mm
8000.
Comparative structural analysis: using the same member cross-sections and applying the same loads, the Vierendeel truss shows larger deflections.
Z All loads, Loadcase 2 dead loads , (1 cm 3D = unit) Free single load (force) in global Z (Unit=23.4 kN ) (Min=-100.0) (Max=-100.0) M 1 : 54 Z Deformed Structure from LC 2 dead loads Enlarged by 50000. M 1 : 49
Y X Beam Elements , Cross sections Y X Nodal displacement in global Z, Loadcase 2 dead loads , 1 cm 3D = 11.6 mm (Min=-25.3) (Max=0)
Truss Elements , Cross sections Beam Elements , Cross sections
Details
1. Purlins spanning between trusses Structural behaviour
2. Roof covering of a typical Vierendeel
3. Strut truss: bending
4. Tie moments are carried
5. Timber wall plate by the rigid connec-
6. Bolted steel connection tions, which would
7. Steel connector plate normally be pinned in
a braced truss.
3D overview showing timber truss

roof structure supported on brick
walls and clad with slate roof tiles
3D view showing timber truss roof structure supported on brick walls and clad with slate 3D detail view showing timber truss roof structure clad with
roof tiles slate roof tiles
MCH_ 321
Structure 04
Trusses
3D overview showing timber truss roof

structure supported on brick walls and
clad with slate roof tiles
Details
1. Purlins spanning between trusses
2. Roof covering
3. Strut
4. Tie
5. Timber wall plate 3D views showing timber
6. Bolted steel connection truss roof structure
7. Steel connector plate supported on brick walls and
chord of the truss, while steel tube might be used to form the and bolted together with gusset plates set between them to
central strut. Timber roof trusses are either large trusses set allow several members to be joined together at a single node.
up to three metres apart linked together with purlins or much They are in widespread use as economic long span supports to
lighter nail plate trusses set at around 450mm centres. Larger roof structures. Larger scale trusses are made from laminated
trusses often use double timber members forming the main timber or LVL (laminated veneer lumber), which resembles
rafters and joists that are spaced apart with secondary ties and plywood in its construction but is made in long lengths. These
struts linking the primary members. Timbers are bolted together materials use similar bolted connections to smaller trusses, but
using large steel washers that spread the load imposed by the typically with bigger metal connector plates. Truss members
bolt head and prevent it from crushing the timber locally as the can be made from single lengths of LVL but for high loads, LVL is
connection is tightened. The exposed steel components are glue-laminated to make large cross-section members, typically
painted to avoid their corrosion. Timber trusses can also make square in profile. Reinforced concrete trusses are usually
use of ties made in steel rod where they are visible components. precast either as a series of prefabricated components which
Smaller trusses are factory assembled with nail plates and are stitched together or as a single completed component. They
split ring connectors as described in the Materials chapter. are much less commonly used than those in timber or steel
Steel trusses can range from a modest set of angles bolted due to their self-weight, which tends to reduce the lightness and
together with linking gusset plate connectors to welded tubular economy associated with trusses.
structures that can incorporate cast node connections to allow
connections with complex geometries to be formed. These cast Interface with external envelope
connectors allow the loads to meet at the intersection of the Trusses are tied together by the secondary members called
centrelines of members in order to minimise the diameter of purlins which connect trusses together typically points on the
the tubes. Modest steel trusses use angles set back to back rafter which intersect with other truss members, called node
MCH_ 322
3D overview showing timber truss roof structure
with steel cable tie bracing
3D overview showing timber truss roof structure

with steel cable tie bracing
points. The purlins are set on top of the outer face of the truss in
order to form a support for the build-up of the roof covering and
to make a simple connection between truss and purlin. Purlins
can have an internal finish applied, such as timber boards or
dry lining in order to expose the trusses within the building,
but this varies with the design of the trusses. In addition to
avoiding local bending in truss members, the fixing of cladding
to secondary supports permits the use of simple bolted or
screwed connections that avoids any complexity in fixing to a
primary member. The bases of trusses are set either onto a
supporting structural frame or onto a supporting wall. The wall
plate or purlin joining the base of the trusses is typically used to
form an interface between roof covering and the external wall
below, where a gutter is typically required. The arrangement
of purlins is often adjusted to suit the needs of supporting
the roof covering, which may range from profiled metal sheet
to traditional roof tiling. Steel trusses may also have brackets
fixed to the top of the truss to provide connectors to the roof
covering, typically with the aim of providing a visual separation
between structure and roof covering.
3D view showing timber truss roof structure supported on brick walls and
MCH_ 323
Structure 04
Arches and shells
Details
1. Timber member
2. Steel rod
3. Steel node connector
4. Doubled glazed unit
3D views showing timber shell structure with

tension cable support and double glazed roof
The essential concept of the arch is to support loads has pin joints at the abutments only. It is more economical in
primarily as compression forces in the plane of the structure, material than the three-pin type and bending moments are
with abutments at the base to resist the outward thrusts more evenly distributed than in the three-pin type, minimising
generated by its shape. Since arches exert outward forces at the amount of material used. The three-pin arch is hinged at
their bases, they require a tie such as a floor slab or beam, for three points, which are at the apex and at the two base points.
example. This is quite different to some portal frames, which Bending does not occur at the pin joints, which behave as pivots
do not exert such forces at their base points. Consequently, or hinges. Bending moments away from the pins are greater
a variation to this type is the ‘tied arch’ in which a tension than in other types. As with the traditional masonry arch, there
member links the base points across the arch to resist these are horizontal thrusts at the supports. Thrusts at the base of an
outward thrusts and control spread of the arch. The three arch increase as the arch profile becomes shallower. Both the
most common types used in modern construction are the three-point and two-point arches suit larger spans which would
rigid arch, the two-pin arch and the three-pin arch. These two- present difficulties for transport and handling if made in a single
dimensional structures are linked together in bays with purlins piece. The most common materials used are steel, laminated
to form a complete structure. Alternatively, the arch concept timber and reinforced concrete.
can be extended into three dimensions as a shell. Both arches
and shells can be formed either from truss components, Shells
as ‘gridshells’, which are in increased use, or as monolithic Shells are of two generic types; those made from framing
structures in reinforced concrete. members to which cladding is applied and monolithic shells
which are made either by casting concrete in place over
Arches complex formwork or as precast sections which are stitched
The rigid arch has no pin joints, but instead has rigid connections together. In both cases, the loads are carried in the plane of
at both base points. This arch type is generally considered to the structure with the outward thrusts being taken out at the
be more economical than the two other types, but has bending base. Shells constructed from framing members often have a
moments at its base that are transmitted into the foundations, ring beam at the edge to contain the effects of the outward
which may need to be linked by ground beams to resist the thrusts, thrusts. Monolithic concrete types may either follow the same
in the manner of a tied arch, unless the ground is sufficiently principle or have a continuous abutment at their base to deal
firm to withstand the thrusts without a beam. The two-pin arch with the higher loads associated with concrete. Shells in which
MCH_ 324
1
3
4
3D views showing timber shell structure with tension cable support and double glazed roof
3 1
MCH_ 325
Structure 04
Arches and shells
3D views showing shell structure with precast concrete

panels supported by steel grid structure
1
1
2
2
5
4 6 2
6 5
6
3 4
5
5 2
1
4
6
5
5
5
6
6
5 Details
2 1. Reinforced concrete outer shell
2. Concrete edge beam
1
6 3. Concrete ribs
4. Steel connecting brackets
5. Horizontal steel beams
6. Steel structural bracing
3D view showing underside of shell structure with precast 7. Curved steel primary edge beams
concrete panels supported by steel grid structure 8. Steel horizontal structural members
the structure and enclosure are combined in a single form, as Interface with external envelope
found in an egg shell, are referred to as monocoques. Shell Monolithic arched structures and shells are covered externally
forms vary enormously, from the relatively simple shell vault in continuous membranes where rainwater is collected at the
resembling an extruded arch, to the complex ribbed structures base of the structure. Membranes used vary from polymer-
resembling seashells. based types that are bonded to the structural substrate to
standing seam metal sheeting.
Joints and connections
Arches and shells made from framing members (rather Trussed arches and gridshells provide the opportunity for
than reinforced concrete) are formed using the pinned and transparency, where glazed roof systems can be used in
moment connections associated with each material and are addition to metal clad roofs. Where metal is used, a covering of
illustrated here. An interesting recent development has been sheet metal or metal rainscreen panels are used, typically with
in using a mix of materials to form shell structures, such as a profiled metal substrate serving as a deck, though the double
those in timber and stainless steel cables or rods. The mixing curvature of the shell can make it easier to form a substrate
of materials has benefits in economy of weight, allowing forces from triangles, which are always flat. Double glazed units can be
in different members to be matched to a suitable material. supported as clamped glazing supported at the node connector
An essential aspect of framed shells or ‘gridshells’, with their points, or alternatively from a secondary metal frame also
double curvature, is the connector node which is typically connected at these node points. The external envelope is fixed
made in steel and which can also be used to support the roof in a way which allows the structural movements of gridshells,
covering. Where a single material is used for the gridshell, such which can be higher than other types of roof structure, to occur
as steel, node connectors are not required if regular cleat and without damage to joints in the roof covering. While movements
bracket connections can be used economically. This allows can be more easily accommodated in metal roofs, glazed roofs
the roof covering to be supported directly on the structural require careful particular attention to detail to ensure that the
members. Shells can be supported at their base on a variety support points for the glazed units do not experience significant
of supports, from columns to loadbearing walls or floor slabs. amounts of movement. Consequently, the principles associated
The choice of support may be related directly to the need with point fixed glazing are often used, even where part of the
to provide an economic weathertight seal at their junction, support system involves a metal supporting frame.
though structural ring beams are often needed to contain
the outward thrust forces.
MCH_ 326
2 8
4
5 8
6 7
7 7
6
1 6
6 2
8
8
3 5
8 7
5 4
6
3D views showing underside of shell structure with

precast concrete panels supported by steel grid structure
4 7
2 8
6
6
5 5
6
1
6 6
8
7
6
7
5
8
1
5 6
6
8
5
8 8
6 7
6 6
6
8
6
5
3D view showing underside of shell structure with precast concrete panels supported by steel grid 3D view showing arched steel structural frame
structure with diagonal cross-bracing
MCH_ 327
Structure 04
Space grids
2
4
5
4
1 3
Details
1. Spherical cast connector
2. Top chords of frame
3. Bottom chords of frame
5
4. Glazed roof panels
4
5. Glazing Frame
3D view showing top of space

frame structure supporting a
glass roof and facade
Space frames and geodesic domes are the most well known structure but its geometry often allows it to be used as a single-
types of space grid. They can be regarded, from a conceptual layer structure without the need for introducing triangulation
point of view as being three-dimensional trusses. One of the into the depth of the structure. Space grids provide long-span
earliest space frames was the Mero system designed in the structures for roofs and walls. They can take on a huge variety
1940s by Max Mengeringhausen, and is still used today, of forms from vaults to supporting structures for large glazed
though much evolved from that time. A development by Konrad walls. Deflections in space frames are small due to the overall
Wachsmann in the 1950s was based on the geometric form stiffness of the frame. Steel is most commonly used because
of the tetrahedron. The space frame comprises a series of of the strength and stiffness of the material combined with its
triangulated members linked by node connectors that, effectively, comparatively low cost.
form a series of linked trusses in directions perpendicular to
one another. The material system is made economic and fast Joints and connections
to install by using a single node type wherever possible, though The ‘base’ component of space frames and geodesic domes
different connectors may be used at the edges where they can be considered as a square-based pyramid-shaped frame,
meet the external wall. Some geometries require a ‘family’ of assembled with rods or tubes connected by a single node
connectors to form complex shapes, particularly those space connector. The early Mero systems used a spherical node,
frames that depart from the square, rectilinear format that has set with threaded holes into which eight connectors fixed
been used until recently. An equivalent of the space frame for to structural members forming the space frame could be
curved surfaces is the geodesic dome, originally developed by connected. Four holes were set in order to allow members in
Richard Buckminster Fuller in the 1940s. Fuller believed that the same horizontal or vertical plane to be connected together,
structures in nature behave such in a way that internal forces with four additional holes at angles that allow triangulated
usually act in the direction of minimum effort with a maximum members forming the depth of the space frame to connect
gain achieved for a minimum of energy input. Rather than to form the characteristic triangulated shape. More recent
apply this idea to the form of the plant leaf or the animal shell, versions use square and polygon-based geometries to form the
Buckminster Fuller interpreted triangular crystalline forms node connector, allowing triangular grids to be used rather than
found in nature, using triangulated frames. Like the space frame the square-based versions. The new generation of nodes can be
the geodesic dome is essentially a continuous triangulated used for single layer structures that are more based on the idea
MCH_ 328
2
4 2
1
5 1
4
3
3D view showing space frame structure
3
supporting a glass roof and facade
3 3D view showing underside of space frame structure

supporting a glass roof and facade
MCH_ 329
Structure 04
Space grids
3D views showing typical nodes and chords of a space

frame structure
3D views showing typical nodes and chords of a space frame structure
MCH_ 330
2 2
1 4 1
3 3
4
1
3
2
Details
1. Spherical cast connector
2. Top chords of frame 3
3. Bottom chords of frame
4. Glazed roof panels
5. Glazing Frame
3D view showing space frame structure supporting

a glass roof and facade
of gridshells than space frames, and allow more freedom in the this purpose. More typically, the nodes are used as structural
range of angles that can be accommodated in order to allow connectors only. Where a rectangular hollow section is used,
more geometric variation in the form of the grid. The design cladding can be fixed directly to structural members without
of nodes is currently moving towards this preference in design the need for welded lugs, provided that the potential corrosion
for a wider range of forms than are afforded by the rectilinear caused by penetrating the tube is taken into account.
frame arrangement.
Point fixed glazing is also suitable for space grids since the
The essential component of the space grid is the node connectors for the glazing can be fixed directly to the structural
connector. Very simple types with simple geometries use a flat node. Cladding conditions can vary from flat to inclined to curved,
plate connector to which steel angles are bolted in the manner following the geometry of the supporting structure to which
of a truss. Complex geometry types use a cast or machined they are fixed. In conditions where the roof is horizontal, the roof
node that has threaded holes to receive the ends of the covering can drain to gutters set between roof panels, following
threaded connectors of the ties and struts. These form part of the direction of structural members beneath.In conditions where
proprietary systems designed by manufacturers. the roof is inclined, the roof covering is drained like a glazed roof,
with water running across the roof surface to gutters at the
Interface with external envelope edges. Glazed roofs in most geometric conditions use glazing
An essential advantage of the space grid is that cladding which is toggle fixed or point fixed, with a single silicone-based
panels can be fixed directly to the structure without the need seal set flush with the surface of the glass, in order to allow
for additional rails or purlins. For glass roofs, a typical distance rainwater to run freely across the roof.
of 1500mm between horizontal structural members in the
space frame allows economic sized double glazed units of the Junctions between wall and roof in glazed space frames typically
same size to be used. Where a profiled metal desk is used, use either a glass to glass joint, or one where an insulated metal
there is greater flexibility in the size of the structural bay, as the panel is used to form the junction. The choice is largely based on
decking can span up to around 3500mm with standard profile design preference and the visibility of the glazed edge.
depths. Roof cladding or glazed panels are fixed either with lugs
or brackets welded to the structural members, which may be
tubular or rectangular. Alternatively, the roof covering can be
fixed to the node connectors where the node is designed for
MCH_ 331
Structure 04
Floor structures 1: cast in-situ/cast-in-place concrete
1. Flat slab 2. Slab with downstand beams
3. One-way spanning ribbed slab 4. Two-way spanning ribbed slab
3D views showing various in-situ cast concrete floor slab configurations
The flat slab is the simplest type of cast-in-place floor and is are set diagonally to the structural grid of columns but as with
suitable for spans of up to around nine metres. It can be used ribbed floors, the formwork must be specially made.
in a one-way or two-way span, approximately 300mm deep,
depending upon span and loading. In a one-way span, steel Ground-bearing slabs may be either reinforced or poured as
reinforcement is introduced into the bottom part of the slab and mass concrete, depending on the degree of strength and rigidity
the floor is designed to span in one direction only, like a beam. In required. Where ground-bearing conditions permit, they are
a two-way slab, the reinforcement is laid in a perpendicular grid supported directly by the ground beneath. Where the ground
so that the total load of the floor is more evenly distributed at its is too soft, a suspended floor is used. Ground-bearing slabs can
perimeter as the floor spans in two directions. Reinforcement be designed either as a raft or as a slab supported by separate
is concentrated on the lines between columns to create beams foundations beneath. Ground slabs are laid on a compacted
connecting columns within the depth of the slab. The soffit is base of hardcore (gravel), which provides a level and well-drained
flat, providing a smooth ceiling and allowing a straightforward base. The hardcore is blinded with a smooth layer of sand onto
type of formwork to be used. Providing the tops of columns with which is laid a damp-proof membrane (DPM: vapour barrier). The
protruding caps where the transfer of forces is concentrated sand prevents the DPM, usually a thick polythene sheet, from
can reduce the depth of flat slabs. These caps provide greater being punctured by the hardcore. The DPM prevents moisture
rigidity for the structure and reduce the span of the slab rising up through the slab. The concrete is poured directly over
between columns. the DPM. In addition, a DPM can be laid between the concrete
slab and the screed. A liquid material is used to provide a bond
Floor spans can be increased economically from six metres to to the surface of the slab. This results in a loss of bond between
15 metres by forming a series of downstands in the floor soffit the screed and the slab, and a thicker screed (about 75mm) is
to create a ribbed floor. Steel reinforcement in the bottom used. The DPM is joined to the wall DPC (damp-proof course:
of the ribs makes this type of floor lighter than the flat slab vapour barrier) to provide continuity of damp-proofing . A DPM
because of the structurally efficient ribbing but the formwork laid on top of the concrete, usually in the form of a liquid-applied
is more complex. layer, is used as an alternative where sealing the underside and
edges of the slab is not practical. Distribution bars (reinforcing
The two-way coffered floor slab is a ribbed floor for large spans mesh) are set near the reinforcing bars in order to avoid
of up to around 17 metres in two directions. The hollow coffers cracking in the underside of the slab due to its being in tension
are often used to house lighting and service outlets. The floor under load. Reinforcement used in concrete floors can be either
structure gives better resistance to shear when the beams conventional reinforcement bars or welded mesh fabric.
MCH_ 332
1. Flat slab 2. Slab with downstand beams 3. One-way spanning ribbed slab 4. Two-way spanning ribbed slab
Finite element analysis of different concrete slab systems showing the effect of adding structural ribs.
MCH_ 333
Structure 04
Floor structures 2: precast concrete
7 7 6
2 4
3
3
5
8
6
3D view showing detail of advanced 1

beam and block system using
expanded polystyrene blocks
3D view showing detail of hollow core

1
system supported on steel primary
structure
7
8
1 7
2
1 5
Details
1. Concrete block
2. Prestressed concrete beam 3D view showing detail of
3. Expanded polystyrene block traditional beam and block
4. Structural concrete topping floor system
5. Hollowcore slab 6
6. Primary steel structure
7. Structural concrete infill
8. Reinforcement tie
Precast concrete floors consist of prefabricated planks or spaced at various centres depending on the applied loads and
beams connected together to form a deck. Proprietary systems internal plan configuration. Beams may need to be staggered or
provide longer spans than in-situ-cast concrete floors but they doubled up to support internal walls.
span in one direction only. Precast floors that span two ways
have been developed for specific projects such as the Richards After the blocks have been positioned, a grout consisting of a
Medical building shown here, and go beyond the constraints mixture of sand and cement is brushed across the floor to ensure
imposed by standard systems. all joints are evenly filled. The use of expanded polystyrene blocks
in the place of concrete blocks eliminates the need for additional
Proprietary systems sheet insulation within the floor system. Prestressed concrete
The generic types produced by manufacturers are as follows: beams are placed at 620mm centres before the polystyrene
1. Beam and block, spanning to around 7.5 metres blocks are fitted between them. A structural concrete topping
2. Hollow core slab, spanning to around 12 metres adds strength to the system and provides a smooth topping to
which internal finishes can be applied.
These are all essentially prestressed beams, which are stitched
together to form a complete deck. Ends are supported either Hollowcore systems
on beams or by a loadbearing wall, typically forming part Hollowcore flooring systems use large precast slab elements
of an overall precast concrete construction, which has the supported from a structural frame to create large clear
advantage of a rapid rate of construction. All types can be left spanning floor systems. The hollowcore system can be used
either exposed, as is sometimes the case with parking garage with the majority of structural framing systems including
construction, or be topped with a layer of concrete to form a masonry, steel and concrete. Masonry bearings need to be in
composite structure. Openings for service runs need to be the region of 100mm, whereas 75mm is needed for bearings
fixed at an early stage, since the size and position of openings on steel or concrete.
in precast floor systems is much more constrained than is the
case for cast-in-place floors. Hollowcore slabs can span up to 12 metres and panels are
typically tied over supports with a tie reinforcement and
Beam and block System structural concrete infill. Holes smaller than 100mm should be
A traditional beam and block floor uses pre-stressed concrete drilled on site. Larger holes can be formed during manufacture
beams to support aggregate concrete blocks. The beams are and may need steel trimming supports.
MCH_ 334
3D view showing overview of precast
concrete interlocking beam floor structure
3D views showing details of overview of

precast concrete interlocking beam floor
structure
Richards Medical Research Laboratories

Richards Medical Research Laboratories, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Louis Kahn. A series of
interlocking beams provides a floor structure whose exposed
soffit could be clearly articulated as bays formed by primary and
secondary beams. This approach contrasts with that of the flat
slab.
MCH_ 335
Structure 04
Floor structures 3: steel and steel mesh
2
2
1
6
4 4
3
5
6
3D overview showing detail of composite floor

construction
5 2
Details
1. Concrete topping 1
2. Light reinforcing bars
3. Profiled steel decking 2
4. I-section beam 4
5. Steel plate bolted or
welded to I-section 3D view showing stripped back
6. End filler piece to form edge fragment of composite floor 3
of poured concrete construction

7. Steel mesh 5
8. Supporting steel structure,
typically I-sections or channels
3D overview showing detail of composite

floor construction
Although it is possible to make an all-steel floor, in practice it is the shear forces through the metal deck to the supporting
structurally inefficient and difficult to provide the necessary fire structure. The bond between the profile and the concrete is
resistance, impact resistance and sound insulation. In addition, improved by the additional ribbing on its surface. The profiled
the amount of steelwork fabrication required would make it sheet can be set either onto the top flange of the beam or
very expensive. The use of all-steel floors is restricted to steel onto a plate projecting from the bottom flange. The second
grating in areas that are not required to provide fire resistance. method reduces the overall structural depth of the floor, with a
All-steel floors in sheet and plate are most commonly used in consequent reduction in floor-to-floor heights; it also stiffens the
industrial buildings. web of the beam, increasing its performance.
Steel composite floors Steel mesh floors

An alternative to precast concrete floors is to use a composite Steel grating is used primarily in industrial buildings and on
deck made from deep profiled steel sheet with concrete poured maintenance access decks in other building types such as
on top. During construction, the profiled decking provides offices. It provides a lightweight, economic deck material that
permanent formwork to the concrete. Since the steel deck allows rainwater to drain off it immediately, making it less
requires little or no temporary propping when the concrete susceptible to corrosion when painted or galvanized. Steel
is cast, construction time is reduced in comparison to other grating is used to make structural decks by making a span
cast-in-place techniques. The steel deck and concrete perform between supports up to about two metres (6ft), depending on
structurally in a composite action where, in a simply supported the depth of the grating. The choice of grating depends upon
situation, the concrete is in compression and the steel is in the spacing between the bars and their depth. Steel grating
tension.The economic use of this type of floor is limited by its is made by one of two processes: welding or pressing. Lightly
span. Over large distances, the supporting beams become very loaded small panels are manufactured by welding flats and rods
deep, resulting in an increased floor-to-floor height. together. Larger panels are made by a process that involves
pressing together rows of notched flat bars positioned at right
The profiled decking is fixed to the supporting steel beams with angles to one another to form a grid.
shear studs which provide the composite action between slab
and beam. The concrete grips the shear studs, transmitting
MCH_ 336
1 7 7
3 3
2 8
3
9 9
Vertical section 1:10. Composite steel floor - section through slab
3 3
4
6 6
5 Vertical section 1:5. Steel mesh deck and support
Vertical section 1:10. Composite steel floor - section through

steel beam
1
3
2
2
3
4
3D overview showing detail of
composite floor construction
6 5
5
Composite floor details

1. Concrete topping 1 2
2. Light reinforcing bars
3. Profiled steel decking
4. I-section beam
5. Steel plate bolted or welded
to I-section
6. End filler piece to form edge (Left) 3D view showing stripped
3
of poured concrete back fragment of composite floor
7. Steel mesh construction
8. Supporting steel structure,
typically I-sections or channels
6
4 7
(Right) 3D view showing detail of underside of 7 8

steel mesh deck
MCH_ 337
Structure 04
Floor structures 4: timber
1
2
4
4
1
1
1 1 6
6
1
4
2
3D view showing cut away
detail of typical timber floor 1 7
3 4
supported on masonry wall 6
10
11
3D view showing cut away

of a typical timber famed
Details building with timber flooring
1. Softwood floor joists 4
2. Softwood floor plate
3. Loadbearing wall
4. Floor boards or plywood/chipboard 1
5. Strutting to stiffen floor construction
4
6. Insulation
7. Timber wall studs 6
8. Timber battens
9. Plywood/chipboard wall boards 3D view showing cut away
10. Concrete Lintel detail of typical timber floor 3
11. Concrete foundation supported on masonry wall

11
3
2
6
1
6
11
3D view showing cut away detail of typical

timber floor supported on masonry wall
MCH_ 338
2 2
1
8 6
7
7 6
7
9
4
2
2 1
1 5
10
7
9
3D view showing cut

away of a typical timber
famed building with
timber flooring
4
6 2
2
1
5
3
1
3
Timber floors are used typically with either loadbearing masonry A recent development has been the introduction of ‘engineered
walls, usually in cavity construction, or as part of a timber- joists’ in timber as an alternative to cut timber sections. They
framed structure. A typical floor for residential use, spanning up make use of a combination of cut timber sections and timber
to around 3500mm might consist of softwood joists supported composites that combine wood or wood fibre with adhesives.
at each end by galvanized metal shoes or timber plates. Timber The main composite materials used in the joists are mainly LVL
struts provide lateral stability and rigidity. Softwood boards are (laminated veneer lumber) or OSB (oriented strand board).
typically used as decking which is either butt-jointed or tongue-
and-grooved. Alternatively, thicker boards are used, which Engineered joists are of two generic types, those which
have the advantage of bracing the floor structure horizontally. resemble the form of a steel I-beam and those which resemble
Plywood sheet provides superior stiffening action but its use open web trusses. The solid joist I-beam type is made from top
makes access to the void beneath more difficult, particularly and bottom chords in timber which are connected by a solid
if the floor void is used for the passage of services. Additional web made in wood-based products such as LVL or OSB. The
stiffness is provided by herring-bone strutting set into the open web types often have a series of V-shaped and triangulated
depth of the floor joists at centres to suit the span and design connectors forming the equivalent of truss members with
of the floor. narrow timber flanges top and bottom connected by a vertically
set timber-based board material to form a structural web. These
MCH_ 339
Structure 04
Floor structures 4: timber
Details
1
1. Top / bottom cord in timber-based material
1
2. Vertical support in timber-based material
2 3. Steel connectors forming supporting web
3 3
3
1
1
3 1 3
1
3D views showing overview of composite

2
engineered timber and steel joists 1
creating floor structure
1 1
2
3
1
1
1
3
3 1
3
1 3D view showing overview of composite
1
engineered timber and steel joists
MCH_ 340
3
3D view showing detail of composite

engineered timber and steel joists
3
2
3
1
2
1 3
1
1
3
3
1
3
2
3D view showing overview of composite engineered

timber and steel joists creating floor structure
V-shaped connectors are made as proprietary products with ducts and cables through the depth of the floor construction,
fixing systems to suit a factory-based manufacturing process which is an advantage in mechanically ventilated buildings.
rather than for assembly in a small workshop. The idea of these These new forms of floor construction are finding a use in
engineered joists has been taken further by joining them into commercial buildings as well as their use in the more obvious
prefabricated floor panels, also called ‘cassettes’. These are application in domestic construction. Engineered joists also have
made in standard modules to suit reduced construction time on the advantage of using less material than an equivalent solid
site, and where there is sufficient repetition to suit prefabrication timber joist, which is also typically heavier than the engineered
methods. Panels arrive on site with a timber deck and soffit type. The lower moisture content of the materials makes it less
lining attached, as well as thermal insulation when used as susceptible to moisture movement and reducing the risk of
panels for roof decks. squeaking noises associated with timber floors.
An advantage of engineered joists is their ability to form longer

spans than sawn timber sections, with spans of up to 12 – 14
metres depending on the proprietary system used. The open
web joists also have the advantage of being able to pass service
MCH_ 341
Structure 04
Floor structures 5: glass
2
1
5 3 1 1
4
6 5
3 1
Vertical section. Alternative fixing

method
3 3
2 1
5
3D sectional view showing underside
4 of glass panel floor build up with stone
flooring and steel supporting structure
1 2
Vertical section. Alternative fixing
5
method
Details 1
1. Laminated glass sheet, 2
single glazed or outer layer
of double glazed unit
2. Silicone seal 1
3. Stainless steel angle 3
4. Spacer 3D sectional view showing glass panel

5. Supporting structure floor build up with stone flooring and
steel supporting structure 3
Glass floors are used to enhance naturally lit spaces by allowing reinforced concrete. If the supporting structure is constructed
light to pass through to spaces below. The primary material to the correct height and fall, then the laminated glass sheets if
used is typically either glass sheet or glass blocks. Where glass used externally can be bonded directly to it rather than setting
sheet is used, laminated glass is set into a steel frame, giving it them into a steel sub-frame. Steel frames to support the glass
as much lightness and transparency as possible. Where glass use T-sections in order to provide a bearing for the glass at
blocks are used, they are set into a supporting frame of steel the top, but avoid a bottom flange to the supporting beam that
or concrete with reinforcing bars. Each block is individually would make the frame appear wider.
supported, which has the effect of limiting the effects of lightness
and transparency. Glass blocks with textured or ribbed surfaces are often used as
they have good slip resistance. This type of construction has a
Economic spans for glass sheet are currently in widths of one high resistance to shock, and is capable of very high loadings.
metre, but panel sizes of 1200mm by 2600mm can be achieved, Because each glass block requires support, the number
at significantly higher cost. The glass is usually bedded within the of junctions in the frame becomes very high. Since joints in
frame on a flexible, rubber-based material such as neoprene or materials are usually expensive to form in relation to the cost
EPDM, or alternatively bonded to the frame with silicone. This of components, junctions are kept as simple as possible. For
allows the supporting structure to move independently of the this reason, frames are often made as castings, where the
glass, as well as allowing each to move with thermal expansion. material is poured in place to form a frame. Cast iron, cast steel
Junctions with the frame are closed with a silicone sealant. and reinforced concrete are commonly used. An advantage
Sandblasting grooves into the glass can provide transparency of concrete is that it can be cast directly against glass blocks
and slip resistance. In addition, a translucent laminated which become a permanent formwork. Reinforcing bars are laid
interlayer can be used to control views through the glass. in a grid in the joints between the blocks.
Sheet glass floor panels are currently restricted to relatively
low loadings. Supporting structures can be in either steel or
MCH_ 342
1 2 1
1
2
2
4
5
3
3
3
3D sectional view showing glass panel floor build up

with stone flooring and steel supporting structure
1
2 2
1
5 3
5
3D detail view showing glass panel floor build up with stone flooring and 3D detail view showing glass fixing method for glass floor
steel supporting structure
2
5
1
2
1 2
1
2
3 2
3
1
2
3D sectional view showing glass panel

floor build up with stone flooring and steel
3
supporting structure
MCH_ 343
Structure 04
Floor structures 5: glass
5 5
3
1
1 4 1
6
4
4
3D overview showing underside of glass block floor build up with typical

1 1
4
1
4
3D detail view showing glass block floor build up with typical

1 4
1
1
4 1
3D overview showing underside of glass block floor build up with typical

MCH_ 344
3D detail view showing glass block
floor build up with typical steel
supporting structure
5
1 1
5
1
1
3
4
4
1 1
5 1
3
4
3D detail view showing glass block floor build
up with typical steel supporting structure
6
Details
1. Glass blocks
2. Mortar joints
3. Junction between adjacent concrete
5
floor and frame to glass block floor
1 sealed with rubber-based strip
4. Steel frame
5. Silicone bond
1
5
1
2 3
3
5
1
4
6
6
3D detail view showing glass
block floor build up with typical
MCH_ 345
Structure 04
Stairs 1: concrete
Details
1. Guarding
2. Handrail
3. Staircase
4. Treads projecting from concrete wall
5. Cast-in-place staircase
6. Precast staircase
7. Floor slab
8
8. Loadbearing concrete wall
7
2
Part elevation of concrete cantilever stair 3D view showing cantilevered concrete

stair configuration
Concrete stairs have the advantage of good fire resistance Precast concrete
combined with the ability to absorb impact sound. Concrete can Precast stairs are manufactured either as complete flights,
be used in conjunction with both steel and concrete structures. sometimes with a landing attached to one end, or as individual
Stairs can be of cast-in-place or precast types, but the type used treads which are fixed together on site. Precast stairs are used
must be compatible with the overall type of construction used. primarily where there is a large number of stairs of the same
design used in a single project, and where a shorter construction
In-situ cast concrete time is an important factor. These stairs also assist in the
In-situ cast concrete stairs are made by setting steel construction process itself by providing convenient access. This
reinforcement into reusable steel or timber formwork. A screed is particularly important if the design of the stair is complex,
is added afterwards to provide a smoother and more exacting where the cost of precast staircases can be considerably more
finish to the exposed surfaces. The screed can be used as a than the cast-in-place type.
self-finish, when used internally, but the dusty nature of concrete
walking surfaces often leads to the use of floor paint, polishing Guardrails
the concrete, or inserting treads in another material such Guardrails on concrete stairs are most often pre-fabricated
as timber. Where the screed is used as a self-finish, anti-slip in parts, typically in steel, and then grouted into slots or holes
nosings are added. They can be recessed or surface fixed. drilled into the sides or treads of the stair. Alternatively, they can
Where the stair is exposed to view, the formwork into which the be fixed to the side of the stair with steel brackets. Handrails
concrete is cast has to be designed and built carefully to reflect in metal are either integral with the guardrails or fixed to an
the quality of the finish demanded. adjacent wall.
The junction at stair landings is often designed to create a single

arris line across the soffit. This allows handrails on different
flights to be properly aligned, achieved by offsetting flights by a
distance equal to one tread width.
MCH_ 346
3D view showing cantilevered concrete
stair configuration
8 3
4
7 2
3D view showing precast

concrete stair
4 4
Cast in-situ stair

2
4
2
Precast stair with individually cast treads Plan view of stair 3D view showing cantilevered concrete stair configuration
MCH_ 347
Structure 04
Stairs 2: steel
Details
2
1. Guarding
1
2. Handrail
3. Steel stringer
4. Tread
2 5. Inserts, typically timber or
concrete, set onto steel plate
6. Steel channel
7 07. Landing in steel plate
1
5
6
3D view showing steel stair case
3D view showing underside 5

of steel staircase
5
1
7
6
3D view showing steel stair case
Steel stairs have the advantage of being lighter in weight, Stairs can be formed by folding a steel sheet and supporting it,
allowing them to be prefabricated and delivered to site as either on stringers set at the sides or by a single central stringer
completed sections of flights and landings. They can be lifted set beneath the plate. The inherent rigidity of the folded sheet
into place more easily than concrete stairs, but lack the high fire allows a wide range of economic solutions for the arrangement
resistance associated with that material. There are two generic of the stringers. As with the flat plate type, the assembly can
types, with either treads as plates set between stringers, or be either bolted or welded, and decorative inserts in other
with folded sheet set between stringers. In addition, spiral stairs materials such as timber can be added. Both stair types can
in cast iron and steel are available as proprietary products in a be finished in a variety of coatings from galvanizing to painting
range of standard sizes. These comprise a central post to which to polyester powder coating. Softer coatings such as PVDF are
radiating treads are fixed. rarely used due to their poorer wearing qualities. In addition to
visual considerations, the choice of finish is determined by the
Flat plate type required degree of durability and appearance.
Stairs with plate set between stringers are made by bolting or
welding treads formed from either smooth- or checker-plate. Guardrails
Stringers, which form the beams at the sides of the stair, are Steel guardrails are prefabricated but are not often fixed to
usually made from steel channel which provides a straight staircases before delivery to site in order to make the stair both
vertical face to which the treads can be fixed. The position of the easier to install and to make it easier to align the guardrails
treads within the depth of the stringer is critical in order that with adjacent walkways or enclosing walls. Guardrails are
stringers can be aligned neatly where they intersect at landings. usually finished before delivery to site. If a paint finish is used, the
Bolted or welded connections are made to be sufficiently stiff guardrail will at least be prepared and primed before arriving on
so that the stair does not rattle or experience any significant site where finish coats can be applied after its installation.
movement while in use. Depending on their width, treads may
need to have either their edges folded to provide stiffness which
can accommodate an additional finish such as a decorative
timber tread, or formed as a composite steel tray with a
concrete fill. An alternative method of stiffening treads is to weld
a vertical steel plate to their underside to form a T-section.
MCH_ 348
3D view showing folded steel plate stair
1
1
2
7
3
7
1
2
11 7
1
Details
1. Guarding
2. Handrail
3. Steel stringer
2
Vertical section through treads 11 4. Tread
5. Inserts, typically timber or
concrete, set onto steel plate
1 6. Steel channel
7. Landing in steel plate
8. Steel plate deck
1
9. RHS box section
2
10. Balustrade
11. Folded steel plate to form
continuous tread and risers
12. One stringer with projecting arms
to support treads/risers or two
1
3
7 stringer sets near edges of stair
7
2
9
4 3D view showing underside

of folded steel plate stair
Vertical section through treads

1
2
6 4
7
8
9
1
11
7
3
2
7
1
Horizontal section
3D view showing folded steel

plate stair
2 1 11
2
1 2
4
7
8 5
7 11
6 4 1
3
3
Vertical section
MCH_ 349
Structure 04
Stairs 3: timber
Vertical section 1:10

through handrail
3D view showing freestanding timber

staircase supported by steel beam
9 6
4
(Below) 3D view showing

timber staircase against
in-situ cast concrete wall Vertical section 1:10 & 1:50 through stair
5 8
1
3D view showing timber staircase against in-
situ cast concrete wall 4
Details
1. Handrail 7. Bracket 6
9
2. Balustrades 8. Wall
3. Timber beam 9. Riser 7 5
4. Tread 10. Newel post 7 6

5. Carriage 11. Trimmer joist
6. Wedge Vertical section 1:10 through treads
An advantage of timber staircases is that they can be An alternative approach is to use heavy timber sections to form
integrated easily into adjacent timber construction and can be staircases that resemble those in steel. Steel brackets that
modified easily on site in a way that is very difficult to achieve are bolted into the timber sections connect the stringers and
in an equivalent steel or concrete construction. Timber stairs separate treads together. They can easily accommodate steel
consist of stringers or carriages, which support the stair to guardrails which are bolted through the large stringer sections.
which treads and risers are fixed. Several carriages may be Timber guardrails follow the traditional use of balusters at close
positioned between stringers as loading demands. The stair is centres, typically set 100mm apart. The lack of large structural
generally delivered to site as a complete structure secured with members in timber stairs makes the use of balusters at wider
timber wedges, avoiding the need for visible fixings. Relatively centres, as used in steel or concrete construction, less suitable.
small pieces of timber are used. The thin timber sections are Timber connections are more fragile than those in steel; they
prone to shrinkage and creep unless they are locked together. must also accommodate more movement due to moisture.
Because timber stairs have poor fire resistance, they are Balusters at close centres allow imposed loads on the guardrail
often restricted to residential use. Treads and risers are fixed to be spread evenly along the length of the stair stringers.
together with tongue-and-groove (or rabbeted) joints that
provide a tight fit and avoid creaking when the stair is in use.
Both treads and risers are fitted into rebated slots cut into
the stringers where they are wedged to provide the correct
alignment of treads. Trimmer beams are sometimes added
at the top and bottom of the staircase to stabilise it and
provide fixing points to the adjacent floors, which are typically
also of timber construction.
MCH_ 350
through handrail
3D view showing freestanding

timber staircase supported by
steel beam
3D views showing timber

staircase against in-situ
cast concrete wall
11
10
2 1
4
4
10 9
5
Vertical section Vertical section
1 8
4 1
3
4
8
8
Horizontal section Horizontal section
MCH_ 351
Structure 04
Stairs 4: glass
4 2
4
2
1
7
2
4
3D view showing glass staircase

supported on steel structure
Stairs with glass treads have the advantage of transparency, Treads often have a surface treatment to provide slip resist-
allowing light to penetrate down the stair enclosure. The glass ance. Sandblasting, etching or the addition of a carborundum
used is usually a thick laminated glass which can be made of coating, typically in strips, is used for this purpose.
two sheets of float glass with a thin interlayer, or toughened
glass with a more robust interlayer that stays in place if the two Guardrails
toughened sheets are broken. Glass treads can be supported All-glass, or structurally glazed, balustrades can be constructed
either within a steel tray which provides support on all edges, with sheets of toughened or laminated glass and used with a
or be two-edge supported. An alternative is to bolt-fix the glass stair built in another material. They comprise sheets of tough-
using techniques taken from their primary application in glazed ened or laminated glass fixed at floor level with either a clamped
walls. This method allows the stair to be suspended from cables, plate secured by bolts or by bolt fixings directly through the
a technique still in the early stages of use. The tread assemblies glass. The glass must be sufficiently strong and rigid to span ver-
are then usually supported by steel stringers, though concrete tically without additional vertical support. A 12mm thick sheet is
can also be used. typically used. A handrail can be added by introducing a rebate
into the handrail section and setting it directly onto the top of
Where glass treads are set within a steel supporting tray, the the glass guardrail. An alternative method is to form a guard-
laminated glass sheet is set directly onto a silicone-based bed- rail from steel posts that support a handrail, with laminated or
ding. In addition to holding the glass in place, the bedding pro- toughened glass sheets used as infill panels. The glass can be
vides both a cushion and a method of ensuring that the glass is fixed with clamps or be bolt-fixed back to the posts. Glass sheets
evenly supported along all the edges and is fixed level. An addi- are set with a vertical gap of around 10mm between them
tional weather seal is used on the sides of the glass between the which is filled with a translucent or transparent silicone seal.
glass and frame, if the stair is to be used in external conditions.
MCH_ 352
3D view showing glass staircase
supported on steel structure
3D view showing glass

staircase supported
on steel structure
3D view showing glass staircase Details

supported on steel structure 1. Glass balustrade fixed
at base
2. Stainless steel handrail
3. Steel stringer
4. Glass treads, typically
sandblasted to provide
2 friction
2
5. Steel tube support
frame
6.. Steel angle
1 7. Glass landing in steel
1 plate
7
7
6
6
4
3
3
Horizontal Section Vertical sections Horizontal section 1:10
MCH_ 353
MCH_ 354
5
ENVIRONMENT
Environmental studies for envelopes
Analysis for design
1 Solar radiation
2 Daylight
3 Thermal performance
4 Wind
5 Solar shading
6 Double skin facades
7 Natural ventilation
8 Thermal mass
Low energy material systems
1 Embodied energy
2 Straw bales and hemp
3 Rammed earth, cob and
adobe bricks
4 Green wood and bamboo
5 Green walls
Active design
1 Solar power and solar heating
2 Electrical lighting
Support services
1 Maintenance and cleaning
2 Lifts
MCH_ 355
Environment 05
Sunpath diagram for southerly facade Study of shading design on glazed facade
This chapter discusses environmental design in terms of pas- Protection vs comfort.

sive and active methods that can be used to modify environ- Over time the concept of the building as a means of protection
mental conditions within a building. Active controls are pro- from natural elements and predators has slowly given way to
vided mostly by mechanical ventilation systems that are used control and modification of the natural climate to create a com-
to heat, cool and ventilate spaces. Passive controls can be fortable environment for an increasing range of human activi-
provided by natural ventilation, solar shading, passive heating ties. The challenge for the design team is to develop strategies
and even by the use of the building fabric as a thermal mass for creating buildings that create an effective filter between man
to slow down the rate of heating and cooling. A combination of and his natural environment.
these methods helps to reduce the energy consumed by build-
ings in use. This chapter also looks at the rise of natural build- The last century saw a tendency for designers to focus on the
ing materials in construction and the reduction of embodied problems associated with climate. Their challenge was to devel-
energy within building projects. op methods for dealing with the effects of hot or cold climates,
mitigating the impact of high solar gain risks or counteracting
In the past, combinations of structure and cladding were gener- other inhospitable conditions. This focus resulted in the crea-
ally limited to the use of materials that were constructed either tion of buildings with increasingly artificial environments and high
from the same base material (steel, concrete or timber) or from energy costs in an attempt minimise their interaction with the
materials having compatible amounts of thermal movement. The external climate. As building technology developed, designers
expression of structure and construction (particularly of joints) could aim for improved comfort conditions in increasingly hostile
was considered one of the primary architectural intentions in climates without compromising design philosophies that were
cladding design, however this situation is slowly changing. More often at odds with the local vernacular.
buildings are clad externally with insulation and use a rainscreen
cladding system to conceal it from view. Rainscreens allow a Over recent years there has been a move to reverse this think-
simplified approach to be taken to movements in the primary ing and work instead to exploit the potential benefits that the
supporting structure of the building. A continuous, uninterrupted climate offers. For example, facades with high solar exposure
appearance can be achieved with a consistent gap between pan- can harness the suns energy through photovoltaic cells to con-
els that extend across movement joints in the building structure. tribute to the energy demands of the building. This shift has seen
Both movement joints and breaks in the construction need not a change in design emphasis towards buildings that minimise
be 'registered' on the facade. Where they are visible they serve their impact on the environment whilst ensuring they provide
only as a decorative device. These innovations have led to a much acceptable comfort conditions for the occupants.
wider range of structure/cladding combinations being used in
construction which has allowed a greater focus on the use of Since humans spend most of their time inside buildings, the
materials with low embodied energy. It has also allowed buildings drive for improved comfort standards is important to maintain
to exploit the thermal mass of their structural elements to slow the health and wellbeing of each individual.
down the rate at which the building heats up and cools down.
While thermal and structural movement were once the main

issues in detailing, the idea of 'energy' is considered important
today and detailing has become more complex in response to
these changing priorities.
MCH_ 356
Study of sunlight penetration into office floor plate CFD analysis of air movement around a building.
Human comfort Environmental analysis in design

The environmental conditions conducive to human comfort The design team can use environmental analysis throughout the
are not absolute. They can vary based on the individual’s design process to study how a building is likely to perform when
metabolism, the tasks they are trying to accomplish or their in use by predicting how a building affects, and is affected by, its
perception of the environment they are in. In brief, the defini- local environment. This allows the designer to respond to, and
tion of comfort can be defined as the absence of discomfort. develop solutions to, potential problems before construction is
During the design of most new projects a series of environ- completed. This analysis can be performed at various stages of
mental parameters will be presented as a means of providing the design process through to building use, with equal benefit.
comfortabel conditions within the building. However comfort At the earliest stage of the project analysis of the local environ-
is more of a holsitic concept based on the interaction of many ment can help to inform the project brief, identifying natural cli-
factors and the individuals ability to alter those variables. Since matic factors that can be exploited within the design as well as
everyone has different criteria for comfort it is often measured highlighting potential challenges to occupant comfort.
by the percentage of occupants who report they are satisfied
with the conditions. In terms of the built environment this can During the design process itself, proposals can be tested to
be categorised into 3 areas: establish their effectiveness at responding to the challenges of
the local climate in order to inform future design development.
Thermal comfort – The user experiences discomfort if they are Once the building is in use it can be assessed to see how it is
too hot or too cold. This occurs when the temperature, humidity, performing. The results of these assessments can be studied
airflow and radiant sources within a space are not kept within an and the lessons learnt can be fed back into the pre planning
acceptable range. This exact balance of these factors will vary stage of future projects. Assessment at this stage can also help
depending on what activity is occurring within the space and at to develop strategies for improving the comfort of occupants
what intensity, as well as what the occupants are wearing. through modifications to the building.
Visual comfort – A space becomes uncomfortable if there is The following pages look at some of the concepts of environ-
not sufficient light to undertake the task required by the user. mental design focussing on solar control, daylight, thermal per-
This level will vary depending on the activity. Laboratories, for formance, wind and natural ventilation. This is followed by case
example, will require higher light levels than classrooms to studies which show how these concepts can be applied in the
maintain user comfort. Natural light tends to create the most context of building design.
comfortable environments but artificial lighting has the advan-
tage of maintaining a constant illumination. Visual comfort is
also based on offering occupants a good view. This gives users
a sense of connection with their surroundings and helps pro-
mote a sense of wellbeing.
Acoustic comfort – This is achieved by ensuring the user has

the right level and quality of noise to use the space as intended.
Depending on the environment, control of decibel level, rever-
beration times and sound reflection can aid user comfort.
MCH_ 357
Environment 05
above & top left: solar insolation analysis of com-

plex forms
left: exposure study for urban site
Decisions made early in the design process have considerable at the early stages. Digital analysis also allows the design team
influence over the environmental performance of the complet- to understand the performance of their building without having
ed building. Designers need no longer rely on ‘rules of thumb’ to invest significantly in mock-ups or time consuming calcula-
to create energy efficient buildings during the early stages of tions undertaken by hand.
design. The use of computer software can also allow design-
ers to be more independent of specialist consultants during the One of the major benefits of computer based analysis is that
early stages of design without ignoring the essential issues of it can be used to inform design decisions at all stages of the
environmental design. Specialist consultants too often become design process. Data is displayed in a graphic manner that is
involved in a building design only after the conceptual stage of easy to understand and interpret, and also aids discussion with
the design process is complete. other project consultants. At the earliest stages of a project,
environmental analysis can help inform decisions about the ori-
Computer software has developed to the point that many 3D entation and specific geometry of the external envelope. Analy-
CAD design applications have some form of environmental anal- sis can be carried out on a digital model of the 'empty' site to
ysis tools built into them. Most applications will allow the design- help the designers build up a picture of the microclimate they
er to project shadows both onto, and created by, the building are dealing with and ensure that appropriate design responses
being designed. Some more advanced software applications will are formulated at the earliest stages of the project. Information
provide an analysis of solar gain, calculate approximate daylight about annual sunpaths, temperature ranges, humidity and pre-
levels and give information about the thermal properties and vailing winds can be used to identify key issues that need to be
embodied energy of construction materials. addressed during schematic design.
If designers both use and respond to these opportunities for This analysis becomes even more important when dealing
analysis, it allows them to keep step with the specific environ- with projects in parts of the world unfamiliar to some in the
mental demands of their building. This helps the design team design team, and will help identify how design solutions which
keep the overall project design in balance rather than having to are considered to be 'standard' may need to be modified to
accept 'features' being added to the final design as consultants meet specific environmental conditions. As the design process
try to alleviate problems caused by a lack of environmental input develops and more information can be input into the software
MCH_ 358
above & top right: solar insolation analysis of
complex forms
right: cumulative shadow projection for a

complex form
programme, more detailed environmental analysis can be car- As computers become more powerful and software algorithms
ried out on the project. This analysis can help inform decisions more efficient, the use of real-time analysis will become more
about geometry optimisation, window placement and shading prevalent in building design. The ability to change parameters
design. Throughout the design process the impact of design such as window size and location within a facade and receive
decisions can be analysed and their consequences evaluated. instant feedback on the impact on daylight levels or solar gain
This process is conducive to an iterative design process where will allow design teams to see the consequences of design
many options are proposed, analysed, modified and analysed changes as soon as they are made. The ability to embed this
again. Because the resulting data is displayed in such a graphi- parametric interactivity within a shared 3d model will allow
cal way it is easy to compare the results and identify the most designers from all disciplines to see the impact of design chang-
successful solutions to the design brief. es on the performance of the building as a whole.
Over recent years digital tools have made the design and con- As with all analysis tools a certain understanding of the sub-
struction of complex forms more achievable. Conventional rules ject is required to interpret the results effectively. The risk with
of thumb regarding environmental design become harder to digital analysis is that the wealth of data available can over-
implement once the building geometry deviates from traditional whelm the design team. Similarly, the software will only present
shapes and with complex geometry it can be difficult to know the results of analysis in relation to its inputs. The user is still
where to focus the attention of environmental design since the required to evaluate the results and decide on their relevance
worst case conditions are not always obvious. Environmental to the design process.
analysis software can harness a computer’s ability to carry out
complex calculations in an iterative manner to allow the evalu-
ation of the whole building in a relatively short period of time.
This can help the designer to identify areas of the building that
require further development, for example areas of a facade
that are subject to particularly high levels of incident radiation
or whether the building will cast unwelcome shadows over its
surroundings at a particular time of the year.
MCH_ 359
Environment 05
Analysis for design 1: solar radiation
Overlaying shadow projections for one day helps

evaluate how the building's shadow tracks across
the site.
25 latitude 45 latitude 65 latitude
Comparison of sunpaths at different global lati-

tudes and the effect on shadow projections
MCH_ 360
above: analysis of the overshadowing effect of
a building's exoskeletal structure on the facade
glazing. Here the west facing glazing is partially
shaded by the stepped facade geometry
left: analysis of the overshadowing effect of sur-

rounding buildings on a proposed facade volume.
Areas of the facade closest to the ground are
subject to much less direct sunlight due to over-
shadowing from surrounding buildings
Sunpath Sun path analysis can help to identify problems with reflections
An awareness of how the sun moves around a building at differ- from the building’s facade. This is more of a problem in built up
ent times of the year can assist with the design of solar shading areas since the glare from the sun on occupants of surrounding
for a building. In most situations the specific design aim would buildings can cause significant discomfort. Digital analysis can
be to exclude some of the effects of the sun during the summer help to alleviate these concerns by projecting the path of build-
months, when solar gain is at its most intense, but potentially ing reflections throughout the year.
to allow some spaces behind the facade to enjoy the effects of
solar gain during the winter to take advantage of its warmth. Overshadowing
Sunpath diagrams offer the most visual way of assisting this In urban areas, the effect of overshadowing from adjacent build-
understanding and most 3D CAD design software will allow the ings may have a significant impact on certain aspects of design.
user to evaluate the sun's position in real time for any time of Areas of the facade that are in shadow for most of the day will
day at any location in the world. not require the same shading design as areas that are more
exposed. Traditional analysis techniques would treat all areas
Shadow projection of a facade in the same manner, based on 'worst case' environ-
The sunpath features in 3D CAD design software also enable mental conditions. Digital analysis allows the designer to take
the user to evaluate shadows falling across the model. This overshadowing into account to produce optimised shading solu-
allows real time analysis of the sun’s penetration into buildings, tions. This type of analysis can also be applied to smaller facade
aiding the designers with the placement of windows as well as modules to assess whether overhangs, projections or other
the design of the electrical lighting. This analysis also allows the envelope details will have an overshadowing effect.
designer to visualise the overshadowing effect of surrounding
buildings, as well as the extent to which the proposed build- Solar exposure
ing will, in turn, overshadow its neighbours. This is particularly Digital environmental analysis can help to identify areas of high
important for urban sites where maintaining rights of light may solar exposure over a building and assist with the placement
be a significant aspect influencing the building’s design. of solar panels on the facade. With more detailed analysis it is
possible to calculate how much energy these solar panels can
Mapping how building shadows track across the site through- generate over the course of a year.
out the day helps with the design of outside space. Cafe ter-
races can be sited in areas which attract the sun and exter-
nal landscape features can be positioned based on their
planting requirements.
MCH_ 361
Environment 05
Analysis for design 1: solar radiation
Study of cumulative solar radiation incident on a building facade Study of peak solar radiation incident on a building facade over
over the course of 1 year the course of 1 year
Solar gain
Solar gain can be defined as the increase in temperature of an
internal space due to the absorption of the sun’s energy by the
building fabric. In most situations it is necessary to minimise
solar gains, especially during the summer, though in cooler
climates solar gain is sometimes encouraged as a means of
reducing internal heating loads. In buildings where natural ven-
tilation systems are being considered it is important to ensure
that solar gains match natural cooling capacity to ensure that
spaces in the building do not overheat.
The sun is at its strongest towards the middle of the day when
it is also at its highest. At this point the sun is incident on verti-
cal facades at quite a steep angle, depending on the time of
year and geographical location, so the proportion of heat energy
transferred is relatively low. Roofs and atria, which face the sun
more directly, are particularly vulnerable to solar gain during
this period of the day. Either side of its peak the sun’s strength
reduces but is incident on the facade at a more direct angle,
transferring a high proportion of its energy to the cladding.
Environmental digital modelling can help to indicate the dis-

tribution of solar radiation across the facades of a building
and build up a picture of which areas inside the building are
particularly at risk from overheating. This information can be
used to help inform decisions about window placement and
Based on the solar radiation analysis, along with a study of
material systems.
internal program requirements, a louvred facade shading sys-
tem helps to keep internal comfort levels within an acceptable
range by minimise solar gains and sunlight penetration. There are a number of ways of controlling the effects of solar
gain. Solar control glazing can help to reduce the amount of
solar transmittance through windows and glazed facades. Shad-
ing systems are an effective means of controlling solar gain
since they limit the amount of solar radiation that penetrates
MCH_ 362
Analysis of incident radiation on complex building form
to assess areas which are at highest risk of problems
from solar gain.
the facade. External shading is far more efficient at control- renders the study can help to build up a more complete picture
ling solar gain than internal shading, but requires cleaning and of how sunlight penetrates the building.
maintenance, as well as being able to be removed in the event
of facade components being replaced. Careful choice of other Shading design
cladding materials will also help minimise heat transmittance The use of external shading can significantly reduce the amount
through the facade. of energy needed to cool buildings in summer months in either
temperate climates or hot climates. External shading prevents
In hot climates it may not always be possible to control solar gain solar energy from passing through a facade by absorbing, then
by passive means. In this case mechanical ventilation systems radiating and convecting solar energy outside the building enve-
will be needed to provide additional cooling inside the building. By lope. In contrast, internal shading has much less effect in con-
analysing the peak annual radiation values for the facades it is trolling solar gain since the solar energy has already passed
possible to design mechanical systems to cope with the effects through the facade and is radiated and convected back into the
of overheating. In this situation it is still beneficial to use passive room having been absorbed by the internal shades.
solar control systems as this will reduce the average energy use
of the mechanical systems In the northern hemisphere typical guidelines suggest hori-
zontal shading devices are generally effective on south facing
Sunlight penetration facades to deal with high angle sun, whilst vertically set sys-
Solar exposure analysis identifies the number of hours facade tems on the east and west facades are generally efficient at
elements are in direct sun. When read in conjunction with an dealing with low angle sun.
analysis of solar radiation distribution, solar exposure analysis
can help create a more complete picture of how the sun is In the design of buildings it is not always possible to follow
impacting on solar gain across the facades. these guidelines, but detailed digital analysis can help design-
ers derive more specific systems suited to both the building’s
Solar exposure analysis can also be carried out for the landscape geometry and location.
surrounding buildings in order to inform decisions about hard
landscape design, planting schemes and irrigation requirements. Iterative design techniques help to assess the effectiveness of
different shading systems. This allows shading systems that
Within buildings, solar exposure analysis can help to under- may be considered to be more visually unconventional, but
stand how sunlight will penetrate through facades. It provides a very effective, to be developed with confidence that they will
more quantitative measure of solar access which may be of use function effectively.
when designing internal fit outs, helping to identify areas where
computer screens or sensitive equipment should be placed,
for example. In conjunction with computer software generated
MCH_ 363
Environment 05
Analysis for design 2: daylight
Scale Scale
(Daylight factor) (Daylight factor)
0% 6% 12% 18% 24% 32% 38% 44% 50% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%
A fully glazed curtain wall facade results in high levels of daylight penetrat- A solid facade with punched windows results in significantly reduced light
ing the office zones. Since the entire wall is glazed, an even spread of levels within the office zones. Higher light levels occur close to windows
daylight is achieved in the space. Highest light levels occur at the corners however the distribution through the rest of the space is still fairly even.
of rooms where light is allowed to enter from 2 sides. In these areas, glare Although the back of the office areas may experience low daylight factors,
may cause discomfort for the user, they may still be within an acceptable range for the tasks undertaken
within the space.
Glare studies of a room highlight areas of high contrast between daylight levels inside in the room and at the window for a series of shading designs
MCH_ 364
By comparing rendered views it is possible to build up a picture of how light levels fluctuate throughout the day.
Levels of daylighting in buildings have increased in recent years in a given image may actually be adequate in a working envi-
in building types that consume a high level of energy in electri- ronment. When used in comparative analysis, rendered images
cal lighting, mainly office buildings. An increase in daylighting, can help to assess the quality of light within a space over the
accompanied by a control of glare and solar energy from exter- course of a year.
nal shading has led to a reduction in the energy used in electri-
cal lighting, particularly near the glazed walls. If quantative daylight analysis is undertaken, it is essential to con-
struct the digital model as accurately as possible with regard to
Daylighting levels are expressed as a daylight transmission fac- window openings, floor and ceiling profiles and proposed furniture.
tor, measured in terms of the percentage of daylight passing
through the glazed facade. Daylight transmission factors of Analysis is typically carried out on the working plane of the room,
70% to 80% are common in double glazed units. For daylight- typically 700mm above floor level, as this is where light levels
ing levels in buildings and their accompanying levels of electrical have most impact on the occupants. Analysing a space in sec-
light to either supplement this or provide electrical lighting dur- tion is also beneficial as it can highlight areas of particularly high
ing hours of darkness, the amount of light required is defined for contrast between light and dark spaces.
different tasks. Lighting levels are expressed in terms of lux, with
office spaces having 250 lux, depending on how detailed the Daylight vs solar gain
work needs to be, and how the lighting is distributed between An environmental study can investigate what daylighting levels
general lighting from the ceiling, and task lighting usually pro- are provided by a facade and suggest ways of modifying the
vided on desks, which can give up to 400 lux. design to balance daylight with heat gains and energy losses.
Analysis method When designing shading systems, a balance needs to be struck

The calculation of internal daylight levels requires considerable between providing an appropriate shading response and main-
data input to achieve accurate results. Changes in minor ele- taining natural light levels within the building.
ments of the design such as internal finishes can have a signifi-
cant effect on the daylight factor within a given space. In climates where light levels outside the building are particularly
high it is necessary to reduce the amount of open area on the
Computer rendering can be used as a simpler alternative to dig- facade to reduce glare and create comfortable working condi-
ital analysis if quantative results are not important. Care must tions for the occupants. In this situation shading elements can
be taken when treating rendered images as accurate repre- help to reduce the overall transparency of the facade.
sentations of actual lighting conditions as what appears dark
MCH_ 365
Environment 05
Analysis for design 3: thermal performance
INSIDE
OUTSIDE
The diagrams above show the difference in thermal performance between Whilst the temperature differential across the glazing units is similar, the
a unitised curtain wall mullion with an integrated thermal break (left) and low conductivity of the thermal break component reduces the heat transfer
a system without a thermal break (right). Isotherms show areas of equal between the outside and inside. The result is that the inside temperature
temperature within the mullion in a design case that specifies an exterior of the thermally broken mullion is around 15°C whilst the interior tempera-
temperature of -18°C and and interior temperature of 24°C. ture of the non thermally broken mullion is closer to 0°C.
Controlling the rate at which heat energy is exchanged with its as its thermal resistance or R-value. Thermal resistance falls
surroundings is an important factor in maintaining a constant into 3 catagories:
temperature within a building. Keeping heat inside buildings in
cold climates reduces the energy demand for mechanical heat- Material Resistances – The thermal resistance of each layer of
ing in cold climates. In warmer climates keeping heat out of material depends on its conductivity and its thickness. It can be
buildings will help to reduce the energy costs associated with calculated using the following formula:
mechanical cooling. Another benefit of good thermal insulation
is the reduced risk of surface condensation which is unsightly R=d/λ
and can damage the building envelope. Where
R = thermal resistance of element (m2K/W)
A thermal insulator is a material which opposes the transfer of D = thickness of material (m)
heat between areas of different temperature. Thermal conduc- λ = thermal conductivity of material (W/mK)
tivity (λ) is the rate at which heat is conducted through a particu-
lar material and is a measurement that allows the comparison Surface Resistances – At the surface of the building envelope
of how well different materials conduct heat. It is measured as the air in contact with the building skin forms a stationary layer
the heat flow in watts across a thickness of 1m of material for that opposes the flow of heat. Surface resistances can be
a temperature difference of 1 degree Kelvin and a surface area obtained from tables of design standards.
if 1m2. The unit is W/mK. Resistivity is an alternative method of
defining the conduction of materials and is expressed as 1/λ Airspace Resistances – The thermal resistance of an airspace
with the unit mK/W. Values for the thermal conductivity of com- or cavity depends on the nature of conduction, convection and
mon materials can be easily found in manufacturers data tables. radiation within. These can vary depending on the thickness of
the airspace or the flow of air through it. Typical values can be
U-values found by consulting published standard values.
A U-value is the measure of the overall rate of heat transfer The total thermal resistance can be calculated as the sum of the
through a particular section of the building envelope. Each layer thermal resistances the external surface, of each compenent,
of material will conduct heat in at different rates depending on including air cavities, plus the internal surface and air cavities.
its resistivity, whilst cavities will allow heat transfer through con-
duction and convection. In addition, the inside and outside sur- RT = RSO + R1 + R2 +R3 ... +Rn + RSI
faces of the wall or roof will radiate heat to their surroundings.
The U-value is regarded as an combined thermal transmittance The U-value is expressed as the reciprocal of the total thermal
coefficient and is measured as the rate of heat flow in watts resistance:
through 1m2 of a structure where there is a temperature dif- U=1/RT
ference across the structure of 1 degree (Kelvin or °C). It is
expressed in W/m2K Typical U-values for solid wall and roof build ups are around
0.2 - 0.35 W/m2K. For glazed assemblies an overall U-value of
U-values are calculated from the thermal resistance of the around 0.15 W/m2K can be achieved although the glass unit
parts making up the envelope construction. Each element of itself may have a U-value of up to 1.0 W/m2K.
the wall or roof will oppose the transmission of heat by vary-
ing amounts depending on their material. This is referred to
MCH_ 366
concrete wall
INSIDE
thermal insulation
OUTSIDE concrete rainscreen
A timber framed window has a thermal performance comparable to a In rainscreen cladding systems thermal insulation is used to limit the trans-
thermally broken aluminium system. The resistivity of timber reduces heat fer of heat from inside to outside. The weak link of the system is the fixing
transfer through the profile and despite the presence of a steel insert bracket and the diagram above shows how the temperature levels distort
between the frames the interior temperature of the frame is around 15°C around the cladding support
Where a particular part of the building envelope contains more While data for established forms of construction is usually eas-
than one construction system, for example a window in a wall, ily available, and is used by manufacturers, unusual designs or
the overall U-value can be calculated by assessing the relative significant variations from established facade systems will need
areas of each construction and relating their specific U-value to to be checked from first principles.
each proportion:
Thermal properties of glass
Uaverage= (A1 U1+A2 U2+...) / (A1+A2+...) In glazed areas the U-value of the construction must be evalu-
ated in conjunction with the potential for heat transfer through
Where A1, A2 etc are the areas of each construction and U1, U2 solar gain to understand its overall thermal performance. The
etc are the U-values associated with each component. performance data for glazed assemblies often refer to the fol-
lowing properties:
Air temperatures within buildings are kept at between around
18°C and 25°C, with the surface temperature of facades being G-value – the coefficient used to measure the solar energy
a few degrees either side of this temperature for the internal transmittance of glass. It is expressed as a value between 0
face. Isotherm diagrams are used to investigate and check vari- and 1 where low values represent low thermal transmittance.
ations of temperature across facade systems, and these also The g-value is sometime referred to as the Solar Factor and is
serve to detect and check thermal bridges across facades. Iso- expressed as a percentage. (for example a g-value of 0.35 is
therm diagrams are also used in conjunction with thermal cal- equivalent to a Solar Factor of 35%)
culations or thermal models of a building, including its facade.
The diagrams above show isotherm projections for a number Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) – the solar energy trans-
of different facade systems in a cold climate. Poorly performing mittance of a complete glazing assembly including glass, frame,
systems result in cold surfaces on the interior surfaces of the opaque inserts and external shading.
facade which will in turn affect how the interior temperature of
the building is maintained. Shading Coefficient - The ratio of the solar energy transmitted
by a particular glass combination to that transmitted by a refer-
Humidity levels are significant in the transition from inside to ence glass, usually 3 mm or 4 mm thick clear glass.
outside, particularly when linked to extremes of air tempera-
ture. The relative humidity inside buildings is set in the region of Light Transmission – The percentage of light that passes
between 30% and 70% depending on the internal air tempera- from the outside of the glass assembly to the inside. It is often
ture. Dew point diagrams are used to determine where con- expressed as a percentage with lower values representing
densation will occur for the most demanding or extreme condi- lower levels of light transmission.
tions experienced by the facade. This might be done in summer
when, for example, it is hot and humid at 45º outside, while When calculating U-values of glazed assemblies it is important
internal conditions are air-conditioned at 18º. It is essential to consider to take an averaged value that takes into account
to know where the dew point will occur to see if condensation the thermal transmittance of each element. An averaged
forming at the dew point will cause any damage to the construc- U-value of a glazed assembly would include the individual val-
tion, and whether vapour barriers are needed in particular loca- ues for the glass, the frame and any insulated spandrel panels
tions, or whether it is better to allow parts of the construction that may be present.
to be ventilated to either the inside or the outside.
MCH_ 367
Environment 05
Analysis for design 4: wind
Wind rose for U.K. site CFD analysis of air movement around a collection of tall buildings
Airflow in and around buildings can have a large impact on During the design process pedestrian comfort studies can help
their design and the way people experience it. At a large scale to understand wind conditions at street level. For each test loca-
it is important to understand how prevailing wind conditions will tion a wind speed is established and evaluated to determine
affect building performance and in turn how it will impact its sur- whether it is considered comfortable. The definition of comfort
roundings. Loads imparted on the building will affect the design depends on the activity that the space is designed for. These fall
of the structure, cladding and weathertightness which means into 3 main catagories:
that an understanding of the prevailing conditions will allow the
design team to minimise potential problems during the design Long stationary – areas where a person will spend more than
process. The size and form of a new building development will 10 minutes in a stationary activity such as sitting. In these areas
have an impact on wind paths which could cause problems for wind speeds up to 10m/s are considered comfortable during
neighbouring structures and reduce pedestrian comfort. which a person can read a newspaper without it blowing away.
This is recommended for outdoor seating areas and other
Airflow studies within building can help to assess the effective- areas that promote long-term sitting.
ness of ventilation systems, identify areas of stagnant air within
buildings and even predict the spread of heat and smoke should Short stationary – areas where a person may spend no more
a fire break out in certain locations. All of these factors will have than 10 minutes in a stationary activity such as queuing or wait-
an impact on the levels of comfort experienced by the users ing. Examples include building entrances or bus stops where
and identifying potential problems early in the design process people will linger but not sit for prolonged periods. Wind speeds
will save costly remedial work at a later stage. up to 14m/s are considered comfortable for these locations, a
level that will rustle leaves.
Wind and the urban environment
In built-up areas wind speeds are often accelerated at pedestri- Recreational motion - areas where the average person will be
an level due to the particular aerodynamic configurations asso- walking at slow speeds or involved in recreational activities such
ciated with buildings. This is particularly problematic with tall as frisbee. Wind speeds of up to 19km/h are considered com-
buildings which can induce downdraughts at their base due to fortable for these locations, a level that would lift leaves and dis-
the pressure differences created by velocity differences at the turb loose clothing.
top and bottom of the building. It is direct exposure to the wind
rather than the height of the building that causes the problem of Transitory motion – areas where the average person will be
downdraughts which means that they will only induce high wind active and receptive to some degree of wind movement. Exam-
speeds at lower levels, if a significant part of them is exposed to ples include pavements, playing fields or plazas. Wind speeds of
direct wind flows. If a building is significantly taller than its sur- up to 25m/s are considered comfortable for these locations, a
roundings, this effect can be exaggerated further. level that would lift loose paper
Where buildings are positioned adjacent to one another the The criteria above include both average wind speeds and peak
channelling of wind flows between them can induce horizontally wind speeds which take into account the fact that there will
accelerated airflows at ground level. Similarly, openings through always be a few days in the year when wind speeds are particu-
the base of buildings can induce high wind speeds due to the larly high. Wind conditions are considered comfortable if they
difference in pressure between the front and back of the build- are within the specified range for at least 80% of the time. The
ing. To the average person these accelerated wind speeds are exact values may change depending on local climate and the
no more than a discomfort but in extreme conditions they can expectations of the potential user groups.
affect pedestrian safety.
MCH_ 368
Study of windflow in an urban environment
Wind speeds above 25m/s are considered uncomfortable in

most situations. The effects vary from small trees swaying to
walking becoming an inconvenience. Gusts of wind above 88
km/h are considered dangerous if they occur regularly. Gusts
of this speed can significantly affect pedestrian balance and
cause slight structural damage to buildings.
Once potential problems have been identified, modifications to

the building’s design can help to reduce their impact. Curved
buildings, for example, generally promote lateral airflows and
behave much better than angular buildings in terms of pedes-
trian level winds. Canopies or skirts at the base of tall buildings
can prevent downdraughts from reaching ground level, whilst
balconies or alcoves in the building facade can diminish down-
draught effects at pedestrian level. In each case, however, such
measures may simply transfer the problem to another part of
the building or across the street.
Testing methods
Pedestrian comfort studies have traditionally been performed
using wind tunnels. In these tests a scale model is used to
assess the impacts of wind from different angles and at dif-
ferent speeds. Sensors record wind speeds at critical areas
to give accurate and reliable predictions of the building per-
formance. Since measurements can only be taken at discrete
points on the model it is not possible to form a complete 3d
view of wind flow around the building. More sensors will result in
more accurate analysis: however, this has added expense and
increases the risk of the sensors themselves interfering with
wind flows and corrupting the data.
Advances in computer power and digital technology have CFD studies looking at the effect of local topography on the proposed build-
ing. Wind from different directions has different effects on the cladding
allowed for an alternative approach called Computational Fluid pressures due to the overshadowing effect of the hillside.
Dynamics (CFD) to become a viable alternative to wind tunnel
testing. CFD analysis allows designers to investigate the whole The analysis also highlighted the accelerating effect of the tail component
modelling domain to build up a detailed picture of airflows, veloc- geometry especially at ground level which could compromise pedestrian
ities and pressures which can be presented in easy to under- comfort.
stand graphical form. This analysis helped to develop structural and environmental responses
during the design process.
MCH_ 369
Environment 05
Analysis for design 5: solar shading
Sunpath diagram showing sun position

on the specific day to be studied.
The relative position of the sun is a major factor in the heat intensity of radiation on a surface is equal to the cosine of the
gain of buildings and understanding how the sun moves angle of incidence, and that the relative area over which it is
across the sky is crucial in preventing unwanted solar gain distributed is equal to the inverse of this value. Therefore high
through building facades. The term ‘sunpath’ relates to the angle sun, whilst stronger, imparts only a fraction of its energy
apparent positional changes of the sun as the earth rotates on a vertical facade, whilst low angle sun imparts a greater
and orbits the sun. The position of the sun in the sky changes percentage of its energy. For this reason, horizontal facades in
continually through the day and is also subject to seasonal equatorial climates where sun angles are high are more prone
variation. Sun position is very location dependant and the to solar gain than vertical facades.
latitude and longitude of the site is required before accurate
sunpath data can be produced. Within a building the effect of sunlight penetration can have a
dramatic effect on user comfort. This is affected by a number
A sunpath diagram, such as the one shown above, is a method of factors such as the occupancy of the space and the tasks
of displaying the annual changes in sun position in an easy to that the users are undertaking, for example direct sunlight in
interpret 2D diagram. For any given time of the year data for an atrium or circulation space may be desirable, whereas in an
the azimuth (horizontal sun angle relative to north) and altitude office environment it may become problematic. Similarly sun-
(vertical sun angle relative to horizontal ground plane) can be light entering a building early in the morning before the building
evaluated and used to develop effective shading systems. is in use may not be considered a problem.
The diagram above shows the sunpath for a single day and Shadow studies on the interior of the building can help to build
highlights the sun position at regular intervals as well as show- up a picture of how direct sunlight enters the building over
ing the times of sunrise and sunset for the specific site loca- time. These can be used to analyse the impact of shading de-
tion. The sun is at its highest between 11am and 1pm when it vices or overshadowing elements of the surrounding site and
reaches an angle of 50°. identify the need for additional shading systems such as blinds
or screens to block sunlight completely.
The amount of radiation incident on the building facade is gov-
erned by the Lambert cosine law which states that the relative
MCH_ 370
Shadow projection of surrounding buildings on the glazed office facade at
different times of the day.
Study of sunlight penetration into the office space throughout the day to
assess the impact on internal working conditions.
MCH_ 371
Environment 05
Unshaded condition: Shading option 1:

Floor to floor glazing with Small horizontal louvres
opaque spandrel panel. equally spaced over full
extent of glazing
Shading option 2: Shading option 3:

Single, large louvre Vertical shading louvres
positioned at spandrel level equally spaced and spanning
floor to floor.
The need to control the amount of sunlight that penetrates are also useful on pole facing facades to protect against low
the building facade is based on a number of design considera- angle sun in the early morning and late evening.
tions. In warm, sunny climates excess solar gain may result
in high cooling consumption to keep the internal temperature Shading screens – Perforated screens on the outside of the
at a comfortable level. In cold climates winter sun entering building reduce the amount of direct sunlight that hits the
the building can contribute to passive solar heating and help facade. The effectiveness of shading screens is dependent on
reduce the winter energy consumption. Sunlight penetration their opacity and has a significant impact on the amount of day-
into buildings can also have a detrimental effect on human light entering the building.
comfort as the impact of glare can easily make a space unsuit-
able to carry out certain tasks. For this reason shading devices Interior devices – Blinds, curtains and other interior shading
can also be used to improve user’s visual comfort by control- devices have limited ability to control solar gain; however they
ling glare and reducing contrast ratios. can help to control the penetration of low angle sun into the
building as well as reducing the impact of glare. Interior devices
The design of any shading device will depend greatly on the path tend to be controlled by the user which gives occupants a sense
of the sun through the sky for the building’s location as well as of control of their environment.
the orientation of a particular building facade. Thus a shading
system developed for a building in Europe may not be suitable The development of high performance glazing products with low
for an equivalent building in the Middle East. The following con- shading coefficients has led to buildings being less reliant on
cepts hold true for most shading applications: shading systems; however they allow significantly less light to
enter the building. External shading systems allow more trans-
Horizontal shading – protects from high angle sun and is typi- parent glass to be used without compromising the overall per-
cally used on facades that are equator facing. For locations with formance of the facade.
high sun angles a single louvre at floor level can shade a whole
storey of glazing. A more dense shading arrangement may be The studies on this page show a comparison of the shading
required in locations with lower sun angles. performance of different louvre configurations alongside their
impact on daylight levels within the building. An unshaded, glaz-
Vertical shading – Generally used on east and west facing ing bay is used to provide a reference case for the shading sys-
facades to protect against glancing sun angles. Vertical shades tems to be compared against.
MCH_ 372
The unshaded facade sets the
benchmark for exposure levels. This
configuration allows high levels of
daylight to penetrate the space.
A single horizontal shade stops high

level sun from hitting the facade. It
has little effect on daylight levels and
in some cases it may even increase
daylight penetration as a result of
reflecting light into the space
Evenly spaced horizontal louvres have

a greater shading effect but result in
lower daylight levels inside the space.
Vertical louvres protect against low

angle sun hitting the facade at glancing
angles but have little effect on high
angle sun. Daylight levels are similar to
the horizontal layout.
MCH_ 373
Environment 05
A study of radiation
incident on the glazed
facades of this office build-
ing shows that overshadowing
from surrounding buildings results in a
stratified pattern of exposure. The areas of
the facade with low levels of incident radiation could
benefit from less dense shading arrangements than the
areas that are more exposed at the top of the building.
Shading devices can have a dramatic impact on building a need to design a shading system for the building to prevent
appearance and the earlier they are considered in the design the office spaces from overheating due to solar gain, but there
process the more likely they are to become a well integrated was a desire to take advantage of the overshadowing effect of
part of the project. With the increased use of digital analysis the building’s geometry to limit the amount of shading louvers.
software there has been a trend in recent years to develop
whole building shading strategies that assess the shading A digital analysis of the facade’s exposure to direct sunlight
demands of each part of the facade and develop specific solu- identified that the upper floors of the building were in direct
tions. This strategy allows the shading effects of the building sunlight for large parts of the year, whilst the lower floors were
geometry, the surrounding buildings and environmental fea- less exposed. The design team was keen to avoid designing
tures such as trees or hedges to be taken into account when a shading system to the ‘worst case’ scenario and applying
defining shading requirements of the building. it uniformly across the facade. Instead there was a desire to
express the stratification of the exposure analysis and a deci-
One of the many advantages of this philosophy is an improved sion was made to use a shading system that could be adapted
relationship between the external climate and the internal to give many shading densities.
space. Designers can consider the shading requirements of
the space based not only on its orientation but also its function The digital study was mapped onto the facade so that each glaz-
and shading solutions can be developed that meet the building bay was given a numeric value to represent the level of shad-
ing’s specific needs. Location specific shading solutions help to ing required to prevent the space behind from overheating. Ear-
maintain visual comfort levels for users by allowing improved lier studies had identified that horizontal louvers were the best
views out of the building whilst also ensuring higher levels of performing system for the climate and a series of louvre layouts
natural daylighting inside the space. Bespoke shading solu- were generated and mapped to the facade based on this shad-
tions also allow designers to differentiate building facades ing level required. The result was a gradual increase of shading
from one another, adding interest and human scale to even density across the facade which not only protected the interior
the most functional of buildings. from unwanted solar gain but also maximised the amount of
daylight entering the ground level spaces.
The case study on this page shows the development of a whole
building shading system for an office building in Egypt. There was
MCH_ 374
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6
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55555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555556666666666666666
444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444445566666666666666666
666
44
4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444455666666666666666666666666
666666 66666666666666666666
33333333 33333333333333333333333344444444444 45566666666666666666666666
2222222222222222222222222222222334444444444 66666666666666666666666666
2222222222222222222222222222222
55555555555555555555555555
11111111111111222
4444444444444444444444444
Each glazing bay is given a code based
on its exposure. This code relates to a 44
shading density. 44444444444444444444
33333333 3333333333
22222222222222222
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1111111111111122
Different shading layouts of varying densi-

ties are set up.
Final shading layout across the whole

facade
MCH_ 375
Environment 05
A shading component can be designed to have a variable aperture with the opening sized in relation to the amount of radiation
incident on the facade at each particular location. In this case, distance 'a' is linked to the exposure value from an environ-
mental study of a curved facade resulting in small apertures in highly exposed locations and larger apertures in locations with
lower exposure.
Well-designed shading systems will protect a facade from the Context – constant urban renewal means that the nature of
worst effects of solar gain and keep internal conditions at a the buildings surrounding a new development may change over
comfortable level but their static nature means they will never its lifetime. The overshadowing potential of neighbouring struc-
be able to protect against all sunlight conditions. In recent years tures cannot be relied on to be present for the lifetime of the
there has been a rise in the deployment of adaptive shading sys- building and moveable systems allow the shading potential to
tems which change their shading performance based on their alter over the life of the facade.
location on a building facade. Adaptive shading systems fall into
two main catagories, static systems and kinetic systems. Function – the change in function of a building, or parts of
buildings, may require changes in shading performance over
Static systems the lifetime of the building. Moveable systems allow the shad-
These use fixed elements that have been shaped to suit the ing components to be reconfigured based on the changing
particular shading requirements of their location. The exam- demands of the building.
ple above shows a component of a set width and height with a
geometry that creates an aperture at the centre. The size of the The example opposite shows a tower built as part of a master
aperture (a) can vary to restrict the amount of sunlight that can plan in the Middle East. The building was on the edge of the first
penetrate, with small apertures used where facade exposure phase of the development and the south facade was exposed to
is high. A digital exposure analysis of the facade identifies expo- direct sunlight for much of the day. The latter phases included
sure levels which can be used to size the aperture. The result further development to the south with new towers overshad-
is a shading system that relates directly to the site conditions. owing the facades of existing towers. A shading system was
proposed with the potential for change over the lifetime of the
Kinetic systems building as the site developed. At the beginning of the building’s
These systems use moveable elements which allow building life the shading system would be working at its hardest to pre-
facades to respond to a number of changing factors: vent solar gain from the south facade. As new buildings are con-
structed on the neighbouring plots the moveable parts of the
Sun position – shading elements move based on the movement shading system reconfigure themselves to allow more daylight
of the sun providing shading when needed and when out of use into the building with the overshadowing from surrounding build-
can move to a position that maximises daylight into the building ings helping to control solar gain.
and provides unobstructed views out.
MCH_ 376
Development Phase 1 Development Phase 3 Facade exposure after completion of Phase 1. Facade exposure after completion of Phase 2.
Development Phase 2 Building Study South facade is highly exposed to direct Surrounding buildings offer a degree of shading
sunlight to the lower floors on the south facade
MCH_ 377
Environment 05
Analysis for design 6: double skin facades
3D view of corner clamped double skinned facade system
Double skin facades separated from the inner wall by a gap of between 750mm and
A recent development in facade technology has been the intro- 1000mm. The wide cavity is required primarily for maintenance
duction of double skin facades, which present a solution to access. The inner skin is typically a standard double glazed cur-
increasing requirements for natural ventilation, increasing day- tain wall system using either stick or unitised systems, with
lighting and the use of thermal mass for night time cooling. The opening windows. Because the outer wall is protecting the
use of double skin facades can provide energy savings of up to inner wall from windblown rain, materials other than metal and
50% in the mechanical ventilation of a building. External shad- glass can be used to form the inner wall. Fresh air is allowed
ing is useful in buildings with single skin glazed facades where to pass through the outer wall into the zone between the two
there is a risk of high solar gain, resulting in overheating inside skins. This is achieved either by having open jointed, or partially
the building. When located externally, fixed shading systems are open joints in the outer glazed wall, or alternatively metal flaps
considerably cheaper than those with moveable screens or lou- or louvres at floor level that are operated mechanically to admit
vres, but they are unable to respond to the changing angle of air at different times of day and at different times of year. This
the sun during the day, and through the year. Internal shading latter method provides a more controlled method of regulating
does not perform as well, as mentioned in the following sections. air intake into the void between the two skins, but is consider-
However, in double skin facades the solar shading is installed in ably more expensive than the open joint method. Once air has
the void between inner and outer skins, where the blinds are entered the void its wind speed drops dramatically, allowing the
better protected. Conventional single layer glazed walls tend to inner glazed wall to have opening windows to introduce fresh
introduce conflicting performance requirements into a single air. This method is particularly useful in taller buildings over
layer. Solar control films or layers have the effect of reducing three storeys, where the wind speed is often too high to allow
the transparency of external walls, which increases the amount windows to be opened safely, particularly in office buildings and
of electrical lighting required internally. Layered facades sepa- public buildings. A walkway is set into the void, usually at the
rate out functions of waterproofing, solar control and ventila- same level as the internal floor to provide easy access to it and
tion in different configurations. In double wall facades these have ensure that the walkway does not obscure views out of the build-
become two generic types: thick walls and thin walls. ing. The walkway allows the glass surfaces facing into the void
to be cleaned and maintained easily. Depending on the height of
Thick walls the facade, the natural ventilation provided by this configuration
In thick double skin walls, an outer layer comprises a single skin uses external wind pressure to provide fresh air into the void. It
of glass, typically a single glazed bolt fixed glazed wall. This is uses the stack effect to allow the heat gained within the void, in
MCH_ 378
4
Details
1. Outer skin of sealed bolt
1
fixed glazing
2
2. Inner skin of openable
aluminium framed doors
and fixed lights
3. Retractable blind
5. Zone for air extraction to
mechanical ventilation
6. Plants
Elevation 1:25 Vertical section 1:25
Plan 1:25
3D view of twin wall from inside 3D view of twin wall cavity
MCH_ 379
Environment 05
3D section cut through double skin system with

openable screen
1:50 Plans and elevations : Thick wall with

ventilated outer screen
Plan view of twin wall with openable screen
4
1
1:50 Plans and elevation : Thin wall with

View of vertical section through stepped
out sealed glazed unit
twin wall facade system
Details 5
1. Outer skin of sealed bolt fixed glazing
2. Inner skin of openable aluminium
framed doors and fixed lights 1
3. Retractable blind 4
5. Zone for air extraction to mechanical
ventilation
6. Plants Vertical section 1:25 through thick twin wall system
MCH_ 380
5
Vertical section 1:20 and 3D views through

double skinned facade with plant in cavity
warm weather, to escape to the outside. In winter, where solar be drawn up through the cavity from outside or from inside. Air
gain is a much less significant issue, in open jointed methods of drawn from outside needs to be relatively free of dust and pollu-
ventilation the outer skin can suffer from cold air being allowed tion, since this makes the cavity dirty quite quickly. In this system,
to enter the void, which can act as a winter ‘buffer zone’. The the air drawn through the facade is separate from the mechani-
method of using metal flaps and louvres allows the quantity cal ventilation for the building. The inner skin has a series of
and frequency of fresh air entering the void to be more closely opening doors to allow access into the cavity for cleaning and
controlled. This helps to regulate the temperature of air pass- maintenance. Blinds are usually set into the void in order to pro-
ing through the inner wall, by ventilation or by opening windows. vide solar shading. Solar energy absorbed by the blinds is radi-
Air in the void between the two skins will be warmed in winter ated into the cavity where it is drawn away by air rising in the
by heat transmitted through the facade as well as any incident cavity. The warmed air is then ejected at the top of the panel.
solar gains. The cavity within a double skinned facade acts in a
similar way to that of a greenhouse. This area becomes ideal for In winter, warm air extracted from the inside of the building is
the growth of many plants. The plants can not only enhance the drawn through into the facade at floor level or in the void below
appearance of the facade but also enhance the environmental floor level and is drawn up through the external wall to reduce
benefits of the double skin system. Double skins help insulate the amount of heat loss through it. When air is drawn through
the building, absorbing the heat of the sun during summer and the facade from inside the building, the wall becomes an inte-
retaining warmth during winter. Plants, it has been shown, are gral part of the mechanical ventilation system for the building.
more efficient in controlling these environments than traditional The air is drawn through a heat exchanger to be used in heat-
blinds and other solar devices and can provide very efficient ing the space in cooler months, or is ejected from the build-
shading to interior spaces. In addition to this they can provide ing through the mechanical ventilation system. In summer, air
sound attenuation as well as providing potential crops or food drawn up the cavity from inside the building passes over the
growing areas in buildings. solar shading blinds, which are dropped down in place to provide
solar shading. The heat from the blinds, as a result of the solar
Thin walls energy, is drawn away and is ejected from the building through
Thin wall facades comprise two skins of glass set closely togeth- the mechanical ventilation system. When the air into the cav-
er, with a cavity in the region of 100mm wide. The cavity is ity is provided from inside, the facade is completely sealed, and
mechanically ventilated, allowing it to be considerably smaller requires only occasional access to the void for cleaning and
in depth than the naturally ventilated thick wall design. Air can maintenance.
MCH_ 381
Environment 05
Thin double skin walls, formed as unitised (prefabricated) skin. Air is drawn up to the top of the cavity, which helps to avoid
panels, comprise two skins of glass set apart, forming heat build-up in the void which is highly insulated at this point.
cavity in the region of 100mm to 300mm wide. Panels
are either ventilated from the outside with fresh air, or are Thin double skin panels ventilated on the inside are formed with
internally ventilated by the mechanical ventilation system. The a double glazed unit on the outside and a single glazed panel on
construction of the panel is based usually on unitised glazing, the inside face, with the inner panels opening for cleaning and
where each panel, usually from 1500mm to 3000mm wide. maintenance. Tempered air from inside the building is drawn
In contrast, wide double skin walls can be constructed as two into the void of the facade panel at floor level, or in the void
stick built facades, or as a mixture of stick and unitised glazing. below floor level, and is drawn up through the cavity to provide a
Combined systems of ventilating from both the outside and the thermal buffer. The air is extracted internally and drawn through
inside are not used to date due to the conflicting requirements a heat exchanger to be used in heating the space in cooler
of the position of the double glazed units which need to be one months, or is ejected from the building through the mechanical
side of the panel (either inside face or outside face) to suit ventilation system. In summer, air drawn up the cavity from
either internal ventilation or external ventilation. The cavity can inside the building passes over the solar shading blinds, which
be either mechanically ventilated or naturally ventilated to suit are dropped down in place to provide solar shading. The heat
performance requirements. Air is drawn up through the cavity from the blinds, as a result of the solar energy, is drawn away
either from outside or from inside and is expelled at the top of and passed through the mechanical ventilation system. When
the panel, typically at each floor level. the air into the cavity is provided from inside, the external skin
of the facade is sealed, while the inner skin is openable. The
Thin double skin panel ventilated to the outside has a single cavity between the glass skins requires cleaning from the dust
glazed outer skin and a double glazed inner skin. The inner skin drawn into the cavity between the two glass skins. The set of
is openable from inside, as opening doors, in order to access doors on the inner skin provides access for cleaning the two
the cavity for cleaning and maintenance. Fresh air is introduced faces of the cavity, but the external face of the wall of both types
from outside at the base of the panel, admitted through slots requires cleaning from outside, typically from a cleaning cradle.
at the bottom and expelled at the top. The solar shading blind An advantage of the blinds being in a cavity rather than on the
is fixed at ceiling level, where it is usually left visible when in the outside is that they can be made to be moveable without the
closed position. The void above the blind, in the floor / ceiling need to have motorised equipment outside, where it is more
zone, is closed off by a metal faced spandrel panel on the inside vulnerable to deterioration in the external environment.
MCH_ 382
Details
1. Metal cladding to exoskeleton
structure
2. Unitised double skin facade panel
3. Outer glazed wall
4. Inner glazed wall
5. Perimeter frame to panel
6. Intermediate horizontal framing
member
7. Floor finish
8. Floor slab
9. Ceiling finish
Externally ventilated
Internal double glazed unit with single glazed
external skin.
Cavity ventilated with outside air by buoyancy.
Cavity needs to be of adequate dimensions to
optimise stack effect.
System can be mechanically driven to
increase effectiveness during thermal peaks.
Internally ventilated
External double glazed unit with single glazed
internal skin.
Cavity is ventilated with return room air
which is extracted from the room at floor.
level and returned to the air handling unit.
Shading devices in cavity absorb solar
radiation which is then expelled via the
moving air.
Externally shaded (screen)

External perforated metal or mesh screen
with double glazed internal skin.
Outer screen acts as shading element for
inner skin in addition to benefits of externally
ventilated approach.
Cavity ventilated with outside air by buoyancy.
Cavity needs to be of adequate dimensions to
optimise stack effect.
MCH_ 383
Environment 05
Analysis for design 7: natural ventilation
Stack effect ventilation:

As sunlight heats the
atrium space the air
temperature increases.
Hot air rises to the top
of the atrium pulling air
from the office spaces.
The resulting pressure
change draws cool air
into the building from
outside.
The return to natural ventilation in buildings, and away from

dependency on mechanical ventilation (including air condition-
ing), has gathered momentum in recent years. This has come
about from the desire to reduce both the energy consumption
in buildings and the wider issue of carbon dioxide (CO2) emis-
sions from the primary energy generation through to build-
ing use. The link between global warming and the build-up of
greenhouse gases has yet to be conclusively proven, but the
circumstantial evidence seems convincing. Nearly half of CO2
emissions generated in the U.K. alone arise from energy con-
sumed within buildings. The reduction of energy consumed in
buildings has a huge benefit for future generations. The decline
in the supremacy of air conditioning can also be linked to 'sick
building syndrome' due mainly to systems dependant on the
re-circulation of used air in buildings.
Wind driven ventilation: Wind flowing over a chimney creates areas of low
presure which draw air from the shaft below. This in turn draws air into
the building from outside. This has resulted in the increased use of opening panels and
window systems. Previously, building types other than housing
were often designed as hermetically sealed boxes which aimed
to provide a constant temperature and steady rate of ventila-
tion. In addition, air conditioning systems would control humid-
ity as well as temperature. This high degree of environmental
control led to very high energy consumption from running the
equipment. In urban areas, the use of operable windows to pro-
vide natural ventilation is often considered inappropriate due to
high levels of noise and atmospheric pollution. This has led to
the development of 'layered' systems in which functions of sound
insulation, weatherproofing and air infiltration are separated.
Natural ventilation in buildings is generated either by wind or by

a ‘stack effect’. In most buildings a combination of both occurs.
As air flows across a building, a difference in air pressure will
occur as a result of varying wind pressure. This difference in
pressure causes the air in the area of higher pressure to flow
towards the area of lower pressure. Provided openings are
appropriately located in these pressure regions, the movement
of air creates a natural ventilation flow through the building.
'Stack effect' ventilation is caused by a difference in density of
Ventilation chimneys on the Ionica building in Cambridge, U.K. air due to internal heat input from casual and solar gains to the
ventilating outdoor air. The temperature, and consequently den-
MCH_ 384
The CFD study above shows the variations in wind speed around a tower
and the impact that the complex geometry has on the design of the fram-
ing that supports the glazed panels.
sity difference between indoor and low level supplied outdoor air
results in an upward flow (buoyancy). Air moves from low level
to high level in a building with a higher temperature than that
outside, whilst the reverse will occur if the air in the building is
cooler than that outside.
There are a number of advantages to using natural ventila-

tion strategies over mechanical systems. Perhaps the most
significant is the reduced energy consumption of the building
during its operation which in turn helps to reduce the opera-
tional costs of the building during its lifetime. Since there are
fewer ducts, filters, pumps and other mechanical equimpent,
maintenance costs for the building are also reduced. The
reduction in mechanical equipment has the added benefit of
reducing celing zones in commercial buildings which can allow
additional floors to be added to multi-storey buildings without
compromising ceiling heights.
Most natural ventilation systems require some manual opera-

tion which offers a psychological benefit to users since occu-
pants are able to control their own environment. The air
entering the building is also regarded as healthier as it has
not passed through ducts and filters which could potentially
harbour diseases.
There are a number of potential problems with implementing

natural ventilation strategies, in particular noise control. The
requirement for large openings and open plan spaces may
conflict with accoustic separation between spaces and may
not be suitable to particularly noisy locations. It is also impor-
tant to ensure that the air flow patterns within the building as a
result of natural ventilation do not create areas of stagnant air
or air that moves too fast to be comfortable. This is particularly
problematic in tall buildings where double skin facades are often
used to provide a cavity to extract air from rather than pulling
air directly from outside. Pressure differences across the facade create ideal conditions for a pres-
sure driven natural ventilation strategy. In this building inlets in the outer
skin create areas of varying pressures in the atrium spaces which drives
cross ventilation of the office floor plates.
MCH_ 385
Environment 05
Analysis for design 8: thermal mass
During the day, exposed thermal mass within the building absorbs heat At night, the heat energy stored within the thermal mass radiates back
resulting from solar gain which helps to keep the room at a comfortable into the room, helping to maintain a comfortable temperature and reduc-
temperature. ing the need for nightime heating.
Thermal mass is a term used to describe the ability of the build- Cimate and thermal mass
ing fabric to absorb excess heat. Materials with a high thermal The application of thermal mass in construction is dependent on
mass are able to absorb heat, store it and then release it at a the local climate. In cold or temperate climates thermal mass
later time. Since these materials take a long time to heat up can be used to absorb heat energy from low angle winter sun
and cool down they can be effective at regulating temperature which is then released back into the space at night. In the sum-
fluctuations within a building and help to keep the internal tem- mer thermal mass within a building can absorb excess heat as a
perature at a comfortable level throughout the year. result of solar gain and occupancy, limiting the temperature rise
within the room. At night cool air from outside is allowed into the
Heavyweight materials such as concrete and brickwork store a building and flows across the surfaces that have absorbed the
large amount of heat and can be regarded as having high ther- heat during the day, purging that energy and allowing the proc-
mal mass. Lightweight materials such as timber and metal do ess to start again the next day.
not have the capacity to store a great deal of heat and therefore
have a low thermal mass. A table of the heat capacity of typical In hot climates thermal mass is used to regulate the high diurnal
building materials can be found below: temperature variation. The building fabric absorbs heat during
the day keeping the internal temperature at a comfortable level.
Heat Capacity Specific heat At night when temperatures drop significantly, this heat is then
Material re-radiated back into the room.
(kj/m3°C) (kj/kg°C)
Fibreboard 300 1.0
Thermal mass in offices
Hardwood 900 1.23 Office and commercial buildings which have specific occupan-
Gypsum plaster 1050 1.10 cy periods can make use of thermal mass to control internal
Lightweight temperatures during the day. The thermal mass is typically
1000 1.0 provided by concrete floor slabs with either an exposed soffit
concrete
or underfloor ventilation system. The slab acts as a heat sink
Brick 1360 0.80
which absorbs excess heat generated from electrical lighting,
Dense concrete 1760 0.84 equipment loads, occupancy loads and solar gain and since the
Stone (marble) 1500 0.88 material has a relatively low radiant temperature, a comfortable
Water 4200 4.2 internal temperature can be maintained. As well as reducing the
peak internal temperature a building with high thermal mass is
Air 1.2 1.0
able to delay the temperature peak by up to six hours. In an office
environment this will typically occur in late afternoon, after the
occupants have left. At night cool air is allowed to enter the build-
When used in conjunction with an effective passive solar design
ing to remove the heat stored in the slabs in preparation for the
strategy, thermal mass can help to reduce energy use in
process to begin the following day.
mechanical heating and cooling systems, reducing the running
costs of the building. Large thermal mass can be a disadvantage
in winter, if the building is not in constant use or has intermittent Floor slab configurations
heating as it will take a long time to heat the building up. Exposed slab – The quickest and simplest way of providing a
high degree of thermal mass in a building. When used in con-
junction with natural ventilation this form of construction can
provide around 15-20 W/m2 of cooling. Profiled or coffered
MCH_ 386
30°C
10°C
DAY NIGHT DAY

External Temperature
Internal Temperature (with low thermal mass)
Internal Temperature (with high thermal mass)
Graph showing impact of thermal mass of internal temperature. With high Exposed slab: Underside of slab is exposed and absorbs heat from roof
thermal mass the temperature fluctuations are less extreme and the peak below. Night purging uses cool air from outside to remove heat.
temperature is delayed by up to six hours.
slabs have an increased surface area which improves convec-

tive heat transfer and improves thermal performance. Profiled
slabs have a cooling capacity of around 20-25W/m2.
Exposed slab with underfloor ventilation – Raised floors are

common in office environments with the primary function of
routing power and communication cables. This configuration
system can also be used to provide ventilation via floor outlets
via a mechanical system or through natural cross flow. Since
air is in contact with both the upper and lower surfaces of the
slab, the thermal mass of the whole slab can be exploited and
can provide an overall cooling capacity of around 25-35 W/m2.
Exposed hollowcore slab – Precast hollowcore slabs have tubu-

lar voids extending through their length. Air is passed through
these voids at low velocities allowing it to be in contact with the
Raised floor: Both faces of the floor slab are exposed to the air which
concrete for a prolonged period and increasing the transfer of increases the transfer of heat. Cool air can be circulated beneath the floor
heat to the slab. A cooling capacity of up to 40W/m2 can be to cool the slab at night.
achieved with this system.
Exposed slab with water cooling – The use of water rather

than air to cool floor slabs enables higher cooling capacities
to be achieved by increasing the rate of heat transfer. Typi-
cal systems use a plastic tube embedded within the concrete
slab through which water is circulated. This application is par-
ticularly suited to buildings whose occupancy patterns or local
climate do not allow for night-time cooling as a constant flow
can be maintined if necessary. A cooling capacity of around
60-80 W/m2 can be achieved with this system and it is
equally suited to providing winter heating solutions by running
warm water through the slab.
Locating thermal mass

For maximum effect, thermal mass should be located inside a
building and insulated from external temperatures. Brick walls
offer little thermal mass benefit as the brick material is on the
outside of an insulated cavity. Similarly thermal mass within a
Hollowcire slab: Cool air is passed through voids in the slab to remove heat
building loses its effectiveness if it is isolated by lightweight fin- either at night or during occupancy.
ishes such as dry linings or suspended ceilings.
MCH_ 387
Environment 05
Low energy material systems 1: embodied energy
An introduction to embodied energy energy for seventy-one materials including transportation but
The energy consumed in the manufacturing of construction excluding demolition or recycling. These figures are consistent
material, its transport, its installation and ultimate renovation with an earlier U.K. Steel Construction Institute’s publication, "A
or demolition is almost always in the form of non-renewable Comparative Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Modern
fossil fuel which produces carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as Office Buildings” by K J Eaton and A Amato. Precision in measur-
a result of these processes. Atmospheric emission levels are ing embodied energy is difficult when the amount of energy used
widely regarded as one of the most significant considerations in the production, transportation to site and installation of the
associated with the production of building material and, par- material varies between locations.
ticularly the emission of CO2 as the chief contributor towards
climate change. Levels of embodied energy in building materials
Current research has focused on levels of embodied energy
The energy embodied in a building material can be considered in individual materials used in buildings rather than in specific
to be the sum of the energy used in the manufacture of its types of construction, which use a combination of materials. The
components, transportation, assembly on site, together with body of research reveals that natural materials such as stone
its ultimate demolition and associated recycling. This embodied have low embodied energy. Reinforced concrete, bricks, con-
energy must be seen in relation to the overall amount of ener- crete blocks, timber elements and other wood products such
gy expended by a building during its lifetime. The total energy as laminated timber and plywood have higher EE values. Tim-
consumption of a building can be considered to be the sum of ber, excluding transportation, has a very low embodied energy,
its embodied energy and its operational energy consumed in but much of the timber used in highly industrialised countries is
using the building during its lifetime. Embodied energy currently imported, which forms a relatively high proportion of the total
accounts for only around 10% of the lifetime energy expenditure embodied energy level of this material. The embodied energy
of a building, based on a 50-year period. However, levels of the of steel is higher still, with aluminium having by far the most
operational energy component are set to reduce significantly. embodied energy of the common building materials. These find-
This will be done by improving thermal insulation and by a mix- ings have led to an assumption that natural materials are more
ture of passive and active controls that control ventilation heat sustainable.
loss and solar heat gain. This would make the embodied energy
component in a building even more significant. Comparisons of embodied energy in typical forms of building
construction
Since reductions in the operational energy component are In order to compare levels of embodied energy, two worked
currently being researched, the relationship between embod- examples have been taken for comparison. The first example
ied energy and operational energy is not discussed here. is a set of options for the structural frame of an office build-
Instead, this text focuses on how typical forms of construction ing. Similar spans and loadings are used for a wide range of
might best be combined to create buildings of low embodied buildings in the U.K., from offices to educational buildings and
energy, regardless of the individual levels of embodied energy hospitals. The structural frames investigated use either steel
in the materials used. or reinforced concrete. Timber was not considered as it is not
economical for large spans with high loadings. The second
Embodied energy values example comprises a set of options for wall cladding in differ-
The figures for embodied energy used in this chapter are those ent materials. The two sets of examples could be used as part
quoted by The Institution of Structural Engineers of the United of the same building. Either a steel or concrete frame could be
Kingdom in their publication "Building For A Sustainable Future: used with any of the cladding options.
Construction Without Depletion", which lists the total embodied
MCH_ 388
An example of a building designed with an emphasis on low embodied energy materials:
The Centre for Alternative Technology, Wales, U.K.
The examples were intended to be used to find out how materi- steel (steel that will be recycled at the end of the building’s life)
als for both structure and external wall might best be used both and recycled steel reinforcement bars (recycled from an Electric
separately and together to achieve low levels of embodied ener- Arc Furnace as is common practice) from figures published in
gy in their construction. Examples of roofs were not used since The Steel Construction Institute’s "A Comparative Environmen-
they would have broadened the scope of investigation too widely tal Life Cycle Assessment of Modern Office Buildings”. Crushed
into comparisons of construction methods for pitched and flat concrete can replace up to 20% of aggregates in structural
roofs in various configurations. concrete, but the embodied energy would not change substan-
tially as aggregates have a low embodied energy, therefore this
The effect of thermal insulation on levels of embodied energy in option was not considered. The columns in all options have been
the wall cladding options was investigated as a separate exer- omitted, as their contribution is deemed insubstantial.
cise. Since most forms of thermal insulation can be used with
most forms of building construction, a comparison was made The results are as follows:
between the use of a material with very high levels of embodied 1a) In-situ concrete flat slab (virgin steel reinforcement) 1.73
energy (expanded polystyrene) and one with very low levels of GJ/m2
embodied energy (mineral fibre insulation). Taking the 3x3 metre 1b) In-situ concrete flat slab (recycled steel reinforcement) 1.41
bay with a 1x1 metre window used in the cladding options, it was GJ/m2
found that expanded polystyrene accounted on average for 15% 2a) Precast concrete hollowcore floor / steel beams (virgin
of the overall embodied energy of the wall panel. Mineral fibre steel) 1.27 GJ/m2
insulation accounted for on average less than 1% of the overall 2b) Precast concrete hollowcore floor / steel beams (multi-
embodied energy. Since the type of insulation used with a par- cycle steel) 1.05 GJ/m2
ticular form of construction has such a large effect on the level 3a) Light gauge steel floor cassette / steel beams (virgin steel)
of embodied energy, it was decided to omit thermal insulation 1.46 GJ/m2
from the following worked examples. 3b) Light gauge steel floor cassette / steel beams (multi-cycle
steel) 1.20 GJ/m2
Example 1: options for an office-building frame 4a) Composite concrete steel deck / steel beams (virgin steel)
The level of embodied energy in a 6000 mm wide x 16000 mm 2.28 GJ/m2
long bay with intermediate columns was calculated for each 4b) Composite concrete steel deck / steel beams (multi-cycle
option. Four options were examined: in-situ concrete flat slab steel) 1.78 GJ/m2
with concrete columns; prestressed precast concrete hollow-
core (wide plank) deck on a steel frame; light gauge steel floor It is clear from this information that the construction technique
cassette on a steel frame; composite concrete steel deck on with the highest embodied energy is the composite concrete
a steel frame. The structural options are based on alternative steel deck. The lowest figure was for the prestressed precast
designs for a typical office building. For each option the weight of concrete hollowcore floor supported off a steel frame, closely
structural components was multiplied by the embodied energy followed by the light gauge steel floor cassette supported off a
(GJ/m2). Embodied energy levels for each material were then steel frame. The embodied energy for the composite concrete
added together to find the overall value for the complete struc- steel deck solution is 80% greater than the prestressed pre-
tural assembly. Fire protection was added to the steel options cast hollowcore solution and 56% greater than the light gauge
to make them as closely comparable as possible. For each steel cassette solution. The four options were re-examined using
option, the total embodied energy was derived from the summa- multi-cycle structural steel and recycled reinforcement bars.
tion of the calculated embodied energy for each component. In The results remained similar with the exception that the embod-
all options an alternative has been calculated using multi-cycle ied energy for the light gauge steel cassette solution was only
MCH_ 389
Environment 05
Low energy material systems 1: embodied energy
very marginally greater than the precast concrete hollowcore the lowest solution. With the obvious exception of aluminium and
solution. In conclusion, the options with the greatest degree brick cavity, the levels of embodied energy are relatively similar
of material efficiency and prefabrication resulted in solutions for a given configuration of opaque and glazed areas.
with the least embodied energy. The present popularity of pre-
assembled modular construction appears to be in tune with The EE level of facing brick is nine times that of concrete block
sustainable construction. and twice that of common brick. Bolt fixed glazing minimises the
use of materials, using glass as panels which are unrestrained
Example 2: options for wall cladding along their edges. The use of aluminium framing results in there
The level of embodied energy (EE) in a 3000 x 3000 mm (10ft being three times as much embodied energy in the frame as in
x 10 ft) bay of a facade was calculated for each option. Since the glass. The use of steel framing is much better, using 60%
thermal insulation has been omitted from the calculations, the more embodied energy compared to the bolt fixed glazed units.
U-value of each construction is not considered here. For each Nevertheless, from a performance point of view, there are prob-
cladding panel option, it was assumed that each panel would be lems to overcome concerning thermal breaks in steel.
supported by a floor slab/perimeter beam both top and bottom.
Components within each panel were sized accordingly. Like the What are the best mixes between high and low embodied
structural options, levels of embodied energy were calculated energy materials in typical forms of construction?
based on the weight of each material used in the assembly mul- In the examples, the combination of materials consuming the
tiplied by the EE value for each. least EE tends to be the combinations using the materials
most efficiently. A building constructed from a high embodied
The results are as follows: energy material, such as a steel framed building clad in glazed
1) Timber framed wall+double glazed window 0.48 GJ/m2 panels, uses far less material than an equivalent design in rein-
2) Timber framed curtain walling 0.82 GJ/m2 forced concrete and has a lower level of embodied energy.
3) Reinforced concrete panel+dg window 0.70 GJ/m2 What is surprising is the comparison between different types
4) Facing brick cavity wall+double glazed window 2.33 GJ/m2 of glazed walling and cavity brick construction. An uninsulated
5) Facing brick cavity wall with steel shelf angle 2.54 GJ/m2 cavity wall with regularly spaced windows and a shelf support
6) Aluminium framed curtain walling 2.48 GJ/m2 angle has three times as much embodied energy as double
7) Steel framed curtain walling 1.26 GJ/m2 glazed bolt fixed glazing, but both forms of construction have
8) Bolt fixed glazing 0.80 GJ/m2 a similar U-value.
The wall configuration with the lowest embodied energy is the The exercise suggests that low levels of embodied energy can
timber framed wall. The highest are the aluminium framed cur- be achieved using mixed methods of lightweight and heavy-
tain walling and the facing brick cavity wall. When steel is used weight construction in a single building. From the above exam-
for the framing solution, the embodied energy of the curtain ples, the best combination might be a timber clad precast con-
walling drops to approximately half the level of aluminium. crete solution or a bolt fixed glazed facade with a light-gauge
steel cassette solution. The worst combination would be a brick
Among the options for opaque walls with a 1 metre square win- clad composite concrete steel deck solution, but this building
dow, levels of embodied energy are relatively similar between combination has been extensively constructed in recent years.
timber and reinforced concrete but the brick cavity wall has
almost 5 times the embodied energy of the timber framed wall. This puts greater emphasis on the need for an efficient use of
Among the glazed curtain wall options, levels of embodied ener- material where high embodied energy materials are used. Alu-
gy are higher for steel than timber but bolt fixed glazing provides minium seems to be a very extravagant material in terms of
MCH_ 390
energy. This is mainly because when used in building compo- est or from plantations already established on degraded land.
nents, aluminium is required to have high rigidity as well as high Planning the life of the building as appropriate in environmental
strength. The material is used for the precision of its extrusions terms will become a higher priority. This might lead to the pre-
and castings rather than for any real qualities of lightness. This assembly of shop-constructed components which can be read-
is not the case where aluminium is used in other industries. ily adapted to suit changing needs using a kit of parts or can
In aircraft design, aluminium is used for its strength and light- be dismantled and reassembled as the need arises. This might
ness. Rigidity is much less important, as part of the aircraft can lead to a scenario where modern high embodied energy build-
deflect without significantly impairing performance. ings will be demolished and recycled rather than maintained,
but masonry buildings of heritage may be allowed to remain
Recycling and sustainability without fear of being recycled.
In attempting to reduce the embodied energy level in the con-
struction of a building, the levels of EE in different materials In conclusion, a well conceived light steel structure with bolt fixed
might suggest that prestressed concrete and timber are pref- glazed facades or a prestressed precast concrete structure
erable to steel and aluminium. However, these criteria must with a timber facade may provide an optimised solution for low
be seen within the overall context of recycling non-renewable embodied energy and, hence provide a sustainable construc-
resources and a sustainable approach to the use of renewable tion. Both solutions rely on a high degree of specialist prefab-
resources. rication and preassembly. This is good news and bad news for
traditional construction. The focus should be on prefabrication
Bricks and blocks can be re-used, but are not used in many and efficient use of carefully selected materials. It appears that
parts of the world, where the ready supply of timber, for exam- prefabrication and preassembly can provide the means to a
ple, can provide a more appropriate material. Steel and alu- future in construction that is flexible, adaptable and sustainable.
minium, with much higher embodied energies, are more eas-
ily recycled. Once manufactured, these metals are in a fairly Embodied energy values used GJ/tonne
‘closed’ cycle of re-use. Aluminium is one of the easiest materi- 1) Aluminium alloy 200 GJ/tonne
als to recycle and at reasonable cost. Energy savings are made 2) Synthetic rubber 150 GJ/tonne
by recycling the material. The conversion of scrap aluminium 3) Structural steel 26.8 GJ/tonne
back to high-grade metal requires only about 5% of the energy 4) Steel used in windows 31 GJ/tonne
needed to make the same amount of metal from bauxite. 5) Float glass 15 GJ/tonne
6) Softwood 13 GJ/tonne
The manufacture of building materials has a direct impact on 7) Plasterboard 2.7 GJ/tonne
our environment. Removing raw materials from their natural 8) Facing bricks 11.7 GJ/tonne
environment can cause long-term damage to the environment. 9) Mortar 0.84 GJ/tonne
The extraction of ores to make steel and aluminium leaves 10) In-situ concrete structure above ground 1.09 GJ/tonne
holes in the ground. Mining areas can be re-instated. Trees 11) Steel reinforcement 26.8 GJ/tonne
cut down as a result of timber production can and should be 12) Plywood 17 GJ/tonne
replanted and replaced. The cost of this work will have to be 13) Concrete block 1.31 GJ/tonne
added into future calculations of embodied energy. Care should 14) Wall insulation 35 GJ/tonne
be taken to establish the source of timber. An area of tropi- 15) Plastic 150GJ/tonne
cal forest corresponding to the size of the United Kingdom is
being destroyed or seriously degraded every year. Therefore,
timber should be selected from an audited and sustainable for-
MCH_ 391
Environment 05
Low energy material systems 2: straw bales and hemp
4
2
5
3
1
ModCell panel module.

ModCell is based on a 3
bale wide by 8 bale high
standard module. A typical
panel is approx 3.2m x
2.9 m x 510 mm unit.
Details
1. Timber frame 3D view of modularised components that can be created using the modCell system
2 Straw/hemp/paper bales
3. Steel rods
4. Openings for windows doors etc. Key U Value data
5. Lime based render (applied over bales) ModCell Straw 450mm 0.13
ModCell Hemp 300mm 0.26
ModCell Hemp 500mm 0.16
ModCell Paper 200mm 0.16
Building Regs Cavity Wall 0.35
ModCell is a modular system of building utilising renewable The current range of ModCell panels uses three types of cel-
materials such as straw bales, hemp and paper as its insulating lulose insulation cores (CIC):
core. These off-site manufactured panels mean that buildings ModCell straw
can be quickly and efficiently installed on site making it ideal for ModCell hemp
large scale commercial, school or office buildings. ModCell paper
Each has a particular set of performance criteria, designed for
Each panel is made up of a sustainably sourced timber frame different applications:
into which the insulating material is inserted. The straw bale and
paper panels are then kept in place by steel rods with all the pan- ModCell straw uses straw bales as its insulation core. Straw is
els finished off with a layer of lime render which as well as being an agricultural by-product , and almost 3 million tons are dis-
a natural product also has the essential attribute of providing a posed of annually in the U.K. alone. The straw panels creates a
breathable layer to the panels. mass market use for a valuable and renewable resource that
would normally be chopped and ploughed back into the ground.
The diagram above illustrates some of the various modules ModCell straw has exceptional insulation properties and can be
that can be utilised in construction using panels of a certain used both dry lined and rendered.
width and height according to the individual project. Within
these panels open areas for windows and doors can be left ModCell hemp uses hemp mixed with lime in the panel; these
available according to the design. Currently these units have panels are slightly thinner in depth to provide similar thermal
been used as loadbearing elements up to three modules mass benefits to that of the straw panels.
(approximately 9 metres high).
ModCell paper uses recycled paper which provides a lighter-
A major advantage of these panels is their thermal perform- weight construction alternative to straw and hemp with again
ance which is up to 3 times higher than the current building similar thermal advantages.
regulations. As a result, buildings using ModCell can have zero
heat requirements, saving money and CO2 emissions. The ModCell panels are constructed off-site but in order to minimise
main disadvantage of these panels is with the thickness of the energy in transport in existing projects 'flying factories' have
panels which typically are approx. 450mm thick. been set up for manufacture. These have been located within
10 miles of the site in agreement with local farmers who have
been able to provide a source of straw and a suitable location to
assemble the modular panels. By using local straw, skills and labour,
the project’s value can also be kept within the local economy.
MCH_ 392
1
4
2
The Archimedia Project, Bristol, U.K. ModCell Straw
Strawbale dance studio, London, U.K.
Strohaus, Switzerland. Architect: Felix Jerusalem
ModCell straw panel being constructed (above)

and Modcell hemp (below)
Straw
Straw bale construction is a building method that uses straw
bales as structural elements and as thermal insulation. As with
the ModCell system it is a material that excels in the areas of
cost-effectiveness, energy efficiency and ease of availability. A Strawbale classroom at Avon Tyrrell, New Forest, U.K.
typical bale of straw has a U-value of 0.13W/m2K.
The construction typically consists of stacking rows of bales on a

foundation plate with a vapour barrier to protect the straw from
damp. These are then tied together with pins typically made with
wood or with wire meshes. These walls can then rendered with
a lime or earth/clay based mix. Because the building method is
so straightforward, people without previous building experience
can participate in the design and construction, thereby saving
on labour costs.
Typically bales created on farms with baling machines have

been used, but recently higher-density 'precompressed' bales,
or 'straw-blocks', can increase the loads that may be supported.
The main concerns with straw bale construction like many of

these natural building materials have to do with keeping the
bales dry. Splash back from rain bouncing up from the ground,
rain causing high humidity or wind driven rain are the main
problems. These however can be easily mitigated with ade-
quate foundation design, a suitable render and protection by
large overhanging roofs. They are also constructed of breatha-
ble materials and need not be waterproofed, though they must
be weatherproofed.
The Straw House, London, U.K. Architect: Jeremy Till and Sarah Wigglesworth
MCH_ 393
Environment 05
Low energy material systems 3: rammed earth, cob and adobe bricks
Left to right: Entrance building, Eden Project, Cornwall, U.K. Detail of rammed earth wall, The Redding Residence, Kendle Design Collaborative, Scottsdale,
Arizona, U.S.A. Detail of example of rammed earth colouration through various soil types
Leeum - Samsung Museum of Art in Seoul, South Apartheid Museum, Johannesburg, South Africa
Korea. Architect: Jean Nouvel
Compacted earth construction is a technique used in the on top of conventional footings or a reinforced concrete base,
building of walls using the raw materials of mud, chalk, lime sometimes with extra ground insulation.
and gravel where moist loose earth is compacted in layers
between shuttering or formwork to construct a wall. One of the significant benefits of rammed earth constructions
is their excellent thermal mass (a typical rammed earth wall is
It is an ancient building method that has seen a revival in about 360 mm); it heats up slowly during the day and releases
recent years. The nature of the materials used means that it its heat during the evening. On the other hand, rammed earth
is non-combustible, thermally insulating and very strong and is not a good insulator and is often insulated in colder climates.
hardwearing. It also has the added advantage of being a very The thickness and density of the walls lends itself naturally to
low cost and simple way to construct walls. soundproofing and the materials used in the walls make them
highly fire resistant Rammed earth structures do utilise locally
The exact composition of the soil and water in rammed earth available materials, which means that they also have very low
walls is critical for it success. A small proportion of cement or embodied energy and generate very little waste.
lime is sometimes added to the mix as a stabiliser to correct
any deficiencies in its make up. Coloured oxides or other items such as bottles or pieces of
timber can be used in construction to add variety and texture
As well as this, good compaction optimises the strength and to the finished wall.
stiffness of the material. There are three main methods in
which to do this: Gabions are boxes made of metal, plastic or reed mesh filled
in-situ with rock or cobbles and used as a basic building unit.
• Static (block presses) Gabions have a long history in civil engineering, as retaining
• Dynamic (rammed earth) walls and in erosion control but today they are becoming com-
• Vibration (wacker plate) monly used in structural walls in buildings, particularly as a
feature in projects where the cages can be filled with any recy-
After compression, the wall frames can be immediately clable material such as glass bottles.
removed and require an extent of warm dry days after con-
struction to dry and harden. The structure can take up to two The main advantages of the system are in the low embodied
years to completely cure, and the more it cures the stronger energy and use of local materials as well as providing a large
the structure becomes. When the process is complete it is thermal mass to control the internal environment of buildings.
much like constructing a hand-made wall of solid rock. How they are weatherproofed is the main disadvantage with
an additional layer required in addition to the gabion wall if a
Like other natural building materials rammed earth walls need sealed environment is required within.
to be protected from heavy rain. They are typically constructed
MCH_ 394
Adobe House, Choisica, Peru
The Cobtun House, Worcestershire, U.K.
Mud-brick, or adobe, is a natural building material made the bricks are protected from damp by building onto a plinth at
from sand, clay and water, with some kind of fibrous or organ- least 150mm from the ground.
ic material (sticks, straw, dung) which is shaped into bricks
using frames and dried in the sun. It is similar to cob and mud- Other disadvantages are with the required thickness of the
brick, although it requires a higher clay content than that for walls and the labour and time involved in the manufacture of
rammed earth. Excessive amounts of clay however may lead to the bricks. Particularly in the U.K. the weather poses a big
shrinkage cracking in construction. threat to the construction and maintenance of an adobe/mud
brick building. Due to these factors very few examples of this
Bricks are typically made in an open frame. The mixture is form of construction exist in the U.K. at present.
moulded by the frame, and then the frame is removed quickly.
After drying a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to fin- Cob is a building material consisting of clay, sand, straw, water
ish drying. Slow drying out in direct sunlight reduces cracking. and earth, similar to adobe. The main advantages of cob as
Traditionally bricks are made on site in arid countries where a material is that it can be used to create artistic, sculptural
there is little risk of rain for the drying period (between 2 and 8 forms using local materials. It is also fireproof, resistant to
weeks). Today many are made in factories constructed for the seismic activity and inexpensive.
project on-site or in the locale.
In the U.K. cob is most strongly associated with the counties of
Basic construction of adobe or mud brick buildings follows the Devon and Cornwall and in Glamorgan and Gower peninsula in
principles of block masonry. The blocks are typically laid in weak the U.K. Traditionally it was made by mixing the clay-based sub-
cement lime, sand or earth mortar or can be dry stacked. soil with straw and water using oxen to trample it. The earthen
mixture was then ladled onto a stone foundation in courses
The main advantage of an adobe wall is in its thermal prop- and trodden onto the wall by workers in a process known as
erties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe con- cobbing. After drying, the walls would be trimmed and the next
struction. The cost of the material and low embodied energy course built, with lintels for later openings such as doors and
associated with being found on site mean it has a very low windows being placed as the wall took shape.
environmental impact.
The walls of a cob house are about 600mm thick, and open-
Adobe structures are extremely durable and account for some ings therefore become correspondingly deep set. The thick
of the oldest extant buildings on the planet. However in order to walls provide excellent thermal mass and the material has a
protect them from damage from rain etc coatings renderings long life span even in rainy climates if a tall foundation and
or cladding are usually applied to the structure and projecting large roof overhang are present.
roofs or from the other structures considered in the design to
shed heavy water away from the walls. It is also important that
MCH_ 395
Environment 05
Low energy material systems 4: green wood and bamboo
Weald and Downland Gridshell, Singleton, U.K.
Above and right: The National Maritime Museum, Visitor Centre, Savill Gardens, Windsor, U.K.
Falmouth, U.K. Architect: Long & Kentish.
Green wood It is also replenishable. Quick growing hardwood species like

As opposed to regular timber used in construction, green wood spruce and oak are ideal woods with which to build, providing
is timber in which the cavities contain water. load-bearing strength and durability.
The primary reason for use of green oak, historically, was to Green oak frames are considered attractive because they
enable it to be worked with hand tools. Dry oak is very hard showcase the skills of craftsmen, particularly the joints which
and extremely difficult to saw, plane or chisel. Today the main are fixed using oak pegs. This is still done because metal fixings
reason is environmental in terms of the cost and time involved would corrode in the moist, acidic environment of the unsea-
in drying. The rate of drying of oak is approximately 25mm per soned wood. This method requires specific skills and techniques
year, so that a 300 x 300mm timber would take 12 years to for the construction of green wood buildings, as well as the con-
dry for construction. nections and detailing of buildings need careful consideration to
compensate for any movement in the drying process.
The cost of freshly felled (green) oak is considerably cheaper
than the dried product after processing. Freshly felled at the Bamboo
roadside a piece of timber costs approximately one tenth the When treated, bamboo forms a very hard wood which is both
cost of the material after processing at the sawmill, air drying lightweight and exceptionally durable unlike many other woods,
(2 to 3 years) and then the kiln dry. which can be heavy and soft.
Traditionally, it is used in tropical climates in elements of house
Green oak, like other forms of timber, is a carbon neutral prod- construction, scaffolding and as a substitute for steel reinforc-
uct that has absorbed CO2 throughout its natural lifespan ing rods in concrete construction.
and does not emit carbon dioxide when it is felled or used for
construction purposes. The main advantage environmentally is in bamboo’s rapid
growth which is very fast, up to 25metres over 6 months,
MCH_ 396
O Centro Cultural Max Feffer,
Brazil, Architect: Leiko Motomura
Connection detail below
O Centro Cultural Max Feffer. The largest bamboo structure in Brazil. Architect: Leiko Motomura
with three to five years to mature. This unique characteristic

makes it one of the most rapidly renewable construction mate-
rials available as well as a fairly inexpensive one. In the United
States and in France, it is possible to have houses made entire-
ly of bamboo, which are earthquake and cyclone-resistant and
internationally certified.
METI School in Rudrapur, Bangladesh.
Analogue construction using local resources.
However, bamboo wood can become easily infested with wood-
boring insects unless treated with wood preservatives or kept
very dry. The main disadvantage in terms of use as a global
building material is in the current limited regions in which it is
grown. Bamboo can be grown in a variety of climates includ-
ing the U.K. but currently it is more economical to import the
material in from existing bamboo plantations which incurs
large cost to the environmental accreditation of the material
through transportation. Internode
The structure of bamboo consists of hollow cylindrical stems

called culms. The culms are segmented into nodes and inter-
nodes. This structure gives the material very good compressive Node
and tensile strength in construction as well as the huge benefit Diaphram
in weight in comparison to other wood materials.
MCH_ 397
Environment 05
Low energy material systems 5: green walls
Tensioned wire green wall, Heathrow Airport, U.K.
Modular system with soil substrate:

Eco Store, London, U.K.
Modular planting unit
Green wall design winter an evergreen facade will provide insulation not just by
Green walls are living, self-regenerating cladding systems that trapping air between the planted zone and the wall, but also by
allow building facades to be covered completely with vegetation. reducing the wind chill on the facade.
The concept has been in existence for centuries. In the Mediter-
ranean, plants are often trained over facades to act as a natural Living walls can also benefit the surrounding environment by
means of climate control. Fruit plants in particular thrive in this altering the local microclimate. Vegetation helps with noise
situation since the heat stored in the backing wall is particularly absorption and can lead to an improvement in the atmosphere
conducive to plant growth. through the dust trapping effect and their absorption of CO2.
Planted facades also help with the retention of rainwater after
In recent years, however, the use of 'living walls' has expanded heavy rainfall. They reduce intense local heat gains experienced
into the public realm to the extent that vegetation can now in cities and create a cooling effect as a result of evaporation.
be seen adorning the facades of museums, shops, community
centres and offices. Living walls are an excellent way of introducing biodiversity into
urban environments although the presence of mice or insects
Living walls can help to link buildings with their natural environ- may cause problems.
ments. In cities large planted facades have a dramatic visual
effect and can act as an oasis of nature within what may oth- Without proper planning living walls can cause building damage.
erwise be barren and industrial surroundings. While climbing Planting systems can impose additional loads on external walls.
plants can be seen as temporary additions to buildings, techno- They can also affect the structural balance of the building. Roots
logical advancements have enabled living walls to become fully and tendrils can break through waterproof seals or force their
integrated facade systems in new developments. way behind cover strips and window abutments and without
regular maintenance, leaves and other dead matter can block
Advantages and disadvantages gutters and rainwater pipes.
Living walls offer a number of environmental benefits:
Planted facades can help regulate internal temperatures. In System overview
the summer the vegetation shades the wall from the sun and Living walls fall into two main categories: Individual point
can reduce daily temperature fluctuations by up to 50%. In the plantings require almost no supporting structure and there-
MCH_ 398
Details
1. Irrigation hose
2. Planted facade
3. Compacted soil 11
4. Metal container
5. Drainage channel
6. Ventilated cavity 7 7
7. Outer wall with waterproof seal 3
8.10mm waterproof base board
4 1
9. Stainless steel support structure
6
10. Polyamide felt substrate
11. Support bracket 2
2
1
9
10
5
5
Modular green wall system Hydroponic green

Modular system with rockwool substrate: wall system
Paradise Park Childrens Centre, London, U.K. Architect: DSDHA
fore provide the simplest method of installation to both new Hydroponic walls
buildings and existing facades. Plants are grown in individual Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without the need
containers and trained across trellises or wires fixed back to for a soil substrate. An irrigation system distributes nutrient
the facade. Because plants grown in this manner will have a enriched water droplets across the facade which are absorbed
maximum height to which they will grow it is often necessary directly by the roots.
to distribute many containers across the facade to achieve
growth beyond this range. It can take many years to achieve a Hydroponic walls have a much reduced constructional depth
dense, homogeneous coverage. and impose significantly reduced loads on the building facade
(around 30kg/m2) when compared to substrate systems.
Planting beds, laid vertically on the facade, allow for full surface
coverage. Plants grow horizontally out from the wall rather The standard form of construction provides felt pockets in
than vertically up it and this allows for a wider range of plant which plants can be individually located. Roots spread radially
types to be used. within the felt and can support plant growth of up to six metres.
Horizontal irrigation pipes run along the outer edge of the felt
Living wall systems fall into two categories, distinguished by at the top of the facade. The supply of water is computer con-
their method of plant cultivation: trolled to ensure the regularity of operation is in keeping with
external conditions. The exact calibration of the system needs to
Modular systems be calculated prior to installation taking into account the facade
Modular systems use cassette elements filled with a soil sub- dimensions, plant types and local climate, to ensure adequate
strate that plant roots draw nutrients from. The modular units supply of nutrients to all plants.
are usually cultivated off-site until they reach maturity. These
modules can then easily be fixed to a supporting structure on With correct cultivation and maintenance living walls have a
site to complete the facade. lifespan of around 30 years.
Because of their modular nature, substrate walls often take on

a chequerboard pattern, however it does give great flexibility
and allows panels to be replaced individually if necessary.
MCH_ 399
Environment 05
Active design 1: solar power and solar heating
1 2
4
3
2 5
4
2
1
5 3
Details
1. Window
2. Photovoltaic panel
1 3. Supporting frame
4. Structural wall
Government Training Centre, Herne-Sodingen, Germany.

Architect: Jourda Perraudin.
Photovoltaic panels A sampled photovoltaic panel installation

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are used to generate electricity from sun- An early large-scale PV installation, from which a relatively long
light. The power generated is then used inside the building to performance has been recorded, is at the University of North-
contribute to the electrical demands of the building and, in some umbria in England. The output of electrical power fluctuates with
cases, the power generated can be sold back to the electricity weather conditions and it is necessary to supplement the supply
supplier. Electricity is generated in arrays of cells set in panels with electricity from conventional sources. Daily operating peri-
on roofs and facades. The orientation of panels is important. ods range from fifteen hours in May to eight hours in January.
Those inclined close to the horizontal produce more electricity It is estimated that the installation paid back the energy used
annually than those inclined vertically. Panels are set as close as in the manufacture of the cells within three years and is still
possible to the angle at which the most amount of electricity is expected to produce electricity for a further 20 years. However,
generated over a one year period, taking into account the vary- the cost of generating electricity is about four times the current
ing path of the sun during that period and the effects of diffused commercial rate. The PV cells are integrated into the facade
solar radiation. Panels comprise a glass substrate coated with with a rainscreen cladding system. The cladding is inclined at
tin oxide, forming a transparent electrode, which is covered with 26º to the vertical, also providing passive solar shading. Ventilat-
layers of silicon together with a coat of aluminium film, which ing the void behind the panel disperses heat, a by-product of the
forms the other electrode. Particles of ultraviolet light called photovoltaic process.
photons interact with electrons in the semi-conductor to con-
vert sunlight into direct current electricity. PV cells are of three Here, the array of PV cells is divided into a series of units 3.0
types: multi-crystalline, which produces the most amount of x 1.36 metres. Each panel is demountable for ease of main-
power per unit area, mono-crystalline, which produces less but tenance or replacement. The cells are bonded to an extruded
is cheaper, and the thin film type which is currently made only aluminium frame with structural silicone. Excess electricity
in one fixed panel size but which is yet cheaper and can be fixed can be exported to the electricity supply company. The electric-
into a glazed walling system. ity generated meets 50% of the building's electricity needs in
summer and 10% in winter, which averages out at 30% over
The photovoltaic process has the advantage of requiring no a one-year period.
moving parts. It requires no fuel and needs relatively little main-
tenance. The amount of energy required to manufacture the PV Solar heating
cells and deliver them to site is estimated by manufacturers to Solar heating systems consist of collector panels that absorb
be equivalent to the amount of energy delivered in the first three heat from solar energy to warm circulating water. Heat
years of use; the PV installation will continue to produce power absorbed by the water is transferred to a storage tank by pump-
for the next twenty years or more. ing or when positioned above the collector the two components
form a thermal circulating system. In the latter case, the ther-
mo-siphon effect of water movement is created by the density
MCH_ 400
4
3
2
2
Daggett Solar Farm, California, U.S.A.
2
Solarchis Solar Houses, Japan. Architecture Studio and Maeta Concrete.
difference between hot and cold water. The heated water is with high thermal mass internally and thermal insulation fixed
normally used to exchange heat with a building's system water, externally. The Iyama House has a solar water heater installed in
which is then distributed around the building as required for a transparent roof that produces domestic hot water at 50ºC in
either heating water or as domestic hot water. The amount of a 300 litre storage tank. Food is cooked mainly by a solar steam
heat generated is significant and whilst it is currently suited to cooker with the support of an electromagnetic induction heater
climates that have abundant sunshine for much of the year, the which uses high-temperature solar domestic hot water from a
performance efficiency has developed to the extent that North- 20 litre storage tank. The House of the Sun (above) has a sys-
ern European states can also benefit. tem of evacuated tubular solar collectors heating water stored
in a 300 litre tank. The cooking system is similar to that used in
Collector panels should ideally be orientated to face south and the Iyama House.
in the U.K., they should be angled at 45o from the horizontal.
Panels traditionally consisted of sheets of clear high light trans- Devices for obtaining hot water directly from solar energy have
mission glass that allows maximum solar radiation penetration, been in development since the 1850s. An early example was
trapping this radiation to be absorbed by the receiver surface. a boiler and power plant for water pumping built near Cairo
This surface is a copper base plate that transmits the heat to a in 1913. It consisted of five long parabolic mirrors, each 4.2
continuous pipe fixed to its rear face. The pipes are enclosed in metres wide by 62 metres long. Steam was produced at slightly
thermal insulation to reduce heat loss to the air. The most popu- above atmospheric pressure and used to drive a 20hp water
lar types of panels currently in use are: a) flat plate collectors, pump. It was abandoned during the First World War. Modern
b) vacuum flat plate collectors and c) evacuated tube, (the lat- solar furnaces still use a similar system of mirrors. Recent
ter being the most efficient over a typical annual temperature/ developments, prompted by the space programme in thermo-
solar radiation yearly profile, whilst the addition of a vacuum void electricity and photo-electricity, are used both to run water-heat-
to flat plate collectors significantly improves their efficiency). ing systems and to generate electricity. Only a few large-scale
Solar absorbers have been used for many years to provide solar furnaces have been built. The 10.5 metre diameter mirror
warm water of up to 50oC for swimming pools. They consist and heliostat at Montlouis in the French Pyrenees are used for
of special solar absorbing high-grade rubber mats with integral research into materials at high temperatures rather than as an
water flow channels for circulating the pool water. They can also economic source of heat.
be used for domestic warm water supply.
A recent installation is that at Daggett Solar Farm, California,
A recent example is the Solarchis Housing System in Japan, set U.S.A. where electricity is generated from an array of parabolic
up by the Solar Architecture Studio and Maeta Concrete Indus- mirrors, arranged in long rows, that heat liquid in pipes set into
try Ltd. Demonstration houses built in the Yamagata Prefec- them.
ture, Japan, use roof-mounted solar water heaters in conjunc-
tion with a photovoltaic array on the roof and a wall construction
MCH_ 401
Environment 05
Active design 2: electrical lighting
Kitakame Canal Museum, Japan. Furniture House, Yamanashi Prefecture,

Architect: Kengo Kuma and Associates. Japan. Architect: Shigeru Ban.
Electrical lighting Discharge lamps

The two main types of electric light source are tungsten filament These lamps work by discharging an electric current through
lamps or incandescent lamps and discharge lamps. a gas or vapour in a sealed glass tube or bulb, which causes it
to glow. These produce more light and less heat than a tung-
Incandescent filament lamps sten lamp for the same amount of power. The most common
These lamps produce light by passing a current through a thin type is the fluorescent tube, which is filled with low-pressure
tungsten filament in a glass bulb containing either a partial vac- argon and proportionally small amount of mercury. The tube
uum or an inert gas. The filament glows and produces a mixture is coated with a fluorescent powder, and lengths vary between
of light and heat. When an inert gas such as halogen is used, 320mm to 2400mm (13in to 96in). There is no standardisa-
the lamp runs more efficiently as more of the electrical power is tion in the production of these tubes, and each manufacturer
converted into light rather than heat. designs lamps to their own specification. Tubes can last up to
10,000 hours, but their efficiency is slightly diminished with
The most common lamp is the general lighting service (GLS) use. The low-pressure sodium discharge lamp is another com-
light bulb. It has clear, coloured or pearl glass and its shape mon type used in many countries for road lighting, which has a
can vary from the common bulb form to spherical or linear. characteristic yellow colour. It is extremely efficient and lasts
Some bulbs have their end silvered to reflect light upwards, approximately 12,000 hours.
reducing glare. The bulb used for spotlights or floodlights is
the internally silvered reflector, or IS lamp. Its characteristic High-intensity discharge lamps have a wider range of colour
shape is designed to reflect light in a particular direction. A rendering, use much less electricity and last longer than an
bulb with better directional focus, due to a reflector and a equivalent tungsten filament lamp. Mercury vapour lamps are
lens at the front, is the parabolic aluminised reflector, or PAR used for lighting large spaces, such as factories, where colour
lamp, which is particularly suitable for spotlights and flood- rendering is not a determining factor as they have a yellow/
lights. Some lamps have dichroic filters in front of the bulb to blue colour. Metal halide lamps have excellent colour ren-
reduce the amount of heat projected forward of the fitting. dering and are commonly used in all types of buildings from
PAR lamps are also produced in a tungsten halogen type. commercial offices to public buildings. Both types of lamp last
approximately 10,000 hours. Compact fluorescent lamps,
All these three lamps run on mains power (house current). The which are used as a substitute for GLS and are compatible
GLS and IS types last approximately 1,000 hours, while the PAR with tungsten fittings, offer significant energy savings as a
lamp lasts up to 2,000 hours. direct substitution for incandescent fittings.
Another type called low voltage tungsten halogen lamps, run off 12 Luminaires
volts and require a transformer. They produce sharply directional Luminaires are used both to hold the lamp and direct light to
beams of light, making them useful for illuminating displays. They the point of use. They are used for both incandescent filament
can last up to 4,000 hours. They are also used for car headlights. and discharge lighting. A huge range of luminaires is available,
each suited to its intended use, location and method of direct-
ing light by diffusion, reflection or absorption. Manufacturers'
MCH_ 402
International Housing Exhibition, Freshwater Pavilion, Neeltje Jans, Holland. Architect: NOX.
FU.K.uoka, Japan. Architect: Rem
Koolhaas, Office for Metropolitan
Architecture.
catalogues use polar curves to plot the intensity of light radially Floor mounted types
around a cross-section or long-section through a light fitting. Freestanding floor mounted uplighters are often used in offices
This helps the design team to understand how light from a sin- to provide or supplement office lighting. They are generally bet-
gle fitting will be directed. ter for glare control than ceiling mounted lights. Energy efficien-
cy is lower with this type of fitting as the light has to be reflected
Ceiling mounted types from the soffit to illuminate the space.
Luminaires on ceilings are either pendant (hanging), surface
mounted or recessed. The pendant is the most flexible, allow- A recent development in luminaire design is the recessed floor
ing light to be thrown up, down or a mixture of both. Surface type. These have a cover that is strong enough to walk on and
mounted luminaires can direct light to the side or downward. which is designed to minimise glare when looking down at the
Recessed fittings throw light downward by concealing the lamp floor. This type has to be capable of dissipating its own heat gen-
and luminaire behind the ceiling plane. Pendant luminaires erated in use, and as a result the casings are often made from
are often used where there is no suspended ceiling. They can metal alloys with high thermal conductivity such as brass.
be fixed directly from the ceiling or housed in a track that is
attached to the soffit. Huge varieties of ceiling tracks are avail- Exterior luminaires
able and some incorporate both fluorescent strips and tungsten Exterior lighting utilises all of the above fixings. Luminaires must
filament spotlights in a single length. be either waterproofed or sheltered from the weather and
power supplies must be planned well in advance so as to incor-
Ceiling fittings are often co-ordinated with low energy mechan- porate cable ways and access boxes into the external works.
ical features such as chilled ceilings and beams. Fittings sus-
pended from a thermally exposed soffit can be designed to Emergency lighting
incorporate acoustic absorbent material to help address Emergency lighting allows escape routes and stairs to be suf-
reverberation. Ceiling light fittings can also form part of inte- ficiently illuminated in the event of a fire or other emergency.
grated servicing fingers, often used to service exposed soffit The lighting can be permanently illuminated or switched on auto-
areas, incorporating sprinklers, air supply, chilled beams and matically by a fail-safe system in the event of a power failure.
high level electrical services. Both tungsten filament and discharge lamps are used. Power
to emergency lighting is normally supplied by batteries charged
Wall mounted types continuously by the mains using separate circuits. Emergency
Luminaires on walls can also be pendant, surface mounted generators should be used in buildings where mains failure can
or recessed. Pendant fittings are mostly used in conjunction affect life safety and other essential equipment. Batteries are
with a track hung from the wall on a cantilevered bracket. usually housed within plant rooms.
Most wall-mounted fittings are surface mounted which can
direct light in all directions away from the wall, either directly
or by reflection. Recessed wall lights have either a diffuser in
front of the lamp or a reflector to avoid glare.
MCH_ 403
Environment 05
Support services 1: maintenance and cleaning
Cleaning gantry allowing underside of roof to be cleaned and maintained without cleaning platform from below.
B8 offices, Daimler Chrysler Projekt, Potsdamer Platz, Berlin, Germany. Architect: Richard Rogers Partnership.
Roof-mounted facade cleaning systems Davits are usually made of mild steel or aluminium tube and are
With the increased use of metal, glass and composite mate- moved with wheels at their base. This makes them sufficiently
rials in facade design there has been a greater requirement lightweight and mobile to be handled by one or two people when
for cleaning and maintenance. Building facades 30 years ago they are moved into position and fixed for use. Davits are usually
were detailed with low levels of maintenance envisaged, with the dropped into position onto a set of bolts projecting up from the
use of brick, concrete, stone and timber dominating architec- roof surface, typically as either plinths in the form of short col-
tural design. Facades would be cleaned only rarely, with details umns, or as a recessed box below the level of the roof finishes
that would weather well with the passage of time. Windows in where the bolts are concealed from view, as on an accessible
masonry walls were detailed to be openable, partly to admit roof terrace. The davit is lifted into position, usually by a person
fresh air for ventilation and partly for cleaning access. With pulling it up with a rope secured to the top of the post. The arm of
the increased use of sealed facades without openable windows the davit can be swung outward once it is fixed in place. Cables,
came an increased requirement for cleaning equipment. secured to the end of the davit arm before it is lifted into posi-
tion, are lowered down the facade to be attached to the clean-
Facade cleaning systems for twin wall facades (discussed in ing cradle below, at the base of the facade. The cradles usually
Modern Construction Facades) are often provided in the form have wheels which enable them to be moved to suit each new
of walkways set at each floor level. Most systems, however, are pick-up position for the davits as they are moved to each new
roof-mounted and are required to be integrated into the roof fixing point on the roof. The cables are connected to the cradle,
design, usually with a minimum of visible equipment. These roof- allowing it to be raised up the facade. The cradle is fitted with an
mounted types are discussed here. Most facades are cleaned electric winding mechanism and rubber fenders to avoid direct
with either davits, monorails or trolley systems mounted at roof contact with the facade. There is no winding mechanism at the
level, with larger buildings having a mixture of these systems on level of the davit, whose function is to support the cables only.
a single roof. The electrical power supply for the cradle motors is from points
either at roof level or at the base of the facade, supplied to the
Davit systems cradle by a power cable. In the event of a power supply failure, a
A davit is a jib or scaffold-shaped frame from which a clean- manual system in the winch allows the cradles to be lowered to
ing cradle is hung. A single cleaning cradle, holding one or the ground. Various proprietary systems of winch motors and
two persons, is usually hung on cables from a davit at each lifting equipment are available, all with different safety features.
end of the cradle. Davits are moveable and when in use are
secured to bases in fixed positions near the roof edge. Davits When one vertical strip of facade is cleaned by a cradle that is
are very useful for roofs where the permanent visual presence raised and lowered from a pair of davits, the cradle is moved
of a monorail or trolley system is not the preferred solution to to its next position by descending to its lowest level and discon-
facade maintenance. necting the cables. The davits are then unbolted and lowered
MCH_ 404
Details
1. Cleaning cradle
2. Motor and counterweight
3. Hydraulically operated arm
4. Steel cable
5. External wall parapet
6. Roof surface
7. Wheels or guide rails
Above and below: Cleaning equipment, Lloyds Building, London, U.K.

Architect: Richard Rogers Partnership
Cleaning equipment on this building has been specially designed and inte-
grated into the overall architectural aesthetic being highly visible at all
times from the surrounding city streets
6
7
Section 1:50 Roof mounted cleaning crane

MCH_ 405
Environment 05
Plan 1:50 Davit supporting cradle in two positions
Section 1:50 Davit supporting cradle in two positions Elevation 1:50 and 3D view of typical cleaning cradle
3-D views of typical cleaning cradle on facade Cleaning cradle on glazed facade
MCH_ 406
Section 1:100 and 1:50 Monorail supporting cradle from cantilevered Section 1:100 and 1:50 Section NTS cleaning with harness on
brackets/ beam Davits supporting cradle a platform
from their bases before being moved to the adjacent base beneath manually, or under electrical power for larger instal-
positions for re-connection. lations. As with the davit system, cables are connected from
wheeled pulleys which travel inside the monorail. The cables are
While this is a relatively slow process involving erecting davits, lowered down and connected to the cleaning cradle, which is set
setting up the cables and cradle, then disconnecting the parts at the bottom of the facade. As each vertical strip of facade is
and moving the davits again, this method avoids a permanent cleaned, the cradle is moved along the facade, usually when it is
and visible cleaning system being mounted on the roof. The at roof level, just below the level of the monorail. When manually
davit system is most commonly used where the roof is used as operated, the cradle can be moved when at the bottom of the
an accessible roof terrace or garden, and where a permanent facade if maintenance personnel are assisting at roof level. The
cleaning system would not be visually desirable. monorail offers a visually discreet method of providing a perma-
nently fixed cleaning system at roof level.
Monorails
In the monorail system, a continuous single rail is fixed at roof Where the monorail is hung from the underside of a balcony or
level, from which a cleaning cradle is hung from a cable at each slab soffit, the monorail can be concealed with cladding panels
end. The monorail is set around 500mm beyond the edge of the set on either side of the rail. From below, only a single continu-
roof to allow the cradle to hang slightly forward of the facade, ous groove is visible. A gap of around 20mm is provided between
typically on brackets cantilevered from the roof structure as the monorail and the adjacent panel to allow for movement of
shown in (A). The monorail is a visually strong element that is the monorail itself when in use. This joint is either left open or
integrated into the overall design for the edge of the roof. An closed with a flexible seal, typically EPDM sheet.
alternative to cantilevered fixing brackets is to cantilever the
edge of the roof out by around 500mm as shown in (B). The Trolley systems
rail is usually made from mild steel which is painted or enclosed Where a facade is required to be cleaned from a roof which is
in a decorative metal cover, usually in folded aluminium sheet. either sloping, or has a stepped profile in elevation, a horizontal
Where cantilevered support arms are used these can be cast- monorail is a much less practical solution for supporting clean-
ings or standard structural steel sections to suit the design. ing cradles. Davits are usually difficult to handle on sloping roofs.
The monorail, set horizontally, is usually formed as a channel- Trolley systems are better adapted to reaching facades from a
shaped section that allows a pair of wheels to run inside the rail. sloping roof and where the facade itself is of complex geometry.
Sets of wheels are operated either by sliding the cleaning cradle Trolleys are typically mounted on wheels and are secured to a
MCH_ 407
Environment 05
Elevation 1:200 Trolley supporting Elevation 1:100 Trolley on vertically

cradle set rails
(Above). Cleaning cradle on trolley around Swiss Re building, London, U.K.
Architect: Foster and Partners
Elevation 1:200 Trolley supporting cradle
continuous track, which may be beneath the trolley, as roof- Where facades step in at a lower level, the cradle can be off-
mounted rails, or may be set vertically. The trolley usually has set from its supporting cables by the use of counterweights
arms which project out over the edge of the roof which support attached to the cleaning cradle. The cradle can be moved by an
a cleaning cradle from cables fixed to the ends of the arms. arm fixed directly to the supporting cables. As the arm moves
The arms are sometimes telescopic (hydraulically operated) in from a vertical position to the horizontal, the cradle swings
order to reach either the facade or, for example, solar shading away from its cable. The movement is balanced by a counter-
panels in front of the facade. The arms are usually raised or weight at the other end of the arm which keeps the cradle level
lowered to bring the cradle in and out from the facade and to and stable. This method is useful in facades that either step
bring it to rest at roof level. The trolley itself houses the motors outwards as they rise up or are inclined outwards through
for both moving the equipment along its rails, moving the arms, their height. The mixture of a trolley system and cradles allows
and raising and lowering the cradle itself. The trolley is usually complex facade and roof forms to be cleaned and maintained
controlled from within the cradle, allowing it to move both verti- from a single cleaning cradle. With facade and roofs of complex
cally and horizontally. geometry, the trolley rails can be concealed in a gutter at roof
level where facade and roof form a single and continuous form.
This system is not usually suited to roofs which are fully accessi-
ble to building users due to the presence of rails or a dedicated In the example above a trolley is set behind a parapet formed
path, as well as the visual presence of the trolley itself. As the by solar control louvres. It is set on a track that forms a con-
trolley is controlled remotely, safety at roof level is a critical continuous loop to suit the shape of the building. As the trolley
sideration. Where roofs are required to be accessible, rails are moves around its circuit it is able to reach all parts of the
mounted above the roof, but their dominant appearance may facade. The trolley is able to reach the facades with telescopic
deter this solution in practice. Where the trolley can be seen arms that can be adjusted both in length and height to suit
from below, it is usually concealed behind a screen or in a small the facade being cleaned. A single trolley is usually provided
enclosure, allowing it to be protected from the effects of the for a single building, but more than one may be required, work-
weather. Trolley systems are well suited to being mounted on ing on the same track, to suit different facade geometries
sloping or curved roofs where they climb steep slopes, typically beneath. Not all large-scale trolleys require tracks to restrain
up to around 45°. them. Trolleys with wheels that move on a raised portion of
roof deck are also used.
MCH_ 408
Elevation 1:500 Trolley with reach over adjacent facades
Left and right: Elevation 1:200 Trolley with reach over adjacent
facades
Plan 1:50 Cradles hanging from trolley
Section 1:200 Cradles hang-

ing from trolley and monorail
MCH_ 409
Environment 05
Support services 2: lifts
Isometric view of generic glazed
14
car assembly
14. Lift car guides
15. Bolt fixed glass enclosure
16. Support frame to car
17. Steel frame to lift doors on
landing
18. Frameless glass doors
19. Nylon guides
16 20. Stainless steel balustrade
and handrail
21. Call button panel
22
22. Extract grille
15
20
21 17
19 18
88 Wood Street, London, U.K.

Architect: Richard Rogers Partnership.
There are two generic types of elevators: traction, where the At each level served there are elevator landing doors, which
elevator car is suspended on cables with counterweights, and can be solid or transparent. These doors open only when
hydraulic, where the elevator car is fixed on a ram which is engaged by the elevator car doors. When the elevator is in an
sunk into a shaft. In both cases the elevator cars run on vertical open shaft there is a need to protect people on each landing
guides which are attached to the inside of an elevator shaft or, from the moving parts of the elevator mechanism. In this case,
in the case of open wall-climber elevators, directly to the edge of each floor is provided with landing screens which are incorpo-
floor structures. It is common in tall buildings to use fast eleva- rated into the elevator landing doors. Where the elevator is
tors that stop every ten floors. Intermediate floors are accessed in an enclosed shaft the risk of fire spread from floor to floor
from separate elevators that run between the fast elevators. must be taken into account. In such a case, the elevator landing
doors may need to be fire resistant. Call buttons are located
The type and number of elevators for any installation is estab- on each floor. In larger installations, calls are registered by the
lished by the following criteria: control gear and automatically dealt with in sequence. Banks
· Approximate passenger load of elevators have co-ordinated control systems that respond
to calls in a given sequence.
· Maximum acceptable waiting time
· Number of persons each car will carry Hydraulic elevators can carry a maximum of around thirteen
· Elevator speed passengers. In theory, there is no limit to what a traction eleva-
· Expected passenger load at peak times tor can carry. For cars carrying up to thirteen people the same
size well can be used for both traction and hydraulic elevators.
Elevator cars consist of metal frames clad with solid or trans- An eight-person elevator is usually the smallest which can
parent panels. Doors to the elevator cars can be single or dou- comfortably admit a wheelchair. The minimum door width is
ble, sliding on either one or both sides of an opening. Width usually 900mm.
restrictions, particularly where elevators are set side by side,
may mean that doors are set off-centre to the elevator car or Traction elevators are electrically powered. Cables, running
that twinleaf doors are necessary. over pulleys and balanced by counterweights in order to mini-
mise the efforts of the elevator motor, support cars. Both car
MCH_ 410
Section and plan
details
1 1. Lift motor room
1
2. Guide rail
3. Elevator car 16
4. Cable
4 5. Counterweight
6. Elevator pit 3 2
7. Enclosing wall
8. Doors to landing
2 set into enclosing
wall at each level 7
12
9. Doors to car 3
10. Doors to landing
11. Single hydraulic
piston 8 15
12. Telescopic
hydraulic pistons
8 as alternative to
15 3 7
single piston
13. Piston cylinder
4
well
11
14. Vent to outside
15. Car deck
16. Lift well
17. Access panel/
vent 6
Vertical section
Hydraulic lift
1
5
1
7
3 16
3 6
16
9
6 6 13
10
17
Vertical section Horizontal section Horizontal section

Traction lift Traction lift Hydraulic lift
and counterweight move in vertical steel guide rails. Traction of the elevator car at the lowest floor level. The piston can be
elevators have advantages over hydraulic elevators with their a single or telescopic tube. If it is a single tube, the well must
higher speed and hardwearing qualities. Speeds vary from 0.5 be deep. The hydraulic piston is fixed to the bottom of the shaft
metres per second for smaller installations to 6.0 to 7.0 metres and connected to the elevator car. The ram is activated by
per second for tall buildings. hydraulic oil which is forced into the cylinder well under high
pressure, which then moves the elevator car. Hydraulic eleva-
Traction elevators have an over-run space at the top of the shaft. tor mechanisms are suited to installations serving up to five
This protects anyone working on top of the elevator should the floors. They are usually slower than traction elevators, with
car travel to the top floor accidentally. The overrun also allows speeds ranging from 0.63 to 1.00 metres per second. The
cables to run over the pulley to the motor. The overrun space motor room can be located a short distance away from the
also accommodates the cable pulleys. Motor rooms house the elevator shaft, rather than next to it, either at the bottom or
elevator motors and ancillary equipment that drives the cars. the top, which is an advantage in small buildings. Hydraulic
These are usually located at the top of the shaft, adjacent to elevators are also useful where an overrun cannot be accom-
the overrun. The motor room can also be positioned to one side modated easily at the top of the elevator shaft.
of the elevator pit at the bottom of the shaft, but this requires
more sophisticated cabling. Motor rooms require ventilation The machinery room can be independent of the elevator shaft,
because of heat generated by the machinery. and may be located up to five metres away. Machine rooms are
smaller than those of traction elevators, and contain pumps,
A pit is located at the bottom of the elevator shaft. It is usually motors, fluid storage tanks and control equipment. Machinery
about two metres deeper than the lowest floor served in order rooms require ventilation due to heat generated by the equip-
to accommodate the underside of the elevator car. The top of ment. Hydraulic elevators have an overrun at the top of the ele-
the elevator shaft is vented to the outside to ensure that air is vator to protect anyone working on the top of the car, in case it
drawn up the shaft and out of the building in the event of fire. accidentally rises to the top of the shaft. Like traction elevators,
the top of the shaft is externally vented to ensure that air is
A hydraulic elevator consists of a piston cylinder set into a well drawn up and out of the building in the event of fire.
beneath the elevator pit, which accommodates the underside
MCH_ 411
MCH_ 412
6
APPLICATIONS
1 Working with industry
2 Triangular panels for twisted
facades
3 Twisted panels with flat glass for
curved facades
4 Solar shading louvres
5 Double-skin facades
6 Precast concrete panels for
facades of complex geometry
7 Exoskeleton facades of complex
geometry
8 Diagrid structures
9 Hybrid systems forming facades
of complex geometry
10 Opaque cladding interface with
full-height glazing
11 Complex curved glazed roofs
12 Large-scale glazed facades
13 Panelisation of complex building
surface geometry
14 Opaque rainscreen cladding
15 Full-height glazing with GRP-clad
structural frame
16 GRC cladding interfaces
17 Full-height entrance glazing
18 GRP lovures on stick glazing
system
19 GRC cladding
20 Windows in GRC cladding
21 Windows and unitised glazing
with GRC cladding
22 Unitised glazing with GRC
cladding
23 Complex glazed roofs with
supporting steel structure
24 Glazed roofs with complex
geometry
25 Louvres and stick glazing
26 Tiled cladding
27 Rainscreens
MCH_ 413
Applications 06
1 Working with industry: manufacturers and fabricators
The relationship between the design team of architects and and fixing is required of the installer. In the case of composite
engineers and those that construct facades is defined by wheth- metal panels, the panels are manufactured for installing on
er fabrication work is done on-site or off-site. Facade construc- site with very specific requirements for fixing provided by the
tion work that is conducted on-site, such as in-situ concrete, manufacturer. This may involve a detailed installation manual,
masonry cavity walls and timber walls to the platform frame, are with some installation training provided for the installer, by the
fabricated and installed with materials delivered directly from a manufacturer. The architect or designer must be aware of how
materials supplier to the building site. With on-site fabrication, a particular product is procured so that an appropriate input to
the building site becomes the workshop for facade assembly the detailed design can be made.
from its constituent components. Work is done by building con-
tractors who buy their components not directly from manufac- For glazed systems, specialist items such as windows and
turers, but from building suppliers. This is because building con- doors are usually assembled by the manufacturer. Other mate-
tractors for brick cavity walls or in-situ concrete or timber walls, rials such as glass, metal sheet, timber sections and stone
for example, are involved in constructing with a wide range of are obtained from other manufacturers. Architects and engi-
construction technologies, with construction conditions chang- neers work increasingly with both manufacturers and fabrica-
ing from job to job. As a result, they do not generally form close tors throughout the design development stages, with greater
ties with particular manufacturers, but are instead involved emphasis on working with installers as the project progresses
with a large number of individual suppliers for a large range towards the construction phase. The manufacturer designs
of components, some of which will have been specified by the the systems, while the installer assembles them in place from
design team at the tender stage. Architects and designers work project to project. In some cases manufacturers buy the raw
through development, mock-ups and performance testing in the material from the supplier, while in other cases they manufac-
same way as for factory- and workshop-based companies that ture the raw material as well. Examples are steel or aluminium
use a high degree of prefabrication. companies which both manufacture metal, and roll, profile or
extrude it for immediate use in facade systems, usually where
Facade fabrication done off-site in factories and workshops manufacture of the primary material is their core business. Sim-
involves the design and assembly of proprietary components ilarly, glass manufacturers sell their material on to companies
and systems. Examples are glazed curtain walling, metal walls, who make double glazed units. Systems provided by manufac-
plastic-based cladding and precast concrete which are designed turers are fully designed and tested. While architects can use
and fabricated off-site, then installed in the building. Off-site the systems in ways prescribed by the manufacturer, there is
fabrication involves manufacturers, fabricators and installers. relatively little scope for changing them, or even adapting them
Some manufacturers supply systems for others to assemble, for use on a particular building, except in large-scale projects.
while other companies design, manufacture and assemble sys- This happens because the systems are manufactured as a set
tems, allowing others to install the facade assemblies on site. of standard components which are made specially to deal with
Architects and engineers can work independently with all three a range of options available within the system. In addition, the
groups of manufacturers, fabricators and installers. test certificates obtained for their use are specific only to the
standard system. Deviation from the tested systems adds both
Manufacturers do not install their own systems but instead time and cost to a project, the implications of which are weighed
focus on the design and manufacture of systems and their com- up before incorporating these changes into the tested system.
ponents. Each company usually has a set of installers with whom Some manufacturers have their own test facilities, which can
they have an agreement. The manufacturers supply the facade speed up the process of testing variations on standard systems,
systems together with technical support for their application, while others use independent test facilities, which can take long-
while the fabricator provides the skills required to assemble er to obtain results. If the modified design does not success-
them. The manufacturer supplies facade systems in varying fully complete testing, then further modifications will need to be
amounts of fabrication, for example standing seam sheet metal made, adding further time to the design programme. Testing is
systems are supplied as either sheet in rolls, sheet with stand- primarily concerned with structural rigidity, infiltration of air and
ing seams pre-formed and folded, or as coiled metal with a form- water, thermal and acoustic insulation, and fire resistance.
ing machine for use directly on site. If the sheet is pre-formed,
then the manufacturer will have very specific requirements for Standard systems from manufacturers are not necessarily opti-
fixings which will be conveyed to the installer. If the sheet is deliv- mised solutions. They are in constant development and become
ered to the site as a roll, then much more expertise for forming 'frozen' for manufacture at a particular stage of development,
MCH_ 414
subject to their achieving a given technical and aesthetic per- be designed to a stage where a set of full size visual mock-ups
formance. and a performance mock-up for testing can be constructed
immediately after the tender is awarded. During the tender
Some installers do not only erect facade systems supplied by a stage each tendering company is invited to comment on the
single manufacturer or a range of suppliers. The large compa- proposed system and either accept the system or modify it until
nies, which operate all around the world, also develop designs they find it compatible with their own approach. Tenderers may
with architects and engineers in order to provide specific solu- also propose their own facade system if it meets the perform-
tions for individual buildings, usually those of a larger scale. This ance requirements of the proposed system and abandon the
method of working with large facade contractors can make use proposed solution altogether.
of parts of systems by specific manufacturers, or be developed
from designs developed for use on previous building projects. In some projects, the building owner or client may have a spe-
cific company, or set of companies, with whom they like to work.
As a building project develops at the design stage, the ques- This approach gives greater scope for working with a single
tion arises as to when facade manufacturers, fabricators and manufacturer / fabricator team that can proceed more quickly
installers should become involved with the project. All groups to a detailed design with visual mock-ups and results from pre-
will give informal advice at this stage of the project, though the vious performance testing on related systems. Regardless of
amount will vary from company to company, as well as what how the design team develops a project to the tender stage, it is
agreement, if any, has been made about their involvement in essential for the design team to visit the facilities of all potential
tendering for the project. Large-scale projects will usually have tenderers at the earliest possible opportunity. This allows the
access to a more significant input from manufacturers and fab- designers to understand the range of systems, skills and experi-
ricators before tender. Involvement from these two parties will ence of each manufacturer / fabricator and to understand the
ensure that the facade design being developed for tender will working method of each company. These visits help the design
fall roughly within the budget. This avoids unpleasant surprises team to understand how materials are made, worked and
after the tender evaluations have taken place. formed into components, and how they fit together into the final
assembly. This method also helps the designers to appreciate
Facade designs and details drawn in too generic a way do not the level of quality produced by each company.
interact with what manufacturers can produce reasonably
economically, so an understanding of the constraints of each These factory / workshop inspections are also vital immediately
facade type is essential to being able to design for a non-specific after tender, when the successful tenderer can again show how
manufacturer, fabricator or installer, thus providing even-hand- the facade systems or components will be made. This is very
ed tender documents. On the other hand there is always a risk useful during the workshop drawing phase, when the design
of working too closely with one manufacturer or fabricator at team can work with designs from the manufacturer, fabricator
the design stages before tender, only for that party to be unsuc- and installer to give the best possible result on site. It is far easi-
cessful at the tender stage. This results in both the tenderer er to exert influence in the factory at this stage than it is on site,
having spent considerable time and resources on a project only where changes and modifications to systems are very difficult
to be disappointed and leaves the design team with a solution to make. In prefabricated systems it is usually too late to push
that does not conform to the approach of the successful tender- for higher quality on site, since this work has already been done
er. An even-handed approach ensures that none of the parties in the factory. The same is true of site-based work such as in-
become involved in too rigid an approach. situ concrete and sheet metal cladding, where visual mock-ups
and performance testing mock-ups, as well as visual mock-ups
An alternative approach for the design team is to develop a of important junctions, should be considered at the stage imme-
facade system, or set of systems for a project, to a detailed diately after tender. Site inspections for facades should focus on
stage without assistance from manufacturers or fabricators. the correct setting out, replacement of damaged items and the
This is particularly appropriate if the building design involves a fine tuning of a few interfaces that may not have been consid-
new facade technology that is an essential component of the ered during the production phase in the factory. It is essential
success of the design. A team of architects and engineers can that dialogue and co-ordination occur at the appropriate time of
develop a facade system to tender stage with a comprehensive the project and not be left to a late stage of the project.
set of structural calculations in place to determine the sec-
tion size of the most important components. The system will
MCH_ 415
Applications 06
2 Triangular panels for twisted facades
Working digital models of triangular unitised glazing panels for twisted facade
01
3
Details
3
7 2. Primary concrete
structure
3. Aluminium unitised
3
double glazed panel
3 4. Floor slab
5. Cladding for primary
structure
6. Silicone seal
7. Glazing frame cap
7 8. Internal floor finish
3D detail views showing triangular unitised glazing panels for twisted facade 3D views showing triangular unitised glazing
panels for twisted facade
MCH_ 416
Working digital models of triangular unitised glazing panels for twisted facade
Details
1. Primary steel structure 5. Cladding for primary structure
2. Primary concrete structure 6. Silicone seal
3. Unitised aluminium glazing frame 7. Glazing frame cap
4. Floor slab 8. Internal floor finish
Elevation and horizontal section. Triangular unitised
glazing panels for twisted facade
3
05
01
3
6
6
7 01
3D sectional detail views showing triangular unitised glazing 2D layout. Triangular unitised glazing panels for twisted facade
panels for twisted facade
MCH_ 417
Applications 06
3 Twisted panels with flat glass for curved facades
1
3D views of unitised glazing panels with Details
twisted frame and flat glass to achieve 1. Primary steel structure
curvature and externally-fixed louvres 2. Unitised double glazed facade
panel
2 5. Perimeter frame to panel
5
1
6. Intermediate horizontal
11
framing member
7. Floor finish
8. Floor slab
9. Ceiling finish
2 10. Structural column
11. Metal cap pieces fixed to front
11 of unitised frame
12. Insulated opaque spandrel
panel
1
13. Gutter
14. Double glazing
5
11
11
1 11
1
11
5
5
2
5
11
1
1
11
2 2
5
11
7 13 7 5
5
5
12
12
8 8
5
5
02 2
7 13 7 13
5
2
2 12
8
8
11
3D views showing
02 2
unitised glazing panels
1 with twisted frame
and flat glass to
achieve curvature and Vertical sections. Unitised facade panel system with opaque spandrel panels at floor level
externally-fixed louvres
MCH_ 418
Glazed facade detail with segmented
louvre elements:
Twisted frame panel, with flat panel 750mm
glass to achieve curvature
o
8.5
900mm
o
10.5
2
1
1
2
5
1
11
5
2
14 11
2 14
1
5 11
11
3D overviews of unitised
14 glazing panels with
5
1 twisted frame and flat
1
glass to achieve curvature
and interface with twisted
opaque facade segments
1
5
1
2 1
14
5
1
3D views of unitised
glazing panels with 1
twisted frame and flat glass
to achieve curvature
1
1
MCH_ 419
Applications 06
3
5 7
4
2 5
4
5
7
7 4
8
1
3
4
5
7
3
8 4
3D fragment view showing unitised double skin 3

glazed facade panel system for twisted facade
(Below) 3D overview showing unitised double skin

glazed facade panel system for twisted facade 3D detail views showing unitised double skin
glazed facade system for twisted facade
2
2
1
Details
1. Metal cladding to 1
exoskeleton structure
2. Unitised double skin 1
facade panel 2

5. Perimeter frame to panel
6. Intermediate horizontal 1
framing member
7. Floor finish 2
8. Floor slab
9. Ceiling finish
12. Double glazing
13. Opaque spandrel panel
MCH_ 420
11
7
1 1
2
7
5
1 5
1
2
8
2
3D sectional views showing unitised double skin glazed facade panel system for twisted facade
7
7
5
5
2 2
7
5
12
5
3D views showing unitised double

skin glazed facade panel system
1
for twisted facade
5
2 5
1 1
2 (Above) 3D exploded view

showing unitised double skin
7 glazed facade panel system for
1 twisted facade
(Left) 3D view showing unitised

double skin glazed facade panel
5
system for twisted facade
MCH_ 421
Applications 06
1 1 1
Details
1. Curved glass (assembled as part of 4
the unitised panel)
2. Factory assembled unitised panel
3. On site crane
1
1
5. Curved glazing frame (assembled as
part of the unitised panel)
4
1
3D exploded views showing curved
and folded glass corner detail
5
1
1
1 4
2
1 1
3D view showing curved and

folded glass corner detail
5
5
2
5 5
1 1
1
1
3D views showing curved and folded glass corner detail
MCH_ 422
1
1
1 4
1
Vertical section. Curved unitised glazing at floor-slab junction

1
1 1 1
1 1
3D views showing curved and

folded glass corner detail
1
1
4
1
1
4
1 4
1

1 1
3D views showing
curved and folded
glass corner detail
MCH_ 423
Applications 06
4 Solar Shading Louvres
10
10
3
5
3
9
9
9
12 9
11
3D sectional view showing

GRC horizontal externally-fixed
9
solar shading louvres attached
6 to unitised glazed facade and
3D sectional view showing parapet condition
5
GRC horizontal externally-fixed
solar shading louvres attached
to unitised glazed facade and
parapet condition 9
11 12
10 3D sectional view showing GRC horizontal externally-fixed solar

shading louvres attached to unitised glazed facade at floor slab
9
3
9
12
9
12
3D sectional view showing GRC horizontal externally-fixed solar shading

louvres attached to unitised glazed facade and parapet condition
10
6 9
Vertical section. GRC horizontal externally-fixed solar shading louvres Vertical section. GRC horizontal externally-fixed solar shading
attached to unitised glazed facade at parapet condition louvres attached to unitised glazed facade at parapet condition
MCH_ 424
2
7
1
2 6
9
9
3D sectional view showing GRC-clad

steel tube secondary facade structure 9
and GRP external shading louvres fixed
to curved glazing
3
1 3D exploded view of GRC-clad steel
tube secondary facade structure
4 and GRP external shading louvres
8
fixed to curved glazing
2
8
3
Details
1. GRC rainscreen cladding
1
2. Primary steel columns
(insulated and faced)
2 4. Rainscreen panel fixing
6
system
5. Glazing frame
6. Double glazing
6 7. Profiled metal deck
8. Steel tube secondary
5 facade support structure
9. GRC external shading
louvres
3
9 10. Parapet cladding 9
4 11. Concrete floor slab 6
12. Concrete primary
8 9
structure
3
6
3D sectional view showing GRC-
5
clad steel tube secondary facade
3D detail views showing GRC-clad steel tube secondary facade structure and GRP external shading
structure and GRP external shading louvres fixed to curved glazing louvres fixed to curved glazing
MCH_ 425
Applications 06
4 Solar Shading Louvres
Details
1. Vertical moveable metal louvres
2. Louvre support frame
4. Primary concrete column
8. Internal ceiling finish 10
9. Unitised double glazing panel frame 4
3D sectional view showing glazed
10. Double glazing facade with moving external vertical
solar shading louvres at corner
condition
9 9
4
2
2
9
10
4
1 1
3D sectional view showing

glazed facade with moving
external vertical solar
shading louvres at corner 3D internal view showing glazed facade with moving external vertical solar
condition shading louvres
3D internal views showing effects of external vertical shading louvres throughout the day
MCH_ 426
7
5
3
10 10
1
9
7
3
9 5
3 8
2
10
7
5 7
9
5 2
2 3
3
5 8
3D sectional view showing glazed

facade with moving external
8
vertical solar shading louvres
3D detail sectional views showing glazed facade with moving external

vertical solar shading louvres
2
3D internal sectional view
10
1 showing glazed facade with 9
4
moving external vertical
solar shading louvres at
4 corner condition
7
9
5
10
2
7 8 5
3D detail sectional view showing glazed facade with moving

external vertical solar shading louvres
MCH_ 427
Applications 06
5 Double-skin facades
5
1
4
7
3
6
2
1
9
3
12
11
1
3
9 4
3D exploded view showing unitised glazed facade

with external mesh panel wall and planters
6
9 2
5 5 2
3D view showing
unitised glazed
facade with
external mesh 7
6 1
panel wall and
4 4
planters
2
1
1 4
7
2 4 6
9
1 2
9
12 1
5
11
1
11 7
5
2
1
12 2
3D detail views showing unitised glazed facade with external mesh panel wall and planters at
floor slab interface
MCH_ 428
6
1
5
2
6
1 6
1
7 3
7 4
5
2
5 4
7 1 6
1
4
2
1
9 1 3
8
6 4
11
12
3D views showing unitised glazing details on

full-height glazed facade 5 2 6
5
3
Details 1
1. Floor slab 7. Opaque spandrel panel 2
9
2. Internal floor finish 8. Cleaning cradle
3. Internal ceiling finish 9. Perforated metal walkway 3D sectional view
4. Thermal insulation 10. Metal bracket showing unitised glazed 1
5. Unitised glazing frame 11. Metal mesh panel (external) facade with external
6. Double glazing 12. Planter mesh panel wall and 3D sectional internal views showing
planters unitised glazed facade with external
mesh panel wall and planters
0237_62_01_0131
0237_02_01_0131
0237_62_01_0132
0237_02_01_0132
0237_62_01_0133
0237_02_01_0133
0237_62_01_0134
0237_02_01_0134
0237_62_01_0135
0237_02_01_0135
0237_28_08_0025 0237_70_02_0002
0237_02_01_0136
0237_28_08_0026 0237_70_02_0003
0237_02_01_0137
0237_28_08_0027 0237_70_02_0004 0237_02s
0237_02_01_0138
0237_28_08_0028
0237_02_01_0136
0237_28_08_0029
0237_02_01_0136
0237_28_08_0030
0237_02_01_0137
0237_02_01_0138
0237_02_01_0131
0237_10_32_0302 0237_02_01_0131
0237_10_43_0303 0237_02_01_0131
0237_09_14s
0237_25_55s
0237_25_56
0237_02
0237_25_57 0237_09_14
0237_25_58s 0237_02
0237_25_45s
0237_09_14
0237_25_46 0237_02s
0237_02_01_0131
0237_25_47 0237_02_01_0131
0237_02_01_0131
0237_25_48s 0237_09_15s
0237_02_01_0131
0237_28_08_0031
0237_02
0237_28_08_0032
0237_02s
0237_25_35s 0237_02_01_0131
0237_25_36 0237_09_04s
0237_02_01_0132
0237_25_37 0237_02_01_0133
0237_09_04
0237_25_38s 0237_02_01_0134
0237_10_42_0402 0237_02
0237_25_25s 0237_02_01_0135
0237_25_26 0237_10_42_0403
0237_02_01_0136
0237_25_27 0237_09_04 0237_02_01_0137

0237_10_42_0404
0237_25_28s 0237_02_01_0138
0237_02
0237_02_01_0139
0237_09_05s
0237_02_01_0140
0237_02_01_0141
0237_02_01_0142
0237_02_01_0143
0237_02_01_0144
0237_12_22_0021
0237_02_01_0145
0237_12_22_0022
0237_02_01_0146
0237_12_22_0023
0237_12_22_0041 0237_12_22_0024
0237_12_22_0042 0237_12_22_0025
0237_12_22_0043 0237_12_22_0026
0237_12_22_0044 0237_12_22_0027
0237_12_22_0045 0237_12_22_0028
3D exploded component diagram showing 0237_12_22_0046 0237_12_22_0029
unitised glazed facade with external mesh 0237_12_22_0047 0237_12_22_0030
panel wall and planters 0237_12_22_0048 0237_12_22_0040
MCH_ 429
Applications 06
6 Precast concrete panels for facades of complex geometry
2 3
1 4
2
3D views showing large precast concrete
cladding panels with moulded surface relief
1 3
and cast-in window openings
2
1
2
1 3D sectional views showing fixing system for large

2
precast concrete cladding panels with structural
reinforced concrete wall behind 2
1
Details
1. Precast concrete cladding panel
2. Concrete cladding panel lifting hooks (cast-in)
3. Internal wall finish
6. Concrete floor slab 3D exploded, sectional view showing fixing system
7. In-situ cast concrete structural backing wall for large precast concrete cladding panels with
8. Unitised double glazed window panel structural reinforced concrete wall behind
MCH_ 430
1
5
1 2 2
2
5
3D exploded, sectional views showing fixing system for large precast concrete cladding
panels with structural reinforced concrete wall behind
1
6
4
5
1
7
8
4
1
3D sectional views showing window within large precast concrete 5
cladding panel facade system (with structural reinforced concrete wall 4
behind)
MCH_ 431
Applications 06
6 Precast concrete panels for facades of complex geometry
6 2
10
2
6

GRC rainscreen panels fixed
2
to in--situ cast concrete
03
6
Details
1. GRC rainscreen
panel
2. GRC rainscreen
1
1 2 panel rib
3. Adjustable
rainscreen panel fixing
2
1 bracket
4. Fixed rainscreen
panel fixing bracket
3 2 6. Thermal insulation
11 8. Internal wall/ceiling finish
11
9 09. Bolt
10
10. In-situ cast concrete primary
3 structure
11. Cast-in channels
3D fragment views showing GRC rainscreen

panels fixed to in--situ cast concrete with
adjustable fixing bracket 1 1
02 2 2 2
3
3
06 6
11 11
10 10
Vertical section. GRC rainscreen panels fixed to in--situ cast concrete
MCH_ 432
7
1
6 7
8
10 7
3D sectional views showing GRC rainscreen

panels fixed to standing seam metal backing
3 and steel primary structure
1
3
1
Details
07 1. GRC rainscreen panel 1
2. GRC rainscreen panel rib
3. Standing seam metal roof
1
4. Fixed rainscreen panel fixing
bracket
4
8. Internal wall/ceiling finish
9. Bolt
10. Gutter 3
3
2 10
2 1
06
7
1
3 2
4
2
2 1 2
2 2
8 2
03 06 3
07 06
7
7
Vertical sections. GRC rainscreen panels fixed to standing seam metal 8

backing and steel primary structure
1 1
1
3 4
7
3
07
8
3D detail views showing GRC rainscreen panels fixed to standing seam

metal backing and steel primary structure
MCH_ 433
Applications 06
7 Exoskeleton facades of complex geometry
1
3D exploded view showing metal clad Details
hot-rolled steel section supporting roof 1. Metal outer cladding
structure and interface with glazing 2. Double glazed unit
system and floor slab 3. Hot-rolled steel section
2 4. Inner metal cladding
2
1
5. Glazing frame
05 2 6. Glass fin
1 2 7. Internal floor finish
8. Pressure plate
3 9. Toggle-fixed glazing supported
on vertical glass fins
8
10. External floor finish
3
2 11. Concrete slab
4 3
12. Precast concrete outer
6
cladding panel
13. Precast fascia panel
5
14. Supporting steel structure
9
15. Seal between precast
04 concrete elements
9
6
7
3D sectional view showing metal clad
hot-rolled steel section supporting
roof structure and interface with
10 glazing system and floor slab
4
2
01
2
1 4 2
2
2 1
6
9
3
6
9
7
7
3D detail view showing metal clad hot-rolled steel section supporting roof
structure and interface with glazing system
12
12
14
7
12
15
3D sectional views showing

precast concrete panels 14
9
supported on steel roof 13
structure and interface with
glazing system and floor slab
09 7
12 6
9 13
5
7 9
3D exploded view showing precast
12 concrete panels supported on steel 11 12
roof structure and interface with
glazing system and floor slab
MCH_ 434
3D view showing metal-clad steel 4
exoskeleton and unitised glazing facade

2
1
4
1
4
4 2
1
4
3D views showing metal-clad steel
exoskeleton and unitised glazing facade
6
4
2
2 2
2
1
1
1
7
7 1 6
1
7
8 1
3D view showing metal-clad steel

exoskeleton with metal mesh panel infill 3
1 3
3
3D view showing GRC-clad steel 2
exoskeleton with metal mesh panel infill
Details
1. Metal outer cladding
2. Double glazed unit 1
3. Glazing frame 3D view showing
4. Internal finish metal-clad steel
5. Internal floor slab exoskeleton at roof
6. Concrete slab level with curved
7. Metal mesh panels glazing rooflights and
8. GRC outer cladding facade
MCH_ 435
Applications 06
8 Diagrid Structure
1
4
3 3
1 4
3
5
4
Details
1. Opaque panel
2. Roof structure
1 3. Wall structure
4. Opaque panels with joints filled
and coating applied
5. Secondary structure
2
6. Glazed panels
6
4
3 1
MCH_ 436
Wind pressure surface contour plot
Wind velocity surface contour
plot and flow stream lines
Wind - front on (left) and lateral (right) Self weight Torsion

The diagrid structure distributes forces through the frame in an even The diagrid structure distributes the The diagrid offers a higher degree
way, reducing peak loads in individual members. The pavilion form stresses in an even way which reduces of stiffening against torsional
reduces the impact of wind uplift since there are no overhanging roof areas of high stress in the frame. The moments since the forces are
elements. need for ring bracing needs further distributed throughout the frame.
investigation.
Diagrid structure erected to form rotunda form. Roof trusses supported on ring beam at top of Secondary steelwork for cladding support fixed
diagrid. to primary structure on inside and outside of
pavilion.
1
4
Opaque cladding panels attached to secondary Joints between panels are filled and coated to Glazing panels fixed to diagrid structure using
structure form a smooth surface point fixings
MCH_ 437
Applications 06
9 Hybrid systems forming facades of complex geometry
Details
1. GRP rainscreen cladding 3D sectional view showing GRP-clad undulating steel tube
2. Thermal insulation primary facade structure, and GRP external solar shading fixed
3. Primary steel tube structure to curved glazing supported on steel diagrid structure
4. Internal finish
5. GRP external solar shading
7. Concrete primary structure
8. Steel diagrid facade structure
9. Glazing frame
10. Double glazing
11. Fixing bracket
10
9
8
10
(Below) 3D detail views showing GRP external solar shading fixed to curved
glazing supported on steel diagrid structure
8
9
10
8
9
10
8
11
5
8
5 9
10
MCH_ 438
3D sectional detail views showing GRP-clad undulating steel tube
primary facade structure, and GRP external solar shading fixed
to curved glazing supported on steel diagrid structure 1
11 1
4 3
1
2
11 1
5
4
10
5
5 10
10
10
5
5 8
10
10
10
5
10
5 10
5
10
4 1
1
2
3
4
3
11
11 2
MCH_ 439
Applications 06
9 Hybrid systems forming facades of complex geometry
10
5
8
5
10 5
10
10
3D exploded views showing GRP external
solar shading fixed to curved glazing
5 supported on steel diagrid structure
11
10
Details
5 1. GRP rainscreen cladding
3. Primary steel tube structure
4. Internal finish
5. GRP external solar shading
10
8 6. Concrete floor slab
7. Concrete primary structure
8. Steel diagrid facade structure
10 9. Glazing frame
11 10. Double glazing
5
11. Fixing bracket
3D detail view showing GRP external solar
shading fixed to curved glazing supported on
steel diagrid structure
5 8
10
5
9
10 9
10
11 11
10
10 5
5
3D exploded views showing GRP external
solar shading fixed to curved glazing
supported on steel diagrid structure
MCH_ 440
11
11
11
11
11
8
3D detail views showing fixing
system for GRP external solar
5
shading fixed to curved glazing
10
supported on steel diagrid
structure
11
8
10
3D exploded views showing fixing system for GRP 5

10
external solar shading fixed to curved glazing
supported on steel diagrid structure
8 9
10
9 8
11 9
10
5 8
10 8
11
11
10
8
9
8
5
10
3D detail views showing fixing system for GRP external solar shading fixed to curved glazing supported on steel diagrid structure
MCH_ 441
Applications 06
10 Opaque cladding interface with full-height glazing
Details
1. GRC rainscreen cladding
2. Primary steel columns (insulated
and faced)
4. Rainscreen panel fixing system
5. Glazing frame
6. Double glazing 1
6
7. Profiled metal deck

8. Steel tube secondary facade
support structure
9. GRC external shading louvres
10. GRC terrace decking panels
11. Plastic spaces for terrace decking
12. Steel roof truss structure
13. Primary in-situ concrete structure
14. Internal finish 5
15. Gutter
16. Waterproof membrane 1
06
05
7
3 1
1
1
4 3D view showing GRP

rainscreen roof on profiled
metal deck and interface with
4
unitised glazing system
4
16
3
3
1
04
04
6
3D exploded fragment view showing GRP

rainscreen roof on profiled metal deck
16
5
16
4
5 3 1
6
01
1
6
7
5
3D cutaway views showing GRP rainscreen roof on profiled

metal deck and interface with unitised glazing system
MCH_ 442
3D sectional overview showing 1
GRC rainscreen cladding on in-situ 12
cast concrete primary structure

and interface with steel roof truss
structure and GRC-finished terrace 12
deck 1
10
13
3
12 1
4 1
14
1 3
13 10
4
3 11
14
3D detail view showing GRC rainscreen

cladding on in-situ cast concrete primary
structure and interface with steel roof truss
structure and GRC-finished terrace deck
4
1
3
12
13
1
1
14
12
14
10
13
15
10
11 3D sectional view showing GRC rainscreen
3
14 cladding on in-situ cast concrete primary
11
structure and interface with steel roof truss
structure, full-height curved glazing and GRC-
finished terrace deck
MCH_ 443
Applications 06
3D view showing complex curved

glazed roof supported on steel tubes
Working digital model of complex curved glazed facade and roof supported on (Below) 3D view showing complex curved glazed facade and roof
steel tubes supported on steel tubes
(Right) 3D view showing complex curved glazed roof supported on steel tubes
(Below) Working digital models of complex curved glazed facade and roof supported on steel tubes
MCH_ 444
3D view showing shingled glazing system supported on steel tubes
3D views showing shingled glazing system supported on steel tubes
3D physical scale model of shingled glazing system supported

on steel tubes
3D views showing complex curved glazed roof supported on steel tubes
MCH_ 445
Applications 06
3D views showing shingled glazing system

supported on steel tubes
1
5 4
(Right) Working digital model of

shingled glazing system supported
on steel tubes 3
2
Details
1. Bolt-fixing 1
5
2. Steel rod support system
3. Steel box
4. Rubber seal
5. Double glazing
Vertical sections. Detail of shingled glazed roof

fixing system
5 1 4
2 3
4 1 5 1 4
2 3
4 1 5
Working digital model of shingled glazing system supported on steel tubes
MCH_ 446
Working digital models of shingled glazing system
supported on steel tubes
MCH_ 447
Applications 06
12 Large-scale glazed facades
2
1
6
7 6
2
14
17
6
5
17 14
3D view showing large-

scale unitised glazing
system supported by 7
double cable system and

interfacing with metal-clad
steel structural trusses
8
17
10
11 14
6
10
8
3D detail views showing large-scale unitised glazing system supported by double

cable system
1
1 2
4
2 Details
1. External roof cladding
2. Primary roof truss
2
5
3. Secondary steel truss
5
4. Soffit panel
3D view showing large-scale 5. Inclined steel column
unitised glazing system 6. Inner cable
14
supported by double cable 7. Outer cable
5
system and interfacing with 14
metal-clad steel structural 9. Floor slab
trusses 10. Concrete primary
structure
11. External wall cladding
8
12. Glass fin
9 13. Double glass fin
14. Double glazing
11
10
8
10
15. Horizontal glazing
11 frame
16. Steel clamp
9 17. Steel support rod
MCH_ 448
14
14
14
14
15
16
16
17 15
14
14
14
3D detail views showing cable-supported glazing system at glass 3D detail views showing glass fin-supported glazing system in various configurations
clamp
1
3
3
2 2
2
2
5
5 3D view showing large-
scale unitised glazing
system supported by glass 12
5
14
fin system and interfacing
with metal-clad steel
structural trusses 5
14
10
10
(Below) 3D view showing

9
large-scale unitised glazing
system supported by glass 9
fin system
14
12
14 12 15
5
5
5 16
12
15
14
16
15
12
10 11
3D view showing large-scale unitised glazing system

supported by glass fin and double cable hybrid system
MCH_ 449
Applications 06
13 Panelisation of complex building surface geometry
3D views showing curvature analysis of individual panels model for facade of complex geometry
S01_
A_004
A_003 A_005
S01_
B_003
A_002 A_006
C_002
B_002 A_004 B_004
A_003 A_005
D_002
A_001 B_003 A_007
A_002 A_006
E_001
C_001 C_002
B_002 C_003
B_004 = S01_A_007
F_001
D_002
B_001 B_005
A_001 A_007
G_001
E_001
D_001
C_001 D_003
C_003 = S01_A_007
H_001
F_001
B_001 B_005
G_001
D_001 D_003
H_001
Diagrams showing panelisation process of identifying and

numbering individual cladding panels
MCH_ 450
Surface Panel
e Radius
Panel Curvatur
Diagrams showing panelisation process of identifying and

numbering individual panels
S03_A_001 S03_A_002 S03_A_003 S03_A_004 S03_A_005 S03_A_006 S03_A_007 S03_A_008 S03_A_009 S03_A_010 S03_A_011 S03_A_012 S03_A_013 S03_A_014 S03_A_015 S03_A_016 S03_A_017 S03_A_018 S03_A_019 S03_A_020 S03_A_021 S03_A_022 S03_A_023 S03_A_024 S03_A_025 S03_A_026 S03_A_027 S03_A_028 S03_A_029 S03_A_030 S03_A_031 S03_A_032 S03_A_033 S03_A_034 S03_A_035 S03_A_036 S03_A_037 S03_A_038 S03_A_039 S03_A_040 S03_A_041 S03_A_042 S03_A_043 S03_A_044 S03_A_045 S03_A_046 S03_A_047 S03_A_048 S03_A_049 S03_A_050 S03_A_051 S03_A_052 S03_A_053 S03_A_054 S03_A_055 S03_A_056 S03_A_057 S03_A_058 S03_A_059 S03_A_060 S03_A_061 S03_A_062 S03_A_063 S03_A_064 S03_A_065 S03_A_066 S03_A_067 S03_A_068 S03_A_069 S03_A_070 S03_A_071 S03_A_072 S03_A_073 S03_A_074 S03_A_075 S03_A_076 S03_A_077 S03_A_078 S03_A_079 S03_A_080 S03_A_081 S03_A_082 S03_A_083 S03_A_084 S03_A_085 S03_A_086 S03_A_087 S03_A_088 S03_A_089 S03_A_090 S03_A_091 S03_A_092 S03_A_093 S03_A_094 S03_A_095 S03_A_096 S03_A_097 S03_A_098 S03_A_099 S03_A_100 S03_A_101 S03_A_102 S03_A_103 S03_A_104 S03_A_105 S03_A_106 S03_A_107 S03_A_108 S03_A_109 S03_A_110 S03_A_111 S03_A_112 S03_A_113 S03_A_114 S03_A_115 S03_A_116 S03_A_117 S03_A_118 S03_A_119 S03_A_120
S03_B_001 S03_B_002 S03_B_003 S03_B_004 S03_B_005 S03_B_006 S03_B_007 S03_B_008 S03_B_009 S03_B_010 S03_B_011 S03_B_012 S03_B_013 S03_B_014 S03_B_015 S03_B_016 S03_B_017 S03_B_018 S03_B_019 S03_B_020 S03_B_021 S03_B_022 S03_B_023 S03_B_024 S03_B_025 S03_B_026 S03_B_027 S03_B_028 S03_B_029 S03_B_030 S03_B_031 S03_B_032 S03_B_033 S03_B_034 S03_B_035 S03_B_036 S03_B_037 S03_B_038 S03_B_039 S03_B_040 S03_B_041 S03_B_042 S03_B_043 S03_B_044 S03_B_045 S03_B_046 S03_B_047 S03_B_048 S03_B_049 S03_B_050 S03_B_051 S03_B_052 S03_B_053 S03_B_054 S03_B_055 S03_B_056 S03_B_057 S03_B_058 S03_B_059 S03_B_060 S03_B_061 S03_B_062 S03_B_063 S03_B_064 S03_B_065 S03_B_066 S03_B_067 S03_B_068 S03_B_069 S03_B_070 S03_B_071 S03_B_072 S03_B_073 S03_B_074 S03_B_075 S03_B_076 S03_B_077 S03_B_078 S03_B_079 S03_B_080 S03_B_081 S03_B_082 S03_B_083 S03_B_084 S03_B_085 S03_B_086 S03_B_087 S03_B_088 S03_B_089 S03_B_090 S03_B_091 S03_B_092 S03_B_093 S03_B_094 S03_B_095 S03_B_096 S03_B_097 S03_B_098 S03_B_099 S03_B_100 S03_B_101 S03_B_102 S03_B_103 S03_B_104 S03_B_105 S03_B_106 S03_B_107 S03_B_108 S03_B_109 S03_B_110 S03_B_111 S03_B_112 S03_B_113 S03_B_114 S03_B_115 S03_B_116 S03_B_117 S03_B_118 S03_B_119 S03_B_120
S03_C_001 S03_C_002 S03_C_003 S03_C_004 S03_C_005 S03_C_006 S03_C_007 S03_C_008 S03_C_009 S03_C_010 S03_C_011 S03_C_012 S03_C_013 S03_C_014 S03_C_015 S03_C_016 S03_C_017 S03_C_018 S03_C_019 S03_C_020 S03_C_021 S03_C_022 S03_C_023 S03_C_024 S03_C_025 S03_C_026 S03_C_027 S03_C_028 S03_C_029 S03_C_030 S03_C_031 S03_C_032 S03_C_033 S03_C_034 S03_C_035 S03_C_036 S03_C_037 S03_C_038 S03_C_039 S03_C_040 S03_C_041 S03_C_042 S03_C_043 S03_C_044 S03_C_045 S03_C_046 S03_C_047 S03_C_048 S03_C_049 S03_C_050 S03_C_051 S03_C_052 S03_C_053 S03_C_054 S03_C_055 S03_C_056 S03_C_057 S03_C_058 S03_C_059 S03_C_060 S03_C_061 S03_C_062 S03_C_063 S03_C_064 S03_C_065 S03_C_066 S03_C_067 S03_C_068 S03_C_069 S03_C_070 S03_C_071 S03_C_072 S03_C_073 S03_C_074 S03_C_075 S03_C_076 S03_C_077 S03_C_078 S03_C_079 S03_C_080 S03_C_081 S03_C_082
S03_D_001 S03_D_002 S03_D_003 S03_D_004 S03_D_005 S03_D_006 S03_D_007 S03_D_008 S03_D_009 S03_D_010 S03_D_011 S03_D_012 S03_D_013 S03_D_014 S03_D_015 S03_D_016 S03_D_017 S03_D_018 S03_D_019 S03_D_020 S03_D_021 S03_D_022 S03_D_023 S03_D_024 S03_D_025 S03_D_026 S03_D_027 S03_D_028 S03_D_029 S03_D_030 S03_D_031 S03_D_032 S03_D_033 S03_D_034 S03_D_035 S03_D_036 S03_D_037 S03_D_038 S03_D_039 S03_D_040 S03_D_041 S03_D_042 S03_D_043 S03_D_044 S03_D_045 S03_D_046 S03_D_047 S03_D_048 S03_D_049 S03_D_050 S03_D_051 S03_D_052 S03_D_053 S03_D_054 S03_D_055 S03_D_056 S03_D_057 S03_D_058 S03_D_059 S03_D_060 S03_D_061 S03_D_062 S03_D_063 S03_D_064 S03_D_065 S03_D_066 S03_D_067 S03_D_068 S03_D_069 S03_D_070 S03_D_071 S03_D_072 S03_D_073 S03_D_074 S03_D_075 S03_D_076 S03_D_077 S03_D_078 S03_D_079 S03_D_080 S03_D_081 S03_D_082 S03_D_083 S03_D_084 S03_D_085
S03_E_001 S03_E_002 S03_E_003 S03_E_004 S03_E_005 S03_E_006 S03_E_007 S03_E_008 S03_E_009 S03_E_010 S03_E_011 S03_E_012 S03_E_013 S03_E_014 S03_E_015 S03_E_016 S03_E_017 S03_E_018 S03_E_019 S03_E_020 S03_E_021 S03_E_022 S03_E_023 S03_E_024 S03_E_025 S03_E_026 S03_E_027 S03_E_028 S03_E_029 S03_E_030 S03_E_031 S03_E_032 S03_E_033 S03_E_034 S03_E_035 S03_E_036 S03_E_037 S03_E_038 S03_E_039 S03_E_040 S03_E_041 S03_E_042 S03_E_043 S03_E_044 S03_E_045 S03_E_046 S03_E_047 S03_E_048 S03_E_049 S03_E_050 S03_E_051 S03_E_052 S03_E_053 S03_E_054 S03_E_055 S03_E_056
S03_F_001 S03_F_002 S03_F_003 S03_F_004 S03_F_005 S03_F_006 S03_F_007 S03_F_008 S03_F_009 S03_F_010 S03_F_011 S03_F_012 S03_F_013 S03_F_014 S03_F_015 S03_F_016 S03_F_017 S03_F_018 S03_F_019 S03_F_020 S03_F_021 S03_F_022 S03_F_023 S03_F_024 S03_F_025 S03_F_026 S03_F_027 S03_F_028 S03_F_029 S03_F_030 S03_F_031 S03_F_032 S03_F_033 S03_F_034 S03_F_035 S03_F_036 S03_F_037 S03_F_038 S03_F_039 S03_F_040 S03_F_041 S03_F_042 S03_F_043 S03_F_044 S03_F_045 S03_F_046 S03_F_047 S03_F_048 S03_F_049 S03_F_050 S03_F_051 S03_F_052 S03_F_053 S03_F_054 S03_F_055 S03_F_056 S03_F_057
S03_G_001 S03_G_002 S03_G_003 S03_G_004 S03_G_005 S03_G_006 S03_G_007 S03_G_008 S03_G_009 S03_G_010 S03_G_011 S03_G_012 S03_G_013 S03_G_014 S03_G_015 S03_G_016 S03_G_017 S03_G_018 S03_G_019 S03_G_020 S03_G_021 S03_G_022 S03_G_023 S03_G_024 S03_G_025 S03_G_026 S03_G_027 S03_G_028 S03_G_029 S03_G_030 S03_G_031 S03_G_032 S03_G_033 S03_G_034 S03_G_035 S03_G_036 S03_G_037 S03_G_038 S03_G_039 S03_G_040 S03_G_041 S03_G_042 S03_G_043 S03_G_044 S03_G_045 S03_G_046 S03_G_047 S03_G_048 S03_G_049 S03_G_050 S03_G_051 S03_G_052 S03_G_053 S03_G_054 S03_G_055
S03_H_001 S03_H_002 S03_H_003 S03_H_004 S03_H_005 S03_H_006 S03_H_007 S03_H_008 S03_H_009 S03_H_010 S03_H_011 S03_H_012 S03_H_013 S03_H_014 S03_H_015 S03_H_016 S03_H_017 S03_H_018 S03_H_019 S03_H_020 S03_H_021 S03_H_022 S03_H_023 S03_H_024 S03_H_025 S03_H_026 S03_H_027 S03_H_028 S03_H_029 S03_H_030 S03_H_031 S03_H_032 S03_H_033 S03_H_034 S03_H_035 S03_H_036 S03_H_037 S03_H_038 S03_H_039 S03_H_040 S03_H_041 S03_H_042 S03_H_043 S03_H_044 S03_H_045 S03_H_046 S03_H_047 S03_H_048 S03_H_049 S03_H_050 S03_H_051 S03_H_052 S03_H_053 S03_H_054 S03_H_055 S03_H_056
S03_I_001 S03_I_002 S03_I_003 S03_I_004 S03_I_005 S03_I_006 S03_I_007 S03_I_008 S03_I_009 S03_I_010 S03_I_011 S03_I_012
S03_J_001 S03_J_002 S03_J_003 S03_J_004 S03_J_005 S03_J_006 S03_J_007 S03_J_008 S03_J_009 S03_J_010 S03_J_011 S03_J_012
S03_K_001 S03_K_002 S03_K_003 S03_K_004 S03_K_005 S03_K_006 S03_K_007 S03_K_008 S03_K_009 S03_K_010 S03_K_011 S03_K_012
S03_L_001 S03_L_002 S03_L_003 S03_L_004 S03_L_005 S03_L_006 S03_L_007 S03_L_008 S03_L_009 S03_L_010 S03_L_011 S03_L_012
S03_M_001 S03_M_002 S03_M_003 S03_M_004 S03_M_005 S03_M_006 S03_M_007 S03_M_008 S03_M_009 S03_M_010 S03_M_011 S03_M_012
S03_N_001 S03_N_002 S03_N_003 S03_N_004 S03_N_005 S03_N_006 S03_N_007 S03_N_008 S03_N_009 S03_N_010 S03_N_011 S03_N_012
S03_O_001 S03_O_002 S03_O_003 S03_O_004 S03_O_005 S03_O_006 S03_O_007 S03_O_008 S03_O_009 S03_O_010 S03_O_011 S03_O_012
S03_A_001 S03_A_002 S03_A_003 S03_A_004 S03_A_005 S03_A_006 S03_A_007 S03_A_008

S03_P_001 S03_P_002 S03_P_003 S03_P_004 S03_P_005 S03_P_006 S03_P_007 S03_P_008 S03_P_009 S03_P_010 S03_P_011 S03_P_012
S03_B_001 S03_B_002 S03_B_003 S03_B_004 S03_B_005 S03_B_006 S03_B_007 S03_B_008
Diagrams showing panelisation

process of identifying,
numbering and laying out S03_C_001 S03_C_002 S03_C_003 S03_C_004 S03_C_005 S03_C_006 S03_C_007 S03_C_008
individual panels
MCH_ 451
Applications 06
13 Panelisation of complex building surface geometry
S03_A_61
S03_A_6
1
Geometry is unrolled to a flat surface so it can be bent into the

mould for fabrication
Inset panel edges for joints
Diagrams showing panelisation process of

identifying, numbering and laying out individual
panels and space between individual panels
dth of joint
Half the wi
MCH_ 452
3D view showing panelisation of complex curved
building surface geometry
1
4
6 1
4
1
6
1
3
1
2
3D view showing panelisation of complex curved 3 1

3
building surface geometry
2
5
1
3
1
2
2
6
2
3D views showing fixing method for individual GRC

panels fixed to complex curved building surface
4 geometry
1 1
1
4
1 1
2
3 6
Details 1
2 2
1. GRC rainscreen cladding panel
2. GRC rainscreen cladding panel rib
3. Rainscreen cladding panel fixing bracket
3D view showing panelisation of complex curved building surface 5. Waterproof membrane
geometry 6. In-situ cast concrete structure
MCH_ 453
Applications 06
14 Opaque rainscreen cladding
2
1 1
4 4 5
4 6
1
2 3D view showing stone rainscreen

cladding panels fixed to in-situ cast
1
3 5 concrete primary structure
3
4 1 6
5 4
4
6
6
Vertical sections. Stone rainscreen cladding panels fixed to 2

3
in-situ cast concrete primary structure
(Below) 3D detail views showing stone rainscreen cladding 2 4
panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary structure

1
2
5
5 4 4
2
2 3
1
4
1
2
3
3
6 6 3D detail views showing stone rainscreen

2 1
concrete primary structure
3
5 3D view showing stone
rainscreen cladding panels
5
2
fixed to in-situ
cast concrete
primary structure
2
1
2
4
Details
1. Stone rainscreen cladding panels
2. Rainscreen cladding panel fixing rail 1

6. In-situ cast concrete structure
7. Steel supporting roof beam
MCH_ 454
3D view showing GRP rainscreen cladding
panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete 2
primary structure 3 3
1
4
5
6
3
6
2
4
3
1
3
1
5
4 2
5
Vertical sections. GRP rainscreen cladding panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary
roof structure
5
1
2
6
2 5 2 3
2
3
3
4 4
3
7 6
2
5
1
2
6
7
Details
1. GRP rainscreen cladding panels
2. Rainscreen cladding panel fixing rail
3
4 4. Closed cell thermal insulation
5
1
7. Steel supporting roof beams
3
6
4 3
3D detail views showing GRP rainscreen cladding panels

fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary structure
2
1
1
6
3
2
4
7
5
3D views showing GRP rainscreen

6 concrete primary structure
3D view showing GRP rainscreen 7
concrete primary roof structure
MCH_ 455
Applications 06
15 Full-height glazing with GRP-clad structural frame
2
3
2
3
3 2
3D internal view showing full-height glazed facade with external GRP cladding
over primary steel structure
3D sectional detail view showing full-height glazed facade with external GRP
cladding over primary steel structure
Diagrams showing cleaning method for full-height glazed

facade with external GRP cladding over primary steel 3D internal view showing full-height glazed facade with external GRP cladding over primary
structure steel structure
MCH_ 456
1
5
3
2
1
Details
1. GRP cladding
5 4. Glazing frame
5. Double glazing
7. GRP fixing bracket
6
5 2
3
3
3D sectional detail view showing full-height glazed facade with external GRP cladding over primary steel structure
5
1
5
4
1
7
3
5
2
3
6
1
4
3D sectional detail view showing full-height glazed facade with external GRP cladding over 3D detail view showing full-height glazed facade with external
primary steel structure GRP cladding over primary steel structure
5 5
5
4
4
3
7 2
1
6 1
4
7
4
1 3
2 5
3
7
4
5 4
3 7
1 7 2
3
6
3D exploded detail views showing full-height glazed facade with external GRP cladding over primary steel structure
MCH_ 457
Applications 06
16 GRC cladding interfaces
Details
1. Opaque GRC panel
2. Toggle fixed glazing
3. Mild steel stiffener
4. Double glazing
1
6. Metal cap embedded in silicone
7. Mild steel box section
8. Gutter
9. Steel glazing support
10. Primary concrete structure 10
13. Silicone seal
9
4
4
4
14
4
16
3D sectional view showing GRC

14. Internal finish rainscreen facade fixed to in-situ cast
15. Toggle-fixing concrete structure and interface with
16. Landscaping full-height toggle-fixed glazing system
17. Aluminium glazing frame
18. Rainscreen fixing system
01
04
03
09
09 09
03
03
04
9 03
04
4 15
14
9 9
09
09
13
17
15
13 17 17
13
4 4 15
15 4 4
13
4
13 17
5
4 (Above) Horizontal section. Toggle-fixed glazing system (opening light and fixed light
configurations)
(Left) 3D detail views showing toggle-fixed glazing system
MCH_ 458
1
6
1
8 10
8 9
1
9 4
13 11
4
6 6
10
3D detail view showing GRC rainscreen cladding interface

13
with GRC pavers on terrace deck build-up and concealed
gutter
6 11 6
4 1 4 1
3D detail fragment view showing GRC

2 9
rainscreen cladding interface with GRC 10
pavers on terrace deck build-up 11 13
4
9
8
9 2
14
1
1
3D detail fragment views showing GRC
4 1 rainscreen cladding interface with GRC pavers on
terrace deck build-up and glazed balustrade
8
11 10
4
4 6
14
1
4
2
1
(Above) Vertical section.
GRC rainscreen cladding 6
interface with GRC pavers 4
on terrace deck build-up (Right) 3D detail fragment 1
views showing GRC rainscreen

14 cladding interface with GRC clad
external steel staircase and 10
14 13
glazed balustrade
1
6
11
1 12 2
1
7
12
2
2 14
5 12
14
12
6
1
5
5 2 7
6
Details
8
3 9 1. GRC rainscreen cladding
2. Primary steel roof structure 9. Rainscreen
3. Secondary steel structure cladding fixing bracket
4. Concrete primary structure 10. GRC paver 3D detail fragment view
6 5
2 5. Primary steel column 11. GRC paver plastic spacers showing GRC rainscreen
5 6. Closed cell thermal insulation 12. GRC steel staircase cladding cladding interface with GRC-
7. Profiled metal deck 13. Gutter clad external steel staircase
8. Rainscreen cladding fixing rail 14. Glazed balustrade and glazed balustrade
MCH_ 459
Applications 06
17 Full-height entrance glazing
3
5 4
7
3
2
3
3 9 1
3
4
5
2
3D sectional view showing GRP-clad steel support structure with full-height toggle-fixed 3
glazing
7 3 3
2 3
2
3
5 4 4
3
4
5
1
5 7
3D sectional view showing GRP-clad steel support structure

3D detail views showing GRP-clad steel support structure with full-height toggle-fixed glazing with full-height toggle-fixed glazing
7
3
6
3
2
5
4 5 6 7 5 3
5
7
1 7
1 7
5 9
4 7
5 2
3
4
5 3
6 7
3
2 7
5
7
5
1 9
9
4
9 2 6
8
1
(Above) 3D views showing sliding door within 9

10
GRP-clad steel support structure and toggle-fixed
glazing, in closed and open positions
8
8 (Right) 3D sectional view showing GRP-clad steel
Vertical sections. GRP-clad steel support structure with full-height support structure with full-height toggle-fixed
toggle-fixed glazing, sliding door and interface with ground glazing
MCH_ 460
12
7
7
7
12
12 7
7
12
3D views showing cast aluminium glazing frames supporting full-height glazing
12
12
7
12
12
7 12 3D internal views showing cast aluminium glazing

frames with double-layer rod support
3D views showing cast aluminium glazing frames supporting full-height glazing with cap piece
11
3D views showing cast aluminium glazing frames, in

11
various configurations
11
Details
1. Internal 7. Double glazing
7
2. External 8. Ground
3. Metal cladding to glazing 9. Sliding door
support structure 10. Gutter
4. Steel support structure 11. Clamped glazing fixing
5. Glazing frame 12. Cast aluminium
6. Toggle-fixing glazing frame
3D view showing cast aluminium glazing frames supporting full-height clamped glazing
MCH_ 461
Applications 06
18 GRP louvres on stick glazing system
Details
1. GRP louvres
2. Perforated GRP louvres
3. Secondary steel tube facade structure
5. Glazing frame
6. Double glazing
4
7. Primary steel structure (insulated and clad)
3
8. Fixing bracket
1
3D fragment views showing full-height
stick glazed facade supported on 1
steel tube secondary structure with

external GRP solar shading louvres
2
2
1
2 1
4 1
6
1
2
2
8 2 6
7
6 4
3
6
7
7
6
1 8
2 4
4
1
3
6 4
1 7
3
7
8
4 1
(Right) 3D sectional detail views showing full-height
6 stick glazed facade supported on steel tube secondary
3 4 structure with external GRP solar shading louvres
6
6
6
5 5
2
2
6
2
3D detail views showing stick glazed facade with external GRP solar shading louvres
MCH_ 462
1
1
8
6
8
5
4
1
7
3D detail view showing stick glazed facade supported on steel

tube secondary structure with external GRP solar shading louvres
3D view showing stick glazed facade with external
3D sectional view showing full-height stick 4 GRP solar shading louvres
glazed facade with external GRP solar 3 3
shading louvres and interface with GRP 3
rainscreen roof on profiled metal deck and

steel tube structure
1
3D sectional view showing full-height stick glazed
facade with external GRP solar shading louvres
3
3 6
6
1
1
8
6
6
6
MCH_ 463
Applications 06
1
8
3
3
6
8 3
8 7
5
4 4
3
4
7
3D detail view showing stick glazed facade supported on
6
4 steel tube secondary structure with external GRP solar
shading louvres
1
3D detail view showing stick glazed facade supported on steel tube secondary 8
structure with external GRP solar shading louvres 4
5
3
Details 1
1. GRP louvres 1
5. Glazing frame
6. Double glazing
7. Primary steel structure (insulated and clad) 6
8. Fixing bracket
7
8
1
(Below) 3D detail view showing stick
5 glazed facade supported on steel tube
4
secondary structure with external GRP
solar shading louvres
3
1
6
1
6
5
8 5
3
(Above) 3D overview showing stick glazed facade
supported on steel tube secondary structure 4
with external GRP solar shading louvres
6
3
1 7
MCH_ 464
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 5
5
5
6 6
3D overviews showing stick glazed facade supported on steel tube secondary structure with external GRP solar shading louvres
5
1
4 4
8 3 8
6
1
5
5
6
6 6
5
5 7
7 1
4 5
4
3 8 3 8
5
1
7
7
5
6 6 6
5
5 5
4
3 8 3 8
4
1
5 5
Vertical sections. Various louvre configurations along length of stick glazed facade supported on steel tube secondary structure with external GRP solar
shading louvres
MCH_ 465
Applications 06
6
6
8
5 3D overview showing stick
glazed facade and fixing to steel 4
4 tube secondary structure 3
6
4
5
6
4
6
3
Details
3 8
7
1. GRP louvres
8
5. Glazing frame
4
6. Double glazing
7 7. Primary steel structure (insulated and clad)
3
8. Fixing bracket
9. GRP cladding
10. GRP ridge piece
3D detail view showing stick glazed facade and fixing to steel 11. Profiled metal deck
tube secondary structure 12. Standing seam metal deck
1
4
1
3 8 5
3
1
7
6 6
4
3
3 8 1
4
1
3
7
6
7
1
1 6
5
4
3 8 3
4
5
3
6
6 7
Vertical sections. Various louvre configurations along length of stick glazed facade supported on steel tube secondary structure with external
GRP solar shading louvres
MCH_ 466
3D sectional
view of interface
9 10
8 7 between stick
glazed facade
and GRP
6
rainscreen
4 panels fixed
to steel tube
11 5 secondary
11 structure
3
3
8
12
5
9 6
3 4
10
5
7
10
Vertical section. Interface between stick glazed facade and GRP rainscreen
panels fixed to steel tube secondary structure 12
11
3
9
8
10
4
12
4
11
12
8
4 9
11
7
(Below) 3D view showing interface
11
between stick glazed facade and
GRP rainscreen panels fixed to
steel tube secondary structure
Vertical section. Edge condition of GRP rainscreen facade panels fixed to steel
tube secondary structure 6
9 6 6 6
5
12 8
4 6
8
11 3 3
5
10
3
6 4
9 3
6 6 6 5
12
8
4
11
9
3
7
9 3
4
3
12 8
4
6 6 6
11 9
3 3
7
Vertical sections. Various configurations of 12

9
interface between stick glazed facade and
11 4 12
GRP rainscreen panels fixed to steel tube
secondary structure
MCH_ 467
Applications 06
19 GRC cladding
3D fragment view showing

1
GRC rainscreen cladding
panels fixed to in-situ cast
4
4
3
1
4
3
1
2 6
Details
1. GRC rainscreen cladding panels
2. Rainscreen cladding panel fixing rail
7. Steel roof truss
8. Double glazing
9. Glazing frame
6
(Below) 3D sectional view showing GRC rainscreen 3D fragment view showing
cladding panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary 7 1 GRC rainscreen cladding
structure and interface with full-height glazed panels fixed to in-situ cast
1
6 1
1
1 1
7 1
6
1
6
1
1 6
3D sectional view showing GRC rainscreen cladding panels fixed to in-situ cast
MCH_ 468
(Above and Below) Diagrams showing panelisation process of identifying, numbering and laying out individual GRC panels
6
4
4
6
9
4
8
9
1
1
1
9
1
4 1
6 1
6
1 4
3D sectional detail view showing window set within GRC rainscreen cladding panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary structure
MCH_ 469
Applications 06
9 5 1
1
1
5
6
2
3 2
8
3
8
1
6 1
5
5
Horizontal section. Window in GRC wall Horizontal section. Window in GRC wall
5
5
9
1 1
1
5 3
8
01 1
1
2 1
1 3 1
5
1
3
9 5
1
3
5
3D exploded view showing window in GRC wall 3D exploded view showing window in GRC wall
9 1
9 08
3 3 9
2
5
5
1 1
(Above) 3D view showing window frame in GRC cladding

(Right) 3D detail view showing glazing and GRC faced wall connection
MCH_ 470
3
3 1
5
9
Details
1
5 1. GRC panel
1 2. Double glazed unit
3. Concrete backing wall
5 1 2 4. Deadload fixing to GRC panel
1
bonded to GRC panel
6. Insulated separating layer
8 between GRC & concrete wall
2 1
7. Continuous waterproof
membrane
1 8. Thermally broken window profile
5 10. Secondary steelwork to
5 contractor design
1
3
9
3D view showing window frame in GRC cladding 3D view showing window frame in GRC cladding
4
9
3 1
4
1 9 5
3 1 4
1
3 6
5 5 8 4
6 5
1
1 8
8 2
1
6
5
5
3
1
8
4 4
1
9 1 1 5
6
5
9
3 1
5
Vertical section. GRC cladding and glazing Vertical section. GRC cladding and glazing
1 5
1
1
5
3
3
5
8 2 8 9 1
1 9
5 5
4 6
9
3 1
8
2
1 8 3
5
9 6
5
1 1
5
4
1
Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing
MCH_ 471
Applications 06
16 3
5
16 16
16
17 17 14
3
4
3
10 2
14
14
13 8
Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing
3
3 16 16
17 14
5
Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing 3
17 3

16
3D detail view showing
glazing and GRC faced wall 16
connection 17
14
17 17
3
3
14
3
3
5
14 4
16
17
Horizontal section. Glazing
4
17
17
16
17
17
3D detail view showing glazing
and GRC faced wall connection
Vertical section. Glazing
MCH_ 472
3 3
5 5
16 3
16 16
3 5
17 17 16 16
14 14
5
3 4 3 14
14 5
3
2
16
16
17
3
4
16
17
3 8
17
9 16
3
17 14 16
4
17
5
3D detail view showing glazing and GRC faced wall connection
3 4
Details 9. Unitised glazing frame

1. GRC shadow gap panel 10. Toggle fixed glazing system
2. Aluminium faced insulated panel 11. Metal panel
3. GRC panel 12. Rubber based seal Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing
4. Extruded aluminium section 13. Continuous waterproof membrane
5. Fixing bracket for GRC panel 14. Thermal insulation 16
6. GRC shading louvre 15. Metal flashing
7. Extruded aluminium support 16. Secondary steelwork to
16
bracket for GRC shading louvre contractor design
14
8. Double glazed unit 17. Stick glazing
3
17
16
14
17
3
17
14 16 3
17
4
3 17
17
4
16
3D detail view showing glazing

3D detail of glazing and GRC faced wall connection and GRC faced wall connection
MCH_ 473
Applications 06
21 Windows and unitised glazing with GRC cladding
5
9
1
1
1
5
Details
1. GRC panel 7. Continuous waterproof membrane 1
2. Double glazed unit 8. Thermally broken window profile
3. Concrete backing wall 9. Thermal insulation
11
4. Deadload fixing to GRC panel 10. Secondary steelwork to contractor 3
5. Closed cell thermal insulation design
bonded to GRC panel 11. Frame for GRC panel
6. Insulated separating layer between 12. Metal panel
GRC & concrete wall
1 9
12
3D detail view showing external GRC cladding

9
2
1
5
3
8
7
1
9
1 8
5
7
3
2
9
Vertical section. GRC cladding and glazing Vertical section. GRC cladding and glazing
MCH_ 474
3
3
1
5 3
4
3 2
8
8
5
9
1
5 3
4
3
2
Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing 3D view showing window frame in GRC cladding
5
9
1
5
1
9
8 8
2
2
3
3
1 1
5
5
Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing
9 12
9 1
10 1
12
8 2
1
1
2 9
12
3
3D detail view showing external GRC cladding and glazing 3D detail view showing external GRC cladding and glazing
MCH_ 475
Applications 06
22 Unitised glazing with GRC cladding
5
5
15
1
1
1 12 3
15
1 15
1
3D detail view showing external GRC cladding
3D view showing external GRC cladding

3D exploded view showing external GRC cladding
15
1
Details 5
12
1. GRC panel
1
3. Concrete backing wall
4. Deadload fixing to
GRC panel
5. Closed cell thermal
12
insulation bonded to 1
GRC panel 1
6. Insulated separating 3 5
layer between GRC &

concrete wall
7. Continuous
1
waterproof membrane 5
8. Thermally broken
window profile 12
10. Secondary steelwork 5
to contractor design
11. Fixing bracket
12. Frame for GRC panel Vertical section. GRC cladding
3
13. Unitised glazing frame 1 15
14. Bracket supporting
unitised panel fixed to
1
top of slab
15. Metal panel
16. Thermal break
5
17. Extruded aluminium forming
12
unitised panel
1
18. Rubber based seal
3
19. Outer seal 1
20. Inner seal
21. Air seal
22. Insulated panel, aluminium faced on both sides
12
23. Light fitting (by others)
Vertical section. GRC cladding
MCH_ 476
5
1
3 1
1
15
15
12
15 1
5
12
3D exploded view showing external GRC cladding and glazing
3
1
5
12
1 1
12
Horizontal section. GRC cladding 3
11 11 3
12 12 5
Horizontal section. GRC cladding and glazing Vertical section. GRC cladding
1
11
5 5 5 12
12
1
1
1 1
5
Horizontal section. GRC cladding Horizontal section. GRC cladding Horizontal section. GRC cladding
MCH_ 477
Applications 06
23 Complex glazed roofs with supporting steel structure
Future 06
9 Metal solar shading: louvres and mesh
1
2
2
4
2 3 5
4 10
5
6
6 3D fragment view showing clamp-fixed single-

glazed roof panels ('cracked' configuration) fixed to
steel space frame roof structure and steel trusses
1
1
2
2 3
10
2
1
3
1
4
3D overview showing clamp-fixed single-glazed roof
panels ('cracked' configuration) fixed to steel space
frame roof structure and steel trusses
MCH_ 478
1
1
Details
1. Glazed cladding panels
2. Steel space frame roof support
3. Standing seam metal deck
1 5. Steel roof truss structure
6. Internal finish
7. Glazing clamp
8. Steel tube cladding support
2
2
3
(Below) 3D detail view showing clamp-

fixing on single-glazed roof panels
('cracked' configuration) fixed to steel
9
space frame roof structure
4
1
5 10
7
3D fragment view showing clamp-fixed single-

2
1
7
Working digital model of clamp-fixed single-glazed roof panels ('cracked' configuration) fixed to steel space frame roof structure
MCH_ 479
Applications 06
23 Complex glazed roofs with supporting steel structure
1 2
1
1 3
6
7 4
3
7
6
3D fragment view showing clamp-fixed single-

2
3
2
1 6
5
3
Details
2
1. Glazed cladding panels
2. Steel space frame roof support
3D overview showing clamp-fixed single-glazed roof 3. Standing seam metal deck
panels ('cracked' configuration) fixed to steel space 4. Thermal insulation
frame roof structure and steel trusses 5. Steel roof truss structure
6. Internal finish
MCH_ 480
Details
1. Glazed cladding panels 1
2. Steel tube cladding support 2
3. Fixing brackets 3
4. Glazing frame
5. Floor finish
6. Steel floor connection 1
6
2
1
2
3D exploded view showing 6

steel frame-supported 2
single-glazed facade
1 5
6
1 2
3D fragment view
showing steel frame-
supported single-glazed 1 1
facade
4
3 2
5 2
1
6
3 2
4
5
2
3D detail view showing steel frame-supported
single-glazed facade interface with the ground 5
3
2
4
5
2
1
1
2
6 2
3D fragment view showing steel 6

frame-supported single-glazed
facade 3D detail views showing steel frame-supported single-glazed facade
MCH_ 481
Applications 06
24 Glazed roofs with complex geometry
5 4 8
3
3
2
Details
1. Concrete floor slab 3
3. Steel tube facade 1
support structure
4. Glazing frame cap
5. Double glazing
3
6. Primary steel structure 3D sectional view showing
7. Toggle-fixing curved glazed facade system
8. Silicone seal supported on steel tubes
3
5
4
3
8 5 6
8
6
4 3
4
5
5
2 3
5
2
3 1
3D sectional view showing curved glazed facade system supported on 3D internal view showing curved glazed facade system supported on
steel tubes steel tubes
5
4 8
8
7
4
8 7 3
4
3D detail views showing toggle-fixed curved glazed facade system supported on steel tubes
MCH_ 482
2
4
4 3 7
4 2 6
4 4
3 6
1
8
5
6 3
6 4
6
6 7
3
4
3D sectional view showing toggle-fixed glazed rooflight with GRP-
clad structural trusses to form blade-like solar shading louvres and 3D sectional views showing underside of toggle-fixed glazed rooflight with
interface with opaque GRP rainscreen roof cladding GRP-clad structural trusses to form blade-like solar shading louvres
4 4
3
6 6
1
5
3 3
4
5
5
1
4
6
2 3
3
3 Details
4 1. Primary steel truss structure
2. GRC edge piece
3. Toggle-fixed glazed rooflight
8 4. GRC cladding
5. Glazing frame
7
6. Steel structural member
7. Concrete roof deck
4
1
3
4
4
4 4
5 1
3 2
3
5 5
2 6
6
3D exploded views showing toggle-fixed

glazed rooflight with GRP-clad structural 4 4
trusses to form blade-like solar shading 6
louvres and interface with opaque GRP 8 1
rainscreen roof cladding
4
1
4
4
3 3 3
5 5 5
4
4 4
6
6
6
MCH_ 483
Applications 06
1 3D fragment view showing full-height

3 stick glazing system with externally-fixed
inclined solar shading metal louvres
1
2
4
1
3
5
Details
1. Metal-framed metal louvre panels
2. Full-height stick glazing system frame
3. Double glazing
7. Internal ceiling finish
9. Perforated metal mesh walkway
10. Louvre support system
11. Metal flashing
3D fragment view showing full-height
stick glazing system with externally-fixed
inclined solar shading metal louvres
3
1
1
3D views showing full-height stick glazing system with

externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal louvre panels
MCH_ 484
3D fragment view showing full-
10
4
height stick glazing system with
externally-fixed inclined solar
1 shading metal louvre panels and
interface with concrete floor slab
2
1 5
3
1
2
1 1 5
4
1
3
5
2
1 2
4
10
1
1
3D views showing inclined
solar shading metal louvre 1
3D sectional view showing space between full-height stick glazing system panels
and externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal louvre panels
10
4
1
1
5
1
4
3
3 2
2
2
2
1 5
4
4
1
2 3 10
4 3
1 2 2
3D fragment view showing full-height stick glazing system
with externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal louvre
panels and interface with concrete floor slab 3
3D internal fragment view showing full-height stick glazing

system with externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal
louvre panels and interface with concrete floor slab 4
MCH_ 485
Applications 06
Details
1. Metal-framed metal louvre panels
2. Full-height stick glazing system frame
3. Double glazing
1 5. Internal floor finish
1 1 6. Thermal insulation on profiled metal deck
3
9. Perforated metal mesh walkway
3
2 2
10. Louvre support system
2
11. Metal flashing
3 2
3
2
2
3D internal view showing full-height stick glazing system with externally-fixed

inclined solar shading metal louvre panels and concrete floor structure 3
2
6
6
1 7
1
8
3
3
1
2
2 3
5 5
7 1
3D sectional view showing full-height stick glazing system

7
8 with externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal louvre
panels and steel floor structure
3D internal sectional view showing full-height stick glazing
system with externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal
louvre panels and steel floor structure
MCH_ 486
3
10
1
1
2 8
6
11
8
5
6
8
7
2
3
2
3D underside view showing full-height stick glazing system with externally-fixed inclined
1 5
solar shading metal louvre panels and steel floor structure 8
1 10
6
3 3D internal view showing full-height stick glazing system with

externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal louvre panels and
6 9 steel floor structure
2
3 9
7 1
5
11
6
1 8
3D detail view shhowing full-height stick glazing system with

3D view showing full-height stick glazing system with externally-fixed inclined solar externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal louvre panels and
shading metal louvre panels and steel floor structure steel floor structure
2
9
10
5 11
3
7
2 2 3
1
2 1
8 11
9 5
5 9
7 9
3
3 8 2
2
5 11
8
1
5 9 10
3D exploded views showing full-height stick glazing system

with externally-fixed inclined solar shading metal louvre
panels and steel floor structure
MCH_ 487
Applications 06
26 Tiled cladding
1
1
1 1
2
4
2
1
7
7
1 1
3D views showing tiled rainscreen cladding panels fixed to in-situ cast
concrete primary structure with inset full-height unitised glazing
7 7
1
1
MCH_ 488
4
3
1
6
1 3
6
6
1
4 4 4
4
7
8
3D view showing tiled rainscreen cladding panels 3D exploded view showing tiled rainscreen cladding
fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary structure panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary structure
5
7
7
7
5
7 5 3
Details
3D internal views showing tiled rainscreen cladding 1. Tiled rainscreen cladding panels
panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary 2. Rainscreen panel fixing bracket
structure with inset full-height unitised glazing 3. Rainscreen panel fixing rail
4. In-situ cast concrete structural backing wall
5. Primary steel column
7. Unitised double glazing
1 4
2
6
1
1
4
2
7
3D view showing tiled rainscreen cladding panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary structure with
inset full-height unitised glazing
7
1
1 1
1 3
4 3 4
6 6 8
1
8
4
6
3
3D detail views showing tiled rainscreen cladding panels fixed to in-situ cast concrete primary structure with inset full-height unitised glazing
MCH_ 489
Applications 06
27 Rainscreens
2
2
3D exploded view showing GRC rainscreen roof

panels supported on steel space frame roof
truss structure with glazed rooflight backing
2
3
3
5
1
1

GRC rainscreen roof panels 1
supported on steel space frame
roof truss structure with glazed
rooflight backing
1
5
4 1
4
6
3
3D views showing GRC
rainscreen roof panels
4 supported on steel space frame
roof truss structure with glazed
Details
5 3 rooflight backing
1. Perforated GRC rainscreen cladding panels (of varying depth)
2. Rainscreen panel fixing bracket
3. Rooflight glazing frame
4. Rooflight double glazing
5. Steel space frame roof structure
MCH_ 490
3D diagrams showing
varying depth of
GRC roof panels
across roof of GRC +1.00
rainscreen panels
supported on steel +0.75
space frame roof
truss structure
+0.50
+0.25
+0.00
+0.25
+0.50
+0.75
3D views showing GRC rainscreen roof panels in various geometric configurations supported on steel space frame roof truss structure
3D views showing GRC rainscreen roof panels in various geometric configurations supported on steel space frame roof truss structure
MCH_ 491
Applications 06
27 Rainscreens
3D views showing GRC rainscreen roof panels in various geometric configurations supported
on steel space frame roof truss structure
MCH_ 492
3D views showing GRC rainscreen roof panels in various geometric
configurations supported on steel space frame roof truss structure
MCH_ 493
MCH_ 494
MCH_ 494
REFERENCES
Glossary of terms
Authorship
Photo credits
Index
MCH_
mCH_ 495 495
References
Glossary 1
The glossary of terms here is aimed to explain words used in within the cavity, on the outer face of the inner skin, or within
the context of this book. These are not intended to be general the inner leaf itself.
definitions and should be used accordingly. Topics are arranged
in alphabetical order. CLADDING. This term refers to non-loadbearing facade systems
which are applied to a building envelope in a way which is inde-
BUTT JOINTS. These are a contemporary type of joint where pendent of the building structure. Cladding may even be used to
two materials are brought together and sealed with a different give a completely different expression to the building from that
material such as silicone, as in an external wall. Traditionally, suggested by either the building structure or the organisation of
joints in walls have been formed by some form of lapping or spaces within the building. This independence of cladding from
interlocking of materials, as in the corners of window frames. its supporting structure has been exploited by many contempo-
Butt joints have the advantage of allowing movement to occur rary architects to create textures and geometries which accept
in the joint, as where adjacent panels are supported separate- this independence of the technology of the building envelope,
ly. An example is the use of silicone sealant between bolt fixed and work with the opportunities provided by the non-loadbearing
glazed units, where double glazed units move independently and nature of cladding. Since the primary structure of building is set
may experience considerable amounts of movement if secured behind the cladding, the external envelope can be configured
to a structure that allows higher deflections than frames, such to give precedence to other design considerations as primary
as cable net structures. An essential requirement of most butt forms of architectural expression, such daylight, solar control
joints is to ensure that the there is sufficient surface on either and the visual expression of individual spaces within a building
side of the joint for the sealant to seal against, allowing it to without direct reference to the structural frame.
stretch in several directions without losing adhesion.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS. These have been developed to mix two
CAPPED SYSTEMS. Glazed walls or roofs which are fixed to a or more different materials together in order to benefit from
continuous framing system on all sides are referred to as being the strengths of each so as to overcome the weaknesses inher-
‘edge restrained’. Since most panels in glass or metal, for exam- ent in one or other of the materials. In wood, for example, where
ple, have four sides, these systems are generally called ‘four a length of timber can span only as long as can be cut from a
edge restraint’ systems, with the panels being held in place by tree, lengths of timber sections can be increased significantly
pressure plates. Since the pressure plates have visible screws by gluing strips or particles of timber to make board material.
which are not always aligned neatly, an additional cover cap is This combination uses the benefits of timber of lightness in
set on top of the pressure plate. The cap is made in extruded weight and ease of working the material with increased size and
aluminium and is coated, typically with a colour to match any greater stability to reduce the effects of moisture movement.
adjacent metal panels or doors. Such systems are called Reinforced concrete can be regarded as a composite material,
‘capped systems’ to differentiate them from those which have a with steel reinforcement providing strength in tension which is
silicone seal on the outside, such as ‘toggle’ glazing and ‘silicone lacking in regular concrete. GRP, or glass reinforced plastic, is
bonded’ glazing, where only a silicone strip is visible from the a mixture of resins providing, conceptually at least, compressive
outside. Sometimes a capped joint is used in one direction on a strength with glass fibre giving tensile strength.
glazed wall, while a silicone seal is used in the opposite direction.
CURTAIN WALLING. This refers historically to glazed wall sys-
CAVITY WALL. This form of construction developed from tems which were ‘hung’ in panels or as a metal framework
the 1920s onwards in brick construction as an alternative into which glass panels were set. While the concept is clear,
to thicker loadbearing walls, which were both unreliable in these systems are not always hung in the manner of a curtain,
their ability to keep out rainwater and vapour as well as being and are not always spanning from floor to floor. Contemporary
more expensive to construct. The cavity wall divides the wall curtain walling is described as being either ‘stick’ systems,
into two halves, or ‘skins’. The outer skin is the weather bar- ‘unitised’ systems, or ‘panelised’ systems (explained under
rier, and is assumed to become completely soaked during a separate headings). Consequently, the term curtain walling is
rain storm. The inner leaf is not in contact with the outer leaf, not referred to in this book as it is too generic, with ‘glazed
so it remains generally dry. The two skins are joined together walls’ used instead to allow the primary material to take prec-
with cavity wall ties, designed to encourage water in the cav- edence. Curtain walling was developed in the years following
ity from dripping off the ties and down the cavity rather than 1945, primarily in the United States where it was a practical
being carried onto the face of the adjoining inner skin. The way of enclosing tall buildings without the need for lifting heavy
cavity wall has developed by setting thermal insulation either materials such as stone and brick high up, where they were
MCH_ 496
slow and difficult to manage, making them far less economic as that for the metals used in fixings which allow the timber to
in industrialised countries. be made useful as a building material.
DOUBLE SKIN FACADES. These are essentially two skins IN-SITU CAST CONCRETE. This method of working with con-
of external wall which provide a thermal buffer in winter and crete, also called cast-in-place concrete, is based on forming
natural ventilation in summer. The thermal buffer ensures that the material on site using formwork that is set up specifically
solar gain in winter months can be used to heat a building, while for the casting process, before moved to the next stage of cast-
in summer, windows at high level can be opened into a void ing. The method can be used to create large scale concrete
between inner and outer skins without experiencing the effects structures or walls. An important consideration is the form-
of wind gusts. Double skin facades can vary from 1000mm in work, which is used increasingly as a kit of parts that can be
width, with two walls separated by a maintenance walkway, to moved and re-assembled quickly for the next part of the work.
a thickness of 300mm, where the double skin is set within a If the concrete is to be a visible part of the construction, as in
single wall construction, typically as unitised panels. With the the case of columns or external walls, the provision of joints
wider version, comprising two walls set apart, the cavity can and junctions with adjacent elements needs to be considered
be ventilated form the outside, either with open joints or with carefully prior to starting on site. Since the casting of concrete
controlled louvres. Thin double skins are ventilated from inside reveals very closely the texture of the formwork from which it
the building, sometimes actually linking the void within the wall is cast, the choice of formwork board size, or tube size for col-
to the mechanical ventilation system. umns, is an essential part of the design of the building, and is
considered at an early stage of the design.
EAVES. These are junctions between the top of an external
wall and the underside of a sloping roof, which typically over- LAPPED JOINTS. This is the traditional method of forming junc-
hangs the wall. Where the external wall is made as a cladding tions between materials in external walls. In order to ensure
system rather than a traditional loadbearing wall, the relative that water runs off timber boards, for example, the material
movements of wall and roof need to be taken into account in is ship lapped, where one board is set over the other. More
the weather tightness of the junction. There is also a need for generally, this principle applies in tiled and slated roofs, and in
continuity of thermal insulation from wall to roof, sometimes brick walls where openings are formed so as to lap the external
providing ventilation into the roof space and sometimes provid- wall around window frames. Where render is used on top of
ing a complete seal from wall to roof. As an interface between masonry walls, the render forms, effectively, a lap between wall
primary elements of a building which are usually performing in and window. Lapped joints are used in contemporary construc-
quite different ways, using quite different forms of construction, tion where a butt joint is either not appropriate in terms of its
eaves junctions require the lapping of the waterproofing for the exposure or appearance, or alternatively where ventilation is
roof to form a continuity with that of the wall. As an interface, an required, as in rainscreen panel systems and roof coverings.
eaves detail usually requires one of the systems of wall or roof An essential aspect of lapped joints is that they are oriented in a
to take precedence from a visual point of view, so this becomes direction that ensures rainwater will run off the joint in a down-
an additional requirement of their design. ward direction while allowing ventilation to occur in the upward
or lateral direction.
EMBODIED ENERGY. This is the amount of energy required to
construct a building or part of a building. No specific stand- MEMBRANES. These are single layer materials made in large
ards can be applied at this stage, as an essential component sizes, typically 1000m to 2000mm in width and in long lengths,
in the energy required to construct a building is the delivery supplied in rolls. They are made primarily from polymers, and
of materials to site, which can vary enormously, but which have the advantage of being possible to bond or weld together,
favour as local a sourcing of materials as possible. In practice often by heat rather than by naked flame, making them easy
this can be difficult to agree on, as it needs to be established to install on site. Their use is mainly as reliable waterproof or
how far up the supply chain to go when calculating the energy vapour proof layers to large areas of wall or roof which expe-
required to make primary materials for a building. In the case rience relatively little thermal movement. Though reliable, they
of polymers, for example, the dependence on oil from different are relatively fragile unless designed specially for external use,
parts of the world being transported can create complicated as is the case with thicker, tougher roofing membranes. Mostly,
scenarios for calculation. Timber is considered to have zero however, membranes are required to be concealed beneath
embodied energy as a material, but the energy used to fell, cut other materials to protect them from the effects of the sun and
and transport the material is much higher, though not as high from suffering accidental damage, such as being walked upon
MCH_ 497
References
Glossary 2
for example. Membranes are usually fixed at points on their be installed quickly on site while the outer skin of the wall is
underside in order to avoid penetrating the membrane. applied later. This allows the building to become watertight at
an earlier stage of construction.
OPENINGS. This book shows examples of details around open-
ings as they are often at the interface of different systems, or PARAPETS. These are traditional elements of buildings which
components from different systems. Windows and doors, for still form a prominent part of contemporary design. Parapets
example, do not have obvious ways of being fitted into walls are formed when an external wall projects up in front of the
when a very watertight and airtight performance is required. base of the roof construction, requiring rainwater to be drained
Since facade systems are often developed and tested to quite into a gutter behind the external wall rather than in front of it.
different standards and with the intention of forming a com- This makes it essential to draw the rainwater down the pipes
plete building envelope as a single material system, combina- which are typically set outside the building rather than inside,
tions of two systems are dealt with on a project by project where they can be difficult to access for maintenance and can
basis. In the case of windows and doors being designed within be susceptible to damage, causing leaks. Parapets are detailed
a single system, such as windows and doors, it is essential so as to form a gutter between wall and roof that can fill to
in order to understand the visual impact that they make on capacity without the risk of leaking back into the building. Since
a facade, as well as how they can be accessed for cleaning parapet gutters can become blocked as a result of the outlet
and maintenance. Openings are required to be assembled in a being accidentally covered, the design of these junctions, as well
particular order if made from different materials or systems, as the provision of overflows to the outside, are essential con-
which can influence their appearance, so the sequence of considerations in their design. The coping, or durable covering set
struction is a consideration. on top of the parapet, has some visual presence on the facade
and can be seen as a termination of the top of the building.
PARAMETRIC DESIGN. This is an approach to the design of
a building, or part of a building, based on the idea of setting POINT FIXED GLAZING. This is a recent development that
‘parameters’ that can be changed dimensionally, while mak- originated with clamped glazing systems of the 1960s, used
ing other parts of the design ‘fixed’ which cannot be changed. mainly as shop front glazing at that time. The technique com-
This principle can be applied to the geometry of a set of floor prises either bolt-like fixings set near the corners of the glass,
slabs, for example, which may be allowed to change in one direc- or clamps set on both sides of the glass along the edges of
tion only, or be used for a set of components which might be the glass, but not necessarily at their corners. An essential
changed. This approach suits geometrically complex or large- part of their design is to ensure that the glass is support-
scale projects where the time required to rebuild the model ed so that it can move in order to avoid putting additional
would be uneconomic. Because parametric design software stress into the glass. These systems are typically designed
allows the design to make changes quickly, it allows the design- in conjunction with a manufacturer or facade designer who
ers to try changes to see what happens to an overall building can ensure that the design is suitable both in relation to its
form, for example. This allows the behaviour of the component supporting structure and for fabrication. Clamped glazing
or building geometry to be understood, sometimes linking floor has become more popular in recent years since it is more
areas to a building geometry. economic than the bolt fixed method, as clamps can be set
between the joints rather than requiring glazed units to be
drilled to accommodate the bolt fixing.
PANELISED SYSTEM. This is a general term covering large
scale panels used primarily for external walls. Their use is PRECAST CONCRETE. This material is an alternative to in-situ
in prefabricated wall systems where a building is required cast (or cast-in-place) concrete. An essential aspect of precast
to be assembled on site quickly, or where the specific site concrete is that it can be used for structures, facades, roofs
does not make it easy to undertake complicated work; mainly and interior building components, making the understanding
where access is restricted. Where unitised panels in glazed of how the material is used an essential aspect of designing
walls are typically around 1500mm wide, panelised systems with the material. Because of the weight of concrete and the
can be made up to around 7000mm long, depending on high amount of material required for its use in construction,
their weight, but are typically delivered to site on trailers, so its use as prefabricated components requires careful consid-
that transportation is an important consideration in their eration, particularly in expected tolerances in its assembly,
design. These panels may comprise a mixture of systems, which can require wider gaps than those required in other
such as metal framed backing walls with windows installed, materials. Although precast concrete is used for staircases,
or even precast concrete panels with masonry fixed or for example, these components are often covered up by fin-
forming an integral part of the panel. They are finding use ished work and so are not revealed. Consequently, the choice
as waterproofed or vapour proofed backing walls which can of precast concrete over in-situ cast concrete may not be of
MCH_ 498
primary interest to the designer in such applications. Where The advantages for designers are mainly the flexibility of design,
the use of precast concrete will be of concern is where the which does not need to be made modular to suit repeated pan-
material is visible, requiring careful attention to finish; mainly els, and the narrower size of joint widths, which is usually 50mm
in terms of colour consistency and texture; as well as how the to 70mm depending on project requirements. Stick systems
formwork will leave traces of the pouring method that may, or can also be combined effectively with supporting steel frames
may not be required in the finished work. such as those for atrium structures and double skin facades.
Where steel frames are used, the aluminium extruded box sec-
PREFABRICATION AND SITE-BASED WORK. The choice between tion on the internal side of the framing can be omitted, allowing
buildings constructed mainly on-site or off-site in a workshop or the front part of the stick system to be fixed directly to the sup-
factory is based on issues primarily of cost and quality, though porting steelwork, which would typically also be in box sections.
it has also to do with increased specialisation in construction.
Projects of ambition often require specialist construction skills THERMAL BRIDGING. This is also called ‘cold bridging’ but
to undertake the construction. Such specialists are usually set can occur in hot thermal conditions as well as cold conditions.
up with their own working environment rather than being based Essentially, the design of different systems of wall and roof
on a succession of building sites. While prefabricated elements construction is gradually being developed to reduce thermal
and systems are required to be assembled or set into position transmission through the build-up. Some parts of the sys-
on site, this environment is too temporary for many specialists, tem can perform considerably worse than others, creating a
who require a specific planned work environment for them to ‘bridge’ for the passage of heat or cold which is prevented
be effective both as an organisation and in order to produce elsewhere in the system. In glazed walling, for example, the
work of high quality. Quantities of what can be transported to thermal performance of the framing is significantly less than
site are usually limited by the capacity and weight allowance of a that of the glazed panels, and is improved by using a ‘thermal
trailer as well as storage facilities on site. However, some build- break’ so that the high thermal transmission of the frame is
ing work is more effectively undertaken on site, using the site ‘broken’ with a polymer based component set between inside
as a workshop and storage facility for components. Structural and outside. The thermal break may be a separating strip or
frames and floor slabs in large scale construction are still most- may form an integral part of the construction, as is the case
ly site-based, though the amount of prefabrication is increasing. with aluminium framing to glazed walls.
RAINSCREENS. These are facade and roof panel systems which U-VALUE AND THERMAL INSULATION. The U-value of a con-
allow small amounts of rainwater to enter the joints between struction is a measure of the thermal transmission through the
panels and be drained down through the framing back to the material, with systems of lower U-value having higher levels of
outside, either at each floor level or at the lowest level of the sys- thermal insulation. The U-value takes into account the thermal
tem. The term was first used for curtain walling, where leaks in transmission of all the layers of construction that make up the
earlier forms of curtain walling were overcome not by attempt- wall, so walls of different build-up in section require separate
ing to exclude any water penetration, but by accepting that it U-value calculations. U-values can be used in calculating the rate
is easier to ensure the water drains away safely when it pen- of heat flow of spaces in the building, but are separate from
etrates joints. The term, in general use, is applied more to open the effects of solar gain through glazing, which may also cause
joints in panel systems, typically metal, timber and, terracotta thermal transmission. Consequently, double glazed units have
than to glazed curtain walls. When used in this context panels a Low-E coating and vacuum in the cavity to provide thermal
in these materials are generally fixed to a framing system which insulation, while a separate solar control coating provides pro-
is secured to the building structure. A separate backing wall is tection against the effects of solar gain.
typically used to provide thermal insulation and a waterproof
layer. Rainscreen panels have grown in use as a visually refined UNITISED SYSTEM. This is a prefabricated method of making
finish to economic backing walls. facade panels, typically for glazed walls. Its advantage is prima-
rily one of reduced cost for facades with considerable repetition
STICK SYSTEM. This is a method of constructing glazed walls resulting in few panel types; but another advantage is the use of
on site from framing and glazed units. Stick glazing is often used silicone bonding, allowing frames to appear slim on the outside,
in complex arrangements of curtain walling and for smaller and for opening lights to have their frames concealed internally.
projects. Larger projects such as apartment buildings often Applying silicone on site in stick systems can be very difficult to
have many different conditions in their design on the external achieve due to the time needed, as well as the avoidance of dust
envelope, which would require many types of unitised panel both around the edges of the bonds.
uneconomic and difficult to install. Smaller projects do not have
a sufficiently large envelope to make unitising panels economic
and are usually stick built regardless of their level of complexity.
MCH_ 499
References
Authorship & photo credits
This book has been a team effort involving members of New- Building Workshop. They have produced a number of volumes
tecnic in London. Drawings were modelled and rendered by the on contemporary building technology which provide reference
Newtecnic team: Julianne Cassidy, Michael Clarke, Tom Donald, material for students and professionals. The Modern Construc-
George Hintzen, Fabio Micoli, Rob Percy, Mandeep Singh, Ale- tion Series is published by AMBRA | V Publishers. In addition,
jandro Vicente Soto, Howard Tee, Andy Watts and Adam Wil- the Facades Technical Review, from RIBA Publications was pub-
letts. The book was designed by Julianne Cassidy and Yasmin lished in spring 2007.
Watts. The text is by Andrew Watts, with contributions from
Michael Clarke, who wrote the following texts for the environ- Much of Newtecnic’s work is informed by a specific response
ment chapter: Environmental Studies for envelopes, Analysis for to climate and to the technical performance of the external
Design 1-8, Green walls. envelope. In projects where climate control and natural ventila-
tion are primary design criteria for the facades in temperate
David Marold is Senior Editor for Architecture, Art and Culture climates, double skin facades are often used. Rather than fol-
at AMBRA | V Publishers in Vienna. He has driven this book low rectilinear design, the outer skin of the facades of projects
from a set of basic layouts to a completed book. He has a where Newtecnic are involved are increasingly required to
passion for books and their design, ranging from their wider be shaped geometrically in response to specific environmen-
content to the quality of print paper. tal issues. These resulting facade forms are typically twisted,
curved, tapered, or a combination of these forms. These pages
Newtecnic is a firm of London-based facade designers who cre- aim to illustrate some of the research undertaken by Newtecnic
ate facades in collaboration with leading architects. The firm in recent projects which exhibit these tendencies in terms of
practices internationally on architecturally and technically chal- possible solutions for the design of the cladding in both temper-
lenging projects and has a particular interest in developing new ate and hot climates.
facade systems and the use of complex geometries. Newtecnic
follows principles of rapid prototyping as a method of develop- The Newtecnic team investigates material systems that are
ing facade systems that can be manufactured quickly and with explored through 3-D modelling rather than 2-D drafting. The
a high degree of accuracy and precision. The office’s current engineering aspects of the design, both structural and environ-
work ranges from large scale developments in Moscow, Dubai, mental, are developed through an investigation of the behaviour
Kuwait City, St Petersburg, Baku, Cairo and Rabat to education- of construction systems when modifed geometrically. Rather
al projects in London, where Newtecnic are working with design than develop a series of options to solve a design, a single para-
teams to develop innovative technical solutions and optimise metric model is used with fixed criteria and criteria which can
complex designs for digital fabrication. be stretched and pulled until an optimum solution is found. This
allows a single design model to provide a ‘range’ of solutions
Before establishing their own practice specialising in facades, which can be explored through rapid prototype models, using
Newtecnic principals Andrew and Yasmin Watts worked exten- a range of modelling tools from 3-D printers to laser cutters.
sively both in the U.K. and abroad. During this time they were Strands of fabrication, context, site specificity, language of the
involved in a range of significant projects including Federation base ‘component’ of the design and spatial organisation are
Square, Melbourne with LAB Architects, the Millennium Bridge, developed in parallel for each project.
London for Foster and Partners, Euralille and Institut du Monde
Arabe, Paris for Ateliers Jean Nouvel, and Cite Internationale,
Lyon and the New Caladonia Cultural Centre for Renzo Piano
MCH_ 500
Images are credited per page, left to right, and from top to bottom: Photo: Yasuhiro Ishimoto.
P291 Jewish Museum, Berlin, Germany.
P10 first left. Photo: Adrian Pingstone from Wikipedia. Photo: Studio Daniel Libeskind.
P20 second from left. Photo: Michael Reeve from Wikipedia. P393 Strawbale classroom at Avon Tyrrell, New Forest,
P21 bottom second from left. Photo: Julian Nitzsche from England, U.K.
Wikipedia. Photo: New Forest Park Authority.
P21 second from left: Photo: Adrian Pingstone from Wikipedia. P394 top second, third and fourth from left. The Redding Resi-
P28 Photo: Aedas dence, Kendle Design Collaborative, Scottsdale, Arizona
P38 second from left. Photo: Finlay McWalter from Wikipedia. Community, U.S.A.
P38 third from left. Photo: Enrique Cornejo from Wikipedia. Photo: www.eartharchitecture.org
P40 first left. Photo: Lucas B. Salles from Wikipedia. P400 Government Training Centre, Herne-Sodingen, Germany.
P40 third and fourth from left: Photo: Yoshito Isono from Photo: Christian Richters.
Structurae. P401 Daggett Solar Farm, California, U.S.A.
P44 bottom second from left. Photo: Adrian Pingstone from Photo: G. Donald Bain, Geo-Images Project, University of
Wikipedia. California at Berkeley, U.S.A.
P45 top third from left. Photo: Adrian Pingstone from P401 Solarchis Solar Houses, Japan.
Wikipedia. Architecture Studio and Maeta Concrete.
P46 top second from left. Photo: Chris McKenna from Photo: Solar.
Wikipedia. P402 Kitakame Canal Museum, Japan.
P47 top second from left. Photo: Olaf Davis from Wikipedia. Photo: Kengo Kuma and Associates.
P50 top second from left. Photo: Raúl Polanco Montiel from P402 Furniture House, Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan.
Wikipedia. Photo: Hiroyuki Hirai.
P51 first from left. Photo: Walter Horvath from Wikipedia. P403 International Housing Exhibition, Fukuoka, Japan.
P54 top first from left. Photo: Marion Schneider & Christoph Photo: Kwano, courtesy of the Office for Metropolitan
Aistleitner from Wikipedia. Architecture.
P56 top second from left. Photo: Richard Bartz from Wikipedia. P403 Freshwater Pavilion, Neeltje Jans, Holland.
P62 third from left. Photo: Parliamentary copyright images are Photo: Lars Spuybroek, NOX Architects.
reproduced with the permission of Parliament. P404. Offices, DaimlerChrysler Projekt, Potsdamer Platz,
P62 fourth from left. Photo: Parliamentary copyright images Berlin, Germany.
are reproduced with the permission of Parliament. Photos: Robert Peebles.
P63 Photos: Don Evans P408, 410. Photos: Robert Peebles.
P65 Photo: Architen Landrell Associates Ltd
P84 Jewish Museum, Berlin, Germany. All other photographs have been provided by courtesy of
Photo: Studio Daniel Libeskind. Newtecnic Ltd.
P84 Usera Public Library, Madrid. Photo: Roland Halbe.
P85 Sun Tower Office Building, Seoul.
Photo: YoungiIl Kim.
P87 Matsunoyama Natural Science Museum, Japan.
Photo: Katsuhisa Kida
P205 top second from left. Canopies.
Photo: Architen Landrel Associates Ltd.
P205 bottom second from left. ETFE images.
Photo: Vector Foiltec Ltd.
P289 Lerner Hall Student Center,
Columbia University, New York, U.S.A. Photo: Lydia Gould.
P290 Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
MCH_ 501
References
Index
A Double skin facades (application) 428 GRC cladding 468

GRC cladding interfaces 458
Working with Industry 414 Green oak and bamboo 384
Authorship 500 E Green walls 398
Aluminium 26 Greenhouse glazing and
Aluminium windows 144 Elevators 410 capped systems 226
Arches and shells 324 Embodied energy 388 GRP louvres on stick glazing 462
Environmental studies for GRP panels and shells 270
envelopes 356 GRP rooflights 266
B Electrical lighting 402
ETFE cushions 274
Bonded glass rooflights 238 Exoskeleton facades of H
Bolt fixed glazed walls 132 complex geometry 434
Bolt fixed glazed roofs 234 Exposed membranes 246 Hybrid systems forming facades
Brick 52 of complex geometry 438
Brick boxes 312
Brick cavity walls 168 F
Braced frames 292 I
Fabrics and membranes 64
Fabric systems 274 Internal walls 68
C Fixed and demountable walls 68 Introduction to Third Edition 6
Flat roof:
Cast-in-situ concrete 152 Mastic asphalt coverings 254
Cast-in-situ Floor 332 Bitumen-based sheet membranes 258 L
Ceilings 80 Floors 72
Clamped glazing 128 ull-height entrance glazing 460 Large-scale glazed facades 448
Complex curved glazed roofs 444 Full-height glazing with GRP-clad Lifts 410
Complex glazed roofs with structural frame 456 Loadbearing boxes 308
supporting steel structure 478 Louvres and stick glazing 484
Composite panels roofs 214 Louvre screens 112
Concealed membranes 242 G
Concrete 36
Concrete block 48 Generic wall types 90 M
Concrete frames 292 Glass 32
Composite panels 100 Glass blocks and channels 136 Maintenance and cleaning 404
Copper, zinc and lead 28 Glass boxes 316 Masonry 46
Glass floors 342 Masonry cavity walls 168
Glass louvres 436 Masonry cladding 176
D Glass roofs 226 Masonry rainscreens 180
Glazed roofs of complex geometry 482 Masonry loadbearing walls 164
Daylight 364 Glass systems 116 Material systems for structures 288
Double skin facades (principles) 378 Glossary of terms 496 Mesh screens 108
MCH_ 502
Metal louvres roofs 222 and adobe bricks 394 Tectonics in concrete 36
Metal standing seam walls 206 Reinforced concrete boxes 308 Tectonics in masonry 46
Metal walls 92 Tectonics in plastics 54
Tectonics in timber 60
S Tiled cladding 488
N Timber 62
Natural ventilation 384 Sheet metal walls 92 Timber cladding panels 196
Silicone-sealed glazing Timber floors 338
and rooflights 230 Timber roofs 254
O Single membrane: Timber frames 300
cone-shaped roof 238 Timber framed walls 192
Opaque cladding interface Single membrane: Timber windows 148
with full-height glazing 442 barrel-shaped roof 282 Triangular panels for
Opaque rainscreen cladding 454 Small precast panels 160 twisted facades 416
Solar power 400 Trends in facade design 84
Solar heating 400 Trends in roof design 202
P Solar radiation 360 Trusses 320
Solar shading 370 Twisted panels with flat glass
Panelisation of complex building Solar shading louvres 424 for curved facades 418
surface geometry 450 Space grids 328
Parametric design 14 Stairs:
Photo credits 501 Concrete 346 U
Pitched roof: tiles 262 Steel 348
Planted roof 250 Timber 350 Unitised glazing 124
Plaster systems 70 Glass 352 Unitised glazing with GRC c ladding 476
Plastic-based cladding 184 Steel 22
Plastic rainscreens 188 Steel mesh floor 336
Plastics and composites 56 Steel frames 296 W
Portal frames 304 Steel windows 140
Precast concrete panels Stick systems 120 Wallboard systems 70
for facades of complex geometry 430 Stone 50 Windows and unitised
Precast concrete floors 334 Stone and block walls 172 glazing with GRC cladding 474
Profiled cladding 96 Storey height precast 156 Windows in GRC cladding 470
Profiled metal sheet roofs 210 Straw bales and hemp 380
Support services 404
R
Rainscreens 490 T
Rainscreens roofs 218
Rainscreen walls 104 Tectonics in metal 20
Rammed earth, cob Tectonics in glass 30
MCH_ 503
Author
Andrew Watts
London, England
This work is subject to copyright.

All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of
illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks.
© 2013 AMBRA | V
AMBRA | V is part of Medecco Holding GmbH, Vienna
Printed in Austria
Product Liability: The publisher can give no guarantee for the information contained in this book. The use of registered names,
trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and are therefore free for general use.
Layout and Cover Design: Yasmin Watts, London, England

Cover photo: Newtecnic Ltd
Proofreading: Andrea Lyman and Alun Brown, Vienna, Austria
Printing and binding: Holzhausen Druck GmbH, Vienna, Austria
Printed on acid-free and chlorine-free bleached paper
With numerous coloured figures
1st Edition 2001: SpringerWienNewYork

2nd Edition 2010: SpringerWienNewYork
ISBN 978-3-99043-454-3 AMBRA | V

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MCH

In environmental terms, the use of several layers of envelope Qualifying comments

Generic systems are discussed in terms of how they are

Aerial view, Oxford, U.K.

Parametric modelling by Eric Mendelsohn integrated the needs of a research

Example of parametric modelling

Parametrically modelled glazed structural facade

Parametrically modelled lapped glazed panel-covered facade

Traditional detail drawings can show how to describe

Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A. Architect: Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A.

800 Medium Carbon Steel Milwaukee Museum of Art, U.S.A.

ε - Nominal strain (%)

Metals stress strain diagram

Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, Japan. Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, Japan.

Federation Square, Melbourne, Australia. Architect: LAB Architecture Studio

ε - Nominal strain (%)

Properties and data • High electrical conductor.

Separation at junction is usually required, such as a nylon or

ε - Nominal strain (%)

right: Imperial War

ε - Nominal strain (%)

Copper stress strain diagram

Properties and data

On exposure to the atmosphere, a protective coating of lead

Lead is an extremely durable, ductile and malleable material,

One of the main changes in the use of glass in facades and

manufacture. In addition, glazed walls are required to move in

structural geometry of the roof form, but these are typically

A recent alternative to the curving of glass as part of the

Properties and data Glass block sizes for internal partitions:

Oscar Niemeyer Museum, Curitiba, Brazil. Architect: Oscar Niemeyer

Metropolitan Cathedral, Brasilia, Brazil.

Nordpark Cable Railway, Innsbruck, Austria.

Body tinted glass is produced by small additions of metal oxides Recycling

Claude Nicolas Ledoux: the Ville de Chaux, France François Hennebique

The Centennial Hall, Wroclaw, Poland.

The Guggenheim Museum, New York, USA.

σ - Nominal stress (MPa)

5 -0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

ε - Nominal strain (%)

Corpus Christi, Cambridge, U.K. Bristol Cathedral, Bristol, U.K.

Wells Cathedral, Wells, U.K. Bristol Cathedral, Bristol, U.K.

Westminster Abbey, London, U.K.

Trinity College, Cambridge, U.K. Magdalen College, Oxford, U.K.

Divinity School, Oxford, U.K. Christ College, Oxford, U.K.

Bristol Cathedral, Bristol, U.K.

Monsanto House of the Future, Disneyland,

Verner Panton Chair

Olympiapark, Munich, Germany. Above. Olympiapark, Munich, Germany.

Eole flying machine, Clement Ader

Allianz Arena, Munich, Germany. Architect; Herzog + de Meuron

Above and right. Natural Ellipse Building, Tokyo,

Chanel Contemporary Art Container, Mobile.

Polycarbonate stress strain diagram

Properties and data Material selection

σ - Nominal stress (MPa)

PMMA stress strain diagram PVC-U stress strain diagram

σ - Nominal stress (MPa)

GRP stress strain diagram Polymers stress strain diagram

Acrylic Sheet PVC-U